# kb

id: metanexus-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metanexus_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Metanexus Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metanexus_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:56.276774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metanexus-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Metanexus Institute is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1997 to explore scientific and philosophical questions. The institute has organized the exchange of ideas through conferences and published books. It has EIN 23-2977021 as a 501(c)(3) Public Charity; in 2016, it claimed $28,249 in total revenue and $8,827 in total assets. == History == With the help of Peter Dodson, Soloman Katz, Andrew Newberg, and Stephen Dunning, William Grassie created the Philadelphia Center for Religion and Science (PCRS) to promote literacy in science and religion by hosting seminars, courses, and conferences. PCRS was renamed to Metanexus Institute in 2000, and the Meta-List was relaunched as a website with the support of a grant from the John Templeton Foundation, and Metanexus launched a $5.1 million Local Societies Initiative. In 2003, Metanexus launched the $3.3 million Spiritual Transformation Scientific Research Project. The organization hosted numerous conferences at universities and elsewhere, including a conference entitled Science and Religion in Context at the University of Pennsylvania. Metanexus has promoted the concept of Big History, sometimes termed the Epic of Evolution, which examines history using long time frames through a multidisciplinary approach. == References == == External links == Metanexus Institute


id: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Mormon views on evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:57.700246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) takes no official position on whether or not biological evolution has occurred, nor on the validity of the modern evolutionary synthesis as a scientific theory. In the twentieth century, the First Presidency of the LDS Church published doctrinal statements on the origin of man and creation. In addition, individual leaders of the church have expressed a variety of personal opinions on evolution, many of which have affected the beliefs and perceptions of Latter-day Saints. There have been three public statements from the First Presidency (1909, 1910, 1925) and one private statement from the First Presidency (1931) about the LDS Church's view on evolution. The 1909 statement was a delayed response to the publication of On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin. In the statement, the First Presidency affirmed their doctrine that Adam is the direct, divine offspring of God. In response to the 1911 Brigham Young University modernism controversy, the First Presidency issued an official statement in its 1910 Christmas message that the church members should be kind to everyone regardless of differences in opinion about evolution and that proven science is accepted by the church with joy. In


id: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution-1.md
category: reference
title: Mormon views on evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:57.700246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1909 statement "The Origin of Man" ==== Historically, Latter-day Saints were isolated in the western plains when The Origin of Species was published by Charles Darwin in 1859. Consequently, there was little discussion about evolution among Mormon communities. The Latter-day Saints were trying to survive and build settlements in Utah and evolution was not a prominent concern for them. George Q. Cannon of the Quorum of the Twelve discussed his beliefs on Darwin in 1861, stating that revelation is superior to science, but considered the possibility of evolution among animals and plants. The building of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 allowed for the Saints to gain greater access to outside ideas and influences. Because of this new knowledge, Mormon schools sought to combat scientific theories such as evolution with faith. Publications helped reaffirm church doctrine; however, views on evolution were mixed. Some believed a belief in evolution was equivalent to atheism, whereas some sought to find common ground between evolution and faith. Due to the many differing opinions that emerged, in the early 1900s the LDS Church began to officially respond to the theories that had already been discussed for nearly fifty years. The first official statement from the


id: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution-2.md
category: reference
title: Mormon views on evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:57.700246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
=== General conference speeches === The LDS Church has published several general conference talks mentioning evolution. In the October 1984 conference, apostle Boyd K. Packer stated that "no one with reverence for God could believe that His children evolved from slime or from reptiles" as well as affirming that "those who accept the theory of evolution don't show much enthusiasm for genealogical research." In the April 2012 conference, apostle Russell M. Nelson discussed the human body stating "some people erroneously think that these marvelous physical attributes happened by chance or resulted from a big bang somewhere". He then compared this to an "explosion in a printing shop produc[ing] a dictionary". === Instruction manuals === ==== Old Testament Student Seminary Manual ==== The Old Testament Student Manual, published by the Church Educational System, contains several quotes by general authorities as well as academics from a variety of backgrounds (both members of the church and non-members) related to organic evolution and the origins of the earth. The 2003 edition states that there is no official stance on the age of the earth but that evidence for a longer process is substantial and very few people believe the earth was actually created in


id: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution-3.md
category: reference
title: Mormon views on evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:57.700246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
==== Improvement Era ==== The Improvement Era was an official periodical of the church between 1897 and 1970. In the April 1910 edition in the "Priesthood Quorum's Table" section of that periodical, Genesis is cited as well as other scriptures from Genesis and the Pearl of Great Price. The article states that it is unclear whether the mortal bodies of man evolved through natural processes, whether Adam and Eve where transplanted to Earth from another place, or whether they were born on Earth in mortality. The article states that those questions are not fully answered in the church's current revelation and scripture. The article cites the answer is attributed to the church's First Presidency. === Canonized scriptures === Some verses in the standard works raise questions about the compatibility of scriptural teachings and scientists' current understanding of organic evolution. One such verse, in Doctrine and Covenants describes the "temporal existence" of the earth as 7,000 years old. Other scriptural verses suggest that no organisms died before the fall of Adam. In the Book of Mormon, the prophet Lehi teaches: "If Adam had not transgressed he would not have fallen, but he would have remained in the garden of Eden. And


id: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution-4.md
category: reference
title: Mormon views on evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:57.700246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
=== David O. McKay === In a 1952 speech to students at BYU, McKay used the theory of evolution as an example while suggesting that science can "leave [a student] with his soul unanchored." He stated that a professor that denies "divine agency in creation" imposes on the student that life was created by chance. McKay insisted that students should be led to a "counterbalancing thought" that "God is the Creator of the earth", "the Father of our souls and spirits", and "the purpose of creation is theirs (God and Jesus Christ)." In the April 1968 general conference, McKay's son, David, read a message on his father's behalf that was an edited version of the 1952 speech, including the omission of the word "beautiful" when describing the theory of evolution. In 1954, McKay quoted the Old Testament while affirming to members of the BYU faculty that living things only reproduce "after their kind". He quoted Genesis which states, "Let the earth bring forth the living creatures after his kind, cattle and creeping things, and the beast of the earth after his kind." === Spencer W. Kimball === At a 1975 church women's conference, church president Spencer W. Kimball quoted, "And,


id: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution-5.md
category: reference
title: Mormon views on evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:57.700246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
=== Statements from the 1930s Roberts–Smith–Talmage dispute === In 1930, B. H. Roberts, the presiding member of the First Council of the Seventy, was assigned by the First Presidency to create a study manual for the Melchizedek priesthood holders of the church. Entitled The Truth, The Way, The Life, the draft of the manual that was submitted to the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles for approval stated that death had been occurring on Earth for millions of years prior to the fall of Adam and that human-like pre-Adamites had lived on the Earth. On 5 April 1930, Joseph Fielding Smith, a junior member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and the son of a late church president, "vigorously promulgated [the] opposite point of view" in a speech that was published in a church magazine. In his widely read speech, Smith taught as doctrine that there had been no death on earth until after the fall of Adam and that there were no "pre-Adamites". In 1931, both Roberts and Smith were permitted to present their views to the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve. After hearing both sides, the First Presidency issued a memo


id: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution-6.md
category: reference
title: Mormon views on evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:57.700246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
=== Joseph Fielding Smith === In 1954, when he was President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, Smith wrote at length about his personal views on evolution in his book Man, His Origin and Destiny stating that it was a destructive and contaminating influence and that "If the Bible does not kill Evolution, Evolution will kill the Bible." He further stated that "There is not and cannot be, any compromise between the Gospel of Jesus Christ and the theories of evolution" and that "It is not possible for a logical mind to hold both Bible teaching and evolutionary teaching at the same time" since "If you accept [the scriptures] you cannot accept organic evolution." In response to an inquiry about the book from the head of the University of Utah Geology Department, church president David O. McKay affirmed that "the Church has officially taken no position" on evolution, Smith's book "is not approved by the Church", and that the book is entirely Smith's "views for which he alone is responsible". Smith also produced personal statements on evolution in his Doctrines of Salvation including that "If evolution is true, the church is false" since "If life began on Earth as


id: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution-7.md
category: reference
title: Mormon views on evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon_views_on_evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:57.700246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mormon-views-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
== Academic == The earliest instance in which science and evolution were used to support LDS doctrine occurred in a series of six published articles in 1895, "Theosophy and Mormonism" by Nels L. Nelson. These articles were published in 1904 in Scientific Aspects of Mormonism. Nelson used the ideas of evolution to consider the spiritual and physical development of God and humans. Nelson's view of evolution is spiritual with deliberate use of scientific processes by God rather than as a random, accidental process. Mormon philosopher William Henry Chamberlin's Essay on Nature (1915) and Frederick J. Pack's Science and Belief in God (1924) defended the theory of evolution; both attempted to reconcile religion and evolution. In a work, Pack states, "no warfare exists between 'Mormonism' and true science." In 1978, dean of the College of Biology and Agriculture at BYU, A. Lester Allen, tried to present an approach to evolution from the perspective of an LDS biologist. Allen established seven doctrinal landmarks that are fundamental beliefs of the LDS Church, but considered that human's limited perspective and limited perception of reality means that humans may not very well understand the circumstances surrounding the creation of Adam and Eve and the existence


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-0.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
A mystical or religious experience, also known as a spiritual experience or sacred experience, is a subjective experience which is interpreted within a religious framework. In a strict sense, "mystical experience" refers specifically to an ecstatic unitive experience, or nonduality, of 'self' and other objects, but more broadly may also refer to non-sensual or unconceptualized sensory awareness or insight, while religious experience may refer to any experience relevant in a religious context. Mysticism entails religious traditions of human transformation aided by various practices and religious experiences. The concept of mystical or religious experience developed in the 19th century, as a defense against the growing rationalism of western society. William James popularized the notion of distinct religious or mystical experiences in his Varieties of Religious Experience, and influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies knowledge of the transcendental. The interpretation of mystical experiences is a matter of debate. According to James, mystical experiences have four defining qualities, namely ineffability, noetic quality, transiency, and passivity. According to Rudolf Otto, the broader category of numinous experiences have two qualities, namely mysterium tremendum, which is the tendency to invoke fear and trembling; and mysterium fascinans, the tendency to attract, fascinate


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-1.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Related terms === Ecstasy, trance – In ecstasy the believer is understood to have a soul or spirit which can leave the body. In ecstasy the focus is on the soul leaving the body and to experience transcendental realities. This type of religious experience is characteristic for the shaman. Enthusiasm – In enthusiasm – or possession – God is understood to be outside, other than or beyond the believer. A sacred power, being or will enters the body or mind of an individual and possesses it. A person capable of being possessed is sometimes called a medium. The deity, spirit or power uses such a person to communicate to the immanent world. Lewis argues that ecstasy and possession are basically one and the same experience, ecstasy being merely one form which possession may take. The outward manifestation of the phenomenon is the same in that shamans appear to be possessed by spirits, act as their mediums, and even though they claim to have mastery over them, can lose that mastery. Spiritual awakening – A spiritual awakening usually involves a realization or opening to a sacred dimension of reality and may be a religious experience. Often a spiritual awakening has


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-2.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
Transcendentalism was an early 19th-century liberal Protestant movement, which was rooted in English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the skepticism of Hume. The Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an individual's intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth. In the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking. They also endorsed universalist and Unitarianist ideas, leading to Unitarian Universalism, the idea that there must be truth in other religions as well, since a loving God would redeem all living beings, not just Christians. ==== Theosophical Society ==== The Theosophical Society was formed in 1875 by Helena Blavatsky, Henry Steel Olcott, William Quan Judge and others to advance the spiritual principles and search for Truth known as Theosophy. The Theosophical Society has been highly influential in promoting interest, both in west and east, in a great variety of religious teachings: No single organization or movement has contributed so many components to the New Age Movement as the Theosophical Society ... It has been the major force in the dissemination of occult literature


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-3.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
Ineffability. According to James the mystical experience "defies expression, that no adequate report of its content can be given in words". Noetic quality. Mystics stress that their experiences give them "insight into depths of truth unplumbed by the discursive intellect." James referred to this as the "noetic" (or intellectual) "quality" of the mystical. Transiency. James notes that most mystical experiences have a short occurrence, but their effect persists. Passivity. According to James, mystics come to their peak experience not as active seekers, but as passive recipients. James recognised the broad variety of mystical schools and conflicting doctrines both within and between religions. Nevertheless, ...he shared with thinkers of his era the conviction that beneath the variety could be carved out a certain mystical unanimity, that mystics shared certain common perceptions of the divine, however different their religion or historical epoch, According to Jesuit scholar William Harmless, "for James there was nothing inherently theological in or about mystical experience", and felt it legitimate to separate the mystic's experience from theological claims. Harmless notes that James "denies the most central fact of religion", namely that religion is practiced by people in groups, and often in public. He also ignores ritual, the historicity


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-4.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
Stace finally argues that there is a set of seven common characteristics for each type of mystical experience, with many of them overlapping between the two types. Stace furthermore argues that extrovertive mystical experiences are on a lower level than introvertive mystical experiences. Stace's categories of "introvertive mysticism" and "extrovertive mysticism" are derived from Rudolf Otto's "mysticism of introspection" and "unifying vision". William Wainwright distinguishes four different kinds of extrovert mystical experience, and two kinds of introvert mystical experience: Extrovert: experiencing the unity of nature; experiencing nature as a living presence; experiencing all nature-phenomena as part of an eternal now; the "unconstructed experience" of Buddhism. Introvert: pure empty consciousness; the "mutual love" of theistic experiences. Richard Jones, following William Wainwright, elaborated on the distinction, showing different types of experiences in each category: Extrovertive experiences: the sense of connectedness ("unity") of oneself with nature, with a loss of a sense of boundaries within nature; the luminous glow to nature of "nature mysticism"; the presence of God immanent in nature outside of time shining through nature of "cosmic consciousness"; the lack of separate, self-existing entities of mindfulness states. Introvertive experiences: theistic experiences of connectedness or identity with God in mutual love; nonpersonal


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-5.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
Scholarly research on mystical experiences in the 19th and 20th century was dominated by a discourse on "mystical experience," laying sole emphasis on the experiential aspect, be it spontaneous or induced by human behavior. Perennialists regard those various experiences traditions as pointing to one universal transcendental reality, for which those experiences offer the prove. In this approach, mystical experiences are privatised, separated from the context in which they emerge. William James, in his The Varieties of Religious Experience, was highly influential in further popularising this perennial approach and the notion of personal experience as a validation of religious truths. The essentialist model argues that mystical experience is independent of the sociocultural, historical and religious context in which it occurs, and regards all mystical experience in its essence to be the same. According to this "common core-thesis", different descriptions can mask quite similar if not identical experiences: [P]eople can differentiate experience from interpretation, such that different interpretations may be applied to otherwise identical experiences". Principal exponents of the perennialist position were William James, Walter Terence Stace, who distinguishes extroverted and introverted mysticism, in response to R. C. Zaehner's distinction between theistic and monistic mysticism; Huston Smith; and Ralph W. Hood, who


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-6.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
The theoretical study of mystical experience has shifted from an experiential, privatised and perennialist approach to a contextual and empirical approach. The contextual approach, which also includes constructionism and attribution theory, takes into account the historical and cultural context. Neurological research takes an empirical approach, relating mystical experiences to neurological processes. Wayne Proudfoot proposes an approach that also negates any alleged cognitive content of mystical experiences: mystics unconsciously merely attribute a doctrinal content to ordinary experiences. That is, mystics project cognitive content onto otherwise ordinary experiences having a strong emotional impact. Objections have been raised concerning Proudfoot's use of the psychological data. This approach, however, has been further elaborated by Ann Taves. She incorporates both neurological and cultural approaches in the study of mystical experience. Many religious and mystical traditions see religious experiences (particularly that knowledge that comes with them) as revelations caused by divine agency rather than ordinary natural processes. They are considered real encounters with God or gods, or real contact with higher-order realities of which humans are not ordinarily aware. == Inducement and development == Mystical traditions offer the means to induce mystical experiences, which may have several origins: Spontaneous; either apparently without any cause, or by


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-7.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
Early studies in the 1950s and 1960s attempted to use EEGs to study brain wave patterns correlated with spiritual states. During the 1980s Dr. Michael Persinger stimulated the temporal lobes of human subjects with a weak magnetic field. His subjects claimed to have a sensation of "an ethereal presence in the room." Some current studies use neuroimaging to localize brain regions active, or differentially active, during religious experiences. These neuroimaging studies have implicated a number of brain regions, including the limbic system, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, superior parietal lobe, and caudate nucleus. Based on the complex nature of religious experience, it is likely that they are mediated by an interaction of neural mechanisms that all add a small piece to the overall experience. Neuroscience of religion, also known as neurotheology, biotheology or spiritual neuroscience, is the study of correlations of neural phenomena with subjective experiences of spirituality and hypotheses to explain these phenomena. Proponents of neurotheology claim that there is a neurological and evolutionary basis for subjective experiences traditionally categorized as spiritual or religious. The neuroscience of religion takes neural correlates as the basis of cognitive functions and religious experiences. These religious experiences are thereby emergent properties of neural correlates. This


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-8.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
Temporal lobe epilepsy has become a popular field of study due to its correlation to religious experience. Religious experiences and hyperreligiosity are often used to characterize those with temporal lobe epilepsy. Visionary religious experiences, and momentary lapses of consciousness, may point toward a diagnosis of Geschwind syndrome. More generally, the symptoms are consistent with features of temporal lobe epilepsy, not an uncommon feature in religious icons and mystics. It seems that this phenomenon is not exclusive to TLE, but can manifest in the presence of other epileptic variates as well as mania, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and schizophrenia, conditions characterized by ventromedial dopaminergic dysfunction. The temporal lobe generates the feeling of "I", and gives a feeling of familiarity or strangeness to the perceptions of the senses. It seems to be involved in mystical experiences, and in the change in personality that may result from such experiences. There is a long-standing notion that epilepsy and religion are linked, and some religious figures may have had temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Raymond Bucke's book Cosmic Consciousness (1901) contains several case-studies of persons who have realized "cosmic consciousness"; several of these cases are also being mentioned in J.E. Bryant's 1953 book, Genius and Epilepsy, which has


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-9.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
==== Parietal lobe ==== Andrew B. Newberg and Eugene G. d'Aquili, in their book Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief, take a perennial stance, describing their insights into the relationship between religious experience and brain function. d'Aquili describes his own meditative experiences as "allowing a deeper, simpler part of him to emerge", which he believes to be "the truest part of who he is, the part that never changes." Not content with personal and subjective descriptions like these, Newberg and d'Aquili have studied the brain-correlates to such experiences. They scanned the brain blood flow patterns during such moments of mystical transcendence, using SPECT-scans, to detect which brain areas show heightened activity. Their scans showed unusual activity in the top rear section of the brain, the "posterior superior parietal lobe", or the "orientation association area (OAA)" in their own words. This area creates a consistent cognition of the physical limits of the self. This OAA shows a sharply reduced activity during meditative states, reflecting a block in the incoming flow of sensory information, resulting in a perceived lack of physical boundaries. According to Newberg and d'Aquili, This is exactly how Robert and generations of Eastern


id: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience-10.md
category: reference
title: Mystical or religious experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystical_or_religious_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:31:59.266126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mystical-or-religious-experience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Psychology === Several psychologists have proposed models in which religious experiences are part of a process of transformation of the self. Carl Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals. One's main task, he believed, is to discover and fulfil deep innate potential, much as the acorn contains the potential to become the oak, or the caterpillar to become the butterfly. Based on his study of Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism, Taoism, and other traditions, Jung perceived that this journey of transformation is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the self and at the same time to meet the Divine. Unlike Sigmund Freud, Jung thought spiritual experience was essential to well-being. The notion of the numinous was an important concept in the writings of Carl Jung. Jung regarded numinous experiences as fundamental to an understanding of the individuation process because of their association with experiences of synchronicity in which the presence of archetypes is felt. McNamara proposes that religious experiences may help in "decentering" the self, and transform it into an integral self which is closer to an ideal self. Transpersonal psychology is


id: natural-theology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_theology-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural theology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_theology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:00.714648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-theology-20260505-0
summary:
Natural theology is a type of theology that seeks to provide arguments for theological topics, such as the existence of a deity, based on human reason. It is distinguished from revealed theology, which is based on supernatural sources such as scripture or religious experiences. It is thus a form of theology open to critical examination, aimed at understanding the divine. Natural theology does not preclude the concept of divine intervention nor presuppose a clockwork universe; however, it demands that any position be supported through reasoned arguments based on natural reason. In contemporary philosophy, natural theology is not limited to approaches based on empirical facts, such as natural phenomena, nor are its conclusions limited to pantheism. It was once also termed "physico-theology". Natural theology includes theology based on scientific discoveries, arguments for God's existence grounded in observed natural facts, and interpretations of natural phenomena or complexities as evidence of a divine plan (see predestination) or God's Will. It also includes efforts to explain the nature of celestial motors, gods, or a supreme god responsible for heavenly motion. Natural theologians have offered their own explanations for some unsolved problems in science. == Overview == === Natural theology and physico-theology === In the


id: natural-theology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_theology-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural theology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_theology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:00.714648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-theology-20260505-0
summary:
== Early modern == Raymond of Sabunde's (c. 1385–1436) Theologia Naturalis sive Liber Creaturarum, written 1434–1436, but published posthumously (1484), marks an important stage in the history of natural theology. John Ray (1627–1705) also known as John Wray, was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. He published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology, with the objective "to illustrate the glory of God in the knowledge of the works of nature or creation". Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) established another term for natural theology as theodicy, defined exactly as "the justification of God". He viewed the science in a positive light as it supported his personal ethical belief system. William Derham (1657–1735) continued Ray's tradition of natural theology in two of his own works, Physico-Theology, published during 1713, and Astro-Theology, 1714. These later influenced the work of William Paley. == Nineteenth century == In An Essay on the Principle of Population, published during 1798, Thomas Malthus ended with two chapters on natural theology and population. Malthus—a devout Christian—argued that revelation would "damp the soaring wings of intellect", and thus never let "the difficulties and doubts of parts of the scripture" interfere with his


id: natural-theology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_theology-2.md
category: reference
title: Natural theology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_theology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:00.714648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-theology-20260505-0
summary:
Immanuel Kant and Søren Kierkegaard had similar ideas about natural theology. Kant's ideas focused more on the natural dialect of reason, while Kierkegaard focused more on the dialect of understanding. Both men suggest that "the natural dialect leads to the question of God". Kant argues for the idea that reason leads to the ideas of God as a regulative principle. Kierkegaard argues that the idea of understanding will ultimately lead itself to becoming faith. Both of these men argue that the idea of God cannot be based solely on the idea of reason, that the dialect and ideals will transcend into faith. Karl Barth opposed the entirety of natural theology. Barth argued that "by starting from such experience, rather that from the gracious revelation through Jesus Christ, we produce a concept of God that is the projection of the highest we know, a construct of human thinking, divorced from salvation history". Barth argues that God is restricted by the construct of human thinking if he is divorced from salvation. Barth also acknowledges that God is knowable because of his grace. Barth's argument stems from the idea of faith rather than reason. Barth held that God can be known only through


id: neuroscience-of-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscience of religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:02.107948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscience-of-religion-20260505-0
summary:
The neuroscience of religion, also known as "neurotheology" or "spiritual neuroscience," seeks to explain the biological and neurological processes behind religious experience. Researchers in this field study correlations of the biological neural phenomena, in addition to subjective experiences of spirituality, in order to explain how brain activity functions in response to religious and spiritual practices and beliefs. This contrasts with the psychology of religion, which studies the behavioral responses to religious practices. Some people do warn of the limitations of neurotheology, as they worry that it may simplify the socio-cultural complexity of religion down to neurological factors. Researchers that study the field of the neuroscience of religion use a formulation of scientific techniques to understand the correlations between brain pathways in response to spiritually based stimuli. The approach is interdisciplinary with neurological and evolutionary studies in order to understand the broader subjective experiences under which traditionally categorized spiritual or religious practices are organized. This is done through a multilateral approach of scientific and cultural studies. Such studies include but are not limited to fMRI and EEG scans, theological studies, and anthropological studies. By using these approaches, researchers can better understand how spirituality and religion affect the chemistry of human brains


id: neuroscience-of-religion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscience of religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:02.107948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscience-of-religion-20260505-0
summary:
== History, Developments, and Theoretical Work == In an attempt to focus and clarify what was a growing interest in this field, 1994 educator and businessman Laurence O. McKinney published the first book on the subject, titled Neurotheology: Virtual Religion in the 21st Century. In addition to being written for a popular audience, it was also promoted in the theological journal Zygon. According to McKinney, "neurotheology" sources the basis of religious inquiry in relatively recent developmental neurophysiology. McKinney's theory emphasizes how pre-frontal development in humans creates an illusion of chronological time as a fundamental part of normal adult cognition past the age of three. The inability of the adult brain to retrieve earlier images experienced by an infantile brain creates questions such as "Where did I come from?" and "Where does it all go?" He suggests that this neurological process led to the creation of various religious explanations. Moreover, studies behind the experience of death as a peaceful regression into timelessness as the brain dies won praise from readers as varied as writer Arthur C. Clarke, eminent theologian Harvey Cox, and the Dalai Lama and sparked a new interest in the field. Similarly, radical Catholic theologian Eugen Drewermann developed a


id: neuroscience-of-religion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscience of religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:02.107948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscience-of-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neuropsychology and Neuroimaging === The first researcher to note and catalog the abnormal experiences associated with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) was neurologist Norman Geschwind, who noted a set of religious behavioral traits associated with TLE seizures. These include hypergraphia, hyperreligiosity, reduced sexual interest, fainting spells, and pedantism, often collectively ascribed to a condition known as Geschwind syndrome. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran explored the neural basis of the hyperreligiosity seen in TLE using the galvanic skin response (GSR), which correlates with emotional arousal, to determine whether the hyperreligiosity seen in TLE was due to an overall heightened emotional state or was specific to religious stimuli. Ramachandran presented two subjects with neutral, sexually arousing and religious words while measuring GSR. Ramachandran was able to show that patients with TLE showed enhanced emotional responses to the religious words, diminished responses to the sexually charged words, and normal responses to the neutral words. This study was presented as an abstract at a neuroscience conference and referenced in Ramachandran's book, Phantoms in the Brain, which was not published as a peer-reviewed scientific article. Research by Mario Beauregard at the University of Montreal, using fMRI on Carmelite nuns, has purported to show that religious and spiritual


id: non-overlapping-magisteria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-overlapping magisteria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:03.424947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-overlapping-magisteria-20260505-0
summary:
Non-overlapping magisteria (NOMA) is the view, advocated by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould, that science and religion each represent different areas of inquiry, fact vs. values, so there is a difference between the "nets" over which they have "a legitimate magisterium, or domain of teaching authority", and the two domains do not overlap. He suggests, with examples, that "NOMA enjoys strong and fully explicit support, even from the primary cultural stereotypes of hard-line traditionalism" and that it is "a sound position of general consensus, established by long struggle among people of goodwill in both magisteria." Some have criticized the idea or suggested limitations to it, and there continues to be disagreement over where the boundaries between the two magisteria should be. == Gould's separate magisteria == In a 1997 essay "Non-overlapping Magisteria" for Natural History magazine, and later in his book Rocks of Ages (1999), Gould put forward what he described as "a blessedly simple and entirely conventional resolution to ... the supposed conflict between science and religion", from his puzzlement over the need and reception of the 1996 address of Pope John Paul II to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences "Truth Cannot Contradict Truth". He draws the term magisterium from


id: non-overlapping-magisteria-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria-1.md
category: reference
title: Non-overlapping magisteria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:03.424947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-overlapping-magisteria-20260505-0
summary:
== Humani generis == Gould wrote that he was inspired to consider non-overlapping magisteria after being driven to examine the 1950 encyclical Humani generis, in which Pope Pius XII permits Catholics to entertain the hypothesis of evolution for the human body so long as they accept the divine infusion of the soul. Gould cited the following paragraph: The Teaching Authority of the Church does not forbid that, in conformity with the present state of human sciences and sacred theology, research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter—for the Catholic faith obliges us to hold that souls are immediately created by God. == Reception == Richard Dawkins has criticized Gould's position on the grounds that religion is not divorced from scientific matters or the material world. He writes, "it is completely unrealistic to claim, as Gould and many others do, that religion keeps itself away from science's turf, restricting itself to morals and values. A universe with a supernatural presence would be a fundamentally and qualitatively different kind


id: omega-point-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Point-0.md
category: reference
title: Omega Point
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Point
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:04.710472+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: omega-point-20260505-0
summary:
The Omega Point is a theorized future event in which the entirety of the universe spirals toward a final point of unification. The term was invented by the French Jesuit Catholic priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955). Teilhard argued that the Omega Point resembles the Christian Logos, namely Christ, who draws all things into himself, who in the words of the Nicene Creed, is "God from God", "Light from Light", "True God from True God", and "through him all things were made". In the Book of Revelation, Christ describes himself three times as "the Alpha and the Omega, the beginning and the end". Several decades after Teilhard's death, the idea of the Omega Point was expanded upon in the writings of John David Garcia (1971), Paolo Soleri (1981), Frank Tipler (1994), and David Deutsch (1997). == Pierre Teilhard de Chardin's theory == === Etymology === Teilhard de Chardin was a paleontologist and Roman Catholic priest in the Jesuit order. In France in the 1920s, he began incorporating his theories of the universe into lectures that placed Catholicism and evolution in the same conversation. Because of these lectures, he was suspected by the Holy Office of denying the doctrine of original


id: omega-point-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Point-1.md
category: reference
title: Omega Point
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_Point
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:04.710472+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: omega-point-20260505-0
summary:
Mathematical physicist Frank Tipler generalized Teilhard's term Omega Point to describe what he alleges is the ultimate fate of the universe as required by the laws of physics: roughly, Tipler argues that quantum mechanics is inconsistent unless the future of every point in spacetime contains an intelligent observer to collapse the wavefunction and that the only way for this to happen is if the Universe is closed (that is, it will collapse to a single point) and yet contains observers with a "God-like" ability to perform an unbounded series of observations in finite time. Tipler's conception of the Omega Point is regarded as pseudoscience by some scientists. The originator of quantum computing, Oxford's David Deutsch, wrote about how a universal quantum computer could bring about Tipler's salvation in his 1997 book, The Fabric of Reality. == Related concepts == === Big Crunch === The scientific hypothesis of the Big Crunch closely resembles the Omega Point theory. However, the current scientific consensus rejects this theory. Nevertheless, in 2025, a paper in the journal Monthly Notices appeared suggesting that the universe's expansion is not accelerating, as commonly believed, but slowing, and that it could result in a Big Crunch. This followed another


id: opposition-to-the-mauna-kea-observatories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories-0.md
category: reference
title: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:06.129220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opposition-to-the-mauna-kea-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
The Mauna Kea Observatories have been controversial since the first telescope was built in the late 1960s. Originally part of research begun by Gerard Kuiper of the University of Arizona, the site has expanded into the world's largest observatory for infrared and submillimeter telescopes. Opposition to the telescope from residents in the city of Hilo, Hawaii were concerned about the visual appearance of the mountain and Native Hawaiians voiced concerns over the site being sacred to the Hawaiian religion as the home of several deities. Environmental groups and activists have been expressing concern over endangered species habitat. The Outrigger Telescopes Project, intended to build from four to six comparatively small telescopes for interferometry, was to surround the Keck telescopes. It was cancelled in 2006, after a court found NASA's Environmental Impact Statement was improperly limited to just the telescope area. An ongoing proposal for one of the world's largest optical telescopes, the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) was the focus of protests concerning the continued development of the mountain Hawaiians consider the most sacred peak in the island chain. The telescope has still not been built as of 2025, and its future is in jeopardy. == Background == After studying photos


id: opposition-to-the-mauna-kea-observatories-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories-1.md
category: reference
title: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:06.129220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opposition-to-the-mauna-kea-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
== Expansion renews opposition == Some of the people on the Big Island were concerned that the whole thing had got out of hand and the University of Hawaii was going to take over the top of the mountain, push all the skiers off and push all the hunters off, and essentially develop, in the worst sense, the side of the mountain. The Big Island is a rural community and there are a lot of people there who are not very sophisticated, as you know. They are nervous about changes in lifestyles, and they see those following on the development of the program of astronomy as just about as far removed from their daily pursuits as they possibly can be. And they do not trust the University, State, or Federal government worth a damn. They feel—and in some cases I’ve had this said to me—that they are going to lose all access to the mountain because of these programs. The Federal government is going to come in and it's going to slowly move down the mountain, taking more and more of the mountain over as more and more programs go up there, and no-one will be able to get there.


id: opposition-to-the-mauna-kea-observatories-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories-2.md
category: reference
title: Opposition to the Mauna Kea Observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_the_Mauna_Kea_Observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:06.129220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opposition-to-the-mauna-kea-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a proposal for a large, segmented, mirror telescope, planned for the summit of Mauna Kea. The TMT has become a focal point for protests against further development of the observatory site, and a legal battle was fought through the Hawaii court system. The Supreme Court of Hawaii approved the resumption of construction of the telescope on 31 October 2018. The TMT project is a response to a recommendation in 2000 from the US National Academy of Sciences that a thirty-meter telescope be the top priority and be built within the decade. Urgency in construction is due to the competitive nature of science with the European-Extremely Large Telescope also under construction. Mauna Kea's summit is the most sacred of all the mountains in Hawaii to many, but not all, Native Hawaiian people. Hawaiian cultural practitioners cite impacts to indigenous cultural practice, while recreational users have argued that construction harms the scenic view plane. Some environmentalists are concerned that irreparable ecological damage may be done by construction, although this has been disputed by other environmental advocates. All three groups are represented among the petitioners opposing the TMT. According to the State of Hawaii law HAR 13-5-30,


id: jack-parsons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-0.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
John Whiteside Parsons (born Marvel Whiteside Parsons; October 2, 1914 – June 17, 1952) was an American rocket engineer, chemist, and Thelemite occultist. Parsons was one of the principal founders of both the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and Aerojet. He invented the first rocket engine to use a castable, composite rocket propellant, and pioneered the advancement of both liquid-fuel and solid-fuel rockets. Parsons was raised in Pasadena, California. He began amateur rocket experiments with school friend Edward Forman in 1928. Parsons was admitted to Stanford University but left before graduating due to financial hardship during the Great Depression. In 1934, Parsons, Forman, and Frank Malina formed the Caltech-affiliated Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory (GALCIT) Rocket Research Group, with support by GALCIT chairman Theodore von Kármán. The group worked on Jet-Assisted Take Off (JATO) for the U.S. military, and founded Aerojet in 1942 to develop and sell JATO technology during World War II. The GALCIT Rocket Research Group became JPL in 1943. In 1939, Parsons converted to Thelema, a religious movement founded by English occultist Aleister Crowley. Parsons and his first wife, Helen Northrup, joined Crowley's Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.); he became the California O.T.O. branch leader in 1942. Historians of Western esotericism


id: jack-parsons-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-1.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early life: 1914–1934 === Marvel Whiteside Parsons was born on October 2, 1914, at the Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles. His parents, Ruth Virginia Whiteside (c. 1893–1952) and Marvel H. Parsons (c. 1894–1947), had moved to California from Massachusetts the previous year, purchasing a house on Scarff Street in downtown Los Angeles. Their son was his father's namesake, but was known in the household as Jack. The marriage broke down soon after Jack's birth, when Ruth discovered that her husband was sexually involved with a prostitute. Ruth filed for divorce in March 1915. Jack's father returned to Massachusetts after being exposed as an adulterer, with Ruth forbidding him from having any contact with his infant son. Marvel Parsons later joined the U.S. Armed Forces, reaching the rank of major, and married a woman with whom he had a son, Charles, a half-brother Jack only met once. Although she retained her ex-husband's surname, Ruth started calling her son John, but many friends throughout his life knew him as Jack. Ruth's parents—Walter and Carrie Whiteside—moved to California to be with Jack and their daughter, purchasing an upscale house on Orange Grove Boulevard in Pasadena—known locally as "Millionaire's Mile"—where they could


id: jack-parsons-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-2.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
In hopes of gaining access to the state-of-the-art resources of Caltech for their rocketry research, Parsons and Forman attended a lecture on the work of Austrian rocket engineer Eugen Sänger and hypothetical above-stratospheric aircraft by the institute's William Bollay—a PhD student specializing in rocket-powered aircraft—and approached him to express their interest in designing a liquid-fuel rocket motor. Bollay redirected them to another PhD student, Frank Malina, a mathematician and mechanical engineer writing a thesis on rocket propulsion who shared their interests and soon befriended them. Parsons, Forman, and Malina applied for funding from Caltech together; they did not mention that their ultimate objective was to develop rockets for space exploration, realizing that most of the scientific establishment then considered such ideas science fiction. Caltech's Clark Blanchard Millikan immediately rebuffed them, but Malina's doctoral advisor Theodore von Kármán saw more promise in their proposal and agreed to allow them to operate under the auspices of the university's Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory (GALCIT). Naming themselves the GALCIT Rocket Research Group, they gained access to Caltech's specialist equipment, though the economics of the Great Depression left von Kármán unable to finance them. The trio focused their distinct skills on collaborative rocket development; Parsons was


id: jack-parsons-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-3.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
In April 1937, Caltech mathematician Qian Xuesen joined the Group. Several months later, Weld Arnold, a Caltech laboratory assistant who worked as the Group's official photographer, also joined. The main reason for Arnold's appointment to this position was his provision of a donation to the Group on behalf of an anonymous benefactor. They became well known on campus as the "Suicide Squad" for the dangerous nature of some of their experiments and attracted attention from the local press. Parsons himself gained further media publicity when he appeared as an expert explosives witness in the trial of Captain Earl Kynette, the head of police intelligence in Los Angeles who was accused of conspiring to set a car bomb in the attempted murder of private investigator Harry Raymond, a former LAPD detective who was fired after whistleblowing against police corruption. When Kynette was convicted largely on Parsons' testimony, which included his forensic reconstruction of the car bomb and its explosion, his identity as an expert scientist in the public eye was established despite his lack of a university education. While working at Caltech, Parsons was admitted to evening courses in chemistry at the University of Southern California (USC), but distracted by his


id: jack-parsons-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-4.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
In January 1939, John and Frances Baxter, a brother and sister who had befriended Jack and Helen Parsons, took Jack to the Church of Thelema on Winona Boulevard, Hollywood, where he witnessed the performance of The Gnostic Mass. Celebrants of the church had included Hollywood actor John Carradine and gay rights activist Harry Hay. Parsons was intrigued, having already heard of Thelema's founder and Outer Head of Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), Aleister Crowley, after reading a copy of Crowley's text Konx om Pax (1907). Parsons was introduced to leading members Regina Kahl, Jane Wolfe, and Wilfred Talbot Smith at the mass. Feeling both "repulsion and attraction" for Smith, Parsons continued to sporadically attend the Church's events for a year. He continued to read Crowley's works, which increasingly interested him, and encouraged Helen to read them. Parsons came to believe in the reality of Thelemic magick as a force that could be explained through quantum physics. He tried to interest his friends and acquaintances in Thelema, taking science fiction writers Jack Williamson and Cleve Cartmill to a performance of The Gnostic Mass. Although they were unimpressed, Parsons was more successful with Grady Louis McMurtry, a young Caltech student he had befriended,


id: jack-parsons-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-5.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
For the JATO project, they were joined by Caltech mathematician Martin Summerfield and 18 workers supplied by the Works Progress Administration. Former colleagues like Qian were prevented from returning to the project by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), who ensured the secrecy of the operation and restricted the involvement of foreign nationals and political extremists. The FBI was satisfied that Parsons was not a Marxist but were concerned when Thelemite friend Paul Seckler used Parsons' gun in a drunken car hijacking, for which Seckler was imprisoned in San Quentin State Prison for two years. Englishman George Emerson replaced Arnold as the Group's official photographer. The Group's aim was to find a replacement for black-powder rocket motors—units consisting of charcoal, sulfur and potassium nitrate with a binding agent. The mixture was unstable and there were frequent explosions damaging military aircraft. The solid JATO fuel invented by Parsons consisted of amide, corn starch, and ammonium nitrate bound together in the JATO unit with glue and blotting paper. It was codenamed GALCIT-27, implying the previous invention of 26 new fuels. The first JATO tests using an ERCO Ercoupe plane took place in late July 1941; though they aided propulsion, the units frequently


id: jack-parsons-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-6.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
The Group then agreed to produce and sell 60 JATO engines to the United States Army Air Corps. To do so they formed the Aerojet Engineering Corporation in March 1942, in which Parsons, Forman, Malina, von Kármán, and Summerfield each invested $250, opening their offices on Colorado Boulevard and bringing in Amo Smith as their engineer. Andrew G. Haley was recruited by von Kármán as their lawyer and treasurer. Although Aerojet was a for-profit operation that provided technology for military means, the founders' mentality was rooted in the ideal of using rockets for peaceful space exploration. As Haley recounted von Kármán requesting: "we will make the rockets—you must make the corporation and obtain the money. Later on you will have to see that we all behave well in outer space." Despite these successes, Parsons, the project engineer of Aerojet's Solid Fuel Department, remained motivated to address the malfunctions observed during the Ercoupe tests. In June 1942, assisted by Mills and Miller, he focused his attention on developing an effective method of restricted burning when using solid rocket fuel, as the military demanded JATOs that could provide over 100 pounds of thrust without any risk of exploding. Although solid fuels such


id: jack-parsons-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-7.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
Although there were arguments among the commune members, Parsons remained dedicated to Thelema. He gave almost all of his salary to O.T.O. while actively seeking out new members—recruiting JPL mathematician Barbara Canright—and financially supported Crowley in London through Germer. Parsons' enthusiasm for the Lodge quickly began to impact on his professional life. He frequently appeared at Aerojet hungover and sleep-deprived from late nights of Lodge activities, and invited many of his colleagues to them, drawing the ire of staff who previously tolerated Parsons' occultism as harmless eccentricity; known to von Kármán as a "delightful screwball", he was frequently observed reciting Crowley's poem "Hymn to Pan" in an ecstatic manner compared to the preaching of Billy Graham during rocket tests—and on request at parties to their great amusement. They disapproved of his hesitancy to separate his vocations; Parsons became more rigorously engaged in Aerojet's day-to-day business in an effort to resolve this wariness, but the Agape Lodge soon came under investigation by both the Pasadena Police Department and the FBI. Both had received allegations of a "black magic cult" involved in sexual orgies; one complainant was a 16-year-old boy who said that he was raped by lodge members, while neighbors reported


id: jack-parsons-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-8.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
Now disassociated from JPL and Aerojet, Parsons and Forman founded the Ad Astra Engineering Company, under which Parsons founded the chemical manufacturing Vulcan Powder Company. Ad Astra was subject to an FBI investigation under suspicion of espionage when security agents from the Manhattan Project discovered that Parsons and Forman had procured a chemical used in a top secret project for a material known only as x-metal, but they were later acquitted of any wrongdoing. Parsons continued to financially support Smith and Helen, although he asked for a divorce from her and ignored Crowley's commands by welcoming Smith back to the Parsonage when his retreat was finished. Parsons continued to hold O.T.O. activities at the Parsonage but began renting rooms at the house to non-Thelemites, including journalist Nieson Himmel, Manhattan Project physicist Robert Cornog, and science fiction artist Louis Goldstone. Parsons attracted controversy in Pasadena for his preferred clientele. As Parsonage resident Alva Rogers recalled: "In the ads placed in the local paper Jack specified that only bohemians, artists, musicians, atheists, anarchists, or any other exotic types need to apply for rooms—any mundane soul would be unceremoniously rejected". Science fiction writer and U.S. Navy officer L. Ron Hubbard soon moved into


id: jack-parsons-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-9.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
Parsons was discouraged from taking further action by Sara, who threatened to report him for statutory rape since their sexual relationship took place when she was under California's age of consent of 18. Parsons was ultimately compensated with only $2,900. Hubbard, already married to Margaret Grubb, bigamously married Sara and went on to found Dianetics and Scientology. The Sunday Times published an article about Hubbard's involvement with O.T.O. and Parsons' occult activities in December 1969. In response, the Church of Scientology released an unsubstantiated press statement which said that Hubbard had been sent as an undercover agent by the U.S. Navy to intercept and destroy Parsons' "black magic cult", and save Sara from its influence. The Church also stated that Robert A. Heinlein was the clandestine Navy operative who "sent in" Hubbard to undertake this operation. Returning to California, Parsons completed the sale of the Parsonage, which was then demolished, and resigned from O.T.O. He wrote in his letter to Crowley that he did not believe that "as an autocratic organization, [the O.T.O.] constitutes a true and proper medium for the expression and attainment" of Thelema.


id: jack-parsons-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-10.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
=== Loss of FBI clearance, Red Scare Marxist and espionage accusations and acquittal: 1946–1952 === Parsons was employed by North American Aviation at Inglewood, where he worked on the Navaho Missile Program. He and Cameron moved into a house in Manhattan Beach, where he instructed her in occultism and esotericism. When Cameron developed catalepsy, Parsons referred her to Sylvan Muldoon's books on astral projection, suggesting that she could manipulate her seizures to accomplish it. They were married on October 19, 1946, four days after his divorce from Helen was finalized, with Forman as their witness. Parsons continued to be seen as a specialist in rocketry; he acted as an expert consultant in numerous industrial tribunals and police and Army Ordnance investigations regarding explosions. In May 1947, Parsons gave a talk at the Pacific Rocket Society in which he predicted that rockets would take humans to the Moon. Although he had become distant from the now largely defunct O.T.O. and had sold much of his Crowleyan library, he continued to correspond with Crowley until the latter's death in December 1947. At the emergence of the Cold War, a Red Scare developed in the U.S. as the Congressional House Un-American Activities Committee


id: jack-parsons-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-11.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
Parsons testified to a closed federal court that the moral philosophy of Thelema was both anti-fascist and anti-communist, emphasizing his belief in individualism. This along with references from his scientific colleagues resulted in his security clearance being reinstated by the Industrial Employment Review Board, which ruled that there was insufficient evidence that he had ever had communist sympathies. This allowed Parsons to obtain a contract in designing and constructing a chemical plant for the Hughes Aircraft Company in Culver City. Von Kármán put Parsons in touch with Herbert T. Rosenfeld, President of the Southern Californian chapter of the American Technion Society—a Zionist group dedicated to supporting the newly created State of Israel. Rosenfeld offered Parsons a job with the Israeli rocket program and hired him to produce technical reports for them. In November 1950, as the Red Scare intensified, Parsons decided to migrate to Israel to pursue Rosenfeld's offer, but a Hughes secretary whom Parsons had asked to type up a portfolio of technical documents reported him to the FBI. She accused Parsons of espionage and attempted theft of classified company documents on the basis of some of the reports that he had sought to submit to the Technion Society.


id: jack-parsons-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-12.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
=== Death: 1952 === Parsons and Cameron decided to travel to Mexico for a few months, both for a vacation and for Parsons to take up a job opportunity establishing an explosives factory for the Mexican government. They hoped that this would facilitate a move to Israel, where they could start a family, and where Parsons could bypass the U.S. government to recommence his rocketry career. He was particularly disturbed by the presence of the FBI, convinced that they were spying on him. On June 17, 1952, a day before their planned departure, Parsons received a rush order of explosives for a film set and began to work on it in his home laboratory. An explosion destroyed the lower part of the building, during which Parsons sustained mortal wounds. His right forearm was severed, his legs and left arm were broken, and a hole was torn in the right side of his face. Despite these critical injuries, Parsons was found conscious by the upstairs lodgers. He tried to communicate with the arriving ambulance workers, who rushed him to the Huntington Memorial Hospital, where he was declared dead approximately thirty-seven minutes after the explosion. When his mother, Ruth, learned of his


id: jack-parsons-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-13.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
Parsons adhered to the occult philosophy of Thelema, which had been founded in 1904 by the English occultist Aleister Crowley following a spiritual revelation that he had in Cairo, Egypt, when—according to Crowley's accounts—a spirit being known as Aiwass dictated to him a prophetic text known as The Book of the Law. Prior to becoming aware of Thelema and Crowley, Parsons' interest in esotericism was developed through his reading of The Golden Bough (1890), a work in comparative mythology by Scottish social anthropologist James George Frazer. Parsons had also attended lectures on Theosophy by philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti with his first wife Helen, but disliked the belief system's sentiment of "the good and the true". During rocket tests, Parsons often recited Crowley's poem "Hymn to Pan" as a good luck charm. He took to addressing Crowley as his "Most Beloved Father" and signed off to him as "thy son, John". In July 1945, Parsons gave a speech to the Agape Lodge, in which he attempted to explain how he felt that The Book of the Law could be made relevant to "modern life". In this speech, which was subsequently published under the title of "Doing Your Will", he examined the Thelemite


id: jack-parsons-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-14.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
the liberty of the individual is the foundation of civilization. No true civilization is possible without this liberty and no state, national or international, is stable in its absence. The proper relation between individual liberty on the one hand and social responsibility on the other is the balance which will assure a stable society. The only other road to social equilibrium demands the total annihilation of individuality. There is not further evasion of nature's immemorial ultimatum: change or perish but the choice of change is ours. Jack Cashill, American studies professor at Purdue University, argues that "Although his literary career never got much beyond pamphleteering and an untitled anti-war, anti-capitalist manuscript", Parsons played a significant role—greater than that of Church of Satan founder Anton LaVey—in shaping the Californian counterculture of the 1960s and beyond through his influence on contemporaries such as Hubbard and Heinlein. Hugh Urban, religious studies professor at Ohio State University, cites Parsons' Witchcraft group as precipitating the neopagan revival of the 1950s. Robert Anton Wilson, a cult writer and occultist known for his works of nonfiction and science fiction, described Parsons' political writings as exemplifying an "ultra-individualist" who exhibited a "genuine sympathy for working people", strongly empathized


id: jack-parsons-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons-15.md
category: reference
title: Jack Parsons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Parsons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:32:07.745794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jack-parsons-20260505-0
summary:
The same month, JPL held an open access event to mark the 32nd anniversary of its foundation—which featured a "nativity scene" of mannequins reconstructing the November 1936 photograph of the GALCIT Group—and erected a monument commemorating their first rocket test on Halloween 1936. Among the aerospace industry, JPL was nicknamed as standing for "Jack Parsons' Laboratory" or "Jack Parsons Lives". The International Astronomical Union decided to name a crater on the far side of the Moon Parsons after him in 1972. JPL later credited him for making "distinctive technical innovations that advanced early efforts" in rocket engineering, with aerospace journalist Craig Covault stating that the work of Parsons, Qian Xuesen and the GALCIT Group "planted the seeds for JPL to become preeminent in space and rocketry." Many of Parsons' writings were posthumously published as Freedom is a Two-Edged Sword in 1989, a compilation co-edited by Cameron and O.T.O. leader Hymenaeus Beta, which incited a resurgence of interest in Parsons within occult and countercultural circles. For example, comic book artist and occultist Alan Moore noted Parsons as a creative influence in a 1998 interview with Clifford Meth. The Cameron-Parsons Foundation was founded as an incorporated company in 2006, with the intention


id: politicization-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Politicization of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:42.842009+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politicization-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The politicization of science occurs when government, business, or advocacy groups use legal or economic pressure to influence the findings of scientific research or the way it is disseminated, reported or interpreted. As a means to political gains, the politicization of science is generally regarded as detrimental to scientific integrity and may also negatively affect academic and scientific freedom, which is why mixing politics with science is considered taboo. Historically, groups have conducted various campaigns to promote their interests, many times in defiance of scientific consensus, and in an effort to manipulate public policy. == Overview == Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science. These can range, for example, from populist anti-intellectualism and perceived threats to religious belief to postmodernist subjectivism, fear for business interests, institutional academic ideological biases or potentially implicit bias amongst scientific researchers. Politicization occurs as scientific information is presented with emphasis on the uncertainty associated with the interpretation of scientific evidence. The emphasis capitalizes on the lack of consensus, which influences the way the studies are perceived. Chris Mooney describes how this point is sometimes intentionally ignored as a part an "Orwellian tactic." Organizations and politicians seek to disclaim all discussion on


id: politicization-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Politicization of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:42.842009+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politicization-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The intelligent design movement associated with the Discovery Institute, attempts to "defeat [the] materialist world view" represented by the theory of evolution in favor of "a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions". The Discovery Institute portrays evolution as a "theory in crisis" with scientists criticizing evolution and that "fairness" and "equal time" requires educating students about "the controversy". A cornerstone of modern scientific biological theory is that all forms of life on Earth are related by common descent with modification. While criticisms to the theory of evolution have existed throughout time, often certain ideological proponents seek to expand the scope of these disagreements in order to draw doubt onto the entire theory. For example, in the United States there is a legal precedent of those who sought to discredit the teaching of evolution in classrooms by emphasizing so-called flaws in the theory of evolution or disagreements within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy" when there is no significant controversy within the mainstream scientific community


id: politicization-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Politicization of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:42.842009+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politicization-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the Soviet Union, scientific research was under strict political control. A number of research areas were declared "bourgeois pseudoscience" and forbidden. This led to significant setbacks for the Soviet science, notably in biology due to ban on genetics, with support for Lysenkoism, and in computer science, which drastically influenced the Soviet economy and technology. === United States === The General Social Survey (GSS) of 1974 recorded that conservatives had the highest rates of trust in science between the three major political demographics: conservatives, liberals, and moderates. This study was repeated annually between 1972 and 1994, and biannually from 1994 until 2010. In 2010, when the same study was repeated, conservatives' trust rates had decreased from 49% to 38%, moderates' trust rates from 45% to 40%, and liberals' trust rates staying relatively stable, rising slightly from 48% to 50%. The study by Gordon Gauchat, which investigates time trends in the public trust of science in the United States, suggests that the increase of distrust of conservatives can be attributed to two cultural shifts. The first was during the post-Ronald Reagan era when the New Right emerged, and the second during the George W. Bush era when the New Right intensified


id: politicization-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Politicization of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:42.842009+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politicization-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
On May 1, 2007, deputy assistant secretary at the United States Department of the Interior Julie MacDonald resigned after the Interior Department Inspector General, Honorable Earl E. Devaney, reported that MacDonald broke federal rules by giving non-public, internal government documents to oil industry and property rights groups, and manipulated scientific findings to favor Bush policy goals and assist land developers. On November 29, 2007, another report by Devaney found that MacDonald could have also benefitted financially from a decision she was involved with to remove the Sacramento splittail fish from the federal endangered species list. MacDonald's conduct violated the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) under 5 C.F.R. § 2635.703, Use of nonpublic information, and 5 C.F.R. § 2635.101, Basic obligation of public service. MacDonald resigned a week before a House congressional oversight committee was to hold a hearing on accusations that she had "violated the Endangered Species Act, censored science and mistreated staff of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service." ===== Climate change ===== In December 2007, the Christian Science Monitor reported that at least since 2003, and especially after Hurricane Katrina, the George W. Bush administration broadly attempted to control which climate scientists could speak with reporters, as well


id: politicization-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Politicization of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicization_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:42.842009+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: politicization-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The issue of politicized science surfaced during the 2016 United States presidential campaign by then Republican candidate Donald Trump. Trump stated his intention to strip NASA's Earth Science division of its funding, a move that "would mean the elimination of NASA's world-renowned research into temperature, ice, clouds and other climate phenomena". Subsequently, the Trump administration successfully nominated Jim Bridenstine, who had no background in science and rejected the scientific consensus on climate change, to lead NASA. Under the Trump administration, the Department of Energy prohibited the use of the term "climate change". In March 2020 The New York Times reported that an official at the Interior Department has repeatedly inserted climate change-denying language into the agency's scientific reports, such as those that affect water and mineral rights. ===== Health ===== During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the Trump administration replaced career public affairs staff at the Department of Health and Human Services with political appointees, including Michael Caputo, who interfered with weekly Centers for Disease Control scientific reports and attempted to silence the government's most senior infectious disease expert, Anthony Fauci, "sowing distrust of the FDA at a time when health leaders desperately need people to accept a vaccine in order


id: pontifical-and-promethean-man-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_and_Promethean_man-0.md
category: reference
title: Pontifical and Promethean man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_and_Promethean_man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:44.252265+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pontifical-and-promethean-man-20260505-0
summary:
In traditionalist philosophy, pontifical man is a divine representative (vicegerent of God) who serves as a bridge between heaven and earth. Promethean man, on the other hand, sees himself as an earthly being who has rebelled against God and has no knowledge of his origins or purposes. This concept was notably developed in contemporary language by the Iranian philosopher Seyyed Hossein Nasr. == Symbolism == Nasr used the term pontifical in its etymological sense to convey that the human being is the gateway between Heaven and Earth, living on a circle of which he is always conscious and to which he strives to reach in his life. For Nasr, the pontifex (see also the ancient Pontifex Maximus) is the sacred human that connects the physical and spiritual realms, whereas Prometheus is the "profane man," the robber of fire from the dwelling of the gods. Nasr used the Prometheus image differently from Aeschylus in Prometheus Bound and Shelley in Prometheus Unbound. In legends, Prometheus is portrayed as a hero, a demigod, or Titan prepared to endure endless torment to impart light to an ignorant and suffering humanity, even if it means defying the divine authority. In Nasr's perspective, however, the symbolism


id: pontifical-and-promethean-man-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_and_Promethean_man-1.md
category: reference
title: Pontifical and Promethean man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_and_Promethean_man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:44.252265+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pontifical-and-promethean-man-20260505-0
summary:
To characterize modernity’s secularization of the universe, Nasr borrows from Greek mythology. Like Prometheus, man has revolted against the heavens. ...The Promethean model, in contradistinction to what he terms “Pontifical Man” – the understanding that mankind is the lynchpin between the cosmos and the Sacred – is both unethical and sacrilegious. Moreover it is recklessly leading to the current erosion of our environment. According to Liu Shu-hsien, Nasr sees Promethean man as a creature of this world who has revolted against Heaven. He "feels at home on earth" and perceives life as a large "marketplace" where he is free to explore and choose whatever he wants. He is submerged in transience and impermanence, having lost his sense of the sacred, and has become a slave of his nafs or lower self, which he considers as liberty. According to this understanding, Promethean man stands against the sacred tradition. Pontifical man, on the contrary, connects the terrestrial and celestial realms. For Nasr, such a man never forgets that he is God's viceroy (khalifat Allah), who exists in a world that he recognizes as having an origin and a center, whose "primordial purity and wholeness he seeks to emulate, recapture and transmit". Pontifical


id: pontifical-and-promethean-man-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_and_Promethean_man-2.md
category: reference
title: Pontifical and Promethean man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_and_Promethean_man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:44.252265+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pontifical-and-promethean-man-20260505-0
summary:
== Epistemological perspective == According to Mehdi Aminrazavi, the Promethean and Pontifical man symbolize two distinct "modes of being", each with its own method of cognition. Promethean man, according to Nasr, is the outcome of pure informative or discursive knowledge, whereas pontifical man is the reflection of transformative or realized knowledge. The Promethean man rejects tradition in favor of pure "rational thought." The Pontifical man, on the other hand, relies on esoteric method which is bound by religious law, and which the Promethean man seeks to deconstruct and annihilate. For Pontifical man, only realized knowledge of Reality can alleviate man's unrest and inner disquiet and restore the tranquility and calm that can only be attained by devotion to one's own Divine nature. Modern science, according to Nasr, has embraced the "Promethean perspective of man," which sees man as "the measure of all things" in comparison to the Pontifical man, who lives in a theocentric universe. Modernism rejects such theocentric views of reality, removing God from the center of existence and substituting God with man. Instead, it focuses on the individual and individualism, as well as human reason and the senses. Its epistemology, Nasr argues, is mostly based on rationalism or


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-0.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
The cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact is the corpus of changes to terrestrial science, technology, religion, politics, and ecosystems resulting from contact with an extraterrestrial civilization. This concept is closely related to the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), which attempts to locate intelligent life as opposed to analyzing the implications of contact with that life. The potential changes from extraterrestrial contact could vary greatly in magnitude and type, based on the extraterrestrial civilization's level of technological advancement, degree of benevolence or malevolence, and level of mutual comprehension between itself and humanity. The medium through which humanity is contacted, be it electromagnetic radiation, direct physical interaction, extraterrestrial artifact, or otherwise, may also influence the results of contact. Incorporating these factors, various systems have been created to assess the implications of extraterrestrial contact. The implications of extraterrestrial contact, particularly with a technologically superior civilization, have often been likened to the meeting of two vastly different human cultures on Earth, a historical precedent being the Columbian Exchange. Such meetings have generally led to the destruction of the civilization receiving contact (as opposed to the "contactor", which initiates contact), and therefore destruction of human civilization is a possible outcome. Extraterrestrial contact is also analogous


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-1.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
The implications of extraterrestrial contact depend on the method of discovery, the nature of the extraterrestrial beings, and their location relative to the Earth. Considering these factors, the Rio scale has been devised in order to provide a more quantitative picture of the results of extraterrestrial contact. More specifically, the scale gauges whether communication was conducted through radio, the information content of any messages, and whether discovery arose from a deliberately beamed message (and if so, whether the detection was the result of a specialized SETI effort or through general astronomical observations) or by the detection of occurrences such as radiation leakage from astroengineering installations. The question of whether or not a purported extraterrestrial signal has been confirmed as authentic, and with what degree of confidence, will also influence the impact of the contact. The Rio scale was modified in 2011 to include a consideration of whether contact was achieved through an interstellar message or through a physical extraterrestrial artifact, with a suggestion that the definition of artifact be expanded to include "technosignatures", including all indications of intelligent extraterrestrial life other than the interstellar radio messages sought by traditional SETI programs. A study by astronomer Steven J. Dick at the


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-2.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
Any person or organization detecting a signal should try to verify that it is likely to be of intelligent origin before announcing it. The discoverer of a signal should, for the purposes of independent verification, communicate with other signatories of the Declaration before making a public announcement, and should also inform their national authorities. Once a given astronomical observation has been determined to be a credible extraterrestrial signal, the astronomical community should be informed through the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams of the IAU. The Secretary-General of the United Nations and various other global scientific unions should also be informed. Following confirmation of an observation's extraterrestrial origin, news of the discovery should be made public. The discoverer has the right to make the first public announcement. All data confirming the discovery should be published to the international scientific community and stored in an accessible form as permanently as possible. Should evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence take the form of electromagnetic signals, the Secretary-General of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) should be contacted, and may request in the next ITU Weekly Circular to minimize terrestrial use of the electromagnetic frequency bands in which the signal was detected. Neither the discoverer nor anyone


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-3.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
Futurist Allen Tough suggests that an extremely advanced extraterrestrial civilization, recalling its own past of war and plunder and knowing that it possesses superweapons that could destroy it, would be likely to try to help humans rather than to destroy them. He identifies three approaches that a friendly civilization might take to help humanity: Intervention only to avert catastrophe: this would involve occasional limited intervention to stop events that could destroy human civilization completely, such as nuclear war or asteroid impact. Advice and action with consent: under this approach, the extraterrestrials would be more closely involved in terrestrial affairs, advising world leaders and acting with their consent to protect against danger. Forcible corrective action: the extraterrestrials could require humanity to reduce major risks against its will, intending to help humans advance to the next stage of civilization. Tough considers advising and acting only with consent to be a more likely choice than the forceful option. While coercive aid may be possible, and advanced extraterrestrials would recognize their own practices as superior to those of humanity, it may be unlikely that this method would be used in cultural cooperation. Lemarchand suggests that instruction of a civilization in its "technological adolescence", such


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-4.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hostile civilizations === Science fiction often depicts humans successfully repelling alien invasions, but scientists more often take the view that an extraterrestrial civilization with sufficient power to reach the Earth would be able to destroy human civilization or humanity with minimal effort. Operations that are enormous on a human scale, such as destroying all major population centers on a planet, bombarding a planet with deadly neutron radiation, or even traveling to another planetary system in order to lay waste to it, may be important tools for a hostile civilization. Deardorff speculates that a small proportion of the intelligent life forms in the galaxy may be aggressive, but the actual aggressiveness or benevolence of the civilizations would cover a wide spectrum, with some civilizations "policing" others. As among humans, civilizations may not be homogeneous and contain different factions or subgroups. According to Harrison and Dick, hostile extraterrestrial life may indeed be rare in the Universe, just as belligerent and autocratic nations on Earth have been the ones that lasted for the shortest periods of time, and humanity is seeing a shift away from these characteristics in its own sociopolitical systems. In addition, the causes of war may be diminished greatly


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-5.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
=== Equally advanced and more advanced civilizations === Robert Freitas speculated in 1978 that the technological advancement and energy usage of a civilization, measured either relative to another civilization or in absolute terms by its rating on the Kardashev scale, may play an important role in the result of extraterrestrial contact. Given the infeasibility of interstellar space flight for civilizations at a technological level similar to that of humanity, interactions between such civilizations would have to take place by radio. Because of the long transit times of radio waves between stars, such interactions would not lead to the establishment of diplomatic relations, nor any significant future interaction at all, between the two civilizations. According to Freitas, direct contact with civilizations significantly more advanced than humanity would have to take place within the Solar System, as only the more advanced society would have the resources and technology to cross interstellar space. Consequently, such contact could only be with civilizations rated as Type II or higher on the Kardashev scale, as Type I civilizations would be incapable of regular interstellar travel. Freitas expected that such interactions would be carefully planned by the more advanced civilization to avoid mass societal shock for humanity.


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-6.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
Given the age of the galaxy, Harrison surmises that "galactic clubs" might exist, groupings of civilizations from across the galaxy. Such clubs could begin as loose confederations or alliances, eventually developing into powerful unions of many civilizations. If humanity could enter into a dialogue with one extraterrestrial civilization, it might be able to join such a galactic club. As more extraterrestrial civilizations, or unions thereof, are found, these could also become assimilated into such a club. Sebastian von Hoerner has suggested that entry into a galactic club may be a way for humanity to handle the culture shock arising from contact with an advanced extraterrestrial civilization. Whether a broad spectrum of civilizations from many places in the galaxy would even be able to cooperate is disputed by Michaud, who states that civilizations with huge differences in the technologies and resources at their command "may not consider themselves even remotely equal". It is unlikely that humanity would meet the basic requirements for membership at its current low level of technological advancement. A galactic club may, William Hamilton speculates, set extremely high entrance requirements that are unlikely to be met by less advanced civilizations. When two Canadian astronomers argued that they potentially


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-7.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
An extraterrestrial civilization may choose to communicate with humanity by means of artifacts or probes rather than by radio, for various reasons. While probes may take a long time to reach the Solar System, once there they would be able to hold a sustained dialogue that would be impossible using radio from hundreds or thousands of light-years away. Radio would be completely unsuitable for surveillance and continued monitoring of a civilization, and should an extraterrestrial civilization wish to perform these activities on humanity, artifacts may be the only option other than to send large, crewed spacecraft to the Solar System. Although faster-than-light travel has been seriously considered by physicists such as Miguel Alcubierre, Tough speculates that the enormous amount of energy required to achieve such speeds under currently proposed mechanisms means that robotic probes traveling at conventional speeds will still have an advantage for various applications. 2013 research at NASA's Johnson Space Center, however, shows that faster-than-light travel with the Alcubierre drive requires dramatically less energy than previously thought, needing only about 1 tonne of exotic mass-energy to move a spacecraft at 10 times the speed of light, in contrast to previous estimates that stated that only a Jupiter-mass object


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-8.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
The confirmation of extraterrestrial intelligence could have a profound impact on religious doctrines, potentially causing theologians to reinterpret scriptures to accommodate the new discoveries. However, a survey of people with many different religious beliefs indicated that their faith would not be affected by the discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence, and another study, conducted by Ted Peters of the Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary, shows that most people would not consider their religious beliefs superseded by it. Surveys of religious leaders indicate that only a small percentage are concerned that the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence might fundamentally contradict the views of the adherents of their religion. Gabriel Funes, the chief astronomer of the Vatican Observatory and a papal adviser on science, has stated that the Catholic Church would be likely to welcome extraterrestrial visitors warmly. There are many UFO religions such as Raëlism. Astronomer David Weintraub suggests unambiguous contact would result in more of these kinds of beliefs and communities, saying "There undoubtedly would be people who would find this as an opportunity or an excuse to call attention to themselves for whatever reason and there would be new religions". Contact with extraterrestrial intelligence would not be completely inconsequential for religion. The Peters


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-9.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
According to experts such as Niklas Hedman, executive director of UN Office for Outer Space Affairs, there are "no international agreements or mechanisms in place for how humanity would handle an encounter with extraterrestrial intelligence". Tim Folger speculates that news of radio contact with an extraterrestrial civilization would prove impossible to suppress and would travel rapidly, though Cold War scientific literature on the subject contradicts this. Media coverage of the discovery would probably die down quickly, though, as scientists began to decipher the message and learn its true impact. Different branches of government (for example legislative, executive, and judiciary) may pursue their own policies, potentially giving rise to power struggles. Even in the event of a single contact with no follow-up, radio contact may prompt fierce disagreements as to which bodies have the authority to represent humanity as a whole. Michaud hypothesizes that the fear arising from direct contact may cause nation-states to put aside their conflicts and work together for the common defense of humanity. Apart from the question of who would represent the Earth as a whole, contact could create other international problems, such as the degree of involvement of governments foreign to the one whose radio astronomers


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-10.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientific and technological === The scientific and technological impact of extraterrestrial contact through electromagnetic waves would probably be quite small, especially at first. However, if the message contains a large amount of information, deciphering it could give humans access to a galactic heritage perhaps predating the formation of the Solar System, which may greatly advance our technology and science. A possible negative effect could be to demoralize research scientists as they come to know that what they are researching may already be known to another civilization. On the other hand, extraterrestrial civilizations with malicious intent could send (unfiltered) information that could enable or facilitate human civilization to destroy itself, such as powerful computer viruses, knowledge to build an advanced artificial intelligence or information on how to make extremely potent weapons that humans would not yet be able to use responsibly. While the motives for such an action are unknown, it may require minimal energy use on the part of the extraterrestrials. It may also be possible that such is sent without malicious intent. According to Musso, however, computer viruses in particular will be nearly impossible unless extraterrestrials possess detailed knowledge of human computer architectures, which would only happen if


id: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact-11.md
category: reference
title: Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_cultural_impact_of_extraterrestrial_contact
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:45.687876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potential-cultural-impact-of-extraterrestrial-contact-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ethics === Astroethics refers to the contemplation and development of ethical standards for a variety of outer space issues, including questions of how to interact remotely or in close encounters and concerns not only humans' ethics but also ethics of non-human intelligences, including whether they all afford us rights (and which each or overall). Lewis White Beck notes that an analysis of the evolution of philosophical thought from ancient times into the modern era suggests that humanity is often comforted during periods of intense cultural transition by subtle archetypal ideas which are derived from firmly held religious, philosophical, ethical and existential belief systems. He includes mankind's search for extraterrestrial life as a manifestation of such beliefs and argues that even if humanity's search for extraterrestrial life proves to be unsuccessful in the short term, it may have longer term beneficial consequences by inspiring humanity to embrace a superior ethical paradigm. === Ecological and biological-warfare impacts === An extraterrestrial civilization might bring to Earth pathogens or invasive life forms that do not harm its own biosphere. Alien pathogens could decimate the human population, which would have no immunity to them, or they might use terrestrial livestock or plants as hosts,


id: process-philosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Process philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:47.022286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
Process philosophy (also ontology of becoming or processism) is an approach in philosophy that identifies processes, changes, or shifting relationships as the only real experience of everyday living. In opposition to the classical view of change as illusory (as argued by Parmenides) or accidental (as argued by Aristotle), process philosophy posits transient occasions of change or becoming as the most fundamental things of the ordinary everyday real world. Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, classical ontology has posited ordinary world reality as constituted of enduring substances, to which transient processes are ontologically subordinate, if they are not denied. If Socrates changes, becomes sick, Socrates is still the same (the substance of Socrates being the same), and change (his sickness) only glides over his substance: change is accidental, and devoid of primary reality, whereas the substance is essential. In physics, Ilya Prigogine distinguishes between the "physics of being" and the "physics of becoming". Process philosophy covers not just scientific intuitions and experiences, but can be used as a conceptual bridge to facilitate discussions among religion, philosophy, and science. Process philosophy is sometimes classified as closer to continental philosophy than analytic philosophy, because it is usually only taught in continental philosophy


id: process-philosophy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy-1.md
category: reference
title: Process philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:47.022286+00:00
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parent: process-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
== Whitehead's Process and Reality == Alfred North Whitehead began teaching and writing on process and metaphysics when he joined Harvard University in 1924. In his book Science and the Modern World (1925), Whitehead noted that the human intuitions and experiences of science, aesthetics, ethics, and religion influence the worldview of a community, but that in the last several centuries science dominates Western culture. Whitehead sought a holistic, comprehensive cosmology that provides a systematic descriptive theory of the world which can be used for the diverse human intuitions gained through ethical, aesthetic, religious, and scientific experiences, and not just the scientific. In 1929, Whitehead produced the most famous work of process philosophy, Process and Reality, continuing the work begun by Hegel but describing a more complex and fluid dynamic ontology. Process thought describes truth as "movement" in and through substance (Hegelian truth), rather than substances as fixed concepts or "things" (Aristotelian truth). Since Whitehead, process thought is distinguished from Hegel in that it describes entities that arise or coalesce in becoming, rather than being simply dialectically determined from prior posited determinates. These entities are referred to as complexes of occasions of experience. It is also distinguished in being not necessarily


id: process-philosophy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy-2.md
category: reference
title: Process philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:47.022286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Whitehead's 'actual entities' ==== For Whitehead's ontology of processes as defining the world, the actual entities exist as the only fundamental elements of reality. The actual entities are of two kinds, temporal and atemporal. With one exception, all actual entities for Whitehead are temporal and are occasions of experience (which are not to be confused with consciousness). An entity that people commonly think of as a simple concrete object, or that Aristotle would think of as a substance, is, in this ontology, considered to be a temporally serial composite of indefinitely many overlapping occasions of experience. A human being is thus composed of indefinitely many occasions of experience. The one exceptional actual entity is at once both temporal and atemporal: God. He is objectively immortal, as well as being immanent in the world. He is objectified in each temporal actual entity; but He is not an eternal object. The occasions of experience are of four grades. The first grade comprises processes in a physical vacuum such as the propagation of an electromagnetic wave or gravitational influence across empty space. The occasions of experience of the second grade involve just inanimate matter; "matter" being the composite overlapping of occasions of


id: process-philosophy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy-3.md
category: reference
title: Process philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:47.022286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Topology ==== Whitehead's theory of extension was concerned with the spatio-temporal features of his occasions of experience. Fundamental to both Newtonian and to quantum theoretical mechanics is the concept of momentum. The measurement of a momentum requires a finite spatiotemporal extent. Because it has no finite spatiotemporal extent, a single point of Minkowski space cannot be an occasion of experience, but is an abstraction from an infinite set of overlapping or contained occasions of experience, as explained in Process and Reality. Though the occasions of experience are atomic, they are not necessarily separate in extension, spatiotemporally, from one another. Indefinitely many occasions of experience can overlap in Minkowski space. Nexus is a term coined by Whitehead to show the network actual entity from the universe. In the universe of actual entities spread actual entity. Actual entities are clashing with each other and form other actual entities. The birth of an actual entity based on an actual entity, actual entities around him referred to as nexus. An example of a nexus of temporally overlapping occasions of experience is what Whitehead calls an enduring physical object, which corresponds closely with an Aristotelian substance. An enduring physical object has a temporally earliest


id: process-philosophy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy-4.md
category: reference
title: Process philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:47.022286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
'Actual entities' – also termed 'actual occasions' – are the final real things of which the world is made up. There is no going behind actual entities to find anything more real. They differ among themselves: God is an actual entity, and so is the most trivial puff of existence in far-off empty space. But, though there are gradations of importance, and diversities of function, yet in the principles which actuality exemplifies all are on the same level. The final facts are, all alike, actual entities; and these actual entities are drops of experience, complex and interdependent. It also can be assumed, within some forms of theology, that a God encompasses all the other occasions of experience, yet also transcends them; it might, therefore, be argued that Whitehead endorses some form of panentheism. Since (as it is argued in many theologies) "free will" is inherent to the nature of the universe, Whitehead's God is not omnipotent in Whitehead's metaphysics. God's role is to offer enhanced occasions of experience. God participates in the evolution of the universe by offering possibilities, which may be accepted or rejected. Whitehead's thinking here has given rise to process theology, whose prominent advocates include Charles Hartshorne,


id: process-philosophy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy-5.md
category: reference
title: Process philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:47.022286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology, the subject of imagination was again explored more extensively since Whitehead, and the question of feasibility or "eternal objects" of thought became central to the impaired theory of mind explorations that framed postmodern cognitive science. A biological understanding of the most eternal object, that being the emerging of similar but independent cognitive apparatus, led to an obsession with the process "embodiment", that being, the emergence of these cognitions. Like Whitehead's God, especially as elaborated in J. J. Gibson's perceptual psychology emphasizing affordances, by ordering the relevance of eternal objects (especially the cognitions of other such actors), the world becomes. Or, it becomes simple enough for human beings to begin to make choices, and to prehend what happens as a result. These experiences may be summed in some sense but can only approximately be shared, even among very similar cognitions with identical DNA. An early explorer of this view was Alan Turing who sought to prove the limits of expressive complexity of human genes in the late 1940s, to put bounds on the complexity of human intelligence and so assess the feasibility of artificial intelligence emerging. Since 2000, Process Psychology has progressed as an independent academic and therapeutic discipline:


id: process-theology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theology-0.md
category: reference
title: Process theology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:48.313243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-theology-20260505-0
summary:
Process theology is a type of theology developed from Alfred North Whitehead's (1861–1947) process philosophy, but most notably by Charles Hartshorne (1897–2000), John B. Cobb (1925–2024), and Eugene H. Peters (1929–1983). Process theology and process philosophy are collectively referred to as "process thought". For both Whitehead and Hartshorne, it is an essential attribute of God to affect and be affected by temporal processes, contrary to the forms of theism that hold God to be in all respects non-temporal (eternal), unchanging (immutable), and unaffected by the world (impassible). Process theology does not deny that God is in some respects eternal (will never die), immutable (in the sense that God is unchangingly good), and impassible (in the sense that God's eternal aspect is unaffected by actuality), but it contradicts the classical view by insisting that God is in some respects temporal, mutable, and passible. According to Cobb, "process theology may refer to all forms of theology that emphasize event, occurrence, or becoming over substance. In this sense theology influenced by G. W. F. Hegel is process theology just as much as that influenced by Whitehead. This use of the term calls attention to affinities between these otherwise quite different traditions." Also Pierre


id: process-theology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theology-1.md
category: reference
title: Process theology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:48.313243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-theology-20260505-0
summary:
== Relationship to liberation theology == Henry Young combines black theology and process theology in his book Hope in Process. Young seeks a model for American society that goes beyond the alternatives of integration of blacks into white society and black separateness. He finds useful the process model of the many becoming one. Here the one is a new reality that emerges from the discrete contributions of the many, not the assimilation of the many to an already established one. Monica Coleman has combined womanist theology and process theology in her book Making a Way Out of No Way. In it, she argues that 'making a way out of no way' and 'creative transformation' are complementary insights from the respective theological traditions. She is one of many theologians who identify both as a process theologian and feminist/womanist/ecofeminist theologian, which includes persons such as Sallie McFague, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Catherine Keller, and Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki. C. Robert Mesle, in his book Process Theology, outlines three aspects of a process theology of liberation: There is a relational character to the divine which allows God to experience both the joy and suffering of humanity. God suffers just as those who experience oppression and


id: process-theology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theology-2.md
category: reference
title: Process theology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:48.313243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-theology-20260505-0
summary:
== Debate about process theology's conception of God's power == A criticism of process theology is that it offers a too severely diminished conception of God's power. Process theologians argue that God does not have unilateral, coercive control over everything in the universe. In process theology, God cannot override a person's freedom, nor perform miracles that violate the laws of nature, nor perform physical actions such as causing or halting a flood or an avalanche. Critics argue that this conception diminishes divine power to such a degree that God is no longer worshipful. The process theology response to this criticism is that the traditional Christian conception of God is actually not worshipful as it stands, and that the traditional notion of God's omnipotence fails to make sense. First, power is a relational concept. It is not exerted in a vacuum, but always by some entity A over some other entity B. As such, power requires analysis of both the being exerting power, and the being that power is being exerted upon. To suppose that an entity A (in this case, God), can always successfully control any other entity B is to say, in effect, that B does not exist as


id: process-theology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theology-3.md
category: reference
title: Process theology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:48.313243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: process-theology-20260505-0
summary:
Relational power takes great strength. In stark contrast to unilateral power, the radical manifestations of relational power are found in people like Martin Luther King Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, and Jesus. It requires the willingness to endure tremendous suffering while refusing to hate. It demands that we keep our hearts open to those who wish to slam them shut. It means offering to open up a relationship with people who hate us, despise us, and wish to destroy us. In summation, then, process theologians argue that their conception of God's power does not diminish God, but just the opposite. Rather than see God as one who unilaterally coerces other beings, judges and punishes them, and is completely unaffected by the joys and sorrows of others, process theologians see God as the one who persuades the universe to love and peace, is supremely affected by even the tiniest of joys and the smallest of sorrows, and is able to love all beings despite the most heinous acts they may commit. God is, as Whitehead says, "the fellow sufferer who understands". == See also == == References == == Further reading == Bruce G. Epperly Process Theology: A Guide for the Perplexed (NY:


id: questions-of-truth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questions_of_Truth-0.md
category: reference
title: Questions of Truth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questions_of_Truth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:49.598827+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: questions-of-truth-20260505-0
summary:
Questions of Truth is a book by John Polkinghorne and Nicholas Beale which offers their responses to 51 questions about science and religion. The foreword is contributed by Antony Hewish. The book was launched at a workshop at the 2009 American Association for the Advancement of Science Annual Meeting in Chicago, and then in the UK at a discussion at the Royal Society chaired by Onora O'Neill, in a week when it was also featured on the Today Programme. == Key themes and ideas == The book grew out of questions generated at a website organized to communicate Polkinghorne's ideas. It groups selected questions under seven topics: Leading questions gives an overview of Polkinghorne's views on nine questions, including science and religion, the existence of god, and atheism. The concept and existence of god begins with "Can God's existence be proved?" and addresses The God Delusion, omniscience, predestination and the Trinity. The Universe considers the Big Bang, the anthropic principle and a theory of everything. Evolution starts with "Is evolution a fact or a theory?", discusses intelligent design, which is deemed an unfortunate use of language and a theological mistake, and explores whether the mind can be explained by evolution.


id: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence-0.md
category: reference
title: Religiosity and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:52.059404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
The study of religiosity and intelligence explores the link between religiosity and intelligence or educational level (by country and on the individual level). Religiosity and intelligence are both complex topics that include diverse variables, and the interactions among those variables are not always well understood. For instance, intelligence is often defined differently by different researchers; also, all scores from intelligence tests are only estimates of intelligence, because one cannot achieve concrete measurements of intelligence (as one would of mass or distance) due to the concept's abstract nature. Religiosity is also complex, in that it involves wide variations of interactions of religious beliefs, practices, behaviors, and affiliations, across a diverse array of cultures. The study on religion and intelligence has been ongoing since the 1920s and conclusions and interpretations have varied in the literature due to different measures for both religiosity and intelligence. Some studies find negative correlation between intelligence quotient (IQ) and religiosity. However, such studies and others have found the effect not to be generalizable and unable to predict religiosity from intelligence correlations alone. Some have suggested that nonconformity, cognitive style, and coping mechanism play a role while others suggest that any correlations are due to a complex range


id: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence-1.md
category: reference
title: Religiosity and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:52.059404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
The term religiosity refers to degrees of religious behaviour, belief, or spirituality. The measurement of religiosity is hampered by the difficulties involved in defining what is meant by the term. Numerous studies have explored the different components of religiosity, with most finding some distinction between religious beliefs/doctrine, religious practice, and spirituality. Studies can measure religious practice by counting attendance at religious services, religious beliefs/doctrine by asking a few doctrinal questions, and spirituality by asking respondents about their sense of oneness with the divine or through detailed standardized measurements. When religiosity is measured, it is important to specify which aspects of religiosity are referred to. According to Mark Chaves, decades of anthropological, sociological, and psychological research have established that "religious congruence" (the assumption that religious beliefs and values are tightly integrated in an individual's mind or that religious practices and behaviors follow directly from religious beliefs or that religious beliefs are chronologically linear and stable across different contexts) is actually rare. People's religious ideas are fragmented, loosely connected, and context-dependent, as in all other domains of culture and in life. The beliefs, affiliations, and behaviors of any individual are complex activities that have many sources including culture. As examples of religious


id: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence-2.md
category: reference
title: Religiosity and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:52.059404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
In a 2013 meta-analysis of 63 studies, led by professor Miron Zuckerman, a correlation of -.20 to -.25 between religiosity and IQ was particularly strong when assessing beliefs (which in their view reflects intrinsic religiosity), but the negative effects were less defined when behavioral aspects of religion (such as church-going) were examined. They note limitations on this since viewing intrinsic religiosity as being about religious beliefs represents American Protestantism more than Judaism or Catholicism, both of which see behavior as just as important as religious beliefs. They also noted that the available data did not allow adequate consideration of the role of religion type and of culture in assessing the relationship between religion and intelligence. Most of the studies reviewed were American and 87% of participants in those studies were from the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. They noted, "Clearly, the present results are limited to Western societies." The meta-analysis discussed three possible explanations: First, intelligent people are less likely to conform and, thus, are more likely to resist religious dogma, although this theory was contradicted in mostly atheist societies such as the Scandinavian populations, where the religiosity-IQ relationship still existed. Second, intelligent people tend to adopt an


id: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence-3.md
category: reference
title: Religiosity and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:52.059404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Studies examining theistic and atheistic cognitive style === The idea that analytical thinking makes one less likely to be religious is an idea supported by Gervais and Noernzayan's 2012 study They observed that intuitive thinking tended to increase intrinsic religiosity, intuitive religious belief and belief in supernatural entities. They also added a causative element, finding that subtly triggering analytic thinking can increase religious disbelief. They concluded that "Combined, these studies indicate that analytic processing is one factor (presumably among several) that promotes religious disbelief." While these studies linked religious disbelief to analytical rather than intuitive thinking, they urged caution in the interpretation of these results, noting that they were not judging the relative merits of analytic and intuitive thinking in promoting optimal decision making, or the merits or validity of religiosity as a whole. In 2017, Calin-Jageman replicated the Gervais 2012 experiment and found no link between analytic thinking and decrease in religious belief. In another replication attempt, another team failed to get the same results as Gervais and Noernzayan . For which, Gervais and Noernzayan acknowledged that they no longer felt confident in their original 2012 findings. In 2018, Gervais et al did a follow up study to


id: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence-4.md
category: reference
title: Religiosity and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religiosity_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:52.059404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religiosity-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Studies examining religiosity and emotional intelligence === A small 2004 study by Ellen Paek examined the extent to which religiosity (in which only Christians were surveyed), operationalized as religious orientation and religious behaviour, is related to the controversial idea of emotional intelligence (EI). The study examined the extent to which religious orientation and behavior were related to self-reported EI in 148 church-attending adult Christians. (Non-religious individuals were not part of the study.) The study found that the individuals' self-reported religious orientation was positively correlated with their perceiving themselves to have greater EI. While the number of religious group activities was positively associated with perceived EI, the number of years of church attendance was unrelated. Significant positive correlations were also found between level of religious commitment and perceived EI. Thus, the Christian volunteers were more likely to consider themselves emotionally intelligent if they spent more time in group activities and had more commitment to their beliefs. Tischler, Biberman and McKeage warn that there is still ambiguity in the above concepts. In their 2002 article, entitled "Linking emotional intelligence, spirituality and workplace performance: Definitions, models and ideas for research", they reviewed literature on both EI and various aspect of spirituality. They


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-0.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
Albert Einstein's religious views have been widely studied and often misunderstood. Albert Einstein stated "I believe in Spinoza's God". He did not believe in a personal God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He clarified, however, that, "I am not an atheist", preferring to call himself an agnostic, or a "religious nonbeliever." In other interviews, he noted his belief in a cosmic "lawgiver" who sets the laws of the universe. Einstein also stated he did not believe in life after death, adding "one life is enough for me." He was closely involved in his lifetime with several humanist groups. Einstein rejected a conflict between science and religion, and held that cosmic religion was necessary for science. == Religious beliefs == Einstein himself stated "I'm not an atheist, and I don't think I can call myself a pantheist ... I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings". Einstein believed the problem of God was the "most difficult in the world"—a question that could not be answered "simply with yes


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-1.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
Your question is the most difficult in the world. It is not a question I can answer simply with yes or no. I am not an Atheist. I do not know if I can define myself as a Pantheist. The problem involved is too vast for our limited minds. May I not reply with a parable? The human mind, no matter how highly trained, cannot grasp the universe. We are in the position of a little child, entering a huge library whose walls are covered to the ceiling with books in many different tongues. The child knows that someone must have written those books. It does not know who or how. It does not understand the languages in which they are written. The child notes a definite plan in the arrangement of the books, a mysterious order, which it does not comprehend, but only dimly suspects. That, it seems to me, is the attitude of the human mind, even the greatest and most cultured, toward God. We see a universe marvelously arranged, obeying certain laws, but we understand the laws only dimly. Our limited minds cannot grasp the mysterious force that sways the constellations. I am fascinated by Spinoza's Pantheism.


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-2.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
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parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
=== Afterlife === On 17 July 1953, a woman who was a licensed Baptist pastor sent Einstein a letter asking if he had felt assured about attaining everlasting life with the Creator. Einstein replied, "I do not believe in immortality of the individual, and I consider ethics to be an exclusively human concern with no superhuman authority behind it." This sentiment was also expressed in Einstein's book The World as I See It (1935), "I cannot conceive of a God who rewards and punishes his creatures, or has a will of the type of which we are conscious in ourselves. An individual who should survive his physical death is also beyond my comprehension, nor do I wish it otherwise; such notions are for the fears or absurd egoism of feeble souls. Enough for me the mystery of the eternity of life, and the inkling of the marvellous structure of reality, together with the single-hearted endeavour to comprehend a portion, be it ever so tiny, of the reason that manifests itself in nature." Einstein was averse to the Abrahamic conception of Heaven and Hell, particularly as it pertained to a system of everlasting reward and punishment. In a 1915 letter to


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-3.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
A person who is religiously enlightened appears to me to be one who has, to the best of his ability, liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts, feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their super-personal value. It seems to me that what is important is the force of this superpersonal content ... regardless of whether any attempt is made to unite this content with a Divine Being, for otherwise it would not be possible to count Buddha and Spinoza as religious personalities. Accordingly a religious person is devout in the sense that he has no doubt of the significance of those super-personal objects and goals which neither require nor are capable of rational foundation ... In this sense religion is the age-old endeavor of mankind to become clearly and completely conscious of these values and goals and constantly to strengthen and extend their effect. If one conceives of religion and science according to these definitions then a conflict between them appears impossible. For science can only ascertain what is, but not what should be... An understanding of causality was fundamental to Einstein's ethical beliefs. In Einstein's view, "the doctrine of


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-4.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific research is based on the idea that everything that takes place is determined by laws of nature, and therefore this holds for the actions of people. For this reason, a research scientist will hardly be inclined to believe that events could be influenced by a prayer, i.e., by a wish addressed to a supernatural being. However, it must be admitted that our actual knowledge of these laws is only imperfect and fragmentary, so that, actually, the belief in the existence of basic all-embracing laws in nature also rests on a sort of faith. All the same this faith has been largely justified so far by the success of scientific research. But, on the other hand, everyone who is seriously involved in the pursuit of science becomes convinced that a spirit is manifest in the laws of the universe—a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort, which is indeed quite different from the religiosity of someone more naive.” Einstein characterized himself as "devoutly religious" in the following sense: "The


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-5.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
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parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
=== Jewish identity === In a letter to Eric Gutkind dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote in German, "For me the Jewish religion like all others is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the Jewish people to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. As far as my experience goes, they are also no better than other human groups, although they are protected from the worst cancers by a lack of power. Otherwise I cannot see anything 'chosen' about them." In 1938, Einstein discussed "the hatred of the Jews by those who shun popular enlightenment. More than anything else in the world, they fear the influence of men of intellectual independence. I see in this the essential cause for the savage hatred of Jews raging in present-day Germany. To the Nazi group the Jews are not merely a means for turning the resentment of the people away from themselves, the oppressors; they see the Jews as a nonassimilable element that cannot be driven into uncritical acceptance of dogma, and that, therefore as long as it exists at all—threatens their authority because of


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-6.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
Only the Church stood squarely across the path of Hitler's campaign for suppressing truth. I never had any special interest in the Church before, but now I feel a great affection and admiration because the Church alone has had the courage and persistence to stand for intellectual truth and moral freedom. I am forced thus to confess that what I once despised I now praise unreservedly. The quotation has since been repeatedly cited by defenders of Pope Pius XII. An investigation of the quotation by mathematician William C. Waterhouse and Barbara Wolff of the Einstein Archives in Jerusalem found that the statement was mentioned in an unpublished letter from 1947. In the letter to Count Montgelas, Einstein explained that the original comment was a casual one made to a journalist regarding the support of "a few churchmen" for individual rights and intellectual freedom during the early rule of Hitler and that, according to Einstein, the comment had been drastically exaggerated. On 11 November 1950, a Brooklyn pastor named Cornelius Greenway wrote a letter to Einstein, which had also quoted his alleged remarks about the Church. Einstein responded, "I am, however, a little embarrassed. The wording of the statement you have


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-7.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
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parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
==== William Hermanns conversations ==== Einstein's conversations with William Hermanns were recorded over a 34-year correspondence. In the conversations, Einstein makes various statements about the Christian Churches in general and the Catholic Church in particular: "When you learn the history of the Catholic Church, you wouldn't trust the Center Party. Hasn't Hitler promised to smash the Bolsheviks in Russia? The Church will bless its Catholic soldiers to march alongside the Nazis" (March 1930). "I predict that the Vatican will support Hitler if he comes to power. The Church since Constantine has always favoured the authoritarian State, as long as the State allows the Church to baptize and instruct the masses" (March 1930). "So often in history the Jews have been the instigators of justice and reform whether in Spain, Germany or Russia. But no sooner have they done their job than their 'friends', often blessed by the Church, spit in their faces" (August 1943). "But what makes me shudder is that the Catholic Church is silent. One doesn't need to be a prophet to say, 'The Catholic Church will pay for this silence...I do not say that the unspeakable crimes of the Church for 2,000 years had always the blessing


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-8.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
You believe in a God who plays dice, and I in complete law and order in a world which objectively exists, and which I in a wildly speculative way, am trying to capture. I firmly believe, but I hope that someone will discover a more realistic way, or rather a more tangible basis than it has been my lot to find. Even the great initial success of the quantum theory does not make me believe in the fundamental dice game, although I am well aware that some of our younger colleagues interpret this as a consequence of senility. Einstein's emphasis on 'belief' and how it connected with determinism was illustrated in a letter of condolence responding to news of the death of Michele Besso, one of his lifelong friends. Einstein wrote to the family: "Now he has departed from this strange world a little ahead of me. That signifies nothing. For us believing physicists the distinction between past, present, and future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion." Einstein had admitted to a fascination with philosopher Spinoza's deterministic version of pantheism. American philosopher Charles Hartshorne, in seeking to distinguish deterministic views with his own belief of free will panentheism, coined the


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-9.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
=== Teleology === In a conversation with Ugo Onufri in 1955, with regards to nature's purpose he said, "I have never imputed to Nature a purpose or goal, or anything that could be understood as anthropomorphic." In a 1947 letter he stated, "I feel also not able to imagine some will or goal outside the human sphere." === Epistemology === ==== Naïve realism ==== Einstein believed naïve realism was "relatively simple" to disprove. He agreed with Bertrand Russell that humans observe the qualities objects have on them (greenness, coldness, hardness, etc.) and not the actual objects themselves. ==== Positivism ==== Einstein declared that he was no positivist, a philosophical system that declares that only those statements that are verifiable through direct observation or logical proof are useful in determining truth. Einstein maintained that people validly use certain ideas and values, such as intuition or religious faith, which cannot be proven with direct observation or logic. Einstein acknowledged however that positivist thinkers, such as Ernst Mach, had a deep influence on him in his early years. Regarding relativity theory, he writes: "the whole direction of thought of this theory conforms with Mach's..." Though Einstein maintained that Mach's positivism is unfruitful in


id: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein-10.md
category: reference
title: Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_and_philosophical_views_of_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:53.313065+00:00
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parent: religious-and-philosophical-views-of-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ancient Greeks ==== Einstein expressed his admiration for the Ancient Greek philosophers, pointing out that he had been far more interested in them than in science. He also noted; "The more I read the Greeks, the more I realize that nothing like them has ever appeared in the world since.” == See also == Political views of Albert Einstein Religious views of Isaac Newton == References == == Further reading == Fox, Kieran (2025). I Am a Part of Infinity: The Spiritual Journey of Albert Einstein. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-1-5416-0357-8. Einstein, Albert (2009). Einstein on Cosmic Religion and Other Opinions and Aphorisms (1 ed.). Newburyport: Dover Publications, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-486-11312-8. Essays by Einstein from the 1930s and 40s. == External links == The Reason for Life: What They Believe: Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Leo Tolstoy - by Waltenegus Dargie World Science Festival (2015-03-12). "The Genius of Einstein: The Science, His Brain, the Man". YouTube. Retrieved 2025-05-04. Einstein's God - talk by Walter Isaacson, FORA.tv "Einstein's "I don't believe in God" letter has sold on eBay..." Archived 2015-12-09 at the Wayback Machine, 23 October 2012 Albert Einstein's "God Letter" fetches US $2,400,000 at Christie's New


id: religious-interpretations-of-the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_interpretations_of_the_Big_Bang_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_interpretations_of_the_Big_Bang_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:54.549734+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-interpretations-of-the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Since the emergence of the Big Bang theory as the dominant physical cosmological paradigm, there have been a variety of reactions by religious groups regarding its implications for religious cosmologies. Some accept the scientific evidence at face value, some seek to harmonize the Big Bang with their religious tenets, and some reject or ignore the evidence for the Big Bang theory. The core tenet of most major monotheistic religions such as is that there is one God who created the universe and bestowed his blessings upon it. These faiths are generally in agreement with contemporary scientific cosmological thought as they believe the Big Bang theory generally reinforces the idea of one supreme God. However, this viewpoint is not universal amongst practicers of these faiths, resulting in a spectrum of opinions about how religious cosmology and the Big Bang theory truly support one another. == Background == The Big Bang itself is a scientific theory, and as such, stands or falls by its agreement with observations. However, as a theory which addresses the nature of the universe since its earliest discernible existence, the Big Bang carries possible theological implications regarding the concept of creation out of nothing. Many atheist philosophers have


id: religious-interpretations-of-the-big-bang-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_interpretations_of_the_Big_Bang_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_interpretations_of_the_Big_Bang_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:54.549734+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-interpretations-of-the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Bakongo Spirituality == In Kongo spiritual tradition, the Bakongo people of the Congo River basin believe that in the beginning there was only a circular void, which they refer to as Mbungi. The Supreme god Nzambi (female counterpart: Nzambici) then summoned a spark of fire, called Kalûnga, which filled the void and burned and grew and hardened. The heat created so much energy that pieces of burning mbungi were cast far and wide. When the fires eventually burned out, the hardened pieces cooled and became planets, forming the universe. They also believe that the earth underwent four stages of creation that included: the emergence of fire, the burning, the cooling, and the emergence of life. Philosopher Molefi Kete Asante and theologist Kiatezua Lubanzadio Luyaluka both cited these similarities that they believe show a compatibility between Bakongo cosmology and the Big Bang theory. == Baháʼí Faith == Bahá’u’lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, has taught that the universe has "neither beginning nor ending". In the Tablet of Wisdom ("Lawh-i-Hikmat", written 1873–1874). Bahá'u'lláh states: "That which hath been in existence had existed before, but not in the form thou seest today. The world of existence came into being through the


id: religious-views-on-genetically-modified-foods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_views_on_genetically_modified_foods-0.md
category: reference
title: Religious views on genetically modified foods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_views_on_genetically_modified_foods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:55.971162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-views-on-genetically-modified-foods-20260505-0
summary:
Religious views on genetically modified foods have been mixed, although as yet, no genetically modified foods ("GM" foods) have been designated as unacceptable by religious authorities. == Background and history == Genetic engineering is a laboratory process that alters the DNA make-up of an organism. This may include deleting or adding a segment of DNA. Genetically Modified Organisms typically refers to food products that have been altered using genetic engineering. This is done by adding DNA to a single cell, that will later be present in the rest of the organism due to cell reproduction. Around 8000 BCE, humans used agricultural techniques such as Cross breeding to breed animals and plants with preferred traits. In 1982, the FDA approved the first genetically modified product, insulin, for public use in the United States. In 1994, a genetically modified tomato was approved for public use by the FDA in the United States. Common genetically modified foods include corn, soybeans, potatoes, and squash. == Judaism == There is no consensus in the views of Jewish religious leaders, scholars and commentators on whether Jews can eat GM food products or engage in research in the area of GM food technology. One perspective emphasizes that


id: religious-views-on-genetically-modified-foods-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_views_on_genetically_modified_foods-1.md
category: reference
title: Religious views on genetically modified foods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_views_on_genetically_modified_foods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:33:55.971162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-views-on-genetically-modified-foods-20260505-0
summary:
==== Other studies and statements ==== A 2002 meeting between bishops and scientists in the Philippines concluded that biotechnology could be an important stepping stone in the struggle against hunger and environmental pollution. A 2003 symposium gathered by Cardinal Renato T. Martino has examined the use of GMOs in modern agriculture. The symposium's study argued that the future of humanity is at stake and that there is no room for the ideological arguments advanced by environmentalists. Velasio De Paolis, a professor of canon law at the Pontifical Urban University, has said that it was "easy to say no to GM food if your stomach is full". In 2008, Fr. Sean McDonagh, an Irish Columban priest and "well-known commentator on environmental issues", questioned whether hosts from transgenic wheat could ever be approved by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith because of the Church's strict rules regarding sacramental bread. He specifically cited canon 924, which stipulates the bread must be wheaten only, and recently made, so that there is no danger of corruption. A 2009 study on genetically modified organisms sponsored by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences came to a favorable conclusion on GMOs, viewing them as praiseworthy for improving


id: science-and-christian-belief-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Christian_Belief-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Christian Belief
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Christian_Belief
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:01.970828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-christian-belief-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Christian Belief is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal published by Christians in Science and the Victoria Institute. The editors-in-chief are Professor Keith R Fox and Dr Todd Kantchev. The journal was established in 1989, with Oliver Barclay and A. Brian Robins as co-editors-in-chief. It is abstracted and indexed in New Testament Abstracts, Religion Index One: Periodicals, and Religious & Theological Abstracts, and is distributed by EBSCO Information Services as part of Academic Search and other collections. The journal is free to members of Christians in Science. The Victoria Institute (also known as the Philosophical Society of Great Britain) published the Journal of the Transactions of The Victoria Institute, which was established in 1866; it was renamed Faith and Thought in 1958, and then merged with the (informal) CIS Bulletin in 1989, obtaining its current name, Faith and Thought. == References == == External links == Official website Warren S. Brown and Malcolm A. Jeeves, "Portraits of Human Nature: Reconciling Neuroscience and Christian Anthropology," A report from a seminar at the combined meeting of the American Scientific Affiliation and Christians in Science, Churchill College, Cambridge University, August 1998, from Science and Christian Belief 11 No. 2 (October 1999): 139–50


id: science-religion-a-symposium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_&_Religion:_A_Symposium-0.md
category: reference
title: Science & Religion: A Symposium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_&_Religion:_A_Symposium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:03.175058+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-religion-a-symposium-20260505-0
summary:
Science & Religion: A Symposium (1931) is a book first published in 1931, consisting of a lightly edited transcription of twelve talks broadcast on the BBC between September and December 1930. In contrast to the 1920s conflicts between science and religion in the U.S. (e.g., the Scopes trial), 1920s Great Britain experienced a concerted effort at reconciliation. These efforts bore some fruit in the early 1930s such as in BBC radio broadcasts (e.g., this text), but ultimately these efforts broke down due in part to rejection from both 1930s conservative Christians and arch secularists (e.g., H.G. Wells). The book contains a foreword by Mihajlo Pupin and twelve talks by Julian Huxley, J. Arthur Thomson, J.S. Haldane, E.W. Barnes, B. Malinowski, H. R. L. Sheppard, B. H. Streeter, C.W. O'Hara, Arthur S. Eddington, S. Alexander, W.R. Inge, and L.P. Jacks. == See also == Relationship between religion and science == References ==


id: science-reason-and-faith-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_Reason_and_Faith_Group-0.md
category: reference
title: Science, Reason and Faith Group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_Reason_and_Faith_Group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:04.444423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-reason-and-faith-group-20260505-0
summary:
The group Science, Reason and Faith (CRYF, standing for Ciencia, Razón y Fe in Spanish) is formed by teachers at the University of Navarra. Its purpose is to promote the interdisciplinary study of issues related to science, philosophy and religion. The activities of the group cover three closely related areas: research, teaching and public engagement. == History of the group == The beginning of the CRYF group dates back to the informal conversations that, at the end of the 20th century, professors Mariano Artigas († 2006) and Carlos Pérez († 2005) maintained about interdisciplinary questions and public debates concerning the relationship between science and faith. In 2002, circumstances were favorable for the creation of the group. Its founding members were professors Mariano Artigas, Juan Luis Lorda, Antonio Pardo, Carlos Perez, Francisco Gallardo and Santiago Collado. Since its inception, in addition to other teachers from the University of Navarra, the group has incorporated prestigious intellectuals and experts on the topics of interest as collaborating members: Evandro Agazzi, William Shea, Juan Arana and Tito Arecchi are some of the present collaborators. Professor Artigas was appointed the first director of the group, a position he held until his death. The contribution of his


id: a-scientific-support-for-darwinism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Scientific_Support_for_Darwinism-0.md
category: reference
title: A Scientific Support for Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Scientific_Support_for_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:05.749970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-scientific-support-for-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
A Scientific Support for Darwinism (And For Public Schools Not To Teach "Intelligent Design" As Science) was a four-day, word-of-mouth petition of scientists in support of evolution. Inspired by Project Steve, it was initiated in 2005 by archaeologist R. Joe Brandon to produce a public response to the Discovery Institute's 2001 petition A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism. The Discovery Institute's petition was publicized in 2005 by media coverage of the Discovery Institute's efforts to introduce intelligent design in science classrooms and the opposition to those efforts in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District case. Brandon noticed that only about 80 of those appearing on the Dissent petition had expertise in an area relevant to evolution. Therefore, Brandon decided to create a petition of his own of scientists supporting evolution. The petition was hosted at ShovelBums.org, but has since been removed from the site. A total of 7,733 scientists signed a statement affirming their support for evolution over a four-day period. == Statement == The statement was entitled A Scientific Support for Darwinism And For Public Schools Not To Teach "Intelligent Design" As Science, and read: This petition is in response to the Discovery Institute's petition "A Scientific Dissent From


id: scientism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:06.982041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
Scientism is the belief that science and the scientific method are the best or only way to render truth about the world and reality. While the term was defined originally to mean "methods and attitudes typical of or attributed to natural scientists", some scholars, as well as political and religious leaders, have also adopted it as a pejorative term with the meaning "an exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the methods of natural science applied to all areas of investigation (as in philosophy, the social sciences, and the humanities)". == Overview == Francis Bacon has been viewed by some scholars as an early proponent of scientism, but this is a modern assertion as Bacon was a devout Anglican, writing in his Essays, "a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion." With respect to the philosophy of science, the term scientism frequently implies a critique of the more extreme expressions of logical positivism and has been used by social scientists such as Friedrich Hayek, philosophers of science such as Karl Popper, and philosophers such as Mary Midgley, the later Hilary Putnam, and Tzvetan Todorov to describe (for example) the dogmatic endorsement


id: scientism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:06.982041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
It is used to criticize a totalizing opinion of science as if it were capable of describing all reality and knowledge, or as if it were the only true method to acquire knowledge about reality and the nature of things; It is used, often pejoratively, to denote violations by which the theories and methods of one (scientific) discipline are applied inappropriately to another (scientific or non-scientific) discipline and its domain. An example of this second usage is to term as scientism any attempt to claim science as the only or primary source of human values (a traditional domain of ethics) or as the source of meaning and purpose (a traditional domain of religion and related worldviews). The term scientism was popularized by F. A. Hayek, who defined it in 1942 as the "slavish imitation of the method and language of Science". Mathematician Alexander Grothendieck, in his 1971 essay "The New Universal Church", characterized scientism as a religion-like ideology that advocates scientific reductionism, scientific authoritarianism, political technocracy and technological salvation, while denying the epistemological validity of feelings and experiences such as love, emotion, beauty and fulfillment. He predicted that "in coming years, the chief political dividing line will fall less and


id: scientism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:06.982041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
== Relevance to debates about science and religion == Both religious and non-religious scholars have applied the term scientism to individuals associated with New Atheism. Theologian John Haught argued that philosopher Daniel Dennett and other New Atheists subscribe to a belief system of scientific naturalism, which includes the dogma that "only nature, including humans and our creations, is real: that God does not exist; and that science alone can give us complete and reliable knowledge of reality." Haught argued that this belief system is self-refuting since it requires its adherents to assent to beliefs that violate its own stated requirements for knowledge. Christian philosopher Peter Williams argued in 2013 that it is only by conflating science with scientism that New Atheists feel qualified to "pontificate on metaphysical issues". Daniel Dennett responded to religious criticism of his 2006 book Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon by saying that accusations of scientism "[are] an all-purpose, wild-card smear ... When someone puts forward a scientific theory that [religious critics] really don't like, they just try to discredit it as 'scientism'. But when it comes to facts, and explanations of facts, science is the only game in town". Non-religious scholars have also


id: scientism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:06.982041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
Thomas M. Lessl argued that religious themes persist in what he terms scientism, the public rhetoric of science. There are two methods of describing this idea of scientism: the epistemological method (the assumption that the scientific method trumps other ways of knowing) and the ontological method (that the rational mind represents the world and both operate in knowable ways). According to Lessl, the ontological method is an attempt to "resolve the conflict between rationalism and skepticism". Lessl also argued that without scientism, there would not be a scientific culture. == Rationalization and modernity == In the introduction to his collected works on the sociology of religion, Max Weber asked why "the scientific, the artistic, the political, or the economic development [elsewhere] ... did not enter upon that path of rationalization which is peculiar to the Occident?" According to the German social theorist Jürgen Habermas, "For Weber, the intrinsic (that is, not merely contingent) relationship between modernity and what he called 'Occidental rationalism' was still self-evident." Weber described a process of rationalisation, disenchantment and the "disintegration of religious world views" that resulted in modern secular societies and capitalism. "Modernization" was introduced as a technical term only in the 1950s. It is


id: scriptural-geologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptural_geologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Scriptural geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptural_geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:08.275358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scriptural-geologist-20260505-0
summary:
Scriptural geologists (or Mosaic geologists) were a heterogeneous group of writers in the early nineteenth century, who claimed "the primacy of literalistic biblical exegesis" and a short Young Earth time-scale. Their views were marginalised and ignored by the scientific community of their time. They "had much the same relationship to 'philosophical' (or scientific) geologists as their indirect descendants, the twentieth-century creationists." Paul Wood describes them as "mostly Anglican evangelicals" with "no institutional focus and little sense of commonality". They generally lacked any background in geology, and had little influence even in church circles. == Background == === Reason for appearance === Up until the end of the 18th century Classical British scholarship was theologically based, using the Bible as a basic source for world history and chronology. Early work in the developing science of geology sought "theories of the Earth" combining mechanical physical laws in the natural philosophy of René Descartes with belief in the global flood as described in Genesis 6-8. The flood narrative in Genesis was given serious consideration as a basis for explaining geological data, and though by 1800 naturalists accepted an old-earth cosmology, this was not an inevitable conclusion among the educated. Amateur and popular geologists


id: scriptural-geologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptural_geologist-1.md
category: reference
title: Scriptural geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptural_geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:08.275358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scriptural-geologist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geological competence === Professor of intellectual history David N. Livingstone states that scriptural geologists "were not, as it turns out, geologists at all", concluding that "while it may be proper to speak of Scriptural Geology, it is not really accurate to speak of Scriptural Geologists." L. Piccardi and W. Bruce Masse state that "[a]part from George Young, none of these scriptural geologists had any geological competence". David Clifford states that they were "not themselves geologists" but rather "keen but biased amateurs" and that one of them, James Mellor Brown, "felt that no scientific expertise was required when examining scientific matters." Taking a more positive view, Milton Millhauser states that the leaders of the party were "by no means ignorant of the science [they] assailed." O'Connor argues that terminology in the 21st century is a stumbling-block to modern analysis of geologic competence of the scriptural geologists because science today is understood in the language of Lyell and Charles Darwin rather than that of Penn and Fairholme. Scriptural geologists saw themselves as 'geologists' (in the early 19th-century understanding of the term) and valued geologic fieldwork. For the educated of the early 19th century the Bible was itself valuable evidence. Evidence does


id: scriptural-geologist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptural_geologist-2.md
category: reference
title: Scriptural geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptural_geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:08.275358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scriptural-geologist-20260505-0
summary:
Andrew Ure Andrew Ure, M.A. in 1799, M.D. in 1801 in Glasgow, was a scientist and physician. He served briefly as an army surgeon then in 1803 became a member of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons in Glasgow as Professor of Natural Philosophy (specializing in chemistry and physics) at the Andersonian Institution (now the University of Strathclyde). He was probably the first consulting chemist in Britain and highly esteemed by contemporary scientists. He wrote A Dictionary of Chemistry (1821), Elements of the Art of Dyeing (1824), and A New System of Geology (1829). The leading University of Cambridge geologist Adam Sedgwick, a Church of England clergyman, condemned A New System of Geology pulling "it to pieces without mercy" and calling it a "monument of folly". Gillispie chastised Andrew Ure as of the "men of the lunatic fringe" who produced clerical "fulminations against science in general and all its works". Ure was not a cleric. George Fairholme George Fairholme was a wealthy banker and landowner, self-taught naturalist. He was not opposed to studying geology; rather, he did battle with the new theories which were, in his view, inconsistent with Scripture and scientific facts. Genesis did not teach science or geology,


id: scriptural-geologist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptural_geologist-3.md
category: reference
title: Scriptural geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptural_geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:08.275358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scriptural-geologist-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Books Brooke, John Hedley; Cantor, G. N. (2000). Reconstructing nature: the engagement of science and religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513706-X. Clark, John (1970). The Life and Letters of the Reverend Adam Sedgwick. Westmead: Gregg International Publishers. p. 362. ISBN 0-576-29117-X. Clifford, David (2006). Repositioning Victorian Sciences: Shifting Centres in Nineteenth-Century Thinking. City: Anthem Press. ISBN 1-84331-212-3. Cole, Henry (1834). Popular Geology Subversive of Divine Revelation. pp. 52, 113. Gillispie, C. C. (1996). Genesis and Geology. London: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-34481-2. Khun, Thomas S. (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. p. 76. Livingstone, David; Hart, Darryl G.; Noll, Mark A. (1999). Evangelicals and Science in Historical Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511557-0. McCalla, A. (2006). The creationist debate: the encounter between the Bible and the historical mind. T & T Clark International. p. 65. ISBN 0-8264-6447-5. Piccardi, L.; Masse, W. Bruce (2007). Myth and Geology. London: Geological Society. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-86239-216-8. Rudwick, Martin J. S. (1988). The Great Devonian Controversy. Springer. pp. 42–44. ISBN 0-226-73102-2. Rupke, Nicolaas (1983). The Great Chain of History. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 42–50. ISBN 0-19-822907-0. Young, Davis A. (1995). The Biblical Flood: a case study of the Church's response to


id: stars-proposed-in-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stars_proposed_in_religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Stars proposed in religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stars_proposed_in_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:09.519319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stars-proposed-in-religion-20260505-0
summary:
Stars proposed in religion may include: Kolob, a star proposed in Mormon cosmology The Star of Bethlehem, the star that supposedly marked the birth of Christ Wormwood (Bible), a star said to fall to Earth in the Book of Revelation Seven Suns, prophesied to appear before the destruction of the earth in Buddhist cosmology == See also == Central Fire, a fiery celestial body hypothesized by the pre-Socratic philosopher Philolaus to be positioned at the center of the universe, around which all other celestial objects revolve Religious cosmology, a way of explaining the origin, the history and the evolution of the cosmos or universe based on the religious mythology of a specific tradition


id: the-story-of-god-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_God-0.md
category: reference
title: The Story of God
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_God
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:10.921624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-story-of-god-20260505-0
summary:
The Story of God is a three-part documentary series produced by Dangerous Films and presented by Robert Winston. It first aired on 4, 11, and 18 December 2005 on BBC One and was rebroadcast by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in May and June 2006 and by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in April 2007. The Story of God explores the origins of religion, focusing on the three Abrahamic faiths, and discusses belief in God in a scientific age. The series included a number of interviews with scientists, including Dean Hamer, Richard Dawkins, and members of the CERN programme. During the documentary, Winston debates notable creationist Ken Ham, visiting the creation museum where, he states, "scientific facts are ignored in favour of religious certainty". He presents his view that science and religion have an important role in human development, but that absolute certainty in either "can lead to serious problems". Winston also wrote a book titled The Story of God, which was published in 2005. == Episodes == "Life, the Universe and Everything" The first episode focusses on the origins of ancient animistic beliefs and the eastern religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism. "No god but God" The second episode focusses on


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-0.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, S.J. (French: [pjɛʁ tɛjaʁ də ʃaʁdɛ̃] ; 1 May 1881 – 10 April 1955) was a French Jesuit priest, scientist, paleontologist, philosopher, mystic, and teacher. Teilhard de Chardin investigated the theory of evolution from a perspective influenced by Henri Bergson and Christian mysticism, writing multiple scientific and religious works on the subject. His mainstream scientific achievements include his paleontological research in China, taking part in the discovery of the significant Peking Man fossils from the Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing. His more speculative ideas, sometimes criticized as pseudoscientific, have included a vitalist conception of the Omega Point. Along with Vladimir Vernadsky, he contributed to the development of the concept of the noosphere. In 1962, the Holy Office issued a warning regarding Teilhard's works, alleging ambiguities and doctrinal errors without specifying them. Some eminent Catholic figures, including Pope Benedict XVI and Pope Francis, have made positive comments on some of his ideas since. The response to his writings by scientists has been divided. Teilhard served in World War I as a stretcher-bearer. He received several citations, and was awarded the Médaille militaire and the Legion of Honor, the highest French order of merit, both military and civil.


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-1.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geology === His father's strong interest in natural science and geology instilled the same in Teilhard from an early age, and would continue throughout his lifetime. As a child, Teilhard was intensely interested in the stones and rocks on his family's land and the neighboring regions. His father helped him develop his skills of observation. At the University of Paris, he studied geology, botany and zoology. After the French government banned all religious orders from France and the Jesuits were exiled to the island of Jersey in the UK, Teilhard deepened his geology knowledge by studying the rocks and landscape of the island. In 1920, he became a lecturer in geology at the Catholic University of Paris, and later a professor. He earned his doctorate in 1922. In 1923 he was hired to do geological research on expeditions in China by the Jesuit scientist and priest Emile Licent. In 1914, Licent with the sponsorship of the Jesuits founded one of the first museums in China and the first museum of natural science: the Musée Hoangho Paiho. In its first eight years, the museum was housed in the Chongde Hall of the Jesuits. In 1922, with the support of the


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-2.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientific writings === During his career, Teilhard published many dozens of scientific papers in scholarly scientific journals. When they were published in collections as books, they took up 11 volumes. John Allen Grim, president of the American Teilhard Association and the co-founder and co-director of the Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology, said: "I think you have to distinguish between the hundreds of papers that Teilhard wrote in a purely scientific vein, about which there is no controversy. In fact, the papers made him one of the top two or three geologists of the Asian continent. So this man knew what science was. What he's doing in The Phenomenon and most of the popular essays that have made him controversial is working pretty much alone to try to synthesize what he's learned about through scientific discovery - more than with scientific method - what scientific discoveries tell us about the nature of ultimate reality.” Grim said those writing were controversial to some scientists because Teilhard combined theology and metaphysics with science, and controversial to some religious leaders for the same reason. === Service in World War I === Mobilized in December 1914, Teilhard served in World War I as


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-3.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
He joined the ongoing excavations of the Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian as an advisor in 1926 and continued in the role for the Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the China Geological Survey following its founding in 1928. Teilhard resided in Manchuria with Émile Licent, staying in western Shanxi and northern Shaanxi with the Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian and with Davidson Black, Chairman of the China Geological Survey. After a tour in Manchuria in the area of Greater Khingan with Chinese geologists, Teilhard joined the team of American Expedition Center-Asia in the Gobi Desert, organized in June and July by the American Museum of Natural History with Roy Chapman Andrews. Henri Breuil and Teilhard discovered that the Peking Man, the nearest relative of Anthropopithecus from Java, was a faber (worker of stones and controller of fire). Teilhard wrote L'Esprit de la Terre (The Spirit of the Earth). Teilhard took part as a scientist in the Croisière Jaune (Yellow Cruise) financed by André Citroën in Central Asia. Northwest of Beijing in Kalgan, he joined the Chinese group who joined the second part of the team, the Pamir group, in Aksu City. He remained with his colleagues for several months in Ürümqi, capital


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-4.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
From 1927 to 1928, Teilhard was based in Paris. He journeyed to Leuven, Belgium, and to Cantal and Ariège, France. Between several articles in reviews, he met new people such as Paul Valéry and Bruno de Solages, who were to help him in issues with the Catholic Church. Answering an invitation from Henry de Monfreid, Teilhard undertook a journey of two months in Obock, in Harar in the Ethiopian Empire, and in Somalia with his colleague Pierre Lamarre, a geologist, before embarking in Djibouti to return to Tianjin. While in China, Teilhard developed a deep and personal friendship with Lucile Swan. During 1930–1931, Teilhard stayed in France and in the United States. During a conference in Paris, Teilhard stated: "For the observers of the Future, the greatest event will be the sudden appearance of a collective humane conscience and a human work to make." From 1932 to 1933, he began to meet people to clarify issues with the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith regarding Le Milieu divin and L'Esprit de la Terre. He met Helmut de Terra, a German geologist in the International Geology Congress in Washington, D.C. Teilhard participated in the 1935 Yale–Cambridge expedition in northern and


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-5.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
Teilhard de Chardin wrote two comprehensive works, The Phenomenon of Man and The Divine Milieu. His posthumously published book, The Phenomenon of Man, set forth a sweeping account of the unfolding of the cosmos and the evolution of matter to humanity, to ultimately a reunion with Christ. In the book, Teilhard abandoned literal interpretations of creation in the Book of Genesis in favor of allegorical and theological interpretations. The unfolding of the material cosmos is described from primordial particles to the development of life, human beings and the noosphere, and finally to his vision of the Omega Point in the future, which is "pulling" all creation towards it. He was a leading proponent of orthogenesis, the idea that evolution occurs in a directional, goal-driven way. Teilhard argued in Darwinian terms with respect to biology, and supported the synthetic model of evolution, but argued in Lamarckian terms for the development of culture, primarily through the vehicle of education. Teilhard made a total commitment to the evolutionary process in the 1920s as the core of his spirituality, at a time when other religious thinkers felt evolutionary thinking challenged the structure of conventional Christian faith. He committed himself to what he thought the


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-6.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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== Relationship with the Catholic Church == In 1925, Teilhard was ordered by the Superior General of the Society of Jesus, Włodzimierz Ledóchowski, to leave his teaching position in France and to sign a statement withdrawing his controversial statements regarding the doctrine of original sin. Rather than quit the Society of Jesus, Teilhard obeyed and departed for China. This was the first of a series of condemnations by a range of ecclesiastical officials that would continue until after Teilhard's death. In August 1939, he was told by his Jesuit superior in Beijing, "Father, as an evolutionist and a Communist, you are undesirable here, and will have to return to France as soon as possible". The climax of these condemnations was a 1962 monitum (warning) of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith cautioning on Teilhard's works. It said: Several works of Fr. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, some of which were posthumously published, are being edited and are gaining a good deal of success. Prescinding from a judgement about those points that concern the positive sciences, it is sufficiently clear that the above-mentioned works abound in such ambiguities and indeed even serious errors, as to offend Catholic doctrine. For this


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-7.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
Hardly anyone else has tried to bring together the knowledge of Christ and the idea of evolution as the scientist (paleontologist) and theologian Fr. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, S.J., has done. ... His fascinating vision ... has represented a great hope, the hope that faith in Christ and a scientific approach to the world can be brought together. ... These brief references to Teilhard cannot do justice to his efforts. The fascination which Teilhard de Chardin exercised for an entire generation stemmed from his radical manner of looking at science and Christian faith together. In July 2009, Vatican spokesman Federico Lombardi said, "By now, no one would dream of saying that [Teilhard] is a heterodox author who shouldn't be studied." Pope Francis refers to Teilhard's eschatological contribution in his encyclical Laudato si'. The philosopher Dietrich von Hildebrand criticized severely the work of Teilhard. According to Hildebrand, in a conversation after a lecture by Teilhard: "He (Teilhard) ignored completely the decisive difference between nature and supernature. After a lively discussion in which I ventured a criticism of his ideas, I had an opportunity to speak to Teilhard privately. When our talk touched on St. Augustine, he exclaimed violently: 'Don't mention that


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-8.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
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=== Stephen Jay Gould === In an essay published in the magazine Natural History (and later compiled as the 16th essay in his book Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes), American biologist Stephen Jay Gould made a case for Teilhard's guilt in the Piltdown Hoax, arguing that Teilhard has made several compromising slips of the tongue in his correspondence with paleontologist Kenneth Oakley, in addition to what Gould termed to be his "suspicious silence" about Piltdown despite having been, at that moment in time, an important milestone in his career. In a later book, Gould claims that Steven Rose wrote that "Teilhard is revered as a mystic of genius by some, but among most biologists is seen as little more than a charlatan." Numerous scientists and Teilhard experts have refuted Gould’s theories about Teilhard’s guilt in the hoax, saying they are based on inaccuracies. In an article in New Scientist in September, 1981, Peter Costello said claims that Teilhard had been silent were factually wrong: “Much else of what is said about Teilhard is also wrong. …. After the exposure of the hoax, he did not refuse to make a statement; he gave a statement to the press on 26 November


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-9.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
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=== Peter Medawar === In 1961, British immunologist and Nobel laureate Peter Medawar wrote a scornful review of The Phenomenon of Man for the journal Mind: "the greater part of it [...] is nonsense, tricked out with a variety of metaphysical conceits, and its author can be excused of dishonesty only on the grounds that before deceiving others he has taken great pains to deceive himself. [...] Teilhard practiced an intellectually unexacting kind of science [...]. He has no grasp of what makes a logical argument or what makes for proof. He does not even preserve the common decencies of scientific writing, though his book is professedly a scientific treatise. [...] Teilhard habitually and systematically cheats with words [...], uses in metaphor words like energy, tension, force, impetus, and dimension as if they retained the weight and thrust of their special scientific usages. [...] It is the style that creates the illusion of content." In 2014, Donald Wayne Viney evaluated Medawar's review and concluded that the case made against Teilhard was "remarkably thin, marred by misrepresentations and elementary philosophical blunders." These defects, Viney noted, were uncharacteristic of Medawar's other work. In another response, John Allen Grim said when Teilhard "wrote


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-10.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
==== Theology ==== Smith believes that since Teilhard affirms that "God creates evolutively", he denies the Book of Genesis, not only because it attests that God created man, but that he created him in his own image, thus perfect and complete, then that man fell, that is to say the opposite of an ascending evolution. That which is metaphysically and theologically "above" - symbolically speaking - becomes for Teilhard "ahead", yet to come; even God, who is neither perfect nor timeless, evolves in symbiosis with the World, which Teilhard, a resolute pantheist, venerates as the equal of the Divine. As for Christ, not only is he there to activate the wheels of progress and complete the evolutionary ascent, but he himself evolves.. ==== New religion ==== As he wrote to a cousin: "What dominates my interests increasingly is the effort to establish in me and define around me a new religion (call it a better Christianity, if you will)...", and elsewhere: "a Christianity re-incarnated for a second time in the spiritual energies of Matter". The more Teilhard refines his theories, the more he emancipates himself from established Christian doctrine: a "religion of the earth" must replace a "religion of heaven".


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-11.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
A building at the University of Manchester, residence dormitories at Gonzaga University, residence dormitories at Seattle University. The De Chardin Project, a play celebrating Teilhard's life, ran from 20 November to 14 December 2014 in Toronto, Canada. The Evolution of Teilhard de Chardin, a documentary film on Teilhard's life, was scheduled for release in 2015. Founded in 1978, George Addair based much of Omega Vector on Teilhard's work. The American physicist Frank J. Tipler has further developed Teilhard's Omega Point concept in two controversial books, The Physics of Immortality and the more theologically based Physics of Christianity. While keeping the central premise of Teilhard's Omega Point (i.e. a universe evolving towards a maximum state of complexity and consciousness) Tipler has supplanted some of the more mystical/ theological elements of the OPT with his own scientific and mathematical observations (as well as some elements borrowed from Freeman Dyson's eternal intelligence theory). In 1972, the Uruguayan priest Juan Luis Segundo, in his five-volume series A Theology for Artisans of a New Humanity, wrote that Teilhard "noticed the profound analogies existing between the conceptual elements used by the natural sciences—all of them being based on the hypothesis of a general evolution of the


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-12.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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=== Alleged support of eugenics and racism === Teilhard has been criticized by the theologian John P. Slattery for allegedly incorporating elements of scientific racism, social Darwinism, and eugenics into his work. He argued in 1929 that racial inequality was rooted in biological difference: "Do the yellows—[the Chinese]—have the same human value as the whites? [Fr.] Licent and many missionaries say that their present inferiority is due to their long history of Paganism. I'm afraid that this is only a 'declaration of pastors.' Instead, the cause seems to be the natural racial foundation…" In a letter from 1936 explaining his Omega Point conception, he rejected both the Fascist quest for particularistic hegemony and the Christian/Communist insistence on egalitarianism: "As not all ethnic groups have the same value, they must be dominated, which does not mean they must be despised—quite the reverse … In other words, at one and the same time there should be official recognition of: (1) the primacy/priority of the earth over nations; (2) the inequality of peoples and races. Now the second point is currently reviled by Communism … and the Church, and the first point is similarly reviled by the Fascist systems (and, of course, by


id: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin-13.md
category: reference
title: Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:12.127004+00:00
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parent: pierre-teilhard-de-chardin-20260505-0
summary:
Le Phénomène Humain (1955), written 1938–40, scientific exposition of Teilhard's theory of evolution. The Phenomenon of Man (1959), Harper Perennial 1976: ISBN 978-0-06-090495-1. Reprint 2008: ISBN 978-0-06-163265-5. The Human Phenomenon (1999), Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2003: ISBN 978-1-902210-30-8. Letters From a Traveler (1956; English translation 1962), written 1923–55. Le Groupe Zoologique Humain (1956), written 1949, more detailed presentation of Teilhard's theories. Man's Place in Nature (English translation 1966). Le Milieu Divin (1957), spiritual book written 1926–27, in which the author seeks to offer a way for everyday life, i.e. the secular, to be divinized. The Divine Milieu (1960) Harper Perennial 2001: ISBN 978-0-06-093725-6. L'Avenir de l'Homme (1959) essays written 1920–52, on the evolution of consciousness (noosphere). The Future of Man (1964) Image 2004: ISBN 978-0-385-51072-1. Hymn of the Universe (1961; English translation 1965) Harper and Row: ISBN 978-0-06-131910-5, mystical/spiritual essays and thoughts written 1916–55. L'Energie Humaine (1962), essays written 1931–39, on morality and love. Human Energy (1969) Harcort Brace Jovanovich ISBN 978-0-15-642300-7. L'Activation de l'Energie (1963), sequel to Human Energy, essays written 1939–55 but not planned for publication, about the universality and irreversibility of human action. Activation of Energy (1970), Harvest/HBJ 2002: ISBN 978-0-15-602817-2. Je M'Explique (1966) Jean-Pierre Demoulin, editor ISBN


id: theistic-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Theistic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:13.307812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theistic-science-20260505-0
summary:
Theistic science, also referred to as theistic realism, is the proposal that the central scientific method of requiring testability, known as methodological naturalism, should be replaced by a philosophy of science that allows occasional supernatural explanations which are inherently untestable. Proponents propose supernatural explanations for topics raised by their theology, in particular evolution. Supporters of theistic realism or theistic science include intelligent design creationism proponents J. P. Moreland, Stephen C. Meyer and Phillip E. Johnson. Instead of the relationship between religion and science being a dialogue, theistic science seeks to allow exceptions to the basic methods of science, and present miraculous interventions as a scientific explanation when a natural explanation has not been found. As Notre Dame theologian Alvin Plantinga acknowledges, this is a "science stopper", and these concepts lack any mainstream credence. == Johnson == In 1987 the United States Supreme Court ruled in Edwards v. Aguillard that a Louisiana law requiring that creation science be taught in public school science classes, along with evolution, was unconstitutional because the law was specifically intended to advance a particular religion. Academic UC Berkeley law professor Phillip E. Johnson, a prominent supporter of the law, became convinced that creationists had lost the


id: theistic-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Theistic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:13.307812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theistic-science-20260505-0
summary:
'Unnatural Science', 'Creation Science,' 'Theistic Science' — call it what you will: what we need when we want to know how to think about the origin and development of contemporary life is what is most plausible from a Christian point of view. What we need is a scientific account of life that isn't restricted by that methodological naturalism. He suggests that generally God uses secondary causes, but miracles may be needed when theistic scientists are unable to find a materialistic explanation. In 1997 he wrote "Why couldn't a scientist think as follows? God has created the world, and of course He created everything in it directly or indirectly. After a great deal of study, we can't see how he created some phenomenon P (life, for example) indirectly; thus probably he has created it directly." Plantinga also refers to this concept as Augustinian science, and states that "in doing Augustinian science, you start by assuming the deliverances of the faith, employing them along with anything else you know in dealing with a given scientific problem or project." Plantinga argues for the acceptance of differing worldview-partisan sciences in place of a single common science. Plantinga employs a conflict thesis in assessing the


id: theology-today-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology_Today-0.md
category: reference
title: Theology Today
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology_Today
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:19.268614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theology-today-20260505-0
summary:
Theology Today is an academic journal published by SAGE Publications for the Princeton Theological Seminary; it was formerly published by Westminster John Knox. It appears four times a year. The first issue of Theology Today appeared in April, 1944. The lead editorial, "Our Aims," by founder and editor John A. Mackay, President of Princeton Theological Seminary, set forth the aims of the journal as adopted by its Editorial Council. These were: "To contribute to the restoration of theology in the world of today as the supreme science, of which both religion and culture stand in need for their renewal." "To study the central realities of Christian faith and life, and to set forth their meaning in clear and appropriate language." "To explore afresh the truths which were rediscovered by the Protestant Reformation, especially the tradition usually called Reformed, and to show their relevancy to the contemporary problems of the Church and society." "To provide an organ in which Christians whose faith is rooted in the revelation of God in the Bible and in Jesus Christ, and who are engaged in different spheres of intellectual activity, may combine their insights into the life of man in the light of God, with


id: theophysics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophysics-0.md
category: reference
title: Theophysics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophysics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:20.435944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theophysics-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy, theophysics is an approach to cosmology that attempts to reconcile physical cosmology and religious cosmology. It is related to physicotheology, the difference between them being that the aim of physicotheology is to derive theology from physics, whereas that of theophysics is to unify physics and theology. == Usage == Paul Richard Blum (2002) uses the term in a critique of physicotheology, i.e. the view that arguments for the existence of God can be derived from the existence of the physical world (e.g. the "argument from design"). Theophysics would be the opposite approach, i.e. an approach to the material world informed by the knowledge that it is created by God. Richard H. Popkin (1990) applies the term to the "spiritual physics" of Cambridge Platonist Henry More and his pupil and collaborator Lady Anne Conway, who enthusiastically accepted the new science, but rejected the various forms of materialist mechanism proposed by Descartes, Hobbes and Spinoza to buttress it, as these, More and Conway argued, were incapable of explaining productive causality. Instead, More and Conway offered what Popkin calls "a genuine important alternative to modern mechanistic thought", "a thoroughly scientific view with a metaphysics of spirits to make everything operate". Materialist


id: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests-0.md
category: reference
title: Thirty Meter Telescope protests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00
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parent: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-0
summary:
The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) protests were a series of protests and demonstrations that began on the Island of Hawaii over the choosing of Mauna Kea for the site location of the Thirty Meter Telescope. Mauna Kea is the most sacred dormant volcano of Native Hawaiian religion and culture, and in Kānaka Maoli (Native Hawaiian) tradition is home to the sky god Wākea and other gods. Protests began locally within the state of Hawaii on October 7, 2014 but went global within weeks of the April 2, 2015 arrest of 31 people who had blockaded the roadway to keep construction crews off the summit. Thousands later joined when attempts were made to restart construction. The TMT, a $1.4 billion ground-based, large segmented mirror reflecting telescope grew from astronomers' prioritization in 2000 of a thirty-meter telescope to be built within the decade. Mauna Kea was announced as TMT's preferred site in 2009. Opposition to the project began shortly after the announcement of Mauna Kea as the chosen site out of 5 proposals. While opposition against the observatories on Mauna Kea has been ongoing since the first telescope, built by the University of Hawaii, this protest may be the most vocal. The


id: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests-1.md
category: reference
title: Thirty Meter Telescope protests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00
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parent: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-0
summary:
=== Observatory opposition === Although polls, some of them highly criticized, indicate that a majority of Hawaii residents support the Thirty Meter Telescope, opposition to the project and other observatories has existed since 1964. In Honolulu, the governor and legislature, enthusiastic about the development, set aside an even larger area for the observatory causing opposition in the city of Hilo. Native Hawaiian cultural practitioners kānaka ʻōiwi believed the entire site was sacred and that developing the mountain, even for science, would spoil the area. Environmentalists were concerned about rare native bird populations, and other citizens of Hilo were concerned about the sight of the domes from the city. Using town hall meetings, Jefferies emphasized the economic advantage and prestige the island would receive. Over the years, the opposition to the observatories may have become the most visible example of the conflict science has encountered over access and use of environmental and culturally significant sites. Opposition to development grew shortly after expansion of the observatories commenced. Once access was opened up by the roadway to the summit, skiers began using it for recreation and objected when the road was closed as a precaution against vandalism when the telescopes were being built.


id: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests-2.md
category: reference
title: Thirty Meter Telescope protests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-0
summary:
=== Roadway blockade and ground breaking interruption === On October 7, 2014 the groundbreaking for the telescope was being live streamed via webcam. The proceedings were interrupted when the official caravan encountered several dozen demonstrators picketing and chanting in the middle of the roadway. A planned ceremony at the base of the mountain was scheduled by the group, Mauna Kea Anaina Hou, in opposition of the telescope and in a press release dated that day, the organization Sacred Mauna Kea stated: "Native Hawaiians and non-Hawaiians will gather for a peaceful protest against the Astronomy industry and the State of Hawaii’s ground-breaking ceremony for a thirty-meter telescope (TMT) on the summit of Mauna Kea." Several members traveled up the mountain and were stopped by police, where they laid down in the road and blocked the caravan. The nonviolent protest did not stop or block any people but when the ceremony for the ground breaking began, protesters interrupted the blessing, stopping the proceedings as well as the groundbreaking. That same day in California, protesters demonstrated outside the headquarters of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation in Palo Alto, CA. === Second Mauna Kea blockade and arrests, 2015 === Beginning in late March


id: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests-3.md
category: reference
title: Thirty Meter Telescope protests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00
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parent: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2019 demonstrations === On July 14, 2019, an online petition titled "The Immediate Halt to the Construction of the TMT Telescope" was posted on Change.org. The online petition has currently gathered over 278,057 signatures worldwide. On 15 July, protestors blocked the access road to the mountain preventing the planned construction from commencing. On July 16, thirteen astronomical facilities on the mountain stopped activities and evacuated their personnel. On July 17, 33 protestors were arrested, all of whom were kūpuna, or elders, as the blockage of the access road continued. The days actions were described in a court declaration filed in connection to a Mauna Kea access case by Hawaii County Police, which claims that there was a "significant risk" that certain protesters would "respond with violence" if officers forcefully separated protesters blocking the road. A Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation legal observer there that day claims that the report over embellished the belief that there was a threat. A poetic short film, This is the Way We Rise by Ciara Lacy, presents the protests in a representation centered on Jamaica Heolimeleikalani Osorio. The film was screened at the 2021 Sundance Film Festival. More than 1,000 people marched in Waikiki and


id: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests-4.md
category: reference
title: Thirty Meter Telescope protests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00
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parent: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-0
summary:
==== Puʻuhuluhulu University ==== On Maunakea at Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu exists Puʻuhuluhulu University. A key component in the movement to prevent the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope on Maunakea is the creation of access to education rooted in Hawaiian history and Hawaiian culture. "Presley Keʻalaanuhea Ah Mook Sang, a Hawaiian language instructor at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, said she first came up with the idea to start a community-led school or 'teach-in' after witnessing the crowd swell in that first week from hundreds of protesters to thousands". The grassroots establishment of Puʻuhuluhulu University at Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu has created a platform for the lāhui (Hawaiian Nation) and facilitators of the University to co-create a reciprocal and place-based style approach to learning that is accessible to people of all ages and backgrounds. Puʻuhuluhulu University provides free classes to anyone who visits Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu. The course offerings range from Introduction to Hawaiian Language, Hawaiian Law, the history of Hawaiʻi, and tours of Puʻuhuluhulu. The common goal across the wide variety of courses is the intent to uplift the community with ʻike Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian knowledge) through their teachings. Classes at Puʻuhuluhulu University are taught by kiaʻi (protectors) of Maunakea,


id: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests-5.md
category: reference
title: Thirty Meter Telescope protests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thirty-meter-telescope-protests-20260505-0
summary:
=== Against protesters === In 2015 University of California astronomers sent out a mass email urging other astronomers to support the TMT through a petition written by a native Hawaiian science student. Concern was raised over the content of the email, with the wording of "a horde of native Hawaiians" to describe the protesters considered to be problematic and potentially racist. Hawaii based businesses that support the telescope were named in a boycott that was popularized on social media. Businesses included were KTA Super Stores and HPM Building Supply. === Support for protesters === Scientists have taken to Twitter and other social media platforms to voice their support publicly for the protest using #ScientistsforMaunaKea, in which they highlight their field and why they feel that the TMT is not needed on the mountain. An open letter was also published and signed by nearly 1,000 members of the scientific community that takes no position on the siting of TMT on Maunakea, but denounces "the criminalization of the protectors on Maunakea". In an online petition, a group of Canadian academics, scientists, and students have called on Prime Minister Justin Trudeau together with Industry Minister Navdeep Bains and Science Minister Kirsty Duncan to


id: whig-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Whig history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:24.184729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whig-history-20260505-0
summary:
Whig history (or Whig historiography) is an approach to historiography that presents history as a journey from an oppressive and benighted past to a "glorious present". The present described is generally one with modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy: it was originally a term for the metanarratives praising Britain's adoption of constitutional monarchy and the historical development of the Westminster system. The term has also been applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (e.g. in the history of science) to describe "any subjection of history to what is essentially a teleological view of the historical process". When the term is used in contexts other than British history, "whig history" (lowercase) is preferred. In the British context, whig historians emphasize the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms and scientific progress. The term is often applied generally (and pejoratively) to histories that present the past as the inexorable march of progress towards enlightenment. The term is also used extensively in the history of science to refer to historiography that focuses on the successful chains of hypotheses and experiments that led to present-day theories, while ignoring rejected hypotheses and dead ends. Whig history laid the groundwork for modernization theory


id: whig-history-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history-1.md
category: reference
title: Whig history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:24.184729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whig-history-20260505-0
summary:
=== Subsequent views === Butterfield's formulation has subsequently received much attention and the kind of historical writing he argued against in generalized terms is no longer academically respectable. Despite its polemical success, Butterfield's celebrated book was criticized by David Cannadine as "slight, confused, repetitive and superficial". However, of the English tradition more broadly, Cannadine wrote: It was fiercely partisan and righteously judgemental, dividing the personnel of the past into the good and the bad. And it did so on the basis of the marked preference for liberal and progressive causes, rather than conservative and reactionary ones ... Whig history was, in short, an extremely biased view of the past: eager to hand out moral judgements, and distorted by teleology, anachronism and present-mindedness. E. H. Carr in What Is History? (1961) gave Butterfield's book the backhanded compliment of being "a remarkable book in many ways" noting that "though it denounced the whig interpretation over some 130 pages, it did not... name a single whig except Fox, who was no historian, or a single historian save Acton, who was no whig". Michael Bentley analyses Butterfield's whig theory as referring to a canon of 19th-century historians in and of England (such as William


id: whig-history-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history-2.md
category: reference
title: Whig history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:24.184729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whig-history-20260505-0
summary:
Stubbs was a true believer who concealed his biases, even from himself, behind the façade of a dispassionate historian translating original documents into magisterial prose. His rhetorical gifts often obscured his combination of high church Anglicanism, whig history, and civic responsibility. In the Church of England, Stubbs saw the original model for the development and maintenance of English liberties. Stubb's history began with an imagined Anglo-Saxon past into which representative parliamentary institutions emerged and fought for control with the absolutist crown in various stages (including overreaches during the English Civil War) before uniting in "nation, church, peers and people" in the Glorious Revolution. This view of events was substantially challenged: Maitland discovered in 1893 that the early "parliaments" had "no hint of operating as a representative body but resembled instead a meeting of the King's Council, called to meet the king's purposes; it passed no 'legislation', but rather considered petitions or 'bills' as though acting as an ultimate court of justice". Albert Pollard, writing in 1920, also shot through much of Stubbs' ideas on the representative and law-making powers of early English parliaments, pulling the emergence of a semi-independent House of Commons to the 1620s. === Robert Hebert Quick ===


id: whig-history-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history-3.md
category: reference
title: Whig history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:24.184729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whig-history-20260505-0
summary:
=== In economics === Retrospectives on modern macroeconomics are generally whiggish histories. For example, the popularisation of mathematical models by Paul Samuelson's Foundations of Economic Analysis, when viewed by economists trained in a mathematical framework becomes "an important milestone on the road to the mathematization of economics" in a story told by the victorious. Yet "those who do not agree that such mathematization is a good thing could argue that the mathematical developments... represent a regression rather than a progression". The introduction of rational expectations similarly carries implicit hindsight bias: people who disagree on the reality of agents making decisions in the manner assumed (e.g. behavioral economics) "would not necessarily rejoice in [rational expectations'] present ascendancy". Burrow views Marxist history, with its "[supposed] anticipated terminus from which it derives its moral and political point", as "characteristically whig". === In philosophy === One very common example of Whig history is the work of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, to whom is often ascribed a teleological view of history with an inexorable trajectory in the direction of progress. Marxists have had varied views on Whig history. The traditional inheritance of Hegel, interpreted through Engels' articulation of historical materialism, implied that history progressed from


id: wilderness-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Wilderness therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:25.480075+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wilderness-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Wilderness therapy, also known as outdoor behavioral healthcare, is a form of therapeutic intervention that uses outdoor activities and immersion in natural environments to promote psychological, behavioral, and social well-being. It is used in the treatment of mental health conditions, substance abuse disorders, and behavioral issues, particularly among adolescents and young adults. Wilderness therapy programs vary widely in structure and philosophy, but typically combine elements of psychotherapy, group processes, and experiential learning with activities such as hiking, camping, and survival skills. While the approach is most prominently developed in the United States, related practices have emerged in other regions, including Canada, Australia, and across Scandinavia, often influenced by local outdoor traditions and cultural perspectives. The field lacks a universally accepted definition, and programs differ in their clinical oversight, duration, and level of remoteness. Wilderness therapy has been the subject of ongoing debate regarding its effectiveness, safety, and ethical practices, with research producing mixed results and criticism focusing on regulation and reported incidents in some programs. == History == The concept of wilderness therapy dates back to the 1940s, linked to progressive German educator Kurt Hahn, who founded the United Kingdom's "Outward Bound", an outdoor educational organization. The origins of wilderness


id: x-club-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club-0.md
category: reference
title: X Club
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:26.627082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-club-20260505-0
summary:
The X Club was a dining club of nine men who supported the theories of natural selection and academic liberalism in late 19th-century England. Thomas Henry Huxley was the initiator; he called the first meeting for 3 November 1864. The club met in London once a month—except in July, August and September—from November 1864 until March 1893, and its members are believed to have wielded much influence over scientific thought. The members of the club were George Busk, Edward Frankland, Thomas Archer Hirst, Joseph Dalton Hooker, Thomas Henry Huxley, John Lubbock, Herbert Spencer, William Spottiswoode, and John Tyndall, united by a "devotion to science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas." The nine men who would compose the X Club already knew each other well. By the 1860s, friendships had turned the group into a social network, and the men often dined and went on holidays together. After Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published in 1859, the men began working together to aid the cause for naturalism and natural history. They backed the liberal Anglican movement that emerged in the early 1860s, and both privately and publicly supported the leaders of the movement. According to its members,


id: x-club-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club-1.md
category: reference
title: X Club
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:26.627082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-club-20260505-0
summary:
Later, in 1863, a new rift began to emerge within the scientific community over race theory. Debate was stirred up when the Anthropological Society of London, which rejected Darwinian theory, claimed that slavery was defensible based on the theory of evolution proposed by Darwin. The members of what would become the X Club sided with the Ethnological Society of London, which denounced slavery and embraced academic liberalism. The men of the X Club, especially Lubbock, Huxley, and Busk, felt that dissension and the "jealousies of theological sects" within learned societies were damaging, and they attempted to limit the contributions the Anthropological Society made to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, a society of which they were all members. Thus, by 1864, the members of the X Club were joined in a fight, both public and private, to unite the London scientific community with the objective of furthering the ideas of academic liberalism. === Dining clubs === Dining clubs, common in late-Victorian England, were characterised by informal gatherings where men with similar interests could share new ideas and information among friends. Many formal societies and institutions that existed in England during the 19th century started as informal dining clubs.


id: x-club-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club-2.md
category: reference
title: X Club
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:26.627082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: x-club-20260505-0
summary:
Between the time of its inception in 1864 and its termination in 1893, the X club and its members gained much prominence within the scientific community, carrying much influence over scientific thought, similar to the Scientific Lazzaroni in the United States and the Society of Arcueil in France. Between 1870 and 1878, Hooker, Spottiswoode, and Huxley held office in the Royal Society simultaneously, and between 1873 and 1885, they consecutively held the presidency of the Royal Society. Spottiswoode was treasurer of the Society between 1870 and 1878 and Huxley was elected Senior Secretary in 1872. Frankland and Hirst were also of importance to the Society, as the previous held the position of Foreign Secretary between 1895 and 1899, and the latter served on the Council three times between 1864 and 1882. Outside the Royal Society, the men of the X Club continued to gain influential positions. Five members of the Club held the presidency of the British Association for the Advancement of Science between 1868 and 1881. Hirst was elected president of the London Mathematical Society between 1872 and 1874 while Busk served as Examiner and eventually president of the Royal College of Surgeons. Frankland also served as president of


id: yale-divinity-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Divinity_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Yale Divinity School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Divinity_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:27.882601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yale-divinity-school-20260505-0
summary:
Yale Divinity School (YDS) is one of the twelve graduate and professional schools of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. Congregationalist theological education was the motivation at the founding of Yale, and the professional school has its roots in a Theological Department established in 1822. The school had maintained its own campus, faculty, and degree program since 1869, and it has become more ecumenical beginning in the mid-19th century. Since the 1970s, it has been affiliated with the Episcopal Berkeley Divinity School and has housed the Institute of Sacred Music, which offers separate degree programs. In July 2017, a two-year process of formal affiliation was completed, with the addition of Andover Newton Seminary joining the school. Over 40 different denominations are represented at YDS. While Divinity Schools typically have higher admit-rates, Yale is an exception, with acceptance rates around 10-15%. YDS is the most selective theological school in the world, and is widely seen as one of the best. == History == Theological education was the earliest academic purpose of Yale University. When Yale College was founded in 1701, it was as a college of religious training for Congregationalist ministers in Connecticut Colony, designated in its charter as a school


id: yale-divinity-school-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Divinity_School-1.md
category: reference
title: Yale Divinity School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Divinity_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:27.882601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yale-divinity-school-20260505-0
summary:
== Leadership == Gregory Sterling, a New Testament scholar and Church of Christ pastor, has been the dean of the divinity school since 2012, succeeding New Testament scholar Harold W. Attridge, who returned to teaching as a Sterling Professor upon completing two five-year terms as dean. The leaders of the affiliated seminaries are Andrew McGowan, Dean and President of Berkeley Divinity School, and Sarah Drummond, Founding Dean of Andover Newton Seminary at Yale Divinity School. Organist Martin Jean is director of the Institute of Sacred Music. === Deans of Yale Divinity School === == Campus == When the department was organized as a school in 1869, it was moved to a campus across from the northwest corner of the New Haven Green composed of East Divinity Hall (1869), Marquand Chapel (1871), West Divinity Hall (1871), and the Trowbridge Library (1881). The buildings, designed by Richard Morris Hunt, were demolished under the residential college plan and replaced by Calhoun College, now known as Grace Hopper College. In 1929, the trustees of the estate of lawyer John William Sterling agreed that a portion of his bequest to Yale would be used to build a new campus for the Divinity School. The Sterling


id: zygon-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygon_(journal)-0.md
category: reference
title: Zygon (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygon_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:29.166727+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zygon-journal-20260505-0
summary:
Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science is a quarterly open access peer-reviewed academic journal covering religion and science published by the Open Library of Humanities. It was established in 1966 and the editor-in-chief is Arthur C. Petersen (University College London). Zygon is sponsored by the Institute on Religion in an Age of Science and the Center for Advanced Study in Religion and Science (CASIRAS). The name "Zygon" (mod. L., ad. ζυγόν Gr. yoke.), according to the journal founder Ralph Wendell Burhoe, is the Greek term for anything that joins two bodies, especially the yoking or harnessing of a team that must pull together effectively. The Zygon is the symbol of the journal, its aim being to reunite the "split team" of values and knowledge. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2024 impact factor of 0.6, ranking it 48th out of 69 journals (Q3) in the category "Social Issues". The Scimago Journal & Country Rank 2024 located this Journal in the 1st quartile (Q1) in the categories "Religious Studies" and "Cultural Studies". Zygon became an open access journal when it moved to the Open Library of Humanities in 2024. == References == == External links == Official


id: advanced-research-and-invention-agency-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Research_and_Invention_Agency-0.md
category: reference
title: Advanced Research and Invention Agency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Research_and_Invention_Agency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:30.790841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: advanced-research-and-invention-agency-20260505-0
summary:
The Advanced Research and Invention Agency (ARIA) is a UK research funding agency established to support scientific research. Formally established by an Act of Parliament on 26 January 2023, ARIA is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT). ARIA has a similar remit to that of its US forerunner, DARPA, the intention of the UK Agency is to fund "high-risk, high-reward" research, including precision neurotechnologies, programmable plants, robotics and AI. == History == The formation of ARIA was announced on 19 February 2021 and it was formally established on 26 January 2023. The Advanced Research and Invention Agency Act 2022 created the legislative framework for the agency and it was formally established as an independent research body in January 2023. Parliament established ARIA in statute and set a ten-year legal mandate. The law directs the agency to fund research that is risky, uncertain and speculative in nature. ARIA’s initial budget was confirmed to be approximately £800 million over five years. Following the June 2025 spending review, the Government has committed to providing ARIA with a minimum of £1bn over the spending review period of 2025–2029. In 2022 Dominic Cummings suggested that ARIA should


id: agence-nationale-de-la-recherche-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agence_nationale_de_la_recherche-0.md
category: reference
title: Agence nationale de la recherche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agence_nationale_de_la_recherche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:36.957833+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agence-nationale-de-la-recherche-20260505-0
summary:
The Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR, fr: National Agency for Research) is a French institution tasked with funding scientific research. It was founded on 7 February 2005 as a groupement d'intérêt public, and has acquired the status of établissement public à caractère administratif on 1 August 2006. The ANR funds scientific teams, both public and private, in the form of short-term research contracts. Its budget was 350 million Euros in 2005, rose to 955M€ in 2009 but then fell to 703M€ in 2019. The ANR was supervised by Jacques Stern from 2007 until 2010 and by Eva Pebay-Peyroula since 2010. == Notes and references == == External links == Official site


id: austrian-science-fund-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Science_Fund-0.md
category: reference
title: Austrian Science Fund
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Science_Fund
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:38.279921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: austrian-science-fund-20260505-0
summary:
The Austrian Science Fund (German: Fonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung, FWF) is the most important Austrian funding organization for basic research. The FWF supports research in science, engineering, and the humanities through a large variety of grant programmes, prizes and by funding infrastructure. The self-governed organization is based in Vienna and financed by the Austrian federal government. In September 2023 president Christof Gattringer voiced funding concerns: a three-year budget consensus previously reached with the Ministry of Education is lacking confirmation by the Ministry of Finance despite continuing high inflation in Austria. == Organisation == The Austrian Science Fund was established in 1967 and had a budget of 91 million euros in 2001. Most projects are individual research grants for up to three years. In addition, it also supports national research clusters, doctoral schools, scholarships for young researchers and awards like the START- and Wittgenstein-Preis. Pascale Ehrenfreund was elected president of the FWF on 6 June 2013. In recent years, the Austrian Science Fund provides growing support for the publication of articles and monographs in the open access format. == Membership == The Austrian Science Fund is a member of the European Science Foundation. == See also == Open access


id: canadian-institutes-of-health-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Institutes_of_Health_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: Canadian Institutes of Health Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Institutes_of_Health_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:39.589759+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: canadian-institutes-of-health-research-20260505-0
summary:
The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR; French: Instituts de recherche en santé du Canada; IRSC) is a federal agency responsible for funding health and medical research in Canada. Comprising 13 institutes, it was formed on June 7, 2000 and is the successor to the Medical Research Council of Canada. CIHR supports more than 15,000 researchers and trainees through grants, fellowships, scholarships, and other funding, as part of the federal government's investment in health research. Paul C. Hébert is the current President. CIHR's budget for 2023-2024 was CA$1.3 billion and the number of employees (FTE) was 327. Along with the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), the CIHR forms the major source of federal government funding to post-secondary research. They are collectively referred to as the "Tri-Council" or "Tri-Agency". == History == The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) is the major federal agency responsible for funding health research in Canada. It was established by an Act of Parliament in April 2000 to create new knowledge according to internationally accepted scientific standards and translate this into improved health for Canadians, more effective health services and products, and a stronger Canadian


id: czech-science-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Science_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Czech Science Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Science_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:42.096613+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: czech-science-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Czech Science Foundation (GACR) was established in 1993 as an independent public organisation supporting basic research in the Czech Republic. On the basis of calls for proposals and a public competition, the Czech Science Foundation provides financial support for both experienced and young and early-stage researchers. It also funds international projects on a bilateral basis in cooperation with several partner agencies as well as projects carried out within international research programmes. It is one of two major government-supported research funding agencies in the Czech Republic, the other being the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic (TAČR). == GACR goals == To provide financial support for projects in basic research with a high potential for achieving world-class results. To promote and enhance international scientific cooperation in basic research. To help create attractive conditions for the professional development of young and early-stage researchers. To ensure that entrusted funds are used as effectively as possible to the benefit of the Czech and international scientific community. To create, within existing laws, the best possible conditions for the administration of project proposals and awarded projects. == GACR structure == The GACR authorities are the President, Presidium, Scientific Advisory Board and Supervisory Board. The Presidium


id: dutch-research-council-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Research_Council-0.md
category: reference
title: Dutch Research Council
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Research_Council
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:43.337173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dutch-research-council-20260505-0
summary:
The Dutch Research Council (NWO, Dutch: Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek) is the national research council of the Netherlands. NWO funds thousands of top researchers at universities and institutes and steers the course of Dutch science by means of subsidies and research programmes. NWO promotes quality and innovation in science. NWO is an independent administrative body under the auspices of the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. NWO directs its approximate budget of 1 billion euros towards Dutch universities and institutes, often on a project basis. Also, NWO has its own research institutes and facilitates international cooperation. The president of NWO since April 2021 is Marcel Levi. Former NWO presidents include Stan Gielen, Peter Nijkamp and Jos Engelen. NWO is also known for the annual Spinoza and Stevin Prizes. == History == The council was established in 1950 as Nederlandse Organisatie voor Zuiver-Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (ZWO). This organisation did not focus on applied research; the research organization TNO was established for that purpose. In 1988 ZWO was renamed as NWO and was given the broader mission. Like its predecessor, NWO is a public institution; its tasks and responsibilities are established in the NWO Act. On 1 January 2018 the former


id: foundation-for-science-and-technology-portugal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_for_Science_and_Technology_(Portugal)-0.md
category: reference
title: Foundation for Science and Technology (Portugal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_for_Science_and_Technology_(Portugal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:44.588014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: foundation-for-science-and-technology-portugal-20260505-0
summary:
The Foundation for Science and Technology (Portuguese: Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia; FCT) is an organization within the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education in Portugal which evaluates and funds scientific research activities, in particular in the areas of natural sciences, exact sciences, social sciences and humanities. FCT was founded in 1997, succeeding the Junta Nacional de Investigação Científica e Tecnológica. == Vision == To establish Portugal as a global reference in science, technology and innovation Ensure that knowledge generated by scientific research is used fully, for economic growth and the well-being of all citizens == Research units funded by FCT == Most scientific research in Portugal takes place in R&D institutions financed and evaluated by FCT. As of 2019 there are 26 Associate Laboratories and 307 R&D Units, where 22,000 researchers work. These institutions are regularly evaluated by FCT. == Publications == The foundation, together with the University of Lisbon's Centre of Philosophy, publishes a biannual peer-reviewed open-access academic journal, Philosophica, International Journal for the History of Philosophy, which covers all areas of the history of philosophy. Beginning 2022 it is published on their behalf by the Philosophy Documentation Center. == References == == External links


id: german-research-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Research_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: German Research Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Research_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:45.758738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: german-research-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The German Research Foundation (German: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft [ˈdɔʏtʃə ˈfɔʁʃʊŋsɡəˌmaɪnʃaft]; abbr. DFG [ˌdeːʔɛfˈɡeː]) is a German research funding organization, which functions as a self-governing institution for the promotion of science and research in the Federal Republic of Germany. In 2019, the DFG had a funding budget of €3.3 billion. == Function == The DFG supports research in science, engineering, and the humanities through a variety of grant programmes, research prizes, and by funding infrastructure. The self-governed organization is based in Bonn and financed by the German states and the federal government of Germany. As of 2017 the organization consists of approximately 100 research universities and other research institutions. The DFG endows various research prizes, including the Leibniz Prize. The Polish-German science award Copernicus is offered jointly with the Foundation for Polish Science. According to a 2017 article in The Guardian, the DFG has announced it will publish its research in online open-access journals. == Background == In 1937, the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (NG) ("Emergency Association of German Science") was renamed the Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderung der Forschung ("German Foundation for the Preservation and Promotion of Research"), for short known as the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). Even before the election


id: health-research-board-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Research_Board-0.md
category: reference
title: Health Research Board
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Research_Board
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:47.090763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-research-board-20260505-0
summary:
The Health Research Board (HRB) is a government agency responsible for funding, co-ordination, and oversight of medical research in Ireland. == History == In 1986, the Government of Ireland amalgamated the Medical Research Council of Ireland and the Medico-Social Research Board to establish the HRB under the Health (Corporate Bodies) Act 1961 and statutory instrument 279 of 1986. The HRB's original headquarters was at 73 Lower Baggot Street, Dublin 2. In July 2014, the board relocated to Grattan House, 67-72 Lower Mount Street, Dublin 2. == Chairs of the HRB == Dr WA Watts 1987 - 1989 Professor MX FitzGerald 1990 - 1997 Professor MB Murphy 1997 - 2002 Professor Hugh R. Brady 2002 - 2003 Professor D Fitzgerald 2003 - 2007 Mr Reg Shaw 2007 - 2012 Dr Declan Bedford 2012 - 2017 Professor Jane Grimson 2020 - == Chief Executives of the HRB == Lt Comdr EJ Furness and Mr J O'Gorman 1987 - 1988 (jointly, in caretaker roles) Dr JV O'Gorman 1988 - 1998 Dr R Barrington 1998 - 2007 Dr Hamish Sinclair 2007 - 2008 (acting) Mr Enda Connolly 2008 - 2014 Dr Graham Love 2014 - 2017 Dr Darrin Morrissey 2018 - 2020 Dr Mairéad


id: icelandic-centre-for-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_Centre_for_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: Icelandic Centre for Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_Centre_for_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:48.201188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: icelandic-centre-for-research-20260505-0
summary:
The Icelandic Centre for Research (RANNÍS; Icelandic: Rannsóknamiðstöð Íslands) funds and promotes scientific research in Iceland. It formed in 2003 through an act of legislation. As of April 1 2022, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Innovation oversees its activities. It operates from headquarters in Borgartún 30 in Reykjavík. RANNÍS cooperates closely with the Icelandic Science and Technology Policy Council and provides professional assistance in the preparation and implementation of the national science and technology policy. RANNÍS administers competitive funds in the fields of research, innovation, education and culture, as well as strategic research programmes. RANNÍS coordinates and promotes Icelandic participation in European programmes such, as Horizon Europe in the fields of research and innovation, Erasmus+ in the fields of education, training, youth and sport, and Creative Europe in the fields of culture and audiovisual media. In addition, RANNÍS monitors resources and performance in R&D and promotes public awareness of research and innovation, education and culture in Iceland. == History == From 1994 to 2003, RANNÍS operated as the Icelandic Research Council. "As of 2013 scientific publications based on projects, funded entirely or partially by the Icelandic Centre for Research, Rannís, must be published in open access." == Funds


id: national-institute-for-health-and-care-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: National Institute for Health and Care Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:49.504003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institute-for-health-and-care-research-20260505-0
summary:
The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) is the British government's major funder of clinical, public health, social care and translational research. With a budget of over £1.2 billion in 2020–21, its mission is to "improve the health and wealth of the nation through research". The NIHR was established in 2006 under the government's Best Research for Best Health strategy, and is funded by the Department of Health and Social Care. As a research funder and research partner of the NHS, public health and social care, the NIHR complements the work of the Medical Research Council. NIHR focuses on translational research (translating discoveries from the laboratory to the clinic), clinical research and applied health and social care research. == History == The NIHR (originally named National Institute for Health Research) was created in April 2006 under the government's health research strategy, Best Research for Best Health. This strategy outlined the direction that NIHR research and development should take. Its predecessor was the NHS Research & Development programme which was established in 1991. Factors influencing the creation of the NIHR were the growing importance of evidence-based medicine in science and policymaking, the spread of New Public Management thinking and


id: national-institute-for-health-and-care-research-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research-1.md
category: reference
title: National Institute for Health and Care Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:49.504003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institute-for-health-and-care-research-20260505-0
summary:
=== Public partnerships === The NIHR offers several ways for patients and the public to participate in health and care research. People can take part in a study as a research participant, for example in a clinical trial that looks for new treatments for a health condition. People who are not affected by a particular condition or who care for someone with a long-term health issue can also take part in research. The NIHR runs the online services Be Part of Research and Join Dementia Research to inform the public about what health and care research is and to help them find studies that are looking for participants. Patients and the public can also contribute to research through patient and public involvement (PPI). PPI is a partnership between members of the public (including patients, service users, carers) and researchers where public representatives can influence what should be a priority for research and help shape how the research is carried out, applied and communicated. Members of the public can find involvement opportunities in NIHR's research through the database People in Research. The website Learning for Involvement also offers information and resources for learning about public involvement and best practice case studies.


id: national-institute-for-health-and-care-research-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research-2.md
category: reference
title: National Institute for Health and Care Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:49.504003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institute-for-health-and-care-research-20260505-0
summary:
== Publications == The NIHR publishes five peer-reviewed, open access journals which make up the NIHR Journals Library. The journals are titled Efficacy and Mechanism Evaluation, Health and Social Care Delivery Research, Health Technology Assessment, Public Health Research, and Programme Grants for Applied Research. Researchers working in relevant, NIHR-funded projects are required to publish in an NIHR journal. Besides publishing the final research articles, the NIHR Journals Library supports the model of open science by providing a transparent, 'living' document for each research project which is updated alongside the progress of the study. This involves publishing all relevant materials from the outset of the studies, including the relevant systematic reviews, research protocol, study documentation, plain English descriptions, and data. The NIHR publishes short, easy-to-read summaries and thematic overviews of the most important research findings on the NIHR Evidence website. Some of the summaries are also published in The British Medical Journal. The NIHR also has an open science platform where researchers can share any kind of relevant articles, documents and data including negative or null results. === Open access === NIHR has an open access policy and was one of the original funders of Europe PubMed Central. Their updated policy


id: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health-0.md
category: reference
title: National Institutes of Health
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:55.439659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-0
summary:
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the primary agency of the United States federal government responsible for biomedical and public health research. It was founded in 1887 and is part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Many NIH facilities are located in Bethesda, Maryland, and other nearby suburbs of the Washington metropolitan area, with other primary facilities in Research Triangle Park in North Carolina and smaller satellite facilities located around the United States. The NIH conducts its scientific research through the NIH Intramural Research Program (IRP) and provides significant biomedical research funding to non-NIH research facilities through its Extramural Research Program. As of 2013, the IRP had 1,200 principal investigators and more than 4,000 postdoctoral fellows in basic, translational, and clinical research, being the largest biomedical research institution in the world, while, as of 2003, the extramural arm provided 28% of biomedical research funding spent annually in the U.S., or about US$26.4 billion. Basic research by the NIH contributed to every new drug approved by the Federal Drug Administration over the period 2010–2016. In early 2025, the Trump administration froze key NIH operations, and by January 2026 about 2,600 grants totaling $1.4 billion remained


id: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health-1.md
category: reference
title: National Institutes of Health
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:55.439659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-0
summary:
The NIH Office of the Director is the central office responsible for setting policy for the NIH, and for planning, managing, and coordinating the programs and activities of all NIH components. The NIH Director plays an active role in shaping the agency's activities and outlook. The Director is responsible for providing leadership to the Institutes and Centers by identifying needs and opportunities, especially in efforts involving multiple Institutes. Within the Director's Office is the Division of Program Coordination, Planning and Strategic Initiatives with 12 divisions including: Office of AIDS Research Office of Research on Women's Health Office of Disease Prevention Sexual and Gender Minority Research Office Tribal Health Research Office Office of Program Evaluation and Performance The Agency Intramural Research Integrity Officer "is directly responsible for overseeing the resolution of all research misconduct allegations involving intramural research, and for promoting research integrity within the NIH Office of Intramural Research (OIR)." There is a Division of Extramural Activities, which has its own Director. The Office of Ethics has its own Director, as does the Office of Global Research. == Locations and campuses == Intramural research is primarily conducted at the main campus in Bethesda, Maryland, and Rockville, Maryland, and the surrounding


id: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health-2.md
category: reference
title: National Institutes of Health
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:55.439659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-0
summary:
1908: George W. McCoy's discovery that rodents were a reservoir of bubonic plague. 1911: George W. McCoy, Charles W. Chapin, William B. Wherry, and B. H. Lamb described the previously unknown tularemia. 1924: Roscoe R. Spencer and Ralph R. Parker developed a vaccine against Rocky Mountain spotted fever. 1930: Sanford M. Rosenthal developed a treatment for mercury poisoning used widely before the development of dimercaptoethanol. 1943: Wilton R. Earle pioneered the cell culture process and published a paper describing the production of malignancy in vitro, Katherine K. Sanford developed the first clone from an isolated cancer cell, and Virginia J. Evans devised a medium that supported growth of cells in vitro. 1940s–1950s: Bernard Horecker and colleagues described the pentose phosphate pathway. 1950s: Julius Axelrod discovered a new class of enzymes, cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, a fundamental of drug metabolism. 1950: Earl Stadtman discovered phosphotransacetylose, elucidating the role of acetyl CoA in fatty acid metabolism. 1960s: Discovered the first human slow virus disease, kuru, which is a degenerative, fatal infection of the central nervous system. This discovery of a new mechanism for infectious diseases revolutionized thinking in microbiology and neurology. 1960s: Defined the mechanisms that regulate noradrenaline, one of the most important


id: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health-3.md
category: reference
title: National Institutes of Health
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:55.439659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-0
summary:
To allocate funds, the NIH must first obtain its budget from Congress. This process begins with institute and center (IC) leaders collaborating with scientists to determine the most important and promising research areas within their fields. IC leaders discuss research areas with NIH management who then develops a budget request for continuing projects, new research proposals, and new initiatives from the Director. The NIH submits its budget request to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and the HHS considers this request as a portion of its budget. Many adjustments and appeals occur between the NIH and HHS before the agency submits NIH's budget request to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). OMB determines what amounts and research areas are approved for incorporation into the President's final budget. The President then sends the NIH's budget request to Congress in February for the next fiscal year's allocations. The House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees deliberate and by fall, Congress usually appropriates funding. This process takes approximately 18 months before the NIH can allocate any actual funds. When a government shutdown occurs, the NIH continues to treat people who are already enrolled in clinical trials, but does not start any new


id: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health-4.md
category: reference
title: National Institutes of Health
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:55.439659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-institutes-of-health-20260505-0
summary:
=== Funding criteria === The NIH employs five broad decision criteria in its funding policy. First, ensure the highest quality of scientific research by employing an arduous peer review process. Second, seize opportunities that have the greatest potential to yield new knowledge and that will lead to better prevention and treatment of disease. Third, maintain a diverse research portfolio to capitalize on major discoveries in a variety of fields such as cell biology, genetics, physics, engineering, and computer science. Fourth, address public health needs according to the disease burden (e.g., prevalence and mortality). And fifth, construct and support the scientific infrastructure (e.g., well-equipped laboratories and safe research facilities) necessary to conduct research. Advisory committee members advise the institute on policy and procedures affecting the external research programs and provide a second level of review for all grant and cooperative agreement applications considered by the Institute for funding. ==== Gender and sex bias ==== In 2014, it was announced that the NIH is directing scientists to perform their experiments with both female and male animals, or cells derived from females as well as males if they are studying cell cultures, and that the NIH would take the balance of each study


id: national-science-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: National Science Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:56.720855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-science-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The National Science Centre (Polish: Narodowe Centrum Nauki, often abbreviated NCN) is a governmental grant-making agency responsible for providing financial support for the conduct of basic science research in Poland and various programs to assist scientists throughout their careers. The NCN was founded in 2010, three years after the foundation of National Centre for Research and Development. Similar to National Science Foundation in the United States, NCN is the largest grant-making agency in Poland for fundamental research and basic science and collaborates with corresponding agencies worldwide. == Works == The central tasks of NCN include: financing: basic research carried out in the form of research projects, doctoral scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships, research projects for experienced scientists aiming at implementation of pioneering scientific research; international cooperation in the financing of basic research activities; dissemination of information about contests announced by the National Science Center; supervision over the implementation of the above-mentioned scientific research; inspiring and monitoring the financing of basic research with resources coming from outside the state budget; other tasks commissioned by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, including the development of research programs important for national culture. == Major Grants and Fellowships == The National Science Center finances


id: national-scientific-and-technical-research-council-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Scientific_and_Technical_Research_Council-0.md
category: reference
title: National Scientific and Technical Research Council
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Scientific_and_Technical_Research_Council
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:57.852297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-scientific-and-technical-research-council-20260505-0
summary:
The National Scientific and Technical Research Council (Spanish: Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, CONICET) is an Argentine government agency which directs and co-ordinates most of the scientific and technical research done in universities and institutes. == History == The National Scientific and Technical Research Council was established on 5 February 1958 by a decree of the national government. Its first director was Nobel Laureate Bernardo A. Houssay. Governed by a board independent from the federal government, it funds scientific research in three basic ways. Firstly, it gives grants for collective work to research teams of well-recognized scientists of every discipline, including social sciences and the humanities. Secondly, it has a payroll of about 6,500 researchers and 2,500 technicians working as employees in different categories, from investigador asistente (assistant researcher) to investigador principal (main researcher). Thirdly, it grants scholarships for doctoral and post-doctoral studies to 8,500 young researchers from Argentina and other countries. == Ranking == In 2025, CONICET was ranked as the best Latin American government research institution by the Scimago Institutions Ranking and the 2nd among all research institutions in the region after the Universidade de São Paulo. CONICET holds the 125th position among the most prestigious


id: research-council-of-finland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Council_of_Finland-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Council of Finland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Council_of_Finland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:59.039719+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-council-of-finland-20260505-0
summary:
The Research Council of Finland (Finnish: Suomen Akatemia, Swedish: Finlands Akademi) is a governmental funding body for scientific research in Finland. Until August 2023, its official English-language name was Academy of Finland. It is based in Helsinki. Yearly, the council administers over 260 million euros to Finnish research activities. Over 5000 researchers are working on projects supported by the council. The Academy of Finland should not be confused with The Finnish Academy of Science and Letters (Suomalainen tiedeakatemia) and the Finnish Society of Science and Letters (Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten) which are the two Finnish learned societies for scientists and scholars. For engineers, there are two language-based honorary academies, the Finnish Academy of Technology (Teknillisten Tieteiden Akatemia) and the Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences in Finland (Svenska tekniska veteskapsakademien i Finland). The Finnish title of Academician (akateemikko / akademiker) is an award given by the President of Finland upon the recommendation of the Research Council to the most distinguished Finnish scientists, scholars and artists. It may also be bestowed on foreign scientists, scholars or artists who have contributed very significantly to Finnish intellectual life. At any time, there may be a maximum of 12 living scientific and scholarly academicians and eight living


id: research-council-of-norway-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Council_of_Norway-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Council of Norway
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Council_of_Norway
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:00.257746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-council-of-norway-20260505-0
summary:
The Research Council (also the Research Council of Norway; Norwegian: Norges forskningsråd) is a Norwegian government agency that funds research and innovation projects. On behalf of the Government, the Research Council invests NOK 11.7 billion (2022) annually. The Research Council is responsible for promoting basic and applied research and innovation. This is done by managing research funding and by advising the authorities on research policy, among other things through proposals for the research budget in the National Budget. The Research Council works to promote international research and innovation cooperation, and has a number of schemes to mobilise Norwegian applicants for the EU Research and Innovation Programme. Other tasks include creating meeting places for researchers, trade and industry, public administration, public actors and other users of research. The Research Council was established in 1993 through the merging of five different previously created research councils. The Research Council has approximately 360 employees (2023). It has local representatives in nine different regions of Norway. Since 23 June 2014, the Research Council's main office is located just outside of Oslo. == Background == There were five predecessors of the council, each established as independent councils related to their own areas of interest: science and


id: research-foundation-flanders-fwo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Foundation_–_Flanders_(FWO)-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Foundation_–_Flanders_(FWO)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:01.477032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-foundation-flanders-fwo-20260505-0
summary:
The Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO; Dutch: Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek – Vlaanderen) is a Belgian public research council, based in Brussels. The Flemish research council aims to sponsor ground-breaking research and innovation. Much of this work involves supporting researchers and undertakings in association with the universities and institutes of Flanders, including Ghent University, University of Leuven, University of Antwerp and Free University of Brussels, among others. == History == The FWO is a successor to the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research (NFWO / FNRS), which had been founded in 1928, after the call from King Albert I of Belgium for the promotion of research and innovation. In 2006, the National Fund for Scientific Research (NFWO / FNRS) divided into two organisations: the FWO, for the Flemish community, and the F.R.S.-FNRS (French: Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique – FNRS) for the French-speaking region. A self-governing organization, the Research Foundation – Flanders is located in Brussels and financed by the Flemish government, the federal government, and the national lottery, with further support coming from partner institutes and companies. == Function == The FWO supports research in science, engineering, and the humanities through a variety of frameworks. It offers competitive funding


id: bank-of-sweden-tercentenary-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Sweden_Tercentenary_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Sweden_Tercentenary_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:02.655614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bank-of-sweden-tercentenary-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Riksbankens Jubileumsfond Foundation is an independent foundation with the aim of promoting high scientific quality, encouraging cross-disciplinary research, and contributing to capacity building in Swedish research within the humanities and social sciences. The foundation supports research in the humanities and social sciences with a connection to Sweden. It was established in 1962 through a donation from the Central bank of Sweden, which wished to commemorate the bank’s 300th anniversary in 1968 while also supporting “a significant national cause.” == History == Sweden has the world’s oldest central bank, and in preparation for its 300th anniversary in 1968, the bank wanted to support a significant national cause linked to science and research. As a result, the Riksbank made two donations: one to establish a prize in economic sciences in memory of Alfred Nobel, and another to support future research. On December 2, 1964, the Swedish Parliament decided to establish a foundation for this donation – the Riksbankens Jubileumsfond. In 1988, the foundation received new statutes, which made it an independent financial entity and clarified its mission. === Statutes === On January 1, 1988, Riksbankens Jubileumsfond received new statutes, which made the foundation an independent financial entity and clarified its purpose.


id: russian-foundation-for-basic-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Foundation_for_Basic_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: Russian Foundation for Basic Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Foundation_for_Basic_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:03.845074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: russian-foundation-for-basic-research-20260505-0
summary:
Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) is a national science funding body of the Russian government created on 27 April 1992 by a decree of the President of Russia. == Activities == The Russian Foundation for Basic Research financially sponsors conferences and research, provides collective bargaining in negotiating access to research databases for Russian research institutions, and co-hosts the Scopus Awards with Elsevier for Russian scientists who score high in Elsevier's academic productivity and citation metrics and are strongly involved in RFBR's programs and grants. RFBR research grants are usually only available to Russian researchers and their international collaborators. == International collaboration == RFBR collaborates with other research foundations around the world, including CRDF Global, the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in the United States, the French National Center for Scientific Research, the German Research Foundation the Royal Society of the United Kingdom, the Iran National Science Foundation, the Indian Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment of the Republic of Cuba, the Academy of Finland, the Research Council of Norway, and the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia. === International joint projects === BRICS STI Framework Programme


id: science-foundation-ireland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Foundation Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:04.993244+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-foundation-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
Science Foundation Ireland (SFI; Irish: Fondúireacht Eolaíochta Éireann) was a statutory body in Ireland. It was an agency of the Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science, with responsibility for funding oriented basic and applied research in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) with a strategic focus. The board of SFI was appointed by the Minister for Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science. == History == The agency was established in 2003 under the Industrial Development (Science Foundation Ireland) Act 2003. Following a Technology Foresight activity managed by Forfás, the Irish Government allocated €1.3bn under the 2000–2006 National Development Plan to spend on R&D. SFI was responsible for disbursing €650M of these monies in the targeted strategic areas of ICT and Biotechnology during this period. After an initial call for research proposals in 2000, the first Director General, Dr William Harris, joined SFI in 2001 leading the organization to the establishment of a range of research programmes from Principal Investigator Awards to large research centers, called Centers for Science & Engineering Technology. In 2006, under the next National Development Plan, under the Strategy for Science, Technology & Innovation (SSTI), the Irish Government


id: science-foundation-ireland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland-1.md
category: reference
title: Science Foundation Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:04.993244+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-foundation-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
=== Industry Programmes === The Industry Fellowship programme funds the bi-directional movement of academic and industry researchers. Fellowships can be awarded to academic researchers wishing to spend time in industry worldwide and to individuals from industry anywhere in the world (including Ireland) wishing to spend time in an eligible Irish Research Body. The programme facilitates knowledge transfer and training, building critical mass in areas of strategic importance for Ireland. SFI Research Centres are large scale Research Centres which have an economic impact for Ireland. SFI Research Centres may be funded at a level of between €1-5 million per year in direct costs. SFI funds up to 70% of the overall Research Centre budget. A minimum of 30% of the budget must be secured from industry partners, at least one-third of which must be in cash.See details on the 16 funded SFI Research Centres here: SFI Research Centre Spokes is a mechanism to allow new industry and academic partners to join the existing SFI Research Centres. SFI Partnership Programme is a mechanism by which SFI builds collaborations with industry, funding agencies, charities, philanthropic organisations or higher education institutes (HEIs) in order to co-fund future opportunities. SFI Centre for Research Training is


id: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:06.150716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia is a public organization that provides support for science and research activities in the Republic of Serbia. It was founded with the aim of providing support and conditions for the continuous development of scientific research and development activities in the Republic of Serbia, necessary for the progress of a knowledge-based society. Activities are implemented through scientific, technological and development programs to achieve the strategic goals of the scientific and technological development of the Republic of Serbia. As part of the Fund's program, projects are financed through public calls. The projects ensure a high scientific level and innovative results, competitiveness at the international level and relevance in relation to the challenges of society. The Law on the Fund for Science of the Republic of Serbia was adopted in December 2018, and the Fund began its work in March 2019. == About Science Fund == === Establishment of the Science Fund === The Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia was established by the Government of the Republic of Serbia with the aim of establishing a mechanism for project financing of science and scientific research. This decision is in line with the commitment of the


id: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia-1.md
category: reference
title: Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:06.150716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
== Bodies of the Science Fund == The bodies of the Science Fund are: Director, Supervisory Board, Management Board, and Scientific Council of the Fund. The Director is appointed and dismissed by the Government on the proposal of the Board of Directors, with the prior approval of the Minister. The Director is appointed based on a public competition for a period of four years. The current acting director of the Fund is Dr. Milica Đurić-Jovičić. The Management Board has five members, one of whom is the president, who are appointed and dismissed by the Government, at the proposal of the Ministry. The members of the management board must have international experience in business covered by the Law, experience in management business and at least 15 years of work experience. The term of the members of the board of directors is four years, with the possibility of another appointment. The President of the board of directors is Dr. Vujo Drndarević. The Supervisory Board has three members, one of whom is the president, who is appointed and dismissed by the Government, on the proposal of the ministry responsible for scientific research activity, of which at least two members are from the economic


id: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia-2.md
category: reference
title: Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:06.150716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
== Programs of the Science Fund == Program for Excellent Projects of Young Researchers (PROMIS) The Program for Excellent Projects of Young Researchers (PROMIS) is a program of the Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia intended for excellent projects of young researchers in the early stages of their careers. The goals of the PROMIS program are to involve excellent young researchers in scientific research work, to strengthen their professional capacities, to train young doctors of science to manage projects, to train young researchers to apply for other research and development projects, to create new project teams, to support excellent ideas and to support scientific research work that will have a positive impact on society and the economy. As part of the first PROMIS program announced by the Science Fund, 59 basic and applied research projects were selected, which will be implemented in the period 2020–2022. Fields of science: natural sciences, engineering and technology, medicine, biotechnologies, as well as social sciences and humanities. Program budget: EUR 8.9 million Program for Development of Projects in the Field of Artificial Intelligence (PRVI) The Program for Development of Projects in the Field of Artificial Intelligence is realized within two subprograms, one intended for


id: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia-3.md
category: reference
title: Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:06.150716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
In accordance with the goal of involving more young researchers in scientific research projects, within the PRISMA program it was possible to register as team members doctoral students who have not yet been selected for a position, with the obligation to acquire the position before the start of the project implementation. Program budget: EUR 25,000,000 == Presentation of scientists and scientific projects == The Science Fund strives to provide high visibility to all supported projects and research activities. This is one of the ways to encourage researchers and the industry to new partnerships and to expand cooperation at the international level. The Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia achieves this goal by publishing publications on programs and projects, organizing exhibitions and events dedicated to promoting science, certain scientific fields and topics, as well as participating in various domestic and international gatherings, conferences and fairs where it presents the results and successes of research within the projects funded by the Science Fund. In addition, the Science Fund regularly works to increase the visibility of projects and their activities and results in the media, providing support for scientists to promote the projects they are implementing, in the media. == See also


id: south-african-medical-research-council-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Medical_Research_Council-0.md
category: reference
title: South African Medical Research Council
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Medical_Research_Council
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:12.154044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: south-african-medical-research-council-20260505-0
summary:
The South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) is a para-statal medical research organisation in South Africa. The current president is professor Ntobeko Ntusi. The South African Medical Research Council was established in 1969 to act as an independent statutory body to co-ordinate health and medical research activities throughout South Africa. The SAMRC strives to “advance the nation’s health and quality of life and address inequity by conducting and funding relevant and responsive health research, capacity development, innovation, and research translation”. Research conducted by the SAMRC is in the fields of tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, cardiovascular diseases, non-communicable diseases, gender and health, alcohol abuse, and drug abuse. It is a member of the Innovative Vector Control Consortium. == References ==


id: state-research-agency-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Research_Agency-0.md
category: reference
title: State Research Agency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Research_Agency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:13.340145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: state-research-agency-20260505-0
summary:
The State Research Agency (Spanish: Agencia Estatal de Investigación, AEI) is the Spanish research funding agency responsible for the promotion of scientific and technical research in all areas of knowledge through the competitive and efficient allocation of public resources, the monitoring of actions financed and their impact, and advice on action planning or initiatives through which the R&D policies of the General State Administration are implemented. The AEI was created in November 2015, although it came into operation on 20 June 2016 with the first meeting of the Governing Council. The Agency is chaired by the Secretary of State for Science, currently Juan Cruz Cigudosa, and the CEO is José Manuel Fernández Labastida. == Structure == The structure of the State Research Agency is: The President. The President of the Agency is the Secretary of State for Science of the Ministry of Science. The Governing Council. Collective-decision-making body. The Director-General. Chief executive of the AEI. The Secretary-General. Responsible for the day-to-day management of the AEF and its internal services. The Deputy Directorate for Economic Management of Aids The Directorate for Scientific and Technological Management. The Deputy Directorate for Evaluation. The Deputy Directorate for Thematic Programs. The Deputy Directorate for Horizontal


id: swedish-research-council-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Research_Council-0.md
category: reference
title: Swedish Research Council
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Research_Council
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:14.563911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swedish-research-council-20260505-0
summary:
The Swedish Research Council (Swedish: Vetenskapsrådet) is a Government agency in Sweden established in 2001, with the responsibility to support and develop basic scientific research. Its objective is for Sweden to be a leading nation in scientific research. The agency has three main functions: To distribute government funding for basic research To advise the government on issues related to scientific research To communicate science and scientific research to the general public == See also == Open access in Sweden == References == == External links == Swedish Research Council - Official site


id: swiss-national-science-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_National_Science_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Swiss National Science Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_National_Science_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:15.836178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swiss-national-science-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF, German: Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung, SNF; French: Fonds national suisse de la recherche scientifique, FNS; Italian: Fondo nazionale svizzero per la ricerca scientifica) or Swiss National Fund is a science research support organisation mandated by the Swiss Federal Government. The Swiss National Science Foundation was established under private law by physicist and medical doctor Alexander von Muralt in 1952. == Organisation == The SNSF consists of three main bodies: Foundation Council, National Research Council and Administrative Offices. The Foundation Council is the highest authority and makes strategic decisions. The National Research Council is composed of distinguished researchers who mostly work at Swiss institutions of higher education. They assess research proposals submitted to the SNSF and make funding decisions. The National Research Council comprises up to 100 members and is subdivided into four divisions: Division I: humanities and social sciences Division II: mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences Division III: biology and medicine Division IV: programmes (National Research Programmes and National Centres of Competence in Research) Mandated by the federal authorities, the Swiss National Science Foundation supports basic science in all academic disciplines. == Research programmes == The National Research Programmes (NRP)


id: uk-research-and-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Research_and_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: UK Research and Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Research_and_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:17.191723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uk-research-and-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) is a non-departmental public body of the Government of the United Kingdom that directs research and innovation funding, funded through the science budget of the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology. == History and role == UKRI was created following a report by Sir Paul Nurse, the President of the Royal Society, who recommended the merger in order to increase integrative cross-disciplinary research. UKRI was established on 1 April 2018 by the Higher Education and Research Act 2017. It brought together the seven research councils and two additional bodies, Innovate UK and Research England. Innovate UK (formerly the Technology Strategy Board) was an arm's length body of the Department of Trade and Industry, while Research England succeeded the former Higher Education Funding Council for England. Research England is responsible for the Research Excellence Framework, or REF, and is developing a new knowledge exchange framework, KEF. Working in partnership with universities, research organisations, businesses, charities, and government, its mission is to foster research and development within the United Kingdom and create a positive "impact"—"push the frontiers of human knowledge and understanding", "deliver economic impact", and "create social and cultural impact". The first Chief Executive Officer of


id: wellcome-trust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellcome_Trust-0.md
category: reference
title: Wellcome Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellcome_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:18.459047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wellcome-trust-20260505-0
summary:
The Wellcome Trust is a charitable foundation focused on health research based in London, United Kingdom. It was established in 1936 with legacies from the pharmaceutical magnate Henry Wellcome (founder of Burroughs Wellcome, one of the predecessors of GSK plc) to fund research to improve human and animal health. The aim of the Trust is to "support science to solve the urgent health challenges facing everyone." It had a financial endowment of £37.6 billion in 2025, making it the fourth wealthiest charitable foundation in the world. In 2012, the Wellcome Trust was described by the Financial Times as the United Kingdom's largest provider of non-governmental funding for scientific research, and one of the largest providers in the world. According to their annual report, the Wellcome Trust spent GBP £1.1 billion on charitable activities across their 2023/2024 financial year. According to the OECD, the Wellcome Trust's financing for 2019 development increased by 22% to US$327 million. == Headquarters == The Wellcome Trust's operations are run from two buildings on Euston Road in London. The Wellcome Building, at 183 Euston Road, built in 1932 in Portland stone houses the Wellcome Collection and the adjoining glass and steel building at 215 Euston Road


id: wellcome-trust-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellcome_Trust-1.md
category: reference
title: Wellcome Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellcome_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:18.459047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wellcome-trust-20260505-0
summary:
=== Support for open access and open data === The Wellcome Trust plays an important role in encouraging publication of research in open access repositories such as Europe PubMed Central (EuropePMC). The Wellcome Trust believes that maximising the distribution of these papers – by providing free, online access – is the most effective way of ensuring that the research can be accessed, read and built upon. In turn, this will foster a richer research culture. In 2016, the Wellcome Trust partnered with the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute to launch the Open Science Prize to "help develop services, tools and platforms that enable open content to be discovered, assessed and re-used in ways that will advance discovery and spark innovation." In 2016, Wellcome Trust announced that it would be launching Wellcome Open Research, an open access publication system running on the F1000 Research platform. Article processing charges will be covered directly by Wellcome Trust. Papers from the system are now indexed in PubMed Central. === Membership in the Global Health Innovative Technology Fund (GHIT) === In the summer of 2015, the Wellcome Trust joined the Japanese government, 7 Japanese pharmaceutical and diagnostics companies,


id: academic-imperialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_imperialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Academic imperialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_imperialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:20.078935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-imperialism-20260505-0
summary:
Academic imperialism is an unequal relationship between groups or disciplines of academic study, such that one dominates others, consuming them or leaving them ignored. Early theories of academic imperialism date to the 1960s. == Definitions == Academic imperialism has been defined either in the context of certain disciplines or subdisciplines as oppressing others or (more often) as part of political imperialism that has resulted in inequality between academia in the First World (the West) and Third World. === Within disciplines === In the intradisciplinary context, an example of imperialistic behavior was the dismissive attitude of the 1920s-1930s adherents of behavioral psychology in the United States towards non-behavioral psychologists. === Internationally === In the international context, academic imperialism began in the colonial period when the colonial powers designed and implemented a system of academia in their colonial territories. C. K. Raju claims academic imperialism emerged thanks to racism among native colonial elites. Academic imperialism is blamed for "tutelage, conformity, secondary role of dominated intellectuals and scholars, rationalization of the civilizing mission, and the inferior talent of scholars from the home country specializing in studies of the colony." In the modern postcolonial era, academic imperialism has transformed itself into a more indirect


id: boundary-object-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_object-0.md
category: reference
title: Boundary object
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_object
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:21.317357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boundary-object-20260505-0
summary:
In sociology and science and technology studies, a boundary object is information, such as specimens, field notes, and maps, used in different ways by different communities for collaborative work through scales. Boundary objects are plastic, interpreted differently across communities but with enough immutable content (i.e., common identity across social words and contexts) to maintain integrity. The concept was introduced by Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer in a 1989 publication (p. 393): Boundary objects are objects which are both plastic enough to adapt to local needs and constraints of the several parties employing them, yet robust enough to maintain a common identity across sites. They are weakly structured in common use, and become strongly structured in individual-site use. They may be abstract or concrete. They have different meanings in different social worlds but their structure is common enough to more than one world to make them recognizable, a means of translation. The creation and management of boundary objects is key in developing and maintaining coherence across intersecting social worlds. In their article, Star and Griesemer describe the importance of boundary objects and methods standardization in the development of the Berkeley Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Boundary objects can be abstract


id: empirical-sociology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_sociology-0.md
category: reference
title: Empirical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:23.723030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Empirical sociology is the study of sociology based on methodological methods and techniques for collecting, processing, and communicating primary sociological information. Describes the situation of the aspects of social life such as economy, law, family, and politics during the research. Empirical sociology is often concerned with aspects of everyday life with common sense, which it treats as a resource, a form of knowledge. Empirical sociology inductively studies how people appreciate and get along with each other. Empirical sociology is an American tradition with roots in the social reform movements of the Progressive Era. == Definition == The task of empirical sociology is to conduct inductive research on a particular social phenomenon. The German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies defined empirical sociology as the collection of factual information or evidence. Sociologist Morris Janowitz defined empirical sociology as collecting and planning empirical indicators of change. Morris describes the relationship between history and empirical sociology as "At this point, sociology and "history” converge. All empirical sociology is history, but history is not all empirical sociology". == Timeline == The first stage of empirical sociology was represented by the changes introduced into the scientific procedure by the Chicago school between 1895 and 1929. The American sociologist


id: epistemic-cultures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_cultures-0.md
category: reference
title: Epistemic cultures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_cultures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:29.445182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epistemic-cultures-20260505-0
summary:
Epistemic cultures (often used in plural form) is a concept developed in the nineties by anthropologist Karin Knorr Cetina in her book Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge. Opposed to a monist vision of scientific activity (according to which, would exist a unique scientific method), Knorr Cetina defines the concept of epistemic cultures as a diversity of scientific activities according to different scientific fields, not only in methods and tools, but also in types of reasonings, ways to establish evidence, and relationships between theory and empiry. Knorr Cetina's work is seminal in questioning the so-called unity of science. == Knorr Cetina's anthropology == In practice, Knorr Cetina compares two contemporary important scientific fields: High energy physics and molecular biology. She worked as an anthropologist within two laboratories, along the line of the laboratory anthropology work by Latour and Woolgar. Her anthropological work is comparative and the two chosen scientific fields are highly mediaticized and easily distinguishable. Epistemic cultures as a philosophical concept has been perused by numerous philosophical, anthropological or historical studies of science. == Two distinct publication regimes == High energy physics and molecular biology are very different as scientific fields belonging to two different epistemic cultures. They


id: graphism-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphism_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Graphism thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphism_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:30.697342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graphism-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
In the sociology of science and science and technology studies (STS), the graphism thesis is a proposition advanced by Bruno Latour that visual inscriptions—especially graphs, diagrams, and other visual representations—are central to the practice and authority of science. First articulated in Latour's 1990 essay "Visualization and Cognition: Drawing Things Together", the thesis holds that the power of scientific disciplines is closely linked to their capacity to produce, circulate, and combine visual representations of data. The thesis has been empirically tested by a number of researchers, who have found strong correlations between the level of graph use in scientific publications and the perceived "hardness" of scientific disciplines. == Background == The graphism thesis emerged from Latour's broader theory of inscriptions in scientific practice, developed across several works including Laboratory Life (1979, with Steve Woolgar) and Science in Action (1987). In these works, Latour defined an inscription device as any apparatus or configuration that transforms a material substance into a visual display usable within a scientific text, such as a diagram, chart, photograph, map, equation, or table. Central to this framework is the concept of immutable mobiles (a key term in actor–network theory)—objects that can be transported across distances while retaining their


id: harem-effect-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harem_effect_(science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Harem effect (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harem_effect_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:31.980840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harem-effect-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the sociology and history of science, the harem effect refers to a phenomenon whereby a male scientist, in a position of power, predominantly hires female subordinates for his research team. Positively, the "Harem Effect" provided female scientists with exceptional possibilities to pursue careers in their preferred professions. Additionally, it made a lot of scientific endeavours attainable from an economic standpoint. These ladies were the human computers of a period before computers. The downside was that female scientists were frequently refused acknowledgement for their findings and hindered by "busy work," sometimes known as "women's labour." The women at the "harem" received compensation less compared to their male colleagues, yet put in more hours than males despite the fact that this "women's profession" usually required accurate assessments, difficult mathematical calculations, and large amounts of data processing. Most importantly, it is sometimes forgotten that these female scientists' "women's labour" during the Victorian era led to remarkable advancements in a variety of subjects. == History == While there are numerous historical examples of this phenomenon and the practice may continue today, two examples stand out in the literature. Erwin Frink Smith, a USDA plant pathologist in the Bureau of Plant Industry, hired more


id: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociology and the history of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:33.315055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Throughout the 20th and 21st century, sociological inquiry has sought to analyze large-scale socialized patterns and trends in the development of science, as well as ask and answer questions about how science "works" both in a philosophical and practical sense. In particular, sociologists concerned with the history of science ask how societies construct narritives around scienticity, and how methodologies and paradigms throughout scientific history not only change, but change in context to culture, authority, political economy, and more sociologically strident means of analysis. == Science as a social enterprise == In the last few centuries, science as a social enterprise has grown rapidly. The few individuals who could conduct natural research in antiquity were either wealthy individuals themselves, had wealthy sponsors, or had the backing of a religious group. Today, scientific research has tremendous government support and also ongoing support from the private sector. Available methods of communication have improved tremendously over time. Instead of waiting months or years for a hand-copied letter to arrive, today scientific communication can be practically instantaneous. Earlier, most natural philosophers worked in relative isolation, due to the difficulty and slowness of communication. Still, there was a considerable amount of cross-fertilization between distant groups and


id: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Sociology and the history of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:33.315055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Political support == One of the basic requirements for a scientific community is the existence and approval of a political sponsor; in England, the Royal Society operates under the aegis of the monarchy; in the US, the National Academy of Sciences was founded by Act of the United States Congress; etc. Otherwise, when the basic elements of knowledge were being formulated, the political rulers of the respective communities could choose to arbitrarily either support or disallow the nascent scientific communities. For example, Alhazen had to feign madness to avoid execution. The polymath Shen Kuo lost political support, and could not continue his studies until he came up with discoveries that showed his worth to the political rulers. The admiral Zheng He could not continue his voyages of exploration after the emperors withdrew their support. Another famous example was the suppression of the work of Galileo, by the twentieth century, Galileo would be pardoned. == Patterns in the history of science == One of the major occupations with those interested in the history of science is whether or not it displays certain patterns or trends, usually along the question of change between one or more scientific theories. Generally speaking, there


id: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Sociology and the history of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:33.315055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== The nature of scientific discovery == Individual ideas and accomplishments are among the most famous aspects of science, both internally and in larger society. Breakthrough figures like Sir Isaac Newton or Albert Einstein are often celebrated as geniuses and heroes of science. Popularizers of science, including the news media and scientific biographers, contribute to this phenomenon. But many scientific historians emphasize the collective aspects of scientific discovery, and de-emphasize the importance of the "Eureka!" moment. A detailed look at the history of science often reveals that the minds of great thinkers were primed with the results of previous efforts, and often arrive on the scene to find a crisis of one kind or another. For example, Einstein did not consider the physics of motion and gravitation in isolation. His major accomplishments solved a problem which had come to a head in the field only in recent years—empirical data showing that the speed of light was inexplicably constant, no matter the apparent speed of the observer. (See Michelson–Morley experiment.) Without this information, it is very unlikely that Einstein would have conceived of anything like relativity. The question of who should get credit for any given discovery is often a source


id: intersubjective-verifiability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability-0.md
category: reference
title: Intersubjective verifiability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:34.524429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intersubjective-verifiability-20260505-0
summary:
Intersubjective verifiability is the capacity of a concept to be readily and accurately communicated between individuals ("intersubjectively"), and to be reproduced under varying circumstances for the purposes of verification. It is a core principle of empirical, scientific investigation. Although there are areas of belief that do not consistently employ intersubjective verifiability (e.g., many religious claims), intersubjective verifiability is a near-universal way of arbitrating truth claims used by people everywhere. In its basic form, it can be found in colloquial expressions, e.g., "I'm from Missouri. Show me!" or "Seeing is believing". The scientific principle of replication of findings by investigators other than those that first reported the phenomenon is simply a more highly structured form of the universal principle of intersubjective verifiability. == Subjective experience == Each individual is a subject, and must subjectively experience the physical world. Each subject has a different perspective and point of view on various aspects of the world. However, by sharing their comparable experiences intersubjectively, individuals may gain an increasingly similar understanding of the world. In this way, many different subjective experiences can come together to form intersubjective ones that are less likely to be prone to individual bias or gaps in knowledge. While specific


id: john-desmond-bernal-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Desmond_Bernal_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: John Desmond Bernal Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Desmond_Bernal_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:35.744080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-desmond-bernal-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The John Desmond Bernal Prize is an award given annually by the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S) to scholars judged to have made a distinguished contribution to the interdisciplinary field of Science and Technology Studies (STS). The award was launched in 1981, with the support of Eugene Garfield. The award is named after the scientist John Desmond Bernal. == Award recipients == Source: Society for Social Studies of Science Archived 2017-08-06 at the Wayback Machine == See also == List of social sciences awards == References == == External links == Society for Social Studies of Science


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-0.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Mathematical sociology is an interdisciplinary field of research concerned with the use of mathematics within sociological research. == History == Starting in the early 1940s, Nicolas Rashevsky, and subsequently in the late 1940s, Anatol Rapoport and others, developed a relational and probabilistic approach to the characterization of large social networks in which the nodes are persons and the links are acquaintanceship. During the late 1940s, formulas were derived that connected local parameters such as closure of contacts – if A is linked to both B and C, then there is a greater than chance probability that B and C are linked to each other – to the global network property of connectivity. Moreover, acquaintanceship is a positive tie, but what about negative ties such as animosity among persons? To tackle this problem, graph theory, which is the mathematical study of abstract representations of networks of points and lines, can be extended to include these two types of links and thereby to create models that represent both positive and negative sentiment relations, which are represented as signed graphs. A signed graph is called balanced if the product of the signs of all relations in every cycle (links in every graph cycle)


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-1.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== Further developments == In 1954, a critical expository analysis of Rashevsky's social behavior models was written by sociologist James S. Coleman. Rashevsky's models and as well as the model constructed by Simon raise a question: how can one connect such theoretical models to the data of sociology, which often take the form of surveys in which the results are expressed in the form of proportions of people believing or doing something. This suggests deriving the equations from assumptions about the chances of an individual changing state in a small interval of time, a procedure well known in the mathematics of stochastic processes. Coleman embodied this idea in his 1964 book Introduction to Mathematical Sociology, which showed how stochastic processes in social networks could be analyzed in such a way as to enable testing of the constructed model by comparison with the relevant data. The same idea can and has been applied to processes of change in social relations, an active research theme in the study of social networks, illustrated by an empirical study appearing in the journal Science. In other work, Coleman employed mathematical ideas drawn from economics, such as general equilibrium theory, to argue that general social theory


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-2.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== Research programs == Many of the developments in mathematical sociology, including formal theory, have exhibited notable decades-long advances that began with path-setting contributions by leading mathematical sociologists and formal theorists. This provides another way of taking note of recent contributions but with an emphasis on continuity with early work through the use of the idea of “research program,” which is a coherent series of theoretical and empirical studies based on some fundamental principle or approach. There are more than a few of these programs and what follows is no more than a brief capsule description of leading exemplars of this idea in which there is an emphasis on the originating leadership in each program and its further development over decades. (1) Rational Choice Theory and James S. Coleman: After his 1964 pioneering Introduction to Mathematical Sociology, Coleman continued to make contributions to social theory and mathematical model building and his 1990 volume, Foundations of Social Theory was the major theoretical work of a career that spanned the period from 1950s to 1990s and included many other research-based contributions. The Foundation book combined accessible examples of how rational choice theory could function in the analysis of such sociological topics as


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-3.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
In the simplest models, each person in an interactive pair, is represented in terms of one side of a role relationship in which fundamental sentiments associated with each role guide the process of immediate interaction. A higher level of the control process can be activated in which the definition of the situation is transformed. This research program comprises several of the key chapters in a 2006 volume of contributions to control systems theory (in the sense of Powers 1975 ) in sociology. (8) "Distributive Justice Theory" and Guillermina Jasso: Since 1980, Jasso has treated problems of distributive justice with an original theory that uses mathematical methods. She has elaborated upon and applied this theory to a wide range of social phenomena. Her most general mathematical apparatus – with the theory of distributive justice as a special case—deals with any subjective comparison between some actual state and some reference level for it, e.g., a comparison of an actual reward with an expected reward. In her justice theory, she starts with a very simple premise, the justice evaluation function (the natural logarithm of the ratio of actual to just reward) and then derives numerous empirically testable implications. (9) Collaborative research and John


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-4.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== Awards in mathematical sociology == The Mathematical Sociology section of The American Sociological Association in 2002 initiated awards for contributions to the field, including The James S. Coleman Distinguished Career Achievement Award. (Coleman had died in 1995 before the section had been established.) Given every other year, the awardees include some of those just listed in terms of their career-long research programs: 2022: Guillermina Jasso, New York University 2020: Noah Friedkin, University of California, Santa Barbara 2018: Ronald Breiger, University of Arizona 2017: Lynn Smith-Lovin, Duke University. 2014: Philip Bonacich, University of California, Los Angeles. 2012: John Skvoretz, University of South Florida. 2010: David R. Heise, Indiana University. 2008: Scott Boorman, Yale University. 2006: Linton Freeman, University of California, Irvine. 2004: Thomas Fararo, University of Pittsburgh. 2002: Harrison White, Columbia University. The section's other categories of awards and their recipients are listed at ASA Section on Mathematical Sociology == Texts and journals == Mathematical sociology textbooks cover a variety of models, usually explaining the required mathematical background before discussing important work in the literature (Fararo 1973, Leik and Meeker 1975, Bonacich and Lu 2012). An earlier text by Otomar Bartos (1967) is still of relevance. Of wider scope and


id: merton-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Merton thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:38.481296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: merton-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Merton thesis is an argument about the nature of early experimental science proposed by Robert K. Merton. Similar to Max Weber's famous claim on the link between Protestant work ethic and the capitalist economy, Merton argued for a similar positive correlation between the rise of Protestant Pietism and early experimental science. The Merton thesis has resulted in continuous debates. Although scholars are still debating it, Merton's 1936 doctoral dissertation (and two years later his first monograph by the same title) Science, Technology and Society in 17th-Century England raised important issues on the connections between religion and the rise of modern science, became a significant work in the realm of the sociology of science and continues to be cited in new scholarship. Merton further developed this thesis in other publications. == Thesis == The Merton thesis has two separate parts: firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and methodology; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in England in the 17th century, and the religious demography of the Royal Society (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained


id: mihi-itch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihi_itch-0.md
category: reference
title: Mihi itch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihi_itch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:39.711234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mihi-itch-20260505-0
summary:
Mihi itch or Mihisucht is the ambition to describe new species (or other taxa: subspecies, hybrids, genera, etc.) as a means to immortalize one's name. Mihi is the dative form of the Latin word ego, thus "mihi itch" means to satisfy one's egotistical impulses. The expression appeared in print as early as 1884. A consequence of the Mihi itch may be the unwarranted description of new taxa, differing only slightly from already established taxa, leading to taxonomic inflation. A more extreme case may be termed taxonomic vandalism when a large number of species are described with limited scientific evidence. == Examples == La "nouvelle école" in malacology, led by Jules René Bourguignat, was responsible for the description of hundreds of new species of molluscs in Europe at the end of the nineteen century. Harold St. John published 440 names in the genus Pandanus, which encompasses c. 600 accepted species, and 283 names in the genus Cyrtandra, which encompasses c. 700 accepted species. Between 2000 and 2011, Raymond Hoser published 582 species names, and 340 generic names of animals (mostly reptiles). == See also == Taxonomic vandalism Taxonomic inflation == References ==


id: no-innovation-without-representation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_innovation_without_representation-0.md
category: reference
title: No innovation without representation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_innovation_without_representation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:40.844025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: no-innovation-without-representation-20260505-0
summary:
No innovation without representation is a democratic ideal of ensuring that everyone involved gets a chance to be represented fairly in technological developments. Political philosopher of technology Langdon Winner states that groups and social interests likely to be affected by a particular kind of technological change ought to be represented at an early stage in defining exactly what that technology will be. It is the idea that relevant parties have a say in technological developments and are not left in the dark. It has been spoken about by political scientist Massimiano Bucchi. This ideal does not require the public to become experts on the topics of science and engineering, it only asks that the opinions and ideas be heard before making drastic decisions, as talked about by Steven L. Goldman. == Arguments for no innovation without representation == Arguments for no innovation without representation stated by Carl Mitcham: Experts cannot escape public influence. There will always be influence from corporations or outside sources. "Technoscientific decision making is never neutral or objective." Public participation will have a more beneficial long-term effect than no participation. "Without public participation nothing will get done" Experts promote their own self-interest at the expense of the


id: helga-nowotny-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helga_Nowotny-0.md
category: reference
title: Helga Nowotny
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helga_Nowotny
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:46.378111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helga-nowotny-20260505-0
summary:
Helga Nowotny (born 9 August 1937) is professor emeritus of Social Studies of Science, ETH Zurich. She has held numerous leadership roles on Academic boards and public policy councils, and she has authored many publications in the social studies of science and technology. == Early life == Nowotny grew up in Vienna, Austria during World War II. In interviews, she has recalled first wanting to become a scientist at the age of 8, when she was sent to Vorarlberg, the westernmost province of Austria, and quickly learned the local dialect. Nowotny received her doctorate of jurisprudence at the University of Vienna in 1959. After completing her degree, she faced opposition to her application for an assistant professorship in the Department of Criminology there on the basis of her being a woman. She agreed with the hiring professor that if a more capable man applied for the position, he could have the job. In the end, she was hired to the position. It was there that she became interested in the sociology of science. In 1965, she moved to New York City with her husband, where she enrolled in a sociology doctoral program. There, she met Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert K.


id: helga-nowotny-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helga_Nowotny-1.md
category: reference
title: Helga Nowotny
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helga_Nowotny
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:46.378111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helga-nowotny-20260505-0
summary:
== Awards and prizes == Nowotny is a Member of Academia Europaea and Foreign Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences since 2006. Among other honours she has been awarded the J.D. Bernal Prize for her lifelong achievements in social studies of science. In October 2015, she received an honorary doctorate at the University of Bergen. She has also received an honorary doctorate from the Weizmann Institute of Science and the University of Twente. In July 2013, Nowotny was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by Lancaster University, UK. In September 2017, she was awarded the President's Medal of the British Academy "for her contribution to the founding and shaping of the European Research Council, and positively influencing the shape of research funding and research policy in the UK and Europe". == Selected bibliography == === Books === Nowotny, Helga; Mendelsohn, Everett (1984). Nineteen eighty-four: science between utopia and dystopia. Dordrecht Boston Hingham, Massachusetts: D. Reidel Publishg Co. ISBN 9789027717214. Nowotny, Helga; et al. (1994). The new production of knowledge: the dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. ISBN 9780803977945. Nowotny, Helga; Taschwer, Klaus (1996). The sociology of the sciences. Cheltenham, UK Brookfield, Vermont,


id: obliteration-by-incorporation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obliteration_by_incorporation-0.md
category: reference
title: Obliteration by incorporation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obliteration_by_incorporation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:47.617618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: obliteration-by-incorporation-20260505-0
summary:
In sociology of science, obliteration by incorporation (OBI) occurs when at some stage in the development of a science, certain ideas become so universally accepted and commonly used that their contributors are no longer cited. Eventually, its source and creator are forgotten ("obliterated") as the concept enters common knowledge (is "incorporated"). Obliteration occurs when "the sources of an idea, finding or concept, become obliterated by incorporation in canonical knowledge, so that only a few are still aware of their parentage". == Concept == The concept was introduced by Robert K. Merton in 1949, although some incorrectly attribute it to Eugene Garfield, whose work contributed to the popularization of Merton's theory. Merton introduced the concept of "obliteration by incorporation" in the 1968 enlarged edition of his landmark work Social Theory and Social Structure (pp. 28, 35). Merton also introduced the less known counterpart to this concept, adumbrationism, meaning the attribution of insights, ideas or analogies absent from original works. In the process of "obliteration by incorporation", both the original idea and the literal formulations of it are forgotten due to prolonged and widespread use, and enter into everyday language (or at least the everyday language of a given academic discipline), no


id: public-opinion-on-extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_opinion_on_extraterrestrial_life-0.md
category: reference
title: Public opinion on extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_opinion_on_extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:48.897019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-opinion-on-extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Public opinion on extraterrestrial life refers to the collective beliefs, attitudes, and statistical data regarding the existence of extraterrestrial life and extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI). While scientific consensus has historically been cautious, public opinion surveys from the late 20th and early 21st centuries indicate a widespread belief in the existence of intelligent alien civilizations, often exceeding the confidence levels expressed by the scientific community. == Global surveys == Research conducted on an international scale has revealed significant belief in extraterrestrial civilizations across diverse cultures. Glocalities Study (2017): A survey of 26,492 respondents across 24 countries found that 47% of participants believed in "the existence of intelligent alien civilizations in the universe." The study noted substantial cross-national variation, with belief rates ranging from 45% in the United States to 68% in Russia. The researchers categorized a segment of high-engagement believers as "Homo Universalis," a group characterized by unconventional thinking and high interest in science and politics. Western Nations Comparison (2015): A YouGov survey comparing attitudes in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States found that more than one in two people in all three nations believed living creatures with communication abilities exist outside Earth. Specifically, 56% of Germans, 54% of Americans,


id: science-in-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_In_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Science In Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_In_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:51.368794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-society-20260505-0
summary:
Science In Society: An Introduction to Social Studies of Science (ISBN 0415321999) is a 2004 book by Massimiano Bucchi. The book explains how science works, what sociologists find to be of interest, and how scientific knowledge is produced. There are chapters on the relevance of science to contemporary life, Kuhn's work and its modern relevance, as well as the role of scientific communication. == See also == List of books about the politics of science == References ==


id: scientific-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:52.684091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-community-20260505-0
summary:
The scientific community is a diverse network of interacting scientists. It includes many "sub-communities" working on particular scientific fields, and within particular institutions; interdisciplinary and cross-institutional activities are also significant. Objectivity is expected to be achieved by the scientific method. Peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, assists in this objectivity by maintaining the quality of research methodology and interpretation of results. == History of scientific communities == The eighteenth century had some societies made up of men who studied nature, also known as natural philosophers and natural historians, which included even amateurs. As such these societies were more like local clubs and groups with diverse interests than actual scientific communities, which usually had interests on specialized disciplines. Though there were a few older societies of men who studied nature such as the Royal Society of London, the concept of scientific communities emerged in the second half of the 19th century, not before, because it was in this century that the language of modern science emerged, the professionalization of science occurred, specialized institutions were created, and the specialization of scientific disciplines and fields occurred. For instance, the term scientist was first coined by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell


id: scientific-community-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:52.684091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-community-20260505-0
summary:
Unlike in previous centuries when the community of scholars were all members of few learned societies and similar institutions, there are no singular bodies or individuals which can be said today to speak for all science or all scientists. This is partly due to the specialized training most scientists receive in very few fields. As a result, many would lack expertise in all the other fields of the sciences. For instance, due to the increasing complexity of information and specialization of scientists, most of the cutting-edge research today is done by well funded groups of scientists, rather than individuals. However, there are still multiple societies and academies in many countries which help consolidate some opinions and research to help guide public discussions on matters of policy and government-funded research. For example, the United States' National Academy of Sciences (NAS) and United Kingdom's Royal Society sometimes act as surrogates when the opinions of the scientific community need to be ascertained by policy makers or the national government, but the statements of the National Academy of Science or the Royal Society are not binding on scientists nor do they necessarily reflect the opinions of every scientist in a given community since membership


id: scientific-imperialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_imperialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific imperialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_imperialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:53.887234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-imperialism-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific imperialism is a term that appears to have been coined by Ellis T. Powell when addressing the Commonwealth Club of Canada on 8 September 1920. He defined imperialism as "the sense of arbitrary and capricious domination over the bodies and souls of men," he used the term "scientific imperialism" to mean "the subjection of all the developed and undeveloped powers of the earth to the mind of man." In modern usage, however, scientific imperialism refers to situations in which critics perceive science to act imperiously. Philosopher of science John Dupré described it (in his 2001 book Human Nature and the Limits of Science, p. 74) as "the tendency to push a good scientific idea far beyond the domain in which it was originally introduced, and often far beyond the domain in which it can provide much illumination." He wrote that "devotees of these approaches are inclined to claim that they are in possession not just of one useful perspective on human behavior, but of the key that will open doors to the understanding of ever wider areas of human behavior." Scientific imperialism has also been charged against "those who believe that the study of politics can and should be


id: scientific-wager-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wager-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific wager
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wager
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:55.117975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-wager-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific wager is a wager whose outcome is settled by experiment or observation, following the scientific method. It typically comprises a commitment to pay out when a currently-unknown or uncertain statement is resolved, and either proven or disproved. Some wagers have specific date restrictions for collection, but many are open. Wagers occasionally exert a powerful galvanizing effect on society and the scientific community. Notable scientists who have made scientific wagers include Stephen Hawking and Richard Feynman. The Stanford Linear Accelerator has an open book containing about 35 wagers in particle physics dating back to 1980; many are still unresolved. == Notable scientific wagers == There are many examples of scientific wagers from the past two centuries, many related to large-scale questions in science at the time. In 1870, Alfred Russel Wallace bet a flat-Earth theorist named John Hampden that he could prove the flat Earth hypothesis incorrect. The sum staked was £500 (equivalent to £62,000 in 2024). A test involving a stretch of the Old Bedford River, in Norfolk, was agreed on: Wallace measured the curvature of the canal's surface using two markers separated by about 5 km (3 mi) and suspended at equal heights above the water's surface.


id: scientific-wager-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wager-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific wager
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wager
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:55.117975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-wager-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Long Now Foundation § Long Bet Project The efforts of photographer Eadweard Muybridge to capture the motion of a galloping horse were not part of a wager, contrary to popular opinion. Pascal's wager is not a wager in the sense used in this article. == References ==


id: sociology-of-scientific-ignorance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociology of scientific ignorance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:56.569358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-of-scientific-ignorance-20260505-0
summary:
The sociology of scientific ignorance (SSI) is the study of ignorance in and of science. The most common way is to see ignorance as something relevant, rather than simply lack of knowledge. There are two distinct areas in which SSI is being studied: some focus on ignorance in scientific research, whereas others focus on public ignorance of science. Sociology of scientific ignorance is a complementary field to the sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK). When studying ignorance in scientific research, the common standpoint is that ignorance can be used as a tool in science. An example of this is blackboxing, which is the notion that it can be beneficial to hide the internal parts of a system, and only make the input and output visible to the user. Studies of public ignorance of science focuses on how scientific ignorance can affect society, the public view of science, and what can give rise to public ignorance of science. This area is related to public understanding of science. == Ignorance in scientific research == Generally, the word ignorance has a negative tone to it, and for a long time scientific ignorance was viewed as a purely negative thing. Recently, however, people have started


id: sociology-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociology of scientific knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:57.954867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) is the study of science as a social activity, especially dealing with "the social conditions and effects of science, and with the social structures and processes of scientific activity." The sociology of scientific ignorance (SSI) is complementary to the sociology of scientific knowledge. For comparison, the sociology of knowledge studies the impact of human knowledge and the prevailing ideas on societies and relations between knowledge and the social context within which it arises. Sociologists of scientific knowledge study the development of a scientific field and attempt to identify points of contingency or interpretative flexibility where ambiguities are present. Such variations may be linked to a variety of political, historical, cultural or economic factors. Crucially, the field does not set out to promote relativism or to attack the scientific project; the objective of the researcher is to explain why one interpretation rather than another succeeds due to external social and historical circumstances. The field emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s and at first was an almost exclusively British practice. Other early centers for the development of the field were in France, Germany, and the United States (notably at Cornell University). Major theorists include


id: sociology-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge-1.md
category: reference
title: Sociology of scientific knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:57.954867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Baez, John (2010). "The Bogdanoff Affair". Bloor, David (1976) Knowledge and social imagery. London: Routledge. Bloor, David (1999) "Anti-Latour". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A Volume 30, Issue 1, March 1999, Pages 81–112. Chu, Dominique (2013), The Science Myth---God, society, the self and what we will never know, ISBN 1782790470 Collins, H.M. (1975) The seven sexes: A study in the sociology of a phenomenon, or the replication of experiments in physics, Sociology, 9, 205-24. Collins, H.M. (1985). Changing order: Replication and induction in scientific practice. London: Sage. Collins, Harry and Steven Yearley. (1992). "Epistemological Chicken" in Science as Practice and Culture, A. Pickering (ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 301-326. Edwards, D., Ashmore, M. & Potter, J. (1995). Death and furniture: The rhetoric, politics, and theology of bottom line arguments against relativism. History of the Human Sciences, 8, 25-49. Fleck, Ludwik (1935). Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache. Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv [Emergence and development of a scientific fact: Introduction to the study of thinking style and thinking collectives] (in German). Verlagsbuchhandlung, Basel: Schwabe. Fleck, Ludwik (1979). Genesis and development of a scientific fact. Chicago, Illinois: University of


id: spanish-language-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Spanish language in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:03.760679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spanish-language-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The Spanish language is used in diverse areas of science and technology. Despite its large number of speakers, the Spanish language does not feature prominently in scientific writing, with the exception of the humanities. One estimate puts the percentage of Spanish language publications in natural sciences and technology as 0.5% of the world total, a low number since Spanish is often considered to rank second or third among languages in various other metrics and estimates. In the humanities, a similar estimate yields 2.81%. Summarizing the status of the Spanish language in the sciences, researcher Álvaro Cabezas writes: "No serious scientist publishes his best works in a language other than English". The creation of new Spanish terminology is more a result of translating concepts from other languages than of crafting original ideas. == Bibliometric studies == Among Spanish-language articles indexed in Scopus from 1996 to 2011, 10.8% qualify as "Life Sciences", 13.2% as "Physical Sciences", 44.4% as "Health Sciences", 29.6% as "Social Sciences, Arts & Humanities", and 2.0% as "Multi-disciplinary & Undefined". Thus, a higher percentage of Spanish language content is published in "Health Sciences" and "Social Sciences, Arts & Humanities" than in English, Chinese, or Russian. Spanish shares this trait


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:05.014178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Theories of technological change and innovation attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture. Some of the most contemporary theories of technological change reject two of the previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and other, the technological determinism. To challenge the linear model, some of today's theories of technological change and innovation point to the history of technology, where they find evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in creating and shaping technological artifacts. To challenge the so-called "technological determinism", today's theories of technological change emphasize the scope of the need of technical choice, which they find to be greater than most laypeople can realize; as scientists in philosophy of science, and further science and technology often like to say about this "It could have been different." For this reason, theorists who take these positions often argue that a greater public involvement in technological decision-making is desired. == Sociological theories == Sociological theories and researches of the Society and the Social focus on how human and technology actually interact and


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:05.014178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approaches of the critical theory === Critical theory attempts, according to some, to go beyond the descriptiveness of one account that may show of how things are, the exam and question of why they have come to be that way and how they might otherwise be. Critical theory asks whose interests are being served by the questioned status quo and assesses the potentials of a future, that alternates and propose "to better" both the technological service, and even social justice. Here Geuss's definition is given, where "a critical theory, then, is a reflective theory which gives agents a kind of knowledge inherently productive of enlightenment and emancipation" (1964). Thus Marcuse argued that while technology matters and design are often presented as neutral technical choices, in fact, they manifest political or moral values. Critical theory is seen as a "form of archaeology" that attempt to get beneath common-sense understandings in order to reveal the power relationships and interests determining particular technological configuration and use. Perhaps the most developed contemporary critical theory of technology is contained in the works of Andrew Feenberg included in his book 'Transforming Technology' (2002). Values in Design asks how do we ensure a place for values


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:05.014178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other Stances === Additionally, many authors have posed technology so as to critique and or emphasize aspects of technology as addressed by the mainline theories. For example, Steve Woolgar (1991) considers technology as text in order to critique the sociology of scientific knowledge as applied to technology and to distinguish between three responses to that notion: the instrumental response (interpretive flexibility), the interpretivist response (environmental/organizational influences), the reflexive response (a double hermeneutic). Pfaffenberger (1992) treats technology as drama to argue that a recursive structuring of technological artifacts and their social structure discursively regulate the technological construction of political power. A technological drama is a discourse of technological "statements" and "counterstatements" within the processes of technological regularization, adjustment, and reconstitution. An important philosophical approach to technology has been taken by Bernard Stiegler, whose work has been influenced by other philosophers and historians of technology including Gilbert Simondon and André Leroi-Gourhan. In the Schumpeterian and Neo-Schumpeterian theories technologies are critical factors of economic growth (Carlota Perez). == Analytical theories == There are theories of technological change and innovation which are not defined or claimed by a proponent, but are used by authors in describing existing literature, in contrast to their own


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:06.310269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between Western esotericism and science (and particularly the origins of experimental science) is a historiographical overview intersecting academic study of Western esotericism and history of science about how learned esoteric currents (e.g., natural magic, alchemy, hermeticism) interacted with natural philosophy, artisanal knowledge, and later scientific institutions from Antiquity to the twentieth century. It summarizes major debates (e.g., the “Yates thesis”), the role of printing and learned/artisanal networks, and the transformations that led from alchemy and chymistry to early modern chemistry, it also traces nineteenth–twentieth-century continuities in mesmerism, spiritualism, and psychical research. == Scope and definitions == The scope covers learned currents conventionally grouped under Western esotericism and their interactions with natural-philosophical, artisanal, and later scientific practices. In current scholarship, “Western esotericism” functions as an analytic label devised by historians of ideas rather than a stable emic category across periods. Within this remit fall astrology (including astral/astrological magic), alchemy/chymistry, hermetic and theurgic philosophies, “natural magic”, Christian Kabbalah and related Christianized appropriations, and selected nineteenth–twentieth-century continuities (e.g., mesmerism, spiritualisms, psychical research) insofar as they engaged scientific methods, publics, or institutions. Following standard usage, esotericism is treated as a family-resemblance category centered on literate, textually mediated, often elite discourses and practices,


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:06.310269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== From natural magic to infrastructures of credibility === Historians of ideas have charted the forms and fortunes of natural magic and learned magic from the Middle Ages through the seventeenth century, emphasizing ontologies of hidden properties, sympathies, and imaginal techniques, and their philosophical justifications and critics. Parallel research in the social history of science highlights infrastructures that filtered claims: manuscript and print circuits (including books of secrets), the Republic of Letters, early academies and learned societies, and the emergence of publication regimes such as the Philosophical Transactions. === Boundary-work and demarcation === Sociological approaches analyze how scientific communities drew boundaries against “occult” topics through norms of civility, replicable evidence, and credit allocation. Such “boundary-work” helps to explain why some esoteric claims were domesticated (e.g., elements of chemical practice) while others were marginalized, rebranded, or expelled. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, studies of animal magnetism, spiritualism, and psychical research show continued negotiations at the edges of emerging disciplines, from clinics and laboratories to voluntary associations. === Long nineteenth century: disenchantment and “scientification” === Recent work situates esotericism within broader narratives of secularization and the reconfiguration of “religion” and “science.” One line of analysis tracks how scientific naturalism rearticulated


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:06.310269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recipe literature and channels of diffusion === Technical books and compilations of “books of secrets” connected artisanal practice with learned theorizing, creating conduits that printers would later expand in the Renaissance. These manuals aggregated procedures for dyes, metallurgy, pharmacology, and image-making and helped form publics attuned to experiment, collection, and disclosure. === Scholastic uptake and debate === The influx of Arabic–Latin materials reshaped natural-philosophical vocabularies and controversies. Astronomical and medical applications of astrology, debates over hidden properties, and programmatic alchemical claims were selectively integrated into university teaching and commentary while also provoking clerical scrutiny—setting the stage for later medieval distinctions between licit “natural” explanations and illicit invocations. == Medieval Latin world (11th–15th centuries) == Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, the Latin West integrated translated corpora on astrology, alchemy, and learned magic into monastic, scholastic, and urban settings, while developing classifications later grouped under the “occult sciences.” Texts such as the Latin Picatrix, the Pseudo-Geber alchemical corpus, lapidaries, and image-magic handbooks circulated alongside natural-philosophical commentaries, medical compendia, and technical recipes. === Monastic collections and clerical readership === Monastic libraries and clerical readers preserved and annotated works on natural and ritual magic even as ecclesiastical norms constrained their use. Collections


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:06.310269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
Seventeenth-century practitioners reorganized late medieval and Renaissance repertoires into a mixed enterprise of alchemy and chemistry often labeled chymistry. Workshops and purpose-built laboratories standardized instruments (furnaces, crucibles, retorts, alembics) and procedures (calcination, distillation, sublimation, solution, precipitation), linking material operations to questions about analysis, composition, and medical utility. Programmatic attacks on Galenic medicine and defenses of chemical remedies by Paracelsian physicians fed a therapeutic and analytical turn that coexisted with transmutational ambitions. === Case-studies and overlapping repertoires === Studies of individual practitioners complicate linear stories of “disenchantment.” George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes) developed furnace designs, protocols, and reagents that circulated widely; his collaboration and exchanges with Robert Boyle show how alchemical goals and experimental norms interpenetrated. Boyle’s experimental program drew on chymical skill and recipes while articulating new rhetorical and methodological expectations for public witnessing and replication, often highlighted in accounts of early modern experimental culture. At the mathematical end of natural philosophy, Isaac Newton pursued extensive alchemical reading and laboratory work—on metallic generation, “vegetation,” and the ignis secretus—integrating them with his broader investigations of nature. Rather than a clean break, scholarship depicts a spectrum of overlap in ends (medicine, analysis, perfection), media (glassware, heat management), and genres (notebooks, “secrets,” experimental reports)


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:06.310269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Egyptosophy and Egyptology === Scholars use the term Egyptosophy (Ägyptosophie) to denote the early-modern and modern Western construction of “ancient Egypt” as a reservoir of esoteric wisdom, a lineage that runs from late antique Hermeticism through Renaissance and Baroque syntheses and into nineteenth- and twentieth-century occult revivals. Within the historiography of science, this Egyptosophic imaginary is treated as a cultural precursor rather than a scientific ancestor: it sustained attention, collecting practices, and interpretive expectations (for example, Athanasius Kircher’s ambitious but largely erroneous readings), and it fed the broader current often labeled egyptomania. By contrast, Egyptology emerged in the 1820s as a distinct scholarly field grounded in philology and archaeology, following Jean-François Champollion’s phonetic decipherment of hieroglyphs (1822). In this sense, the relationship between Egyptosophy and Egyptology can be described—analogously to Astrology and Astronomy, or Alchemy and Chemistry—as a historical bifurcation: they share an object (ancient Egypt) and some early impulses, but diverge in method, evidentiary standards, and aims (soteriological and allegorical readings versus critical historicization and language-based analysis). Historians of science also interpret this shift as an instance of disciplinary boundary-making within the broader demarcation of science from non-science. == Nineteenth century: animal magnetism, spiritualisms, psychologies == Across the


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:06.310269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Works cited == Asprem, Egil (2014). The Problem of Disenchantment: Scientific Naturalism and Esoteric Discourse, 1900–1939. Leiden: Brill. Copenhaver, Brian P. (1992). Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Copenhaver, Brian P. (2015). Magic in Western Culture: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Daston, Lorraine; Park, Katharine (1998). Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150–1750. New York: Zone Books. Dear, Peter (2001). Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Debus, Allen G. (1977). The Chemical Philosophy: Paracelsian Science and Medicine in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. New York: Science History Publications. Eamon, William (1994). Science and the Secrets of Nature: Books of Secrets in Medieval and Early Modern Culture. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism. Albany: SUNY Press. Findlen, Paula (1994). Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fowden, Garth (1986). The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gieryn, Thomas F. (1999). Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gieryn, Thomas F. (1983). "Boundary-Work and the


id: yuasa-phenomenon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon-0.md
category: reference
title: Yuasa Phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:07.606078+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yuasa-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
The Yuasa Phenomenon, named after Japanese physicist and science historian Mitsutomo Yuasa (sometimes referred to as Mintomo Yuasa), suggests that, in the modern era, the world center of scientific activity (defined as producing more than 25% of the world's scientific achievements) moves from one country to another about every 80–100 years. == Analysis == Analyzed data indicate that the "modern world science centre has shifted from Italy (1504–1610) to the United Kingdom (1660–1750), to France (1760– 1840), to Germany (1875–1920), and to the United States (1920 to the present)." This phenomenon and its study methodology are an emerging scientometrics study area. Indicators point to China's rise as a world center of scientific activity. This phenomenon is also described by other names, including "the Bernal—Yuasa phenomenon". Shigeo Minowa links Yuasa's finding to Joseph Ben-David's movements of Centers of Learning. Ben-David's Centers of Learning migration observations are discussed in various works. == See also == Historic recurrence History of science == References ==


id: science-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Science studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:09.263367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Science studies is an interdisciplinary research area that seeks to situate scientific expertise in broad social, historical, and philosophical contexts. It uses various methods to analyze the production, representation and reception of scientific knowledge and its epistemic and semiotic role. Similarly to cultural studies, science studies are defined by the subject of their research and encompass a large range of different theoretical and methodological perspectives and practices. The interdisciplinary approach may include and borrow methods from the humanities, natural and formal sciences, from scientometrics to ethnomethodology or cognitive science. Science studies have a certain importance for evaluation and science policy. Overlapping with the field of science, technology and society, practitioners study the relationship between science and technology, and the interaction of expert and lay knowledge in the public realm. == Scope == The field started with a tendency toward navel-gazing: it was extremely self-conscious in its genesis and applications. From early concerns with scientific discourse, practitioners soon started to deal with the relation of scientific expertise to politics and lay people. Practical examples include bioethics, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), pollution, global warming, biomedical sciences, physical sciences, natural hazard predictions, the (alleged) impact of the Chernobyl disaster in the UK, generation


id: science-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Science studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:09.263367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Until now there has been no science that describes the means for making discoveries and inventions, and the generality of people, as well as many people of learning, believe that there never will be. This is an error. Someday a science of making discoveries and inventions will exist and will render services. It will arise not all at once; first only its general outline will appear, which subsequent researchers will correct and elaborate, and which still later researchers will apply to individual branches of knowledge. It is striking that, while early 20th-century sociologist proponents of a discipline to study science and its practitioners wrote in general theoretical terms, Prus had already half a century earlier described, with many specific examples, the scope and methods of such a discipline. Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) increased interest both in the history of science and in science's philosophical underpinnings. Kuhn posited that the history of science was less a linear succession of discoveries than a succession of paradigms within the philosophy of science. Paradigms are broader, socio-intellectual constructs that determine which types of truth claims are permissible. Science studies seeks to identify key dichotomies – such as those between science and


id: science-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Science studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:09.263367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Donovan et al. (2012) used social studies of volcanology to investigate the generation of knowledge and expert advice on various active volcanoes. It contains a survey of volcanologists carried out during 2008 and 2009 and interviews with scientists in the UK, Montserrat, Italy and Iceland during fieldwork seasons. Donovan et al. (2012) asked the experts about the felt purpose of volcanology and what they considered the most important eruptions in historical time. The survey tries to identify eruptions that had an influence on volcanology as a science and to assess the role of scientists in policymaking. A main focus was on the impact of the Montserrat eruption 1997. The eruption, a classical example of the black swan theory directly killed (only) 19 persons. However the outbreak had major impacts on the local society and destroyed important infrastructure, as the island's airport. About 7,000 people, or two-thirds of the population, left Montserrat; 4,000 to the United Kingdom. The Montserrat case put immense pressure on volcanologists, as their expertise suddenly became the primary driver of various public policy approaches. The science studies approach provided valuable insights in that situation. There were various miscommunications among scientists. Matching scientific uncertainty (typical of volcanic unrest)


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Actor–network theory (ANT) is a theoretical and methodological approach to social theory where everything in the social and natural worlds exists in constantly shifting networks of relationships. It posits that nothing exists outside those relationships. All the factors involved in a social situation are on the same level, and thus there are no external social forces beyond what and how the network participants interact at present. Thus, objects, ideas, processes, and any other relevant factors are seen as just as important in creating social situations as humans. ANT holds that social forces do not exist in themselves, and therefore cannot be used to explain social phenomena. Instead, strictly empirical analysis should be undertaken to "describe" rather than "explain" social activity. Only after this can one introduce the concept of social forces, and only as an abstract theoretical concept, not something which genuinely exists in the world. Although it is best known for its controversial insistence on the capacity of nonhumans to act or participate in systems or networks or both, ANT is also associated with forceful critiques of conventional and critical sociology. Developed by science and technology studies (STS) scholars Michel Callon, Madeleine Akrich and Bruno Latour, the sociologist John


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Human actors ==== Human normally refers to human beings and their human behaviors. ==== Nonhuman actors ==== Traditionally, nonhuman entities are creatures including plants, animals, geology, and natural forces, as well as a collective human making of arts, languages. In ANT, nonhuman covers multiple entities including things, objects, animals, natural phenomena, material structures, transportation devices, texts, and economic goods. But nonhuman actors do not cover entities such as humans, supernatural beings, and other symbolic objects in nature. === Actor-Network === As the term implies, the actor-network is the central concept in ANT. The term "network" is somewhat problematic in that it, as Latour notes, has a number of unwanted connotations. Firstly, it implies that what is described takes the shape of a network, which is not necessarily the case. Secondly, it implies "transportation without deformation," which, in ANT, is not possible since any actor-network involves a vast number of translations. Latour, however, still contends that network is a fitting term to use, because "it has no a priori order relation; it is not tied to the axiological myth of a top and of a bottom of society; it makes absolutely no assumption whether a specific locus is macro- or


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Quasi-object === For the rethinking of social relations as networks, Latour mobilizes a concept from Michel Serres and expands on it in order “to locate the position of these strange new hybrids”. Quasi-objects are simultaneously quasi-subjects – the prefix quasi denotes that neither ontological status as subject or object is pure or permanent, but that these are dynamic entities whose status shifts, depending on their respective momentous activity and their according position in a collective or network. What is decisive is circulation and participation, from which networks emerge, examples for quasi-objects are language, money, bread, love, or the ball in a soccer game: all of these human or non-human, material or immaterial actants have no agency (and thus, subject-status) in themselves, however, they can be seen as the connective tissue underlying – or even activating – the interactions in which they are enmeshed. In Reassembling the Social, Latour refers to these in-between actants as “the mediators whose proliferation generates, among many other entities, what could be called quasi-objects and quasi-subjects.” Actor–network theory refers to these creations as tokens or quasi-objects which are passed between actors within the network. As the token is increasingly transmitted or passed through the network,


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== International relations === Actor–network theory has become increasingly prominent within the discipline of international relations and political science. Theoretically, scholars within IR have employed ANT in order to disrupt traditional world political binaries (civilised/barbarian, democratic/autocratic, etc.), consider the implications of a posthuman understanding of IR, explore the infrastructures of world politics, and consider the effects of technological agency. Empirically, IR scholars have drawn on insights from ANT in order to study phenomena including political violences like the use of torture and drones, piracy and maritime governance, and garbage. === Design === The actor–network theory can also be applied to design, using a perspective that is not simply limited to an analysis of an object's structure. From the ANT viewpoint, design is seen as a series of features that account for a social, psychological, and economical world. ANT argues that objects are designed to shape human action and mold or influence decisions. In this way, the objects' design serves to mediate human relationships and can even impact our morality, ethics, and politics. === Literary criticism === The literary critic Rita Felski has argued that ANT offers the fields of literary criticism and cultural studies vital new modes of interpreting and


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Nonhuman actors can be considered as a condition in human social activities. Through the human's formation of nonhuman actors such as durable materials, they provide a stable foundation for interactions in society. Reciprocally, nonhumans' actions and capacities serve as a condition for the possibility of the formation of society. In Latour's We Have Never Been Modern, his conceptual "parliament of things" consists of social, natural, and discourse together as hybrids. Although the interlocks between human actors and nonhumans effects the modernized society, this parliamentary setting based on nonhuman actors would eliminate such fake modernization, and changes the dichotomy between modern society and premodern society. Nonhuman actors can be considered as mediators. On the one hand, nonhumans could constantly modify relations between actors. On the other hand, nonhumans share the same features with other actors not solely as means for human actors. In this circumstance, nonhuman actors impact human interactions. It either creates an atmosphere for humans to agree with each other, or lead to conflict as the mediators. It is noticeable that the status of mediation is more affiliated with intermediaries or means as a stable presence in the corpus of ANT, while mediators function more powers to influence actors


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Annemarie Mol Helen Verran Mapping controversies Science and technology studies (STS) Obligatory passage point (OPP) Social construction of technology (SCOT) Technology dynamics Theory of structuration (according to which neither agents nor social structure have primacy) Thing theory Outline of organizational theory == References == == Further reading == Carroll, N., Whelan, E., and Richardson, I. (2012). Service Science – an Actor Network Theory Approach. International Journal of Actor-Network Theory and Technological Innovation (IJANTTI), Volume 4, Number 3, pp. 52–70. Carroll, N. (2014). Actor-Network Theory: A Bureaucratic View of Public Service Innovation. Chapter 7, p. 115-144. In Ed Tatnall (ed). Technological Advancements and the Impact of Actor-Network Theory, IGI Global. Online version of the article "On Actor Network Theory: A Few Clarifications", in which Latour responds to criticisms. Archived 2021-04-26 at the Wayback Machine Introductory article "Dolwick, JS. 2009. The 'Social' and Beyond: Introducing Actor–Network Theory", which includes an analysis of other social theories ANThology. Ein einführendes Handbuch zur Akteur–Netzwerk-Theorie, von Andréa Belliger und David Krieger, transcript Verlag (German) Transhumanism as Actor-Network Theory "N00bz & the Actor-Network: Transhumanist Traductions" Archived 2010-10-08 at the Wayback Machine (Humanity+ Magazine) by Woody Evans. John Law (1992). "Notes on the Theory


