# kb

id: arkive-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARKive-0.md
category: reference
title: ARKive
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARKive
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:54.836385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arkive-20260505-0
summary:
ARKive was a global initiative with the mission of "promoting the conservation of the world's threatened species, through the power of wildlife imagery", which it did by locating and gathering films, photographs and audio recordings of the world's species into a centralised digital archive. Its priority was the completion of audio-visual profiles for the c. 17,000 species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The project was an initiative of Wildscreen, a UK-registered educational charity, based in Bristol. The technical platform was created by Hewlett-Packard, as part of the HP Labs' Digital Media Systems research programme. ARKive had the backing of leading conservation organisations, including BirdLife International, Conservation International, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the United Nations' World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), as well as leading academic and research institutions, such as the Natural History Museum; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; and the Smithsonian Institution. It was a member of the Institutional Council of the Encyclopedia of Life. Two ARKive layers for Google Earth, featuring endangered species and species in the Gulf of Mexico were produced by Google Earth Outreach. The first of these was launched in April 2008 by


id: automated-species-identification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_species_identification-0.md
category: reference
title: Automated species identification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_species_identification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:55.990840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-species-identification-20260505-0
summary:
Automated species identification is a method of making the expertise of taxonomists available to ecologists, parataxonomists and others via digital technology and artificial intelligence. Today, most automated identification systems rely on images depicting the species for the identification. Based on precisely identified images of a species, a classifier is trained. Once exposed to a sufficient amount of training data, this classifier can then identify the trained species on previously unseen images. == Introduction == The automated identification of biological objects such as insects (individuals) and/or groups (e.g., species, guilds, characters) has been a dream among systematists for centuries. The goal of some of the first multivariate biometric methods was to address the perennial problem of group discrimination and inter-group characterization. Despite much preliminary work in the 1950s and '60s, progress in designing and implementing practical systems for fully automated object biological identification has proven frustratingly slow. As recently as 2004 Dan Janzen updated the dream for a new audience: The spaceship lands. He steps out. He points it around. It says 'friendly–unfriendly—edible–poisonous—safe– dangerous—living–inanimate'. On the next sweep it says 'Quercus oleoides—Homo sapiens—Spondias mombin—Solanum nigrum—Crotalus durissus—Morpho peleides—serpentine'. This has been in my head since reading science fiction in ninth grade half


id: automated-species-identification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_species_identification-1.md
category: reference
title: Automated species identification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_species_identification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:55.990840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-species-identification-20260505-0
summary:
"... we are running out of systematic palaeontologists who have anything approaching synoptic knowledge of a major group of organisms ... Palaeontologists of the next century are unlikely to have the luxury of dealing at length with taxonomic problems ... Palaeontology will have to sustain its level of excitement without the aid of systematists, who have contributed so much to its success."This expertise deficiency cuts as deeply into those commercial industries that rely on accurate identifications (e.g., agriculture, biostratigraphy) as it does into a wide range of pure and applied research programmes (e.g., conservation, biological oceanography, climatology, ecology). It is also commonly, though informally, acknowledged that the technical, taxonomic literature of all organismal groups is littered with examples of inconsistent and incorrect identifications. This is due to a variety of factors, including taxonomists being insufficiently trained and skilled in making identifications (e.g., using different rules-of-thumb in recognizing the boundaries between similar groups), insufficiently detailed original group descriptions and/or illustrations, inadequate access to current monographs and well-curated collections and, of course, taxonomists having different opinions regarding group concepts. Peer review only weeds out the most obvious errors of commission or omission in this area, and then only when an author provides


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Baltimore classification is a system used to classify viruses by their routes of transferring genetic information from the genome to messenger RNA (mRNA). Seven Baltimore groups, or classes, exist and are numbered in Roman numerals from I to VII. Groups are defined by whether the viral genome is made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), whether the genome is single- or double-stranded, whether a single-stranded RNA genome is positive-sense (+) or negative-sense (–), and whether the virus makes DNA from RNA (reverse transcription (RT)). Viruses within Baltimore groups typically have the same replication method, but other characteristics such as virion structure are not directly related to Baltimore classification. The seven Baltimore groups are for double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses, positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) viruses, negative-sense single-stranded RNA (–ssRNA) viruses, ssRNA viruses that have a DNA intermediate in their life cycle (ssRNA-RT), and dsDNA viruses that have an RNA intermediate in their life cycle (dsDNA-RT). Only one class exists for ssDNA viruses because their genomes are converted to dsDNA before transcription regardless of sense. Some viruses belong to more than one Baltimore group, such as DNA viruses that have either dsDNA or


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The first Baltimore group contains viruses that have a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genome. All dsDNA viruses have their mRNA synthesized in a three-step process. First, a transcription preinitiation complex binds to the DNA upstream of the transcription site, recruiting a host RNA polymerase enzyme. Once the RNA polymerase is recruited, it uses the negative-sense strand as a template for synthesizing mRNA strands, which are positive sense. The RNA polymerase then terminates transcription upon reaching a specific signal, such as a polyadenylation site. dsDNA viruses make use of several mechanisms to replicate their genome. A widely used method is bidirectional replication, in which two replication forks are established at a replication origin site and move in opposite directions on a DNA molecule. A rolling circle mechanism that produces linear strands while progressing in a loop around a circular genome is also common. Many dsDNA viruses use a strand displacement method whereby one strand is synthesized from a template strand, and a complementary strand is then synthesized from the previously synthesized strand to form a dsDNA genome. Lastly, some dsDNA viruses are replicated as part of a process called replicative transposition, whereby a viral genome that is integrated into a host cell's


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Viruses in the phylum Duplornaviricota are dsRNA viruses. In the phylum Pisuviricota, members of the class Duplopiviricetes are dsRNA viruses. === Group IV: positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses === The fourth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) genome. For +ssRNA viruses, the genome functions as mRNA, so no transcription is required for translation. +ssRNA viruses will, however, produce positive-sense copies of the genome from negative-sense strands of an intermediate dsRNA genome. This acts as both a transcription and replication process since the replicated +ssRNA is also mRNA. Many +ssRNA viruses are able to have only a portion of their genome transcribed. Typically, subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) strands are used for the translation of structural and movement proteins needed during intermediate and late stages of infection. sgRNA transcription may occur by commencing RNA synthesis within the genome rather than from the 5′-end ("five prime end"), by stopping RNA synthesis at specific sequences in the genome, or, as a part of both aforementioned methods, by synthesizing leader sequences from viral RNA that are then attached to sgRNA strands. During infection, the viral RdRp is always translated directly from the genome first because replication, performed by the RdRp, is required


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-3.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The sixth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a (positive-sense) single-stranded RNA genome with a DNA intermediate ((+)ssRNA-RT) in their replication cycle. ssRNA-RT viruses are transcribed in the same manner as DNA viruses, but their genomes are first converted to a dsDNA form through a process called reverse transcription (RT). The viral reverse transcriptase enzyme then synthesizes a DNA strand from the +ssRNA strand, and the RNA strand is degraded and replaced with a DNA strand to create a dsDNA copy of the genome. The viral enzyme integrase then integrates the dsDNA molecule into the DNA of the host cell, where it is now called a provirus. The host cell's RNA polymerase II then transcribes RNA in the nucleus from the proviral DNA. Some of this RNA becomes mRNA whereas other strands become copies of the viral genome for replication. ssRNA-RT viruses are all included in the class Revtraviricetes, the sole class in the kingdom Pararnavirae, realm Riboviria. Excluding the family Caulimoviridae, which belongs to group VII, all members of the Revtraviricetes order Ortervirales are ssRNA-RT viruses. ssRNA-RT viruses are sometimes called retroviruses, a term shared with members of the ssRNA-RT family Retroviridae. === Group VII: double-stranded DNA viruses with


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-4.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
=== Genome structure === Viral genomes may be either linear with ends or circular in a loop. Whether a virus has a linear or circular genome varies from group to group. Most dsDNA and –ssRNA viruses have linear genomes, ssDNA viruses mainly have circular genomes, dsRNA, +ssRNA, and ssRNA-RT viruses have linear genomes, and dsDNA-RT viruses have circular genomes. As all +ssRNA viruses have genomes that can act as mRNA, and circular mRNA does not exist in cellular life, all +ssRNA viruses have linear genomes. Among –ssRNA viruses, those of the phylum Negarnaviricota have linear genomes, and those of the realm Ribozyviria have circular genomes. === Genome size === The size, or length, of a genome varies by Baltimore group. dsDNA viruses have genomes ranging from about 5 to 2,500 kilobases (kb) in length, ssDNA viruses 1–25 kb, dsRNA viruses 4–30 kb, +ssRNA viruses 3.5–40 kb, –ssRNA viruses 1.7–20 kb, ssRNA-RT viruses 5–13 kb, and dsDNA-RT viruses 3–10 kb in length. The relatively small genomes of viruses that are not group I are likely due to physical limitations. For example, ssDNA has the potential to form extensive secondary structures, and ssRNA is relatively chemically unstable. dsDNA viruses have much more


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-5.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Non-canonical translation initiation: Viral initiation of translation: some viruses have evolved mechanisms to initiate translation. Methods include having internal ribosomal entry sites to allow cap-independent initiation, having downstream hairpin loops that allow for cap-dependent translation without an eIF2 initiation factor, and initiating translation at a CUG codon or other start codon with a leucine amino acid. These methods are used by various +ssRNA and ssRNA-RT viruses. Ribosomal shunting, also called nonlinear scanning: ribosomes start scanning from a 5′-cap structure then bypass a leader region in the mRNA and initiate translation downstream from the leader sequence. Ribosomal shunting is used by various dsDNA, +ssRNA, –ssRNA, and RT viruses. Termination-reinitiation, also called stop-start: after termination of translation of an ORF, a proportion of 40S subunits of the ribosome remain attached to the mRNA as a way to reinitiate translation of a subsequent ORF. This is used by various dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses. Non-canonical elongation and termination of translation: Ribosomal frameshifting: ribosomes slip one nucleobase forward or backward during translation. This is used by various dsDNA, dsRNA, +ssRNA, and ssRNA-RT viruses to produce merged proteins from overlapping ORFs. Suppression of termination, also called stop codon read-through: certain viruses contain codons in their mRNA


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-6.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Before Baltimore classification was created, a variety of classification systems for viruses had been proposed, classifying viruses by host, structure, biochemical properties, and other characteristics. Baltimore classification was proposed in 1971 by virologist David Baltimore in a paper titled "Expression of Animal Virus Genomes" that was published in the academic journal Bacteriology Reviews (now named Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews). Baltimore focused on classifying animal viruses but effectively classified all viruses by their routes of information transmission from genomic nucleic acid to mRNA. The system initially contained the first six groups but was later expanded to include group VII after the discovery of dsDNA-RT viruses. Because of the utility of Baltimore classification, it came to be used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary relationships and governed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Over time, the belief that Baltimore groups were monophyletic spread among virologists. This was reflected in taxonomies published by the ICTV and the National Center for Biotechnology Information, which for decades placed the Baltimore groups as informal higher ranks above official taxonomic ranks. From 1991 to 2017, virus taxonomy used a five-rank system ranging from order to species, with Baltimore classification used


id: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status-0.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa with candidatus status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:01.046393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of taxa with Candidatus status. For taxa not covered by this list, see also: the GenBank taxonomy for "effective" names as published; the Candidatus Lists and LPSN for latinate names, some sanitized to match the Code. == Phyla == "Ca. Absconditabacteria" (previously Candidate phylum SR1) ABY1 aka OD1-ABY1, subgroup of OD1 ("Ca. Parcubacteria") Candidate phylum AC1 "Ca. Acetothermia" (previously Candidate phylum OP1) "Ca. Aerophobetes" (previously Candidate phylum CD12 or BHI80-139) "Ca. Aminicenantes" (previously Candidate phylum OP8) aquifer1 aquifer2 "Ca. Berkelbacteria" (previously Candidate phylum ACD58) BRC1 CAB-I "Ca. Calescamantes" (previously Candidate phylum EM19) Candidate phylum CPR2 Candidate phylum CPR3 Candidate phylum NC10 Candidate phylum OP2 Candidate phylum RF3 Candidate phylum SAM Candidate phylum SPAM Candidate phylum TG2 Candidate phylum VC2 Candidate phylum WS1 Candidate phylum WS2 Candidate phylum WS4 Candidate phylum WYO CKC4 "Ca. Cloacimonetes" (previously Candidate phylum WWE1) CPR1 "Ca. Dependentiae" (previously Candidate phylum TM6) EM 3 "Ca. Endomicrobia" Stingl et al. 2005 "Ca. Fermentibacteria" (Hyd24-12) "Ca. Fervidibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum OctSpa1-106) GAL08 GAL15 GN01 GN03 GN04 GN05 GN06 GN07 GN08 GN09 GN10 GN11 GN12 GN13 GN14 GN15 GOUTA4 "Ca. Gracilibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum GN02, BD1-5, or BD1-5 group) Guaymas1 "Ca. Hydrogenedentes" (previously Candidate phylum NKB19)


id: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status-1.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa with candidatus status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:01.046393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
summary:
"Ca. Accumulibacter phosphatis" Hesselmann et al. 1999 "Ca. Actinobaculum timonae" Drancourt et al. 2004 "Ca. Adiaceo aphidicola" Darby et al. 2005 "Ca. Allobeggiatoa salina" Hinck et al. 2011 "Ca. Alysiomicrobium bavaricum" Kragelund et al. 2006 "Ca. Alysiosphaera europaea" Kragelund et al. 2006 "Ca. Amoebinatus massiliae" Greub et al. 2004 "Ca. Amoebophilus asiaticus" Horn et al. 2001 "Ca. Amphibiichlamydia ranarum" Martel et al. 2013 "Ca. Anadelfobacter veles" Vannini et al. 2010 "Ca. Ancillula trichonymphae" Strassert et al. 2012 "Ca. Anammoxoglobus propionicus" Kartal et al. 2007 "Ca. Anaplasma sparouinense" Duron et al. 2022 "Ca. Aquiluna rubra" Hahn 2009 "Ca. Aquirestis calciphila" Hahn and Schauer 2007 "Ca. Arcobacter sulfidicus" Wirsen et al. 2002 "Ca. Arsenophonus arthropodicus" Dale et al. 2002 "Ca. Arsenophonus phytopathogenicus" Bressan et al. 2012 "Ca. Arsenophonus triatominarum" Hypsa and Dale 1997 "Ca. Aschnera chinzeii" Hosokawa et al. 2012 "Ca. Atelocyanobacterium thalassa(♦) "Ca. Azoamicus ciliaticola" Graf et al. 2021 "Ca. Bacteroides massiliae" Drancourt et al. 2004 "Ca. Bartonella ancashi" Blazes et al. 2013 "Ca. Bartonella antechini" Kaewmongkol et al. 2011 "Ca. Bartonella breitschwerdtii(♦) "Ca. Bartonella bandicootii" Kaewmongkol et al. 2011 "Ca. Bartonella durdenii(♦) "Ca. Bartonella eldjazairii(♦) "Ca. Bartonella mayotimonensis" Lin et al. 2010 "Ca. Bartonella melophagi(♦) "Ca. Bartonella merieuxii" Chomel et


id: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status-2.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa with candidatus status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:01.046393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
summary:
Mycoplasma aoti" Barker et al. 2011 "Ca. Mycoplasma corallicola" Neulinger et al. 2009 "Ca. Mycoplasma haematoparvum" Sykes et al. 2005 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemobos" Tagawa et al. 2008 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemodidelphidis" Messick et al. 2002 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemofelis" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Haemobartonella felis) "Ca. Mycoplasma haemolamae" Messick et al. 2002 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemomacaque" Maggi et al. 2013 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemominutum" Foley and Pedersen 2001 (previously "Haemobartonella felis small form (Hfsm)") "Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Haemobartonella muris) "Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. musculi" Harasawa et al. 2015 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. ratti" Harasawa et al. 2015 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemosuis" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Eperythrozoon suis and Mycoplasma suis) "Ca. Mycoplasma haemovis" Hornok et al. 2009 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemozalophi" Volokhov et al. 2011 "Ca. Mycoplasma kahanei" Neimark et al. 2002 "Ca. Mycoplasma ravipulmonis" Neimark et al. 1998 "Ca. Mycoplasma turicensis" Willi et al. 2006 "Ca. Mycoplasma wenyonii" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Eperythrozoon wenyonii) "Ca. Nebulobacter yamunensis" Boscaro et al. 2012 "Ca. Neoehrlichia arcana" Gofton et al. 2016 "Ca. Neoehrlichia australis" Gofton et al. 2016 "Ca. Neoehrlichia lotoris" Yabsley et al. 2008 "Ca. Neoehrlichia mikurensis" Kawahara et al. 2004 "Ca. Nitrosoarchaeum koreensis" Kim


id: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status-3.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa with candidatus status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:01.046393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
summary:
Thiodictyon syntrophicum" Peduzzi et al. 2012 "Ca. Thioglobus singularis" Marshall and Morris 2013 "Ca. Thiomargarita joergensenii" Salman et al. 2011 "Ca. Thiomargarita nelsonii" Salman et al. 2011 "Ca. Thiophysa hinzei" Salman et al. 2011 "Ca. Thiopilula aggregata" Salman et al. 2011 "Ca. Thioturbo danicus" Muyzer et al. 2005 "Ca. Tremblaya phenacola" Gruwell et al. 2010 "Ca. Tremblaya princeps" Thao et al. 2002 "Ca. Troglogloea absoloni" Kostanjšek et al. 2013 "Ca. Uabimicrobium amorphum" Shiratori et al. 2019 "Ca. Uabimicrobium helgolandensis" Wurzbacher et al. 2024 "Ca. Uzinura diaspidicola" Gruwell et al. 2007 "Ca. Vallotia cooleyia" Toenshoff et al. 2012 "Ca. Vallotia tarda" Toenshoff et al. 2012 "Ca. Vallotia virida" Toenshoff et al. 2012 "Ca. Veillonella atypica" Drancourt et al. 2004 "Ca. Vesicomyosocius okutanii" Kuwahara et al. 2007 "Ca. Vestibaculum illigatum" Stingl et al. 2004 "Ca. Vidania fulgoroideae" Gonella et al. 2011 "Ca. Wolinella africanus" Bohr et al. 2003 "Ca. Xenohaliotis californiensis" Friedman et al. 2000 "Ca. Xiphinematobacter americani" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000 "Ca. Xiphinematobacter brevicolli" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000 "Ca. Xiphinematobacter rivesi" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000 "Ca. Zinderia insecticola" McCutcheon and Moran 2010 == Former candidatus taxa == Armatimonadota, formerly Candidate phylum OP10 Atribacterota (previously Candidate phylum OP9 or JS1) Caldisericota, formerly


id: circumscriptional-name-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumscriptional_name-0.md
category: reference
title: Circumscriptional name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumscriptional_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:02.234107+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: circumscriptional-name-20260505-0
summary:
In biological classification, circumscriptional names (Latin: nomina circumscribentia) are taxon names that are defined by their circumscription; i.e. the diagnostic feature of the particular set of members included. Such names are not ruled by any nomenclature code and are mainly for taxa above the rank of family (e.g. order or class), but can be used for taxa of any rank or unranked taxa. Non-typified names other than those of genus or species rank constitute the majority of generally accepted names of taxa higher than superfamily. The standard nomenclature codes regulate names of taxa up to family rank (i.e. superfamily). There are no generally accepted rules for the naming of higher taxa (orders, classes, phyla, etc.). Under the approach of circumscription-based (circumscriptional) nomenclatures, a circumscriptional name is associated with a certain circumscription of a taxon without regard of its rank or position. In contrast to circumscriptional nomenclature, some authors advocate introducing a mandatory standardized typified nomenclature of higher taxa. They suggest all names of higher taxa to be derived in the same manner as family-group names, by modifying names of type genera with suffixes to reflect the rank. There is no consensus on what such higher rank suffixes should be. A


id: cline-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Cline (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:03.435002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cline-biology-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, a cline is a measurable gradient in a single characteristic (or biological trait) of a species across its geographical range. Clines usually have a genetic (e.g. allele frequency, blood type), or phenotypic (e.g. body size, skin pigmentation) character. They can show either smooth, continuous gradation in a character, or more abrupt changes in the trait from one geographic region to the next. A cline is a spatial gradient in a single specific trait, rather than in a collection of traits; a single population can therefore have as many clines as it has traits, at least in principle. Additionally, as Julian Huxley recognised, these multiple independent clines may not act in concordance with each other. For example, it has been observed that in Australia, birds generally become smaller the further towards the north of the country they are found. In contrast, the intensity of their plumage colouration follows a different geographical trajectory, being most vibrant where humidity is highest and becoming less vibrant further into the arid centre of the country. Because of this, Huxley described the notion of clines as an "auxiliary taxonomic principle,” meaning that clinal variation in a species is not awarded taxonomic recognition in the


id: cline-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Cline (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:03.435002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cline-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Clines generated through this mechanism have arisen through the joining of two formerly isolated populations which differentiated in allopatry, creating an intermediate zone. This secondary contact scenario may occur, for example, when climatic conditions change, allowing the ranges of populations to expand and meet. Because over time the effect of gene flow will tend to eventually swamp out any regional differences and cause one large homogenous population, for a stable cline to be maintained when two populations join there must usually be a selective pressure maintaining a degree of differentiation between the two populations. The mechanism of selection maintaining the clines in this scenario is often intrinsic. This means that the fitness of individuals is independent of the external environment, and selection is instead dependent on the genome of the individual. Intrinsic, or endogenous, selection can give rise to clines in characters through a variety of mechanisms. One way it may act is through heterozygote disadvantage, in which intermediate genotypes have a lower relative fitness than either homozygote genotypes. Because of this disadvantage, one allele will tend to become fixed in a given population, such that populations will consist largely of either AA (homozygous dominant) or aa (homozygous recessive) individuals.


id: cline-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Cline (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:03.435002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cline-biology-20260505-0
summary:
According to Huxley, clines can be classified into two categories; continuous clines and discontinuous stepped clines. These types of clines characterise the way that a genetic or phenotypic trait transforms from one end of its geographical range of the species to the other. === Continuous clines === In continuous clines, all populations of the species are able to interbreed and there is gene flow throughout the entire range of the species. In this way, these clines are both biologically (no clear subgroups) and geographically (contiguous distribution) continuous. Continuous clines can be further sub-divided into smooth and stepped clines. Continuous smooth clines are characterised by the lack of any abrupt changes or delineation in the genetic or phenotypic trait across the cline, instead displaying a smooth gradation throughout. Huxley recognised that this type of cline, with its uniform slope throughout, was unlikely to be common. Continuous stepped clines consist of an overall shallow cline, interspersed by sections of much steeper slope. The shallow slope represents the populations, and the shorter, steeper sections the larger change in character between populations. Stepped clines can be further subdivided into horizontally stepped clines, and obliquely stepped clines. Horizontally stepped clines show no intra-population variation or


id: cline-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)-3.md
category: reference
title: Cline (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:03.435002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cline-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Although the term "cline" was first officially coined by Huxley in 1938, gradients and geographic variations in the character states of species have been observed for centuries. Indeed, some gradations have been considered so ubiquitous that they have been labelled ecological "rules". One commonly cited example of a gradient in morphology is Gloger's Rule, named after Constantin Gloger, who observed in 1833 that environmental factors and the pigmentation of avian plumage tend to covary with each other, such that birds found in arid areas near the Equator tend to be much darker than those in less arid areas closer to the Poles. Since then, this rule has been extended to include many other animals, including flies, butterflies, and wolves. Other ecogeographical rules include Bergmann's Rule, coined by Carl Bergmann in 1857, which states that homeotherms closer to the Equator tend to be smaller than their more northerly or southerly conspecifics. One of the proposed reasons for this cline is that larger animals have a relatively smaller surface area to volume ratio and therefore improved heat conservancy – an important advantage in cold climates. The role of the environment in imposing a selective pressure and producing this cline has been heavily


id: compositional-domain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compositional_domain-0.md
category: reference
title: Compositional domain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compositional_domain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:04.587158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: compositional-domain-20260505-0
summary:
A compositional domain in genetics is a region of DNA with a distinct guanine (G) and cytosine (C) G-C and C-G content (collectively GC content). The homogeneity of compositional domains is compared to that of the chromosome on which they reside. As such, compositional domains can be homogeneous or nonhomogeneous domains. Compositionally homogeneous domains that are sufficiently long (= 300 kb) are termed isochores or isochoric domains. The compositional domain model was proposed as an alternative to the isochoric model. The isochore model was proposed by Bernardi and colleagues to explain the observed non-uniformity of genomic fragments in the genome. However, recent sequencing of complete genomic data refuted the isochoric model. Its main predictions were: GC content of the third codon position (GC3) of protein coding genes is correlated with the GC content of the isochores embedding the corresponding genes. This prediction was found to be incorrect. GC3 could not predict the GC content of nearby sequences. The genome organization of warm-blooded vertebrates is a mosaic of isochores. This prediction was rejected by many studies that used the complete human genome data. The genome organization of cold-blooded vertebrates is characterized by low GC content levels and lower compositional heterogeneity. This


id: comstock-needham-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comstock–Needham_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Comstock–Needham system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comstock–Needham_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:05.728387+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comstock-needham-system-20260505-0
summary:
The Comstock–Needham system is a naming system for insect wing veins, devised by John Comstock and George Needham in 1898. It was an important step in showing the homology of all insect wings. This system was based on Needham's pretracheation theory that was later discredited by Frederic Charles Fraser in 1938. == Vein terminology == === Longitudinal veins === The Comstock and Needham system attributes different names to the veins on an insect's wing. From the anterior (leading) edge of the wing towards the posterior (rear), the major longitudinal veins are named: costa C, meaning rib subcosta Sc, meaning below the rib radius R, in analogy with a bone in the forearm, the radius media M, meaning middle cubitus Cu, meaning elbow anal veins A, in reference to its posterior location Apart from the costal and the anal veins, each vein can be branched, in which case the branches are numbered from anterior to posterior. For example, the two branches of the subcostal vein will be called Sc1 and Sc2. The radius typically branches once near the base, producing anteriorly the R1 and posteriorly the radial sector Rs. The radial sector may fork twice. The media may also fork twice,


id: conserved-name-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_name-0.md
category: reference
title: Conserved name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:06.894682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conserved-name-20260505-0
summary:
A conserved name or nomen conservandum (plural nomina conservanda, abbreviated as nom. cons.) is a scientific name that has specific nomenclatural protection in that the name is retained, even though it violates one or more rules that would otherwise prevent it from being legitimate. Nomen conservandum is a Latin term, meaning 'a name to be conserved'. While "conserved name" and "nomen conservandum" are often used interchangeably, such as by the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants (ICN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature favors "conserved name". The process for conserving botanical names is different from that for zoological names. Under the botanical code, names may also be "suppressed", nomen rejiciendum (plural nomina rejicienda or nomina utique rejicienda, abbreviated as nom. rej.), or rejected in favor of a particular conserved name, and combinations based on a suppressed name are also listed as nom. rej. == Botany == === Conservation === In botanical nomenclature, conservation is a nomenclatural procedure governed by Article 14 of the ICN. Its purpose is "to avoid disadvantageous nomenclatural changes entailed by the strict application of the rules, and especially of the principle of priority [...]" (Art. 14.1). It applies only to names at the


id: conserved-name-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_name-1.md
category: reference
title: Conserved name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:06.894682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conserved-name-20260505-0
summary:
== Zoology == For zoology, the term "conserved name", rather than "nomen conservandum", is used in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, although informally both terms are used interchangeably. In the glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (the code for names of animals, one of several nomenclature codes), this definition is given: conserved name A name otherwise unavailable or invalid that the Commission, by the use of its plenary power, has enabled to be used as a valid name by removal of the known obstacles to such use. This is a more generalized definition than the one for nomen protectum, which is specifically a conserved name that is either a junior synonym or homonym that is in use because the senior synonym or homonym has been made a nomen oblitum ("forgotten name"). An example of a conserved name is the dinosaur genus name Pachycephalosaurus, which was formally described in 1943. Later, Tylosteus (which was formally described in 1872) was found to be the same genus as Pachycephalosaurus (a synonym). By the usual rules, the genus Tylosteus has precedence and would normally be the correct name. But the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) ruled that the name Pachycephalosaurus


id: cormophyte-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormophyte-0.md
category: reference
title: Cormophyte
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormophyte
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:08.050961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cormophyte-20260505-0
summary:
Cormophytes (Cormophyta) is a historical term seldom used today for the plants that are differentiated into roots, stems and leaves. These plants differ from thallophytes, whose body is referred to as the thallus, i.e. a simple body not differentiated into leaves and stems. Definitions have varied, notably about whether mosses and liverworts are included. Stephan Endlicher, a 19th-century Austrian botanist, divided the vegetable kingdom in 1836 into two groups: the thallophytes were only the algae, lichens and fungi, and the cormophytes were the mosses, liverworts, ferns, Equisitaceae, club mosses and seed plants. == References ==


id: cormus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormus-0.md
category: reference
title: Cormus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:09.221911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cormus-20260505-0
summary:
Cormus (pl: cormi) (from ancient Greek: κορμός, kormόs, 'stem') is the appearance of a plant that belong to Cormophyte (Pteridophyte and Spermatophyte). In cormus, the vegetative apparatus is no longer a thallus, such as algae, that cannot be distinctly differentiated. The structure of cormus can be easily differentiated into its roots, stems, and leaves. In the sense of Ernst Haeckel, cormus is a plant or "colonia" animal made up of a number of individuals which originate by gemmation or budding. As applied to animals, cormus is equivalent to polypidom. == See also == Thallophyte == References ==


id: eocyte-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Eocyte hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:10.485941+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eocyte-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The eocyte hypothesis in evolutionary biology proposes that the eukaryotes originated from a group of prokaryotes called eocytes (later classified as Thermoproteota, a group of archaea). After his team at the University of California, Los Angeles discovered eocytes in 1984, James A. Lake formulated the hypothesis as "eocyte tree" that proposed eukaryotes as part of archaea. Lake hypothesised the tree of life as having only two primary branches: prokaryotes, which include Bacteria and Archaea, and karyotes, that comprise Eukaryotes and eocytes. Parts of this early hypothesis were revived in a newer two-domain system of biological classification which named the primary domains as Archaea and Bacteria. Lake's hypothesis was based on an analysis of the structural components of ribosomes. It was largely ignored, being overshadowed by the three-domain system which relied on more precise genetic analysis. In 1990, Carl Woese and his colleagues proposed that cellular life consists of three domains—Eucarya, Bacteria, and Archaea – based on the ribosomal RNA sequences. The three-domain concept was widely accepted in genetics, and became the presumptive classification system for high-level taxonomy, and was promulgated in many textbooks. Resurgence of archaea research after the 2000s, using advanced genetic techniques, and later discoveries of new groups


id: eocyte-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Eocyte hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocyte_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:10.485941+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eocyte-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Root of the eocyte tree == The eocyte tree root may be located in the RNA world; that is, the root organism may have been a ribocyte (also known as a ribocell). For cellular DNA and DNA handling, an "out of virus" scenario has been proposed: storing genetic information in DNA may have been an innovation performed by viruses and later handed over to ribocytes twice, once transforming them into bacteria and once transforming them into archaea. Although archaeal viruses are not as well-studied as bacterial phages, it is thought that dsDNA viruses led to the incorporation of the viral genome into archaeal genomes. The transduction of genetic material through a viral vector led to an increase in complexity in the pre-eukaryotic cells. All these findings do not change the eocyte tree as given here in principle, but examine a higher resolution of it. == Arguments against == Due to the similarities found between eukaryotes and both archaea and bacteria, it is thought that a major source of the genetic variation is through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer explains why archaeal sequences are found in bacteria and bacterial sequences are found in archaea. This could explain why elongation


id: evolutionary-taxonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Evolutionary taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:11.679071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolutionary-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Evolutionary taxonomy, evolutionary systematics or Darwinian classification is a branch of biological classification that seeks to classify organisms using a combination of phylogenetic relationship (shared descent), progenitor-descendant relationship (serial descent), and degree of evolutionary change. This type of taxonomy may consider whole taxa rather than single species, so that groups of species can be inferred as giving rise to new groups. The concept found its most well-known form in the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 1940s. Evolutionary taxonomy differs from strict pre-Darwinian Linnaean taxonomy (producing orderly lists only) in that it builds evolutionary trees. While in phylogenetic nomenclature each taxon must consist of a single ancestral node and all its descendants, evolutionary taxonomy allows for groups to be excluded from their parent taxa (e.g. dinosaurs are not considered to include birds, but to have given rise to them), thus permitting paraphyletic taxa. == Origin of evolutionary taxonomy == Evolutionary taxonomy arose as a result of the influence of the theory of evolution on Linnaean taxonomy. The idea of translating Linnaean taxonomy into a sort of dendrogram of the Animal and Plant kingdoms was formulated toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's book On the Origin


id: evolutionary-taxonomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Evolutionary taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:11.679071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolutionary-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Phylogenetics attempts to inject a serial element by postulating ad hoc, undemonstrable shared ancestors at each node of a cladistic tree. There are in number, for a fully dichotomous cladogram, one less invisible shared ancestor than the number of terminal taxa. We get, then, in effect a dichotomous natural key with an invisible shared ancestor generating each couplet. This cannot imply a process-based explanation without justification of the dichotomy, and supposition of the shared ancestors as causes. The cladistic form of analysis of evolutionary relationships cannot falsify any genuine evolutionary scenario incorporating serial transformation, according to Zander. Zander has detailed methods for generating support measures for molecular serial descent and for morphological serial descent using Bayes factors and sequential Bayes analysis through Turing deciban or Shannon informational bit addition. == The Tree of Life == As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in the late 19th and early 20th century, palaeontologists worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. The Tree of life was slowly being mapped out, with fossil groups taking up their position in the tree as understanding increased. These groups still retained their formal Linnaean taxonomic ranks.


id: form-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Form classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:12.824213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: form-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Form classification is the classification of organisms based on their morphology, which does not necessarily reflect their biological relationships. Form classification, generally restricted to palaeontology, reflects uncertainty; the goal of science is to move "form taxa" to biological taxa whose affinity is known. Form taxonomy is restricted to fossils that preserve too few characters for a conclusive taxonomic definition or assessment of their biological affinity, but whose study is made easier if a binomial name is available by which to identify them. The term "form classification" is preferred to "form taxonomy"; taxonomy suggests that the classification implies a biological affinity, whereas form classification is about giving a name to a group of morphologically-similar organisms that may not be related. A "parataxon" (not to be confused with parataxonomy), or "sciotaxon" (Gr. "shadow taxon"), is a classification based on incomplete data: for instance, the larval stage of an organism that cannot be matched up with an adult. It reflects a paucity of data that makes biological classification impossible. A sciotaxon is defined as a taxon thought to be equivalent to a true taxon (orthotaxon), but whose identity cannot be established because the two candidate taxa are of a different nature and thus


id: gc-content-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-content-0.md
category: reference
title: GC-content
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-content
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:14.065445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gc-content-20260505-0
summary:
In molecular biology and genetics, GC-content (or G+C content or guanine-cytosine content) is the percentage of nitrogenous bases in a DNA or RNA molecule that are either guanine (G) or cytosine (C). This measure indicates the proportion of G and C bases out of an implied four total bases, also including adenine and thymine in DNA and adenine and uracil in RNA. GC-content may be given for a certain fragment of DNA or RNA or for an entire genome. When it refers to a fragment, it may denote the GC-content of an individual gene or section of a gene (domain), a group of genes or gene clusters, a non-coding region, or a synthetic oligonucleotide such as a primer. == Structure == Qualitatively, guanine (G) and cytosine (C) undergo a specific hydrogen bonding with each other, whereas adenine (A) bonds specifically with thymine (T) in DNA and with uracil (U) in RNA. Quantitatively, each GC base pair is held together by three hydrogen bonds, while AT and AU base pairs are held together by two hydrogen bonds. To emphasize this difference, the base pairings are often represented as "G≡C" versus "A=T" or "A=U". DNA with low GC-content is less stable than


id: gc-content-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-content-1.md
category: reference
title: GC-content
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-content
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:14.065445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gc-content-20260505-0
summary:
=== Molecular biology === In polymerase chain reaction (PCR) experiments, the GC-content of short oligonucleotides known as primers is often used to predict their annealing temperature to the template DNA. A higher GC-content level indicates a relatively higher melting temperature. Many sequencing technologies, such as Illumina sequencing, have trouble reading high-GC-content sequences. Bird genomes are known to have many such parts, causing the problem of "missing genes" expected to be present from evolution and phenotype but never sequenced — until improved methods were used. === Systematics === The species problem in non-eukaryotic taxonomy has led to various suggestions in classifying bacteria, and the ad hoc committee on reconciliation of approaches to bacterial systematics of 1987 has recommended use of GC-ratios in higher-level hierarchical classification. For example, the Actinomycetota are characterised as "high GC-content bacteria". In Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2), GC-content is 72%. With the use of more reliable, modern methods of molecular systematics, the GC-content definition of Actinomycetota has been abolished and low-GC bacteria of this clade have been found. == Software tools == GCSpeciesSorter and TopSort are software tools for classifying species based on their GC-contents. == See also == Codon usage bias == References == == External links ==


id: list-of-gene-families-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gene_families-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gene families
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gene_families
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:15.236553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gene-families-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of gene families or gene complexes, i.e. sets of genes which are related ancestrally and often serve similar biological functions. These gene families typically encode functionally related proteins, and sometimes the term gene families is a shorthand for the sets of proteins that the genes encode. They may or may not be physically adjacent on the same chromosome. == Regulatory protein gene families == 14-3-3 protein family Achaete-scute complex (neuroblast formation) Cyclins Cyclin dependent kinases CDK inhibitors FOX proteins (forkhead box proteins) Families containing homeobox domains DLX gene family Hox gene family POU family GATA transcription factor General transcription factor Krüppel-type zinc finger (ZNF) MADS-box gene family NF-kB NOTCH2NL Nuclear receptor P300-CBP coactivator family Transcription factors SOX gene family == Immune system proteins == Immunoglobulin superfamily Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors Leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) NOD-like receptors Pattern recognition receptor Toll-like receptors RIG-I like receptors == Motor proteins == Dynein Kinesin Myosin == Signal transducing proteins == Arf family G-proteins Janus kinases MAP Kinase Non-receptor tyrosine kinase Olfactory receptor Peroxiredoxin Rab family Rap family Ras family Receptor tyrosine kinases Rho family Serine/threonine-specific protein kinase SRC kinase family == Transporters == ABC transporters Antiporter Aquaporins Globin


id: grading-tumors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grading_(tumors)-0.md
category: reference
title: Grading (tumors)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grading_(tumors)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:16.426978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grading-tumors-20260505-0
summary:
In pathology, grading is a measure of the cell appearance in tumors and other neoplasms. Some pathology grading systems apply only to malignant neoplasms (cancer); others apply also to benign neoplasms. The neoplastic grading is a measure of cell anaplasia (reversion of differentiation) in the sampled tumor and is based on the resemblance of the tumor to the tissue of origin. Grading in cancer is distinguished from staging, which is a measure of the extent to which the cancer has spread. Pathology grading systems classify the microscopic cell appearance abnormality and deviations in their rate of growth with the goal of predicting developments at tissue level (see also the 4 major histological changes in dysplasia). Cancer is a disorder of cell life cycle alteration that leads (non-trivially) to excessive cell proliferation rates, typically longer cell lifespans and poor differentiation. The grade score (numerical: G1 up to G4) increases with the lack of cellular differentiation - it reflects how much the tumor cells differ from the cells of the normal tissue they have originated from (see 'Categories' below). Tumors may be graded on four-tier, three-tier, or two-tier scales, depending on the institution and the tumor type. The histologic tumor grade score


id: ichnotaxon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichnotaxon-0.md
category: reference
title: Ichnotaxon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichnotaxon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:17.576577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ichnotaxon-20260505-0
summary:
An ichnotaxon (plural ichnotaxa) is "a taxon based on the fossilized work of an organism", i.e. the non-human equivalent of an artifact. Ichnotaxon comes from the Ancient Greek ἴχνος (íchnos) meaning "track" and English taxon, itself derived from Ancient Greek τάξις (táxis) meaning "ordering". Ichnotaxa are names used to identify and distinguish morphologically distinctive ichnofossils, more commonly known as trace fossils (fossil records of lifeforms' movement, rather than of the lifeforms themselves). They are assigned genus and species ranks by ichnologists, much like organisms in Linnaean taxonomy. These are known as ichnogenera and ichnospecies, respectively. "Ichnogenus" and "ichnospecies" are commonly abbreviated as "igen." and "isp.". The binomial names of ichnospecies and their genera are to be written in italics. Most researchers classify trace fossils only as far as the ichnogenus rank, based upon trace fossils that resemble each other in morphology but have subtle differences. Some authors have constructed detailed hierarchies up to ichnosuperclass, recognizing such fine detail as to identify ichnosuperorder and ichnoinfraclass, but such attempts are controversial. == Naming == Due to the chaotic nature of trace fossil classification, several ichnogenera hold names normally affiliated with animal body fossils or plant fossils. For example, many ichnogenera are named


id: infraspecific-name-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraspecific_name-0.md
category: reference
title: Infraspecific name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraspecific_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:18.794538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infraspecific-name-20260505-0
summary:
In botany, an infraspecific name is the scientific name for any taxon below the rank of species, i.e. an infraspecific taxon or infraspecies. The scientific names of botanical taxa are regulated by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). As specified by the ICN, the name of an infraspecific taxon is a combination of the name of a species and an infraspecific epithet, separated by a connecting term that denotes the rank of the taxon. An example of an infraspecific name is Astrophytum myriostigma subvar. glabrum, the name of a subvariety of the species Astrophytum myriostigma (bishop's hat cactus). In the previous example, glabrum is the infraspecific epithet. Names below the rank of species of animals and of cultivated plants are regulated by different codes of nomenclature and are formed somewhat differently. == Construction of infraspecific names == Article 24 of the ICN describes how infraspecific names are constructed. The order of the three parts of an infraspecific name is: genus name, specific epithet, connecting term indicating the rank (not part of the name, but required), infraspecific epithet. It is customary to italicize all three parts of such a name, but not the connecting term. For


id: infraspecific-name-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraspecific_name-1.md
category: reference
title: Infraspecific name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraspecific_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:18.794538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infraspecific-name-20260505-0
summary:
As soon as a subspecies of Poa secunda was created, then the type specimen of P. secunda immediately became the type specimen of Poa secunda subsp. secunda. The name "Poa secunda subsp. secunda" was automatically created (it is an "autonym"). Soreng created the subspecies Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia (whose type specimen is also in the Wisconsin State Herbarium), thereby making the type specimen of P. secunda also the type specimen of Poa secunda subsp. secunda. If in addition to the subspecies any variety of Poa secunda were to be created, then the type specimen of P. secunda would automatically become the type specimen of Poa secunda var. secunda. The type specimen would then have the classification Poa secunda subsp. secunda var. secunda. The same epithet can be used again within a species, at whatever level, only if the names with the re-used epithet are attached to the same type. Thus there can be a form called Poa secunda f. juncifolia as well as the subspecies Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia if, and only if, the type specimen of Poa secunda f. juncifolia is the same as the type specimen of Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia (in other words, if there is a


id: institutiones-rei-herbariae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutiones_rei_herbariae-0.md
category: reference
title: Institutiones rei herbariae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutiones_rei_herbariae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:19.976490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institutiones-rei-herbariae-20260505-0
summary:
Institutiones rei herbariae (transl. The Instruction of Botany), originally published in French as Eléments de botanique, is a 1700 Latin-language botanical compendium. The book was the principal work of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a French botanist credited with establishing the modern concept of the genus. == Contents == As a part of the book's introduction, Tournefort included what may be the first recorded history of botany, titled Isagoge in rem herbarium. In it, some of the most important botanical authors are noted, and brief biographies are given for each. In the 1694 edition Eléments de botanique, Tournefort argued against John Ray's conception of the genus, to which Ray responded twice in 1696. However, in Institutiones rei herbariae in 1700, criticisms towards Ray were removed and replaced with praise. The main portion of the book contains an exhaustive list of plant names, organized in a system of "classes", "sections", "genera", and "species". Furthermore, myriad images of plant leaves and flowers are included throughout the volume, engraved on copper-plate. == Publication == While Institutiones rei herbariae was published in 1700 (and again in 1719), the book was originally written in French in 1694 as Eléments de botanique. Beginning in 1716, an English


id: isochore-genetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochore_(genetics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Isochore (genetics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochore_(genetics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:21.158221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isochore-genetics-20260505-0
summary:
In genetics, an isochore is a large region of genomic DNA (greater than 300 kilobases) with a high degree of uniformity in GC content; that is, guanine (G) and cytosine (C) bases. The distribution of bases within a genome is non-random: different regions of the genome have different amounts of G-C base pairs, such that regions can be classified and identified by the proportion of G-C base pairs they contain. Bernardi and colleagues first noticed the compositional non-uniformity of vertebrate genomes using thermal melting and density gradient centrifugation. The DNA fragments extracted by the gradient centrifugation were later termed "isochores", which was subsequently defined as "very long (much greater than 200 KB) DNA segments" that "are fairly homogeneous in base composition and belong to a small number of major classes distinguished by differences in guanine-cytosine (GC) content". Subsequently, the isochores "grew" and were claimed to be ">300 kb in size." The theory proposed that the isochore composition of genomes varies markedly between "warm-blooded" (homeotherm) vertebrates and "cold-blooded" (poikilotherm) vertebrates and later became known as the isochore theory. == The thermodynamic stability hypothesis == The isochore theory purported that the genome of "warm-blooded" vertebrates (mammals and birds) are mosaics of long


id: isochore-genetics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochore_(genetics)-1.md
category: reference
title: Isochore (genetics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochore_(genetics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:21.158221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isochore-genetics-20260505-0
summary:
As the study of isochores was de facto abandoned by most scientists, an alternative theory was proposed to describe the compositional organization of genomes in accordance with the most recent genomic studies. The Compositional Domain Model depicts genomes as a medley of short and long homogeneous and nonhomogeneous domains. The theory defines "compositional domains" as genomic regions with distinct GC-contents as determined by a computational segmentation algorithm. The homogeneity of compositional domains is compared to that of the chromosome on which they reside using the F-test, which separated them into compositionally homogeneous domains and compositionally nonhomogeneous domains based on the outcome of test. Compositionally homogeneous domains that are sufficiently long (≥ 300 kb) are termed isochores or isochoric domains. These terms are in accordance with the literature as they provide clear distinction between isochoric- and nonisochoric-domains. A comprehensive study of the human genome unraveled a genomic organization where two-thirds of the genome is a mixture of many short compositionally homogeneous domains and relatively few long ones. The remaining portion of the genome is composed of nonhomogeneous domains. In terms of coverage, only 1% of the total number of compositionally homogeneous domains could be considered "isochores" which covered less than 20%


id: kew-rule-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kew_Rule-0.md
category: reference
title: Kew Rule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kew_Rule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:22.303608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kew-rule-20260505-0
summary:
The Kew Rule was used by some authors to determine the application of synonymous names in botanical nomenclature up to about 1906, but was and still is contrary to codes of botanical nomenclature including the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. Index Kewensis, a publication that aimed to list all botanical names for seed plants at the ranks of species and genus, used the Kew Rule until its Supplement IV was published in 1913 (prepared 1906–1910). The Kew Rule applied rules of priority in a more flexible way, so that when transferring a species to a new genus, there was no requirement to retain the epithet of the original species name, and future priority of the new name was counted from the time the species was transferred to the new genus. The effect has been summarized as "nomenclature used by an established monographer or in a major publication should be adopted". This is contrary to the modern article 11.4 of the Code of Nomenclature. == History == === Beginnings === The first discussion in print of what was to become known as the Kew Rule appears to have occurred in 1877 between Henry Trimen and Alphonse Pyramus


id: klepton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klepton-0.md
category: reference
title: Klepton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klepton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:23.502386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: klepton-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, a klepton (abbreviated kl.) and synklepton (abbreviated sk.) is a species that requires input from another biological taxon (normally from a species which is closely related to the kleptonic species) to complete its reproductive cycle. Specific types of kleptons are zygokleptons, which reproduce by zygogenesis; gynokleptons which reproduce by gynogenesis, and tychokleptons, which reproduce by a combination of both systems. Kleptogenic reproduction results in three potential outcomes: A unisexual female may simply activate cell division in the egg through the presence of a male's sperm without incorporating any of his genetic material—this results in the production of clonal offspring. The female may also incorporate the male's sperm into her egg, but can do so without excising any of her genetic material. This results in increased ploidy levels that range from triploid to pentaploid in wild individuals. Finally, the female also has the option of replacing some of her genetic material with that of the male's, resulting in a "hybrid" of sorts without increasing ploidy. == Etymology == The term is derived from the (Ancient or Modern) Greek κλέπτ(ης), klépt(ēs), 'thief' + -on, after taxon, or kleptein, 'to steal'. A klepton "steals" from an exemplar of another species in


id: mona-number-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MONA_number-0.md
category: reference
title: MONA number
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MONA_number
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:24.654701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mona-number-20260505-0
summary:
A MONA number (short for Moths of North America), or Hodges number after Ronald W. Hodges, is part of a numbering system for North American moths found north of Mexico in the Continental United States and Canada, as well as the island of Greenland. Introduced in 1983 by Hodges through the publication of Check List of the Lepidoptera of America North of Mexico, the system began an ongoing numeration process in order to compile a list of the over 12,000 moths of North America north of Mexico. The system numbers moths within the same family close together for identification purposes. For example, the species Epimartyria auricrinella begins the numbering system at 0001 while Epimartyria pardella is numbered 0002. The system has become somewhat out of date since its inception for several reasons: Some numbers no longer exist as the species bearing the number have been reclassified into other species. Some species have been regrouped into a different family and their MONA numbers are out of order taxonomically. New species have been discovered since the implementation of the MONA system, resulting in the usage of decimal numbers as to not disrupt the numbering of other species. Despite the issues above, the


id: nomen-novum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen_novum-0.md
category: reference
title: Nomen novum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen_novum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:25.816985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nomen-novum-20260505-0
summary:
In biological nomenclature, a nomen novum (Latin for "new name"), replacement name (or new replacement name, new substitute name, substitute name) is a replacement scientific name that is created when technical, nomenclatural reasons have made it impossible to continue using the previous name (for example because it was discovered to be a homonym – spelled the same as an existing, older name). Nomen novum does not apply when a name is changed for taxonomic reasons alone. It is frequently abbreviated, e.g. nomen nov., nom. nov.. == Zoology == In zoology establishing a new replacement name is a nomenclatural act and it must be expressly proposed to substitute a previously established and available name. Often, the older name cannot be used because another animal was described earlier with exactly the same name. For example, Lindholm discovered in 1913 that a generic name Jelskia established by Bourguignat in 1877 for a European freshwater snail could not be used because another author Taczanowski had proposed the same name in 1871 for a spider. So Lindholm proposed a new replacement name Borysthenia. This is an objective synonym of Jelskia Bourguignat, 1877, because he has the same type species, and is used today as Borysthenia.


id: nomen-novum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen_novum-1.md
category: reference
title: Nomen novum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen_novum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:25.816985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nomen-novum-20260505-0
summary:
Carl Linnaeus gave the herb rosemary the scientific name Rosmarinus officinalis in 1753. It is now regarded as one of many species in the genus Salvia. It cannot be transferred to this genus as "Salvia officinalis" because Linnaeus gave this name to the herb sage. An acceptable name in the genus Salvia was published by Fridolin Spenner in 1835. The replacement name is cited as Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.; the replaced synonym is Rosmarinus officinalis L. The author of the replaced synonym is not included in the citation of the replacement name. The plant name Polygonum persicaria was published by Linnaeus in 1753. In 1821, Samuel Gray transferred the species to the genus Persicaria. He could not do this using the name "Persicaria persicaria" because the ICNafp does not allow tautonyms. Accordingly, he published the replacement name Persicaria maculosa. The replacement name is Persicaria maculosa Gray; the replaced synonym is Polygonum persicaria L. Again, the author of the replaced synonym is not included in the citation of the replacement name. The fungus name Marasmius distantifolius was published by Y.S. Tan and Desjardin in 2009. Later it was discovered that this combination had already been used for a different species by William


id: non-cellular-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cellular_life-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-cellular life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cellular_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:27.002282+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-cellular-life-20260505-0
summary:
Non-cellular life, also known as acellular life, is life that exists without a cellular structure for at least part of its life cycle. Historically, most definitions of life postulated that an organism must be composed of one or more cells, but, for some, this is no longer considered necessary, and modern criteria allow for forms of life based on other structural arrangements. == Nucleic acid-containing infectious agents == === Viruses === Researchers initially described viruses as "poisons" or "toxins", then as "infectious proteins"; but they possess genetic material, a defined structure, and the ability to spontaneously assemble from their constituent parts. This has spurred extensive debate as to whether they should be regarded as fundamentally biotic or abiotic—as very small biological organisms or as very large biochemical molecules. Without their hosts, they are not able to perform any of the functions of life—such as metabolism, growth, or reproduction. Since the 1950s, many scientists have thought of viruses as existing at the border between chemistry and life; a gray area between living and nonliving. === Viroids === If viruses are borderline cases or nonliving, viroids are further from being living organisms. Viroids are some of the smallest infectious agents, consisting solely


id: pathovar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathovar-0.md
category: reference
title: Pathovar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathovar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:28.151461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pathovar-20260505-0
summary:
A pathovar is a bacterial strain or set of strains with the same or similar characteristics, that is differentiated at infrasubspecific level from other strains of the same species or subspecies on the basis of distinctive pathogenicity to one or more plant hosts. Pathovars are named as a ternary or quaternary addition to the species binomial name, for example the bacterium that causes citrus canker Xanthomonas axonopodis, has several pathovars with different host ranges, X. axonopodis pv. citri is one of them; the abbreviation 'pv.' means pathovar. The type strains of pathovars are pathotypes, which are distinguished from the types (holotype, neotype, etc.) of the species to which the pathovar belongs. == See also == Infraspecific names in botany Phytopathology Trinomen, infraspecific names in zoology (subspecies only) == References ==


id: phenetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Phenetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:29.294813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phenetics-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, phenetics (; from Ancient Greek φαίνειν (phainein) 'to appear'), also known as taximetrics, is an attempt to classify organisms based on overall similarity, usually with respect to morphology or other observable traits, regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relation. It is related closely to numerical taxonomy which is concerned with the use of numerical methods for taxonomic classification. Many people contributed to the development of phenetics, but the most influential were Peter Sneath and Robert R. Sokal. Their books are still primary references for this sub-discipline, although now out of print. Phenetics has been largely superseded by cladistics for research into evolutionary relationships among species. However, certain phenetic methods, such as neighbor-joining, are used for phylogenetics, as a reasonable approximation of phylogeny when more advanced methods (such as Bayesian inference) are too expensive computationally. Phenetic techniques include various forms of clustering and ordination. These are sophisticated methods of reducing the variation displayed by organisms to a manageable degree. In practice this means measuring dozens of variables, and then presenting them as two- or three-dimensional graphs. Much of the technical challenge of phenetics concerns balancing the loss of information due to such a reduction against the ease of interpreting


id: quinarian-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinarian_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Quinarian system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinarian_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:30.436793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quinarian-system-20260505-0
summary:
The quinarian system was a method of zoological classification which was popular in the mid 19th century, especially among British naturalists. It was largely developed by the entomologist William Sharp Macleay in 1819. The system was further promoted in the works of Nicholas Aylward Vigors, William Swainson and Johann Jakob Kaup. Swainson's work on ornithology gave wide publicity to the idea. The system had opponents even before the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859), which paved the way for evolutionary trees. == Classification approach == Quinarianism gets its name from the emphasis on the number five: it proposed that all taxa are divisible into five subgroups, and if fewer than five subgroups were known, quinarians believed that a missing subgroup remained to be found. Presumably this arose as a chance observation of some accidental analogies between different groups, but it was erected into a guiding principle by the quinarians. It became increasingly elaborate, proposing that each group of five classes could be arranged in a circle, with those closer together having greater affinities. Typically they were depicted with relatively advanced groups at the top, and supposedly degenerate forms towards the bottom. Each circle could touch or


id: serotype-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotype-0.md
category: reference
title: Serotype
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotype
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:31.676673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: serotype-20260505-0
summary:
A serotype or serovar is a distinct variation within a species of bacteria or virus or among immune cells of different individuals. These microorganisms, viruses, or cells are classified together based on their shared reactivity between their surface antigens and a particular antiserum, allowing the classification of organisms to a level below the species. A group of serovars with common antigens is called a serogroup or sometimes serocomplex. Serotyping often plays an essential role in determining species and subspecies. The Salmonella genus of bacteria, for example, has been determined to have over 2600 serotypes. Vibrio cholerae, the species of bacteria that causes cholera, has over 200 serotypes, based on cell antigens. Only two of them have been observed to produce the potent enterotoxin that results in cholera: O1 and O139. Serotypes were discovered in hemolytic streptococci by the American microbiologist Rebecca Lancefield in 1933. == Procedure == Serotyping is the process of determining the serotype of an organism, using prepared antisera that bind to a set of known antigens. Some antisera detect multiple known antigens and are known as polyvalent or broad; others are monovalent. For example, what was once described as HLA-A9 is now subdivided into two more specific


id: sister-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_group-0.md
category: reference
title: Sister group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:32.832221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sister-group-20260505-0
summary:
In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. == Definition == The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and taxon B are sister groups to each other. Taxa A and B, together with any other extant or extinct descendants of their most recent common ancestor (MRCA), form a monophyletic group, the clade AB. Clade AB and taxon C are also sister groups. Taxa A, B, and C, together with all other descendants of their MRCA form the clade ABC. The whole clade ABC is itself a subtree of a larger tree which offers yet more sister group relationships, both among the leaves and among larger, more deeply rooted clades. The tree structure shown connects through its root to the rest of the universal tree of life. In cladistic standards, taxa A, B, and C may represent specimens, species, genera, or any other taxonomic units. If A and B are at the same taxonomic level, terminology such as sister species or sister genera can be used. == Example == The term sister group is used in phylogenetic analysis; however, only groups


id: soft-bodied-organism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft-bodied_organism-0.md
category: reference
title: Soft-bodied organism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft-bodied_organism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:35.060590+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soft-bodied-organism-20260505-0
summary:
Soft-bodied organisms are organisms that lack rigid physical skeletons or frame, roughly corresponds to the group Vermes as proposed by Carl von Linné. The term typically refers to non-panarthropod invertebrates from the kingdom Animalia, although many non-vascular plants (mosses and algae), fungi (such as jelly fungus), lichens and slime molds can also be seen as soft-bodied organisms by definition. All animals have a muscular system of some sort but, since myocytes are tensile actuator units that can only contract and pull but never push, some animals evolved rigid body parts upon which the muscles can attach and act as levers/cantilevers to redirect force and produce locomotive propulsion. These rigid parts also serve as structural elements to resist gravity and ambient pressure, as well as sometimes provide protective surfaces shielding internal structures from trauma and exposure to external thermal, chemical and pathogenic insults. Such physical structures are the commonly referred "skeletons", which may be internal (as in vertebrates, echinoderms and sponges) or external (as in arthropods and non-coleoid molluscs). However, many soft-bodied animals do still have a functional skeleton maintained by body fluid hydrostatics known as a hydroskeleton, such as that of earthworms, jellyfish, tapeworms, squids and an enormous variety of


id: superorganism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superorganism-0.md
category: reference
title: Superorganism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superorganism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:36.277495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superorganism-20260505-0
summary:
A superorganism, or supraorganism, is a group of synergetically interacting organisms of the same species. A community of synergetically interacting organisms of different species is called a holobiont. == Concept == The term superorganism is used most often to describe a social unit of eusocial animals in which division of labour is highly specialised and individuals cannot survive by themselves for extended periods. Ants are the best-known example of such a superorganism. A superorganism can be defined as "a collection of agents which can act in concert to produce phenomena governed by the collective", phenomena being any activity "the hive wants" such as ants collecting food and avoiding predators, or bees choosing a new nest site. In challenging environments, micro organisms collaborate and evolve together to process unlikely sources of nutrients such as methane. This process called syntrophy ("eating together") might be linked to the evolution of eukaryote cells and involved in the emergence or maintenance of life forms in challenging environments on Earth and possibly other planets. Superorganisms tend to exhibit homeostasis, power law scaling, persistent disequilibrium and emergent behaviours. The term was coined in 1789 by James Hutton, the "father of geology", to refer to Earth in the


id: svenska-spindlar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svenska_Spindlar-0.md
category: reference
title: Svenska Spindlar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svenska_Spindlar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:37.480194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: svenska-spindlar-20260505-0
summary:
The book Svenska Spindlar or Aranei Svecici (Swedish and Latin, respectively, for "Swedish spiders") is one of the major works of the Swedish arachnologist and entomologist Carl Alexander Clerck and was first published in Stockholm in the year 1757. It was the first comprehensive book on the spiders of Sweden and one of the first regional monographs of a group of animals worldwide. The full title of the work is Svenska Spindlar uti sina hufvud-slägter indelte samt under några och sextio särskildte arter beskrefne och med illuminerade figurer uplyste – Aranei Svecici, descriptionibus et figuris æneis illustrati, ad genera subalterna redacti, speciebus ultra LX determinati, ("Swedish spiders into their main genera separated, and as sixty and a few particular species described and with illuminated figures illustrated") and included 162 pages of text (eight pages were unpaginated) and six colour plates. It was published in Swedish, with a Latin translation printed in a slightly smaller font below the Swedish text. Clerck described in detail 67 species of Swedish spiders, and for the first time in a zoological work consistently applied binomial nomenclature as proposed by Carl Linnaeus. Linnaeus had originally invented this system for botanical names in his 1753 work Species


id: systema-naturae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae-0.md
category: reference
title: Systema Naturae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:38.632255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systema-naturae-20260505-0
summary:
Systema Naturae (originally in Latin written Systema Naturæ with the ligature æ) is one of the major works of Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers, Gaspard and Johann, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the 10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, was Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, which appeared in English in 1806 with the title: "A General System of Nature, Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties, with their Habitations, Manners, Economy, Structure and Peculiarities". The tenth edition of this book (1758), published in Stockholm, is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced 12th edition, the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced work in the same style titled "Systema Naturae" was published by Johann Friedrich Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early


id: systema-naturae-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae-1.md
category: reference
title: Systema Naturae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:38.632255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systema-naturae-20260505-0
summary:
=== Animals === Only in the animal kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups as used by Linnaeus. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes; in the tenth edition (1758), these were: Mammalia comprised the mammals. In the first edition, whales and the West Indian manatee were classified among the fishes. Aves comprised the birds. Linnaeus was the first to remove bats from the birds and classify them under mammals. Amphibia comprised amphibians, reptiles, and assorted fishes that are not of Osteichthyes. Pisces comprised the bony fishes. These included the spiny-finned fishes (Perciformes) as a separate order. Insecta comprised all arthropods. Crustaceans, arachnids and myriapods were included as the order "Aptera". Vermes comprised the remaining invertebrates, roughly divided into "worms", molluscs, and hard-shelled organisms such as echinoderms. ==== Humans ==== Linnaeus was one of the first scientists to classify humans as primates (originally Anthropomorpha for "manlike"), eliciting some controversy for placing people among animals, thus not ruling over nature. He distinguished humans (Homo sapiens) from Homo troglodytes, a species of human-like creatures with exaggerated or non-human characteristics,


id: systematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Systematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:39.775331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematics-20260505-0
summary:
Systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: phylogenetic trees, phylogenies). Phylogenies have two components: branching order (showing group relationships, graphically represented in cladograms) and branch length (showing amount of evolution). Phylogenetic trees of species and higher taxa are used to study the evolution of traits (e.g., anatomical or molecular characteristics) and the distribution of organisms (biogeography). Systematics, in other words, is used to understand the evolutionary history of life on Earth. The word systematics is derived from the Latin word of Ancient Greek origin systema, which means systematic arrangement of organisms. Carl Linnaeus used 'Systema Naturae' as the title of his book. == Branches and applications == In the study of biological systematics, researchers use the different branches to further understand the relationships between differing organisms. These branches are used to determine the applications and uses for modern day systematics. Biological systematics classifies species by using three specific branches. Numerical systematics, or biometry, uses biological statistics to identify and classify animals. Biochemical systematics classifies and identifies animals based on the analysis of the material that makes up the


id: taphotaxon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taphotaxon-0.md
category: reference
title: Taphotaxon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taphotaxon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:40.917370+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taphotaxon-20260505-0
summary:
A taphotaxon (from the Greek ταφος, taphos meaning burial and ταξις, taxis meaning ordering) is an invalid taxon based on fossils remains that have been altered in a characteristic way during burial and diagenesis. The fossils so altered have distinctive characteristics that make them appear to be a new taxon, but these characteristics are spurious and do not reflect any significant taxonomic distinction from an existing fossil taxon. The term was first proposed by Spencer G. Lucas in 2001, who particularly applied it to spurious ichnotaxons, but it has since been applied to body fossils such as Nuia (interpreted as cylindrical oncolites formed around filamentous cyanobacteria) or Ivanovia (thought to be a taphotaxon of Anchicondium or Eugonophyllum); conulariids, and crustaceans. In his original definition of the term, Lucas emphasized that he was not seeking to create a new field of taphotaxonomy. The term is intended simply as a useful description of a particular type of invalid taxon. It should not be used indiscriminately, particularly with ichnotaxons, where the fact that an ichnotaxon derives part of its morphology from taphonomic processes may not always render it an invalid ichnotaxon. == References ==


id: taxon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:42.075698+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxon-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism, or organisms, as seen by taxonomists to form a biological unit; (taxon: back-formation from taxonomy; pl.: taxa). Although neither is required, a taxon, once its description has become established, is usually known by a particular name and is given a particular ranking. == Methods == Taxonomists consider: which organisms belong to a given taxon which criteria are to be used for deciding inclusion. This is especially the case in context of rank-based nomenclature (Linnaean taxonomy). Once a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is governed by one of the nomenclature codes that specify the correct scientific name for a particular grouping. Initial attempts at preserving human knowledge of plants and animals were presumably made in prehistoric times by hunter-gatherers, as suggested by folk taxonomies interpreted from archeological and anthropological studies. Much later, as of Aristotle's teachings, and later still—as of the published works of Magnol, Tournefort, and Carl Linnaeus, (his Systema Naturae, 10th edition (1758)), and as of the unpublished works of Bernard and Antoine Laurent de Jussieu—then did European naturalists and scientists begin documenting this new field of human knowledge. The


id: taxon-in-disguise-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon_in_disguise-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxon in disguise
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon_in_disguise
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:43.257317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxon-in-disguise-20260505-0
summary:
In bacteriology, a taxon in disguise is a species, genus or higher unit of biological classification whose evolutionary history reveals that it has evolved from another unit of a similar or lower rank, making the parent unit paraphyletic. That happens when rapid evolution makes a new species appear so radically different from the ancestral group that it is not (initially) recognised as belonging to the parent phylogenetic group, which is left as an evolutionary grade. While the term is from bacteriology, parallel examples are found throughout the tree of life. For example, four-footed animals have evolved from piscine ancestors but since they are not generally considered fish, they can be said to be "fish in disguise". In many cases, the paraphyly can be resolved by reclassifying the taxon in question under the parent group. However, in bacteriology, since renaming groups may have serious consequences by causing confusion over the identity of pathogens, it is generally avoided for some groups. == Examples == === Shigella === The bacterial genus Shigella is the cause of bacillary dysentery, a potentially-severe infection that kills over a million people every year. The genus (S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, S. sonnei) have evolved from the


id: taxonomic-boundary-paradox-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_boundary_paradox-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomic boundary paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_boundary_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:44.398378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomic-boundary-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
The term boundary paradox refers to the conflict between traditional, rank-based classification of life and evolutionary thinking. In the hierarchy of ranked categories it is implicitly assumed that the morphological gap is growing along with increasing ranks: two species from the same genus are more similar than other two species from different genera in the same family, these latter two species are more similar than any two species from different families of the same order, and so on. However, this requirement may only satisfy for the classification of contemporary organisms; difficulties arise if we wish to classify descendants together with their ancestors. Theoretically, such a classification necessarily involves segmentation of the spatio-temporal continuum of populations into groups with crisp boundaries. However, the problem is not only that many parent populations would separate at species level from their offspring. The truly paradoxical situation is that some between-species boundaries would necessarily coincide with between-genus boundaries, and a few between-genus boundaries with borders between families, and so on. This apparent ambiguity cannot be resolved in Linnaean systems; resolution is only possible if classification is cladistic (see below). == Historical background == Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in Philosophie zoologique (1809), was the first who questioned the


id: taxonomic-boundary-paradox-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_boundary_paradox-1.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomic boundary paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_boundary_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:44.398378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomic-boundary-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
Darwin placed emphasis on divergence, that is, when a parent population splits and these offspring populations diverge gradually, each following their own anagenetic sequence potentially with further divergence events. In this case, evolutionary (say morphological) divergence is expressed on a new, horizontal, axis and time becomes the vertical axis. At time point 1 an imaginary taxonomist judges populations A and B to belong to different species, but within the same genus. Their respective descendants, C and D are observed at time 2, and considered to represent two separate genera because their morphological difference is large. The paradox is that while A and C, as well as B and D remain within generic limits but C and D do not, so that ancestors cannot be classified together with their descendants meaningfully in a Linnaean system. This figure illustrates the problem Darwin has discussed in the fish and reptile example. Let us consider a hypothetical evolutionary tree with four recent species, A to D, classified into two genera that are fairly distant from each other morphologically. We assume, further, that from the fossil record we only know their common ancestor, E, representing yet another genus for a taxonomist because it takes “intermediate”


id: taxonomic-vandalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_vandalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomic vandalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_vandalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:46.713738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomic-vandalism-20260505-0
summary:
Taxonomic vandalism is a term used in biology to describe the practice of publishing numerous scientifically unfounded or poorly-justified taxonomic names, often without adequate research or peer review. This phenomenon has been observed across various fields of taxonomy, but has been particularly prevalent in herpetology. == See also == Mihi itch Taxonomic inflation == References == == External links == Why Do Taxonomists Write the Meanest Obituaries?


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις (taxis) 'arrangement' and -νομία (-nomia) 'method') is the scientific study of naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Modern approaches prioritize common ancestory and evolutionary relationships. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon), and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, having developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. == Definition == The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy. ... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate the possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide a basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress a little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Medieval ==== Taxonomy in the Middle Ages was largely based on the Aristotelian system, with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the great chain of being in the Western scholastic tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or fungi, due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in a single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being. Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius, Timotheus of Gaza, Demetrios Pepagomenos, and Thomas Aquinas. Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. In the Muslim world, Al-Damiri (d. 1405) wrote an influential work called Life of Animals (Ḥayāt al-ḥayawān al-kubrā, c.1371) which treats in alphabetic order of 931 animals mentioned in the Quran, the traditions and the poetic and proverbial literature of the Arabs. ==== Renaissance and early modern ==== During the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment, categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-3.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as dendrograms of the animal and plant kingdoms toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Zoonomia in 1796 by Erasmus Darwin (Charles Darwin's grandfather), and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Philosophie zoologique of 1809. The idea was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844. With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent. Tree of life representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of the first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of Archaeopteryx and Hesperornis, Thomas Henry Huxley pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by Richard


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-4.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing the definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In zoology, the nomenclature for the more commonly used ranks (superfamily to subspecies), is regulated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN Code). In the fields of phycology, mycology, and botany, the naming of taxa is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). The initial description of a taxon involves five main requirements: The taxon must be given a name based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet (a binomial for new species, or uninomial for other ranks). The name must be unique (i.e. not a homonym). The description must be based on at least one name-bearing type specimen. It should include statements about appropriate attributes either to describe (define) the taxon or to differentiate it from other taxa (the diagnosis, ICZN Code, Article 13.1.1, ICN, Article 38, which may or may not be based on morphology). Both codes deliberately separate defining the content of a taxon (its circumscription) from defining


id: three-domain-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-domain_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Three-domain system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-domain_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:49.037834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: three-domain-system-20260505-0
summary:
The three-domain system is a taxonomic classification system that groups all cellular life into three domains, namely Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya, introduced by Carl Woese, Otto Kandler and Mark Wheelis in 1990. The key difference from earlier classifications such as the two-empire system and the five-kingdom classification is the splitting of Archaea (previously named "archaebacteria") from Bacteria as completely different organisms. The three-domain system has been contested by some scientists who believe that eukaryotes do not form a separate domain of life, but instead represent a clade alongside the Archaea, in a single shared domain. == Background == Woese argued, on the basis of differences in 16S rRNA genes, that bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes each arose separately from an ancestor with poorly developed genetic machinery, often called a progenote. To reflect these primary lines of descent, he treated each as a domain, divided into several different kingdoms. Originally his split of the prokaryotes was into Eubacteria (now Bacteria) and Archaebacteria (now Archaea). Woese initially used the term "kingdom" to refer to the three primary phylogenic groupings, and this nomenclature was widely used until the term "domain" was adopted in 1990. Acceptance of the validity of Woese's phylogenetically valid classification was


id: trace-fossil-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Trace fossil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:50.156876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trace-fossil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Trace fossils are classified in various ways for different purposes. Traces can be classified taxonomically (by morphology), ethologically (by behavior), and toponomically, that is, according to their relationship to the surrounding sedimentary layers. Except in the rare cases where the original maker of a trace fossil can be identified with confidence, phylogenetic classification of trace fossils is an unreasonable proposition. == Taxonomic classification == The taxonomic classification of trace fossils parallels the taxonomic classification of organisms under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. In trace fossil nomenclature a Latin binomial name is used, just as in animal and plant taxonomy, with a genus and specific epithet. However, the binomial names are not linked to an organism, but rather just a trace fossil. This is due to the rarity of association between a trace fossil and a specific organism or group of organisms. Trace fossils are therefore included in an ichnotaxon separate from Linnaean taxonomy. When referring to trace fossils, the terms ichnogenus and ichnospecies parallel genus and species respectively. The most promising cases of phylogenetic classification are those in which similar trace fossils show details complex enough to deduce the makers, such as bryozoan borings, large trilobite trace fossils such


id: trace-fossil-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Trace fossil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:50.156876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trace-fossil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== Toponomic classification == Another way to classify trace fossils is to look at their relation to the sediment of origin. Martinsson has provided the most widely accepted of such systems, identifying four distinct classes for traces to be separated in this regard: Endichnia are those traces that are found wholly within the casting medium, and therefore can only have been made by an infaunal organism. Epichnia are found on the tops of the strata of origin, being those ridges and grooves that were formed by benthic organisms or infaunal burrows that have been exposed by erosion. Exichnia are traces that are made of material that is different from the surrounding medium, having either been actively filled by an organism or eroded out and re-covered by an alien sediment. Hypichnia are ridges and grooves found on the soles of the beds of origin at their interfaces with other strata, representing the opposite of epichnia. Other classifications have been proposed, but none stray far from the above. == History == Early paleontologists originally classified many burrow fossils as the remains of marine algae, as is apparent in ichnogenera named with the -phycus suffix. Alfred Gabriel Nathorst and Joseph F. James both


id: two-domain-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-domain_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Two-domain system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-domain_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:51.348037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-domain-system-20260505-0
summary:
The two-domain system is a biological classification of all organisms in the tree of life into two domains: Archaea, which includes eukaryotes in this classification, and Bacteria. It emerged from development of knowledge of archaea diversity and challenges the widely accepted three-domain system that classifies life into Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. It was preceded by the eocyte hypothesis of James A. Lake in the 1980s, which was largely superseded by the three-domain system, due to evidence at the time. Better understanding of archaea, especially of their roles in the origin of eukaryotes through symbiogenesis with bacteria, led to the revival of the eocyte hypothesis in the 2000s. The two-domain system became more widely accepted after the discovery of a large kingdom of archaea called Promethearchaeati in 2017, which evidence suggests to be the evolutionary root of eukaryotes, thereby making eukaryotes members of the domain Archaea. While the features of promethearchaea do not completely rule out the three-domain system, the notion that eukaryotes originated within Archaea has been strengthened by genetic and proteomic studies. Under the three-domain system, Eukarya is mainly distinguished by the presence of "eukaryotic signature proteins" that are not found in Archaea and Bacteria. However, promethearchaea contain genes


id: two-domain-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-domain_system-1.md
category: reference
title: Two-domain system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-domain_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:51.348037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-domain-system-20260505-0
summary:
=== Eukaryotes evolved from archaea === The three-domain system presumes that eukaryotes are more closely related to archaea than to Bacteria and are sister group to Archaea, thus, it treats them as separate domain. As more new archaea were discovered in the early 2000s, this distinction became doubtful as eukaryotes became deeply nested within Archaea. The origin of eukaryotes from Archaea, meaning the two are of the same larger group, came to be supported by studies based on ribosome protein sequencing and phylogenetic analyses in 2004. Phylogenomic analysis of about 6000 gene sets from 185 bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic genomes in 2007 also suggested the origin of eukaryotes from Methanobacteriota (specifically the Thermoplasmatales). In 2008, researchers from Natural History Museum, London and Newcastle University reported a comprehensive analysis of 53 genes from archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes that included essential components of the nucleic acid replication, transcription, and translation machineries. The conclusion was that eukaryotes evolved from archaea, specifically Crenarchaeota (eocytes) and the results "favor a topology that supports the eocyte hypothesis rather than archaebacterial monophyly and the 3-domains tree of life." A study around the same time also found several genes common to eukaryotes and Crenarchaeota. These accumulating evidences support


id: u-s-national-vegetation-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._National_Vegetation_Classification-0.md
category: reference
title: U.S. National Vegetation Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._National_Vegetation_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:04.642963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: u-s-national-vegetation-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The U.S. National Vegetation Classification (NVC or USNVC) is a scheme for classifying the natural and cultural vegetation communities of the United States. The purpose of this standardized vegetation classification system is to facilitate communication between land managers, scientists, and the public when managing, researching, and protecting plant communities. The non-profit group NatureServe maintains the NVC for the U.S. government. == See also == British National Vegetation Classification Vegetation classification == External links == The U.S. National Vegetation Classification website "National Vegetation Classification Standard, Version 2" FGDC-STD-005-2008, Vegetation Subcommittee, Federal Geographic Data Committee, February 2008 U.S. Geological Survey page about the Vegetation Characterization Program Federal Geographic Data Committee page about the NVC


id: viridiplantae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viridiplantae-0.md
category: reference
title: Viridiplantae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viridiplantae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:05.858473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: viridiplantae-20260505-0
summary:
Viridiplantae (kingdom Plantae sensu stricto), the green plants, is a natural group or clade of around half a million eukaryotes. They are green because they contain chloroplasts, cell organelles able to produce food by photosynthesis. They are major primary producers of food both in the sea and on land. The group includes both green algae and the land plants (embryophytes) that arose from them. In 2005, Sina Adl and colleagues proposed the name Chloroplastida for the group. In 2012, Frederik Leliaert and colleagues suggested a revised taxonomy of the Viridiplantae. In 2019, M. Leebens-Mack and colleagues proposed a phylogeny based on analysis of over a thousand plant genomes. It renders the former "chlorophyte algae" and "streptophyte algae" paraphyletic, as the land plants arose from within them. == Definition == Viridiplantae (lit. 'green plants') is a clade of around 450,000–500,000 species of chloroplast-bearing eukaryotes. Most of them are autotrophs that obtain their energy by photosynthesis and play important primary production roles in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The clade includes all green algae, which are primarily aquatic; many are microscopic unicellular phytoplankton. It also includes the macroscopic, multicellular, generally complex-structured land plants (embryophytes, i.e. Plantae sensu strictissimo), which emerged from within


id: virus-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Virus classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:07.141972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virus-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Virus classification is the process of naming viruses and placing them into a taxonomic system similar to the classification systems used for cellular organisms. Viruses are classified by phenotypic characteristics, such as morphology, nucleic acid type, mode of replication, host organisms, and the type of disease they cause. The formal taxonomic classification of viruses is the responsibility of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) system, although the Baltimore classification system can be used to place viruses into one of seven groups based on their manner of mRNA synthesis. Specific naming conventions and further classification guidelines are set out by the ICTV. In 2021, the ICTV changed the International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) to mandate a binomial format (genus|| ||species) for naming new viral species similar to that used for cellular organisms; the names of species coined prior to 2021 are gradually being converted to the new format. By 2025, almost all species had been given binomial names. As of 2025, the ICTV taxonomy listed 16,213 named virus species (including some classed as satellite viruses and others as viroids) in 3,768 genera, 368 families, 93 orders, 49 classes, 22 phyla, 11 kingdoms and 7 realms. However,


id: virus-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Virus classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:07.141972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virus-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) began to devise and implement rules for the naming and classification of viruses early in the 1970s, an effort that continues to the present. The ICTV is the only body charged by the International Union of Microbiological Societies with the task of developing, refining, and maintaining a universal virus taxonomy, following the methods set out in the International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN). The system shares many features with the classification system of cellular organisms, such as taxon structure. However, some differences exist, such as the universal use of italics for all taxonomic names, unlike in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Integrative genomic analyses, incorporating pangenomics and phylogenomics, have recently suggested that viral family-level diversity is significantly higher than currently formally recognized. For example, research on the 'extended Asfarviridae' clade of giant viruses indicates that these lineages are deeply divergent, supporting their division into multiple distinct families. Viral classification starts at the level of realm and continues as follows, with the taxonomic suffixes in parentheses: Realm (-viria) Subrealm (-vira) Kingdom (-virae) Subkingdom (-virites) Phylum (-viricota) Subphylum (-viricotina) Class (-viricetes)


id: virus-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Virus classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:07.141972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virus-classification-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reverse transcribing viruses === All viruses that encode a reverse transcriptase (also known as RT or RNA-dependent DNA polymerase) are members of the class Revtraviricetes, within the phylum Arterviricota, kingdom Pararnavirae, and realm Riboviria. The class Blubervirales contains the single family Hepadnaviridae of DNA RT (reverse transcribing) viruses; all other RT viruses are members of the class Ortervirales. Group VI: viruses possess single-stranded RNA viruses that replicate through a DNA intermediate. The retroviruses are included in this group, of which HIV is a member. Group VII: viruses possess double-stranded DNA genomes and replicate using reverse transcriptase. The hepatitis B virus can be found in this group. == Historical systems == === Holmes classification === Holmes (1948) used a Linnaean taxonomy with binomial nomenclature to classify viruses into 3 groups under one order, Virales. They are placed as follows: Group I: Phaginae (attacks bacteria) Group II: Phytophaginae (attacks plants) Group III: Zoophaginae (attacks animals) The system was not accepted by others due to its neglect of morphological similarities. == Subviral agents == Subviral agents are smaller than viruses and have only some of their properties. Since 2015, the ICTV has allowed them to be classified in a similar way as


id: woeseian-revolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woeseian_revolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Woeseian revolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woeseian_revolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:08.299839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: woeseian-revolution-20260505-0
summary:
The Woeseian revolution was the progression of the phylogenetic tree of life concept from two main divisions, known as the Prokarya and Eukarya, into three domains now classified as Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes. The discovery of the new domain stemmed from the work of biophysicist Carl Woese in 1977 from a principle of evolutionary biology designated as Woese's dogma. It states that the evolution of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) was a necessary precursor to the evolution of modern life forms. Although the three-domain system has been widely accepted, the initial introduction of Woese’s discovery received criticism from the scientific community. == Phylogenetic implications == The basis of phylogenetics was limited by the technology of the time, which led to a greater dependence on phenotypic classification before advances that would allow for molecular organization methods. This was a major reason why the dichotomy of all living things being either animal or plant in nature was deemed an acceptable theory. Without truly understanding the genetic implication of each organismal classification in phylogenies via nucleic acid sequencing of shared molecular material, the phylogenetic tree of life and other such phylogenies would no doubt be incorrect. Woese’s advances in molecular sequencing and phylogenetic organization allowed


id: list-of-chemical-classifications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical classifications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:09.869022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-classifications-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical classification systems attempt to classify elements or compounds according to certain chemical functional or structural properties. Whereas the structural properties are largely intrinsic, functional properties and the derived classifications depend to a certain degree on the type of chemical interaction partners on which the function is exerted. Sometimes other criteria like purely physical ones (e.g. molecular weight) or – on the other hand – functional properties above the chemical level are also used for building chemical taxonomies. Some systems mix the various levels, resulting in hierarchies where the domains are slightly confused, for example having structural and functional aspects end up on the same level. Whereas chemical function is closely dependent on chemical structure, the situation becomes more involved when e.g. pharmacological function is integrated, because the QSAR can usually not be directly computed from structural qualities. == Physico-chemical == by molecular weight by electrical charge: uncharged, positively, negatively, partially charged formal charge, oxidation state solubility pH value (or pKA value) == Functional == by functional groups by biological activity (mostly appropriate only for large biological molecules (as at least one interacting partner), in particular enzymes, depends on chemical functions of their constituent amino acids) ligand vs. receptor, coenzyme


id: commercial-classification-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_classification_of_chemicals-0.md
category: reference
title: Commercial classification of chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_classification_of_chemicals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:11.070668+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: commercial-classification-of-chemicals-20260505-0
summary:
Following the commercial classification of chemicals, chemicals produced by chemical industry can be divided essentially into three broad categories: commodity chemicals: are chemicals produced in large quantities and in general their applications can be traced back to their chemical structure; for this reason, two commodities produced by two different suppliers but with the same chemical structure and purity are almost identical and they can be easily interchanged; they are produced by continuous plant and in general their cost is relatively low; examples of chemical commodities are ammonia and ethylene oxide; speciality chemicals (or specialty chemicals): are constituted by a mixture of different chemical substances, that is designed and produced in order to be applied to a specific application; the formulation of specialities is the result of scientific researches carried out by the producer company, so each formulation and associated properties are unique and for this reason in the majority of the cases it is not possible to easily interchange two different specialities produced by two different suppliers; examples of applications of speciality chemicals are pharmaceuticals industry and agriculture; they are produced by batch plant and in general their cost is higher if compared with commodity chemicals; Fine chemicals: as the


id: d-bereiner-s-triads-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Döbereiner's_triads-0.md
category: reference
title: Döbereiner's triads
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Döbereiner's_triads
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:12.242557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: d-bereiner-s-triads-20260505-0
summary:
In the history of the periodic table, Döbereiner's triads were an early attempt to sort the elements into some logical order and sets based on their physical properties. They are analogous to the groups (columns) on the modern periodic table. 53 elements were known at his time. In 1817, a letter by Ferdinand Wurzer reported Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner's observations of the alkaline earths; namely, that strontium had properties that were intermediate to those of calcium and barium. "In der Gegend von Jena (bei Dornburg) … Schwerspaths seyn möchte." (In the area of Jena (near Dornburg) it is known that celestine has been discovered in large quantities. This gave Mr. Döbereiner cause to inquire rigorously into the stoichiometric value of strontium oxide by a great series of experiments. It turned out that it [i.e., the molar weight of strontium oxide] – if that of hydrogen is expressed by 1 or that of oxygen is expressed by the number 7.5 – is equal to 50. This number is, however, precisely the arithmetic mean of that which denotes the stoichiometric value of calcium oxide (= 27.55) and of that which denotes the stoichiometric value of barium oxide (= 72.5); namely (27.5 + 72.5)


id: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:13.417088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals-0.md

summary:
The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an internationally agreed-upon standard managed by the United Nations that was set up to replace the assortment of hazardous material classification and labelling schemes previously used around the world. Core elements of the GHS include standardized hazard testing criteria, universal warning pictograms, and safety data sheets which provide users of dangerous goods relevant information with consistent organization. The system acts as a complement to the UN numbered system of regulated hazardous material transport. Implementation is managed through the UN Secretariat. Although adoption has taken time, as of 2017, the system has been enacted to significant extents in most major countries of the world. This includes the European Union, which has implemented the United Nations' GHS into EU law as the CLP Regulation, and United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards. == History == Before the GHS was created and implemented, there were many different regulations on hazard classification in use in different countries, resulting in multiple standards, classifications and labels for the same hazard. Given the $1.7 trillion per year international trade in chemicals requiring hazard classification, the cost of compliance with multiple systems of classification and

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals


id: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-1
category: reference
title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:13.417088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals-1.md

summary:
=== Health hazards === Acute toxicity includes five GHS categories from which the appropriate elements relevant to transport, consumer, worker and environment protection can be selected. Substances are assigned to one of the five toxicity categories on the basis of LD50 (oral, dermal) or LC50 (inhalation). Skin corrosion means the production of irreversible damage to the skin following the application of a test substance for up to 4 hours. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single harmonized corrosion category. Skin irritation means the production of reversible damage to the skin following the application of a test substance for up to 4 hours. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single irritant category. For those authorities, such as pesticide regulators, wanting more than one designation for skin irritation, an additional mild irritant category is provided. Serious eye damage means the production of tissue damage in the eye, or serious physical decay of vision, following application of a test substance to the front surface of the eye, which is not fully reversible within 21 days of application. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single harmonized category. Eye irritation

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals


id: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-2
category: reference
title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:13.417088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals-2.md

summary:
Where toxicological or ecotoxicological test data are available for the mixture itself, the classification of the mixture will be based on that data; Where test data are not available for the mixture itself, then the appropriate bridging principles should be applied, which uses test data for components and/or similar mixtures; If (1) test data are not available for the mixture itself, and (2) the bridging principles cannot be applied, then use the calculation or cutoff values described in the specific endpoint to classify the mixture. === Substitute substances === Companies are encouraged to replace hazardous substances with substances featuring a reduced health risk. As an assistance to assess possible substitute substances, the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (IFA) has developed the Column Model. On the basis of just a small amount of information on a product, substitute substances can be evaluated with the support of this table. The current version from 2020 already includes the amendments of the 12th CLP Adaptation Regulation 2019/521. == Testing requirements == The GHS generally defers to the United States Environmental Protection Agency and OECD to provide and verify toxicity testing requirements for substances or mixtures. Overall, the

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals


id: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-3
category: reference
title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:13.417088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals-3.md

summary:
Safety data sheets or SDS are specifically aimed at use in the workplace. Safety data sheets take precedence over and are intended to replace the previously used material safety data sheets (MSDS), which did not have a standard layout and section format. It should provide comprehensive information about the chemical product that allows employers and workers to obtain concise, relevant and accurate information in perspective to the hazards, uses and risk management of the chemical product in the workplace. Compared to the differences found between manufacturers in MSDS, SDS have specific requirements to include the following headings in the order specified: The primary difference between the GHS and previous international industry recommendations is that sections 2 and 3 have been reversed in order. The GHS SDS headings, sequence, and content are similar to the ISO, European Union and ANSI MSDS/SDS requirements. A table comparing the content and format of a MSDS/SDS versus the GHS SDS is provided in Appendix A of the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) GHS guidance. == Training == Current training procedures for hazard communication in the United States are more detailed than the GHS training recommendations. Training is a key component of the overall


id: chemical-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_species-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemical species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:14.575538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemical-species-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical species are a specific form of chemical substance or chemically identical molecular entities that have the same molecular energy level at a specified timescale. These entities are classified through bonding types and relative abundance of isotopes. Types of chemical species can be classified based on the type of molecular entity and can be either an atomic, molecular, ionic or radical species. == Classification == Generally, a chemical species is defined as a chemical identity that has the same set of molecular energy levels in a defined timescale (i.e. an experiment). These energy levels determine the way the chemical species will interact with others through properties such as bonding or isotopic compositions. The chemical species can be an atom, molecule, ion, or radical, with a specific chemical name and chemical formula. In supramolecular chemistry, chemical species are structures created by forming or breaking bonds between molecules, such as hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole bonds. These types of bonds can determine the physical property of chemical species in a liquid or solid state. A single chemical can be classified as two different types of species. For example, nitrate is both a molecular and ionic species, with its formula being NO3−. The term


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
In abstract algebra, in particular in the theory of nondegenerate quadratic forms on vector spaces, the finite-dimensional Clifford algebras for a nondegenerate quadratic form are completely classified as rings. In general, the Clifford algebra is either a central simple algebra or a direct sum of two copies of such an algebra. For Clifford algebras over real or complex field, this means that the Clifford algebra is isomorphic to a full matrix ring over R, C, or H (the quaternions), or to a direct sum of two such algebras that are (non-canonically) isomorphic. The dimensions of the matrix algebra, and what division ring (R, C, H) can be determined by the dimension of the vector space and invariants of the quadratic form (its signature, over the reals). == Notation and conventions == The Clifford product is the manifest ring product for the Clifford algebra, and all algebra homomorphisms in this article are with respect to this ring product. Other products defined within Clifford algebras, such as the exterior product, and other structure, such as the distinguished subspace of generators V, are not used here. This article uses the (+) sign convention for Clifford multiplication so that v 2 = Q (


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
C l n + 2 ( C ) ≅ C l n ( C ) ⊗ C l 2 ( C ) . {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{n+2}(\mathbf {C} )\cong \mathrm {Cl} _{n}(\mathbf {C} )\otimes \mathrm {Cl} _{2}(\mathbf {C} ).} To construct it, let γa generate Cln(C), and let γ ~ 1 , γ ~ 2 {\displaystyle {\tilde {\gamma }}_{1},{\tilde {\gamma }}_{2}} generate Cl2(C). Let ω = i\tilde\gamma_1 \tilde\gamma_2 be the chirality element in Cl2(C), so that ω2 = 1 and each γ ~ a {\displaystyle {\tilde {\gamma }}_{a}} anticommutes with ω. Then one obtains generators for Cln+2(C) by setting Γ a = γ a ⊗ ω ( 1 ≤ a ≤ n ) , {\displaystyle \Gamma _{a}=\gamma _{a}\otimes \omega \qquad (1\leq a\leq n),} Γ n + 1 = 1 ⊗ γ ~ 1 , Γ n + 2 = 1 ⊗ γ ~ 2 . {\displaystyle \Gamma _{n+1}=1\otimes {\tilde {\gamma }}_{1},\qquad \Gamma _{n+2}=1\otimes {\tilde {\gamma }}_{2}.} These satisfy the Clifford relations, so by the universal property of Clifford algebras they induce an isomorphism Cln(C) ⊗ Cl2(C) \to Cln+2(C). Finally, if n is even and Cln(C) ≅ End(CN), then C l n + 2 ( C ) ≅ End ⁡ (


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
Both algebras have dimension 2 n + 2 {\displaystyle 2^{n+2}} , so this homomorphism is an isomorphism. It follows by induction on m {\displaystyle m} that C l 2 m ( C ) ≅ C l 0 ( C ) ⊗ C l 2 ( C ) ⊗ m ≅ M 2 m ( C ) . {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{2m}(\mathbf {C} )\cong \mathrm {Cl} _{0}(\mathbf {C} )\otimes \mathrm {Cl} _{2}(\mathbf {C} )^{\otimes m}\cong M_{2^{m}}(\mathbf {C} ).} Indeed, the case m = 0 {\displaystyle m=0} is C l 0 ( C ) ≅ C {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{0}(\mathbf {C} )\cong \mathbf {C} } , and each application of 2-periodicity tensors with C l 2 ( C ) ≅ M 2 ( C ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{2}(\mathbf {C} )\cong M_{2}(\mathbf {C} )} , doubling the matrix size. For odd dimension, let n = 2 m + 1 {\displaystyle n=2m+1} . The volume element ω = e 1 e 2 ⋯ e n {\displaystyle \omega =e_{1}e_{2}\cdots e_{n}} is central because n {\displaystyle n} is odd, and over C {\displaystyle \mathbf {C} } it may be rescaled so that ω 2 = 1 {\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=1} . Hence P ± = 1


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-3.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
each of which is central simple and so isomorphic to a matrix algebra over R or H. If n is odd and ω2 = −1 (equivalently, if p − q ≡ −1 (mod 4)) then the center of Clp,q(R) is isomorphic to C, and the algebra may be regarded as a complex central simple algebra; hence it is isomorphic to a matrix algebra over C. === Classification === All told there are three properties which determine the class of the algebra Clp,q(R): signature mod 2: n is even/odd, determining whether the algebra is central simple or not; signature mod 4: ω2 = ±1, determining in the odd-dimensional case whether the center is R ⊕ R or C; signature mod 8: the Brauer class of the algebra (n even) or of the even subalgebra (n odd), determining whether the central simple factor is split or quaternionic. Each of these properties depends only on the signature p − q modulo 8. The complete classification table is given below. The size of the matrices is determined by the requirement that Clp,q(R) have dimension 2p+q. It may be seen that of all matrix-ring types mentioned, there is only one type shared by complex and


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-4.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
Cl 1 , 0 ⁡ ( R ) ≅ R ⊕ R , Cl 0 , 1 ⁡ ( R ) ≅ C , {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} _{1,0}(\mathbf {R} )\cong \mathbf {R} \oplus \mathbf {R} ,\qquad \operatorname {Cl} _{0,1}(\mathbf {R} )\cong \mathbf {C} ,} while Cl 2 , 0 ⁡ ( R ) ≅ M 2 ( R ) , Cl 0 , 2 ⁡ ( R ) ≅ H . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} _{2,0}(\mathbf {R} )\cong M_{2}(\mathbf {R} ),\qquad \operatorname {Cl} _{0,2}(\mathbf {R} )\cong \mathbf {H} .} So the failure of symmetry appears already in the first few low-dimensional cases. There are two different mechanisms behind this asymmetry. In odd dimension, the distinction is visible in the center. If p − q ≡ 1 (mod 4), then ω2 = +1 and the algebra splits as a direct sum of two simple ideals, so its center is R⊕R. If instead p − q ≡ −1 (mod 4), then ω2 = −1 and the center is C. Thus swapping p and q can change the center from split real to complex. In even dimension, both algebras are central simple, so the distinction is instead in their Brauer classes. For example, when


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-5.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
and hence also Spin ⁡ ( 3 , 1 ) ≅ SL 2 ⁡ ( C ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Spin} (3,1)\cong \operatorname {SL} _{2}(\mathbf {C} )} . == General fields == Let F be a field of characteristic not 2, and let q {\displaystyle q} be a nondegenerate quadratic form on a finite-dimensional F-vector space V {\displaystyle V} . Over such a field, the classification of Clifford algebras is naturally expressed in terms of the center and a Brauer class rather than by a periodic matrix table. If dim ⁡ V = 2 m {\displaystyle \dim V=2m} is even, then the full Clifford algebra Cl ⁡ ( V , q ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} (V,q)} is a central simple algebra over F {\displaystyle F} . Its Brauer class c ( q ) := [ Cl ⁡ ( V , q ) ] ∈ Br ⁡ ( F ) {\displaystyle c(q):=[\operatorname {Cl} (V,q)]\in \operatorname {Br} (F)} is called the Clifford invariant of q {\displaystyle q} . The center of the even Clifford algebra Cl 0 ⁡ ( V , q ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} ^{0}(V,q)} is the quadratic étale F {\displaystyle F} -algebra Z ( q ) = F [ x


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-6.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
The same viewpoint extends to nonarchimedean local fields. If K {\displaystyle K} is a local field of characteristic not 2, then quadratic spaces over K {\displaystyle K} are classified up to isometry by dimension, determinant, and Clifford invariant; equivalently, one may use dimension, determinant, and Hasse invariant. The Brauer group Br ⁡ ( K ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Br} (K)} has exactly two elements of order dividing 2, namely the split class and the class of the unique quaternion division algebra over K {\displaystyle K} . Accordingly, the Brauer-class part of the Clifford-algebra classification over K {\displaystyle K} is especially simple. If q {\displaystyle q} has even dimension 2 m {\displaystyle 2m} , then Cl ⁡ ( q ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} (q)} is isomorphic either to M 2 m ( K ) {\displaystyle M_{2^{m}}(K)} or to M 2 m − 1 ( D ) {\displaystyle M_{2^{m-1}}(D)} , where D {\displaystyle D} is the quaternion division algebra over K {\displaystyle K} . If q {\displaystyle q} has odd dimension 2 m + 1 {\displaystyle 2m+1} , then Cl 0 ⁡ ( q ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} ^{0}(q)} is isomorphic either to M 2 m ( K ) {\displaystyle M_{2^{m}}(K)} or to


id: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of discontinuities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:17.602531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
summary:
While continuous functions are important in mathematics, not all functions are continuous. If a function is not continuous at a limit point (also called an "accumulation point" or "cluster point") of its domain, it has a discontinuity there. The set of all points of discontinuity of a function may be a discrete set, a dense set, or even the entire domain of the function. == Classification == For each of the following, consider a real valued function f {\displaystyle f} of a real variable x , {\displaystyle x,} defined in a neighborhood of the point x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} at which f {\displaystyle f} is discontinuous. === Removable discontinuity === Consider the piecewise function f ( x ) = { x 2 for x < 1 0 for x = 1 2 − x for x > 1 {\displaystyle f(x)={\begin{cases}x^{2}&{\text{ for }}x<1\\0&{\text{ for }}x=1\\2-x&{\text{ for }}x>1\end{cases}}} The point x 0 = 1 {\displaystyle x_{0}=1} is a removable discontinuity. For this kind of discontinuity: The one-sided limit from the negative direction: L − = lim x → x 0 − f ( x ) {\displaystyle L^{-}=\lim _{x\to x_{0}^{-}}f(x)} and the one-sided limit from the positive direction: L + = lim x


id: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of discontinuities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:17.602531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
summary:
The set D {\displaystyle D} is an F σ {\displaystyle F_{\sigma }} set. The set of points at which a function is continuous is always a G δ {\displaystyle G_{\delta }} set (see). If on the interval I , {\displaystyle I,} f {\displaystyle f} is monotone then D {\displaystyle D} is at most countable and D = J . {\displaystyle D=J.} This is Froda's theorem. Tom Apostol follows partially the classification above by considering only removable and jump discontinuities. His objective is to study the discontinuities of monotone functions, mainly to prove Froda’s theorem. With the same purpose, Walter Rudin and Karl R. Stromberg study also removable and jump discontinuities by using different terminologies. However, furtherly, both authors state that R ∪ J {\displaystyle R\cup J} is always a countable set (see). The term essential discontinuity has evidence of use in mathematical context as early as 1889. However, the earliest use of the term alongside a mathematical definition seems to have been given in the work by John Klippert. Therein, Klippert also classified essential discontinuities themselves by subdividing the set E {\displaystyle E} into the three following sets: E 1 = { x 0 ∈ I : lim x →


id: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of discontinuities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:17.602531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
summary:
1 C ( x ) = { 1 x ∈ C 0 x ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] ∖ C . {\displaystyle \mathbf {1} _{\mathcal {C}}(x)={\begin{cases}1&x\in {\mathcal {C}}\\0&x\in [0,1]\setminus {\mathcal {C}}.\end{cases}}} One way to construct the Cantor set C {\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}} is given by C := ⋂ n = 0 ∞ C n {\textstyle {\mathcal {C}}:=\bigcap _{n=0}^{\infty }C_{n}} where the sets C n {\displaystyle C_{n}} are obtained by recurrence according to C n = C n − 1 3 ∪ ( 2 3 + C n − 1 3 ) for n ≥ 1 , and C 0 = [ 0 , 1 ] . {\displaystyle C_{n}={\frac {C_{n-1}}{3}}\cup \left({\frac {2}{3}}+{\frac {C_{n-1}}{3}}\right){\text{ for }}n\geq 1,{\text{ and }}C_{0}=[0,1].} In view of the discontinuities of the function 1 C ( x ) , {\displaystyle \mathbf {1} _{\mathcal {C}}(x),} let's assume a point x 0 ∉ C . {\displaystyle x_{0}\not \in {\mathcal {C}}.} Therefore there exists a set C n , {\displaystyle C_{n},} used in the formulation of C {\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}} , which does not contain x 0 . {\displaystyle x_{0}.} That is, x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} belongs to one of the open intervals which were removed in the construction of


id: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities-3.md
category: reference
title: Classification of discontinuities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:17.602531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
summary:
Therefore if x 0 ∈ I {\displaystyle x_{0}\in I} is a discontinuity of a derivative function f : I → R {\displaystyle f:I\to \mathbb {R} } , then necessarily x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} is a fundamental essential discontinuity of f {\displaystyle f} . Notice also that when I = [ a , b ] {\displaystyle I=[a,b]} and f : I → R {\displaystyle f:I\to \mathbb {R} } is a bounded function, as in the assumptions of Lebesgue's theorem, we have for all x 0 ∈ ( a , b ) {\displaystyle x_{0}\in (a,b)} : lim x → x 0 ± f ( x ) ≠ ± ∞ , {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to x_{0}^{\pm }}f(x)\neq \pm \infty ,} lim x → a + f ( x ) ≠ ± ∞ , {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to a^{+}}f(x)\neq \pm \infty ,} and lim x → b − f ( x ) ≠ ± ∞ . {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to b^{-}}f(x)\neq \pm \infty .} Therefore any essential discontinuity of f {\displaystyle f} is a fundamental one. == See also == Removable singularity – Undefined point on a holomorphic function which can be made regular Mathematical singularity – Point where a mathematical object behaves irregularlyPages displaying short descriptions


id: classification-of-fatou-components-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Fatou_components-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Fatou components
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Fatou_components
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:18.797856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-fatou-components-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, Fatou components are components of the Fatou set. They were named after Pierre Fatou. == Rational case == If f is a rational function f = P ( z ) Q ( z ) {\displaystyle f={\frac {P(z)}{Q(z)}}} defined in the extended complex plane, and if it is a nonlinear function (degree > 1) d ( f ) = max ( deg ⁡ ( P ) , deg ⁡ ( Q ) ) ≥ 2 , {\displaystyle d(f)=\max(\deg(P),\,\deg(Q))\geq 2,} then for a periodic component U {\displaystyle U} of the Fatou set, exactly one of the following holds: U {\displaystyle U} contains an attracting periodic point U {\displaystyle U} is parabolic U {\displaystyle U} is a Siegel disc: a simply connected Fatou component on which f(z) is analytically conjugate to a Euclidean rotation of the unit disc onto itself by an irrational rotation angle. U {\displaystyle U} is a Herman ring: a double connected Fatou component (an annulus) on which f(z) is analytically conjugate to a Euclidean rotation of a round annulus, again by an irrational rotation angle. === Attracting periodic point === The components of the map f ( z ) = z − ( z 3 − 1


id: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of finite simple groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:19.935542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the classification of finite simple groups (popularly called the enormous theorem) is a result of group theory stating that every finite simple group is either cyclic, or alternating, or belongs to a broad infinite class called the groups of Lie type, or else it is one of twenty-six exceptions, called sporadic (the Tits group is sometimes regarded as a sporadic group because it is not strictly a group of Lie type, in which case there would be 27 sporadic groups). The proof consists of tens of thousands of pages in several hundred journal articles written by about 100 authors, published mostly between 1955 and 2004. Simple groups can be seen as the basic building blocks of all finite groups, reminiscent of the way the prime numbers are the basic building blocks of the natural numbers. The Jordan–Hölder theorem is a more precise way of stating this fact about finite groups. However, a significant difference from integer factorization is that such "building blocks" do not necessarily determine a unique group, since there might be many non-isomorphic groups with the same composition series or, put in another way, the extension problem does not have a unique solution. Daniel Gorenstein (1923–1992),


id: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of finite simple groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:19.935542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
summary:
=== Groups of characteristic 2 type === A group is of characteristic 2 type if the generalized Fitting subgroup F*(Y) of every 2-local subgroup Y is a 2-group. As the name suggests these are roughly the groups of Lie type over fields of characteristic 2, plus a handful of others that are alternating or sporadic or of odd characteristic. Their classification is divided into the small and large rank cases, where the rank is the largest rank of an odd abelian subgroup normalizing a nontrivial 2-subgroup, which is often (but not always) the same as the rank of a Cartan subalgebra when the group is a group of Lie type in characteristic 2. The rank 1 groups are the thin groups, classified by Aschbacher, and the rank 2 ones are the notorious quasithin groups, classified by Aschbacher and Smith. These correspond roughly to groups of Lie type of ranks 1 or 2 over fields of characteristic 2. Groups of rank at least 3 are further subdivided into 3 classes by the trichotomy theorem, proved by Aschbacher for rank 3 and by Gorenstein and Lyons for rank at least 4. The three classes are groups of GF(2) type (classified mainly by


id: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of finite simple groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:19.935542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
summary:
== Second-generation classification == The proof of the theorem, as it stood around 1985 or so, can be called first generation. Because of the extreme length of the first generation proof, much effort has been devoted to finding a simpler proof, called a second-generation classification proof. This effort, called "revisionism", was originally led by Daniel Gorenstein, and coauthored with Richard Lyons and Ronald Solomon. As of 2023, ten volumes of the second generation proof have been published (Gorenstein, Lyons & Solomon 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2018a, 2018b; & Inna Capdeboscq, 2021, 2023). In 2012 Solomon estimated that the project would need another 5 volumes, but said that progress on them was slow. It is estimated that the new proof will eventually fill approximately 5,000 pages. (This length stems in part from the second generation proof being written in a more relaxed style.) However, with the publication of volume 9 of the GLS series, and including the Aschbacher–Smith contribution, this estimate was already reached, with several more volumes still in preparation (the rest of what was originally intended for volume 9, plus projected volumes 10 and 11). Aschbacher and Smith wrote their two volumes devoted to the quasithin case


id: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups-3.md
category: reference
title: Classification of finite simple groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:19.935542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Aschbacher, Michael (2004). "The Status of the Classification of the Finite Simple Groups" (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical Society. Vol. 51, no. 7. pp. 736–740. Aschbacher, Michael; Lyons, Richard; Smith, Stephen D.; Solomon, Ronald (2011), The Classification of Finite Simple Groups: Groups of Characteristic 2 Type, Mathematical Surveys and Monographs, vol. 172, ISBN 978-0-8218-5336-8 Conway, John Horton; Curtis, Robert Turner; Norton, Simon Phillips; Parker, Richard A; Wilson, Robert Arnott (1985), Atlas of Finite Groups: Maximal Subgroups and Ordinary Characters for Simple Groups, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853199-9 Gorenstein, D. (1979), "The classification of finite simple groups. I. Simple groups and local analysis", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, New Series, 1 (1): 43–199, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-1979-14551-8, ISSN 0002-9904, MR 0513750 Gorenstein, D. (1982), Finite simple groups, University Series in Mathematics, New York: Plenum Publishing Corp., ISBN 978-0-306-40779-6, MR 0698782 Gorenstein, D. (1983), The classification of finite simple groups. Vol. 1. Groups of noncharacteristic 2 type, The University Series in Mathematics, Plenum Press, ISBN 978-0-306-41305-6, MR 0746470 Daniel Gorenstein (1985), "The Enormous Theorem", Scientific American, December 1, 1985, vol. 253, no. 6, pp. 104–115. Gorenstein, D. (1986), "Classifying the finite simple groups", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, New


id: classification-of-low-dimensional-real-lie-algebras-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_low-dimensional_real_Lie_algebras-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_low-dimensional_real_Lie_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:21.132152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-low-dimensional-real-lie-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
This mathematics-related list provides Mubarakzyanov's classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras, published in Russian in 1963. It complements the article on Lie algebra in the area of abstract algebra. An English version and review of this classification was published by Popovych et al. in 2003. == Mubarakzyanov's Classification == Let g n {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{n}} be n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional Lie algebra over the field of real numbers with generators e 1 , … , e n {\displaystyle e_{1},\dots ,e_{n}} , n ≤ 4 {\displaystyle n\leq 4} . For each algebra g {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}} we adduce only non-zero commutators between basis elements. === One-dimensional === g 1 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{1}} , abelian. === Two-dimensional === 2 g 1 {\displaystyle 2{\mathfrak {g}}_{1}} , abelian R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} ; g 2.1 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{2.1}} , solvable a f f ( 1 ) = { ( a b 0 0 ) : a , b ∈ R } {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {aff}}(1)=\left\{{\begin{pmatrix}a&b\\0&0\end{pmatrix}}\,:\,a,b\in \mathbb {R} \right\}} , [ e 1 , e 2 ] = e 1 . {\displaystyle [e_{1},e_{2}]=e_{1}.} === Three-dimensional === 3 g 1 {\displaystyle 3{\mathfrak {g}}_{1}} , abelian, Bianchi I; g 2.1 ⊕ g 1 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{2.1}\oplus


id: classification-of-low-dimensional-real-lie-algebras-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_low-dimensional_real_Lie_algebras-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_low-dimensional_real_Lie_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:21.132152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-low-dimensional-real-lie-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
g 4.1 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.1}} , indecomposable nilpotent, [ e 2 , e 4 ] = e 1 , [ e 3 , e 4 ] = e 2 ; {\displaystyle [e_{2},e_{4}]=e_{1},\quad [e_{3},e_{4}]=e_{2};} g 4.2 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.2}} , indecomposable solvable, [ e 1 , e 4 ] = β e 1 , [ e 2 , e 4 ] = e 2 , [ e 3 , e 4 ] = e 2 + e 3 , β ≠ 0 ; {\displaystyle [e_{1},e_{4}]=\beta e_{1},\quad [e_{2},e_{4}]=e_{2},\quad [e_{3},e_{4}]=e_{2}+e_{3},\quad \beta \neq 0;} g 4.3 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.3}} , indecomposable solvable, [ e 1 , e 4 ] = e 1 , [ e 3 , e 4 ] = e 2 ; {\displaystyle [e_{1},e_{4}]=e_{1},\quad [e_{3},e_{4}]=e_{2};} g 4.4 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.4}} , indecomposable solvable, [ e 1 , e 4 ] = e 1 , [ e 2 , e 4 ] = e 1 + e 2 , [ e 3 , e 4 ] = e 2 + e 3 ; {\displaystyle [e_{1},e_{4}]=e_{1},\quad [e_{2},e_{4}]=e_{1}+e_{2},\quad [e_{3},e_{4}]=e_{2}+e_{3};} g 4.5 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.5}} , indecomposable solvable, [ e 1 , e 4 ] = α e 1 , [ e 2 , e 4


id: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of manifolds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:22.311632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, specifically geometry and topology, the classification of manifolds is a basic question, about which much is known, and many open questions remain. == Main themes == === Overview === Low-dimensional manifolds are classified by geometric structure; high-dimensional manifolds are classified algebraically, by surgery theory. "Low dimensions" means dimensions up to 4; "high dimensions" means 5 or more dimensions. The case of dimension 4 is somehow a boundary case, as it manifests "low dimensional" behaviour smoothly (but not topologically); see discussion of "low" versus "high" dimension. Different categories of manifolds yield different classifications; these are related by the notion of "structure", and more general categories have neater theories. Positive curvature is constrained, negative curvature is generic. The abstract classification of high-dimensional manifolds is ineffective: given two manifolds (presented as CW complexes, for instance), there is no algorithm to determine if they are isomorphic. === Different categories and additional structure === Formally, classifying manifolds is classifying objects up to isomorphism. There are many different notions of "manifold", and corresponding notions of "map between manifolds", each of which yields a different category and a different classification question. These categories are related by forgetful functors: for instance, a differentiable manifold is also


id: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of manifolds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:22.311632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-0
summary:
==== Computability ==== The Euler characteristic is a homological invariant, and thus can be effectively computed given a CW structure, so 2-manifolds are classified homologically. Characteristic classes and characteristic numbers are the corresponding generalized homological invariants, but they do not classify manifolds in higher dimension (they are not a complete set of invariants): for instance, orientable 3-manifolds are parallelizable (Steenrod's theorem in low-dimensional topology), so all characteristic classes vanish. In higher dimensions, characteristic classes do not in general vanish, and provide useful but not complete data. Manifolds in dimension 4 and above cannot be effectively classified: given two n-manifolds ( n ≥ 4 {\displaystyle n\geq 4} ) presented as CW complexes or handlebodies, there is no algorithm for determining if they are isomorphic (homeomorphic, diffeomorphic). This is due to the unsolvability of the word problem for groups, or more precisely, the triviality problem (given a finite presentation for a group, is it the trivial group?). Any finite presentation of a group can be realized as a 2-complex, and can be realized as the 2-skeleton of a 4-manifold (or higher). Thus one cannot even compute the fundamental group of a given high-dimensional manifold, much less a classification. This ineffectiveness is a


id: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of manifolds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:22.311632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-0
summary:
Four-dimensional manifolds are the most unusual: they are not geometrizable (as in lower dimensions), and surgery works topologically, but not differentiably. Since topologically, 4-manifolds are classified by surgery, the differentiable classification question is phrased in terms of "differentiable structures": "which (topological) 4-manifolds admit a differentiable structure, and on those that do, how many differentiable structures are there?" Four-manifolds often admit many unusual differentiable structures, most strikingly the uncountably infinitely many exotic differentiable structures on R4. Similarly, differentiable 4-manifolds is the only remaining open case of the generalized Poincaré conjecture. == Dimension 5 and more: surgery == In dimension 5 and above (and 4 dimensions topologically), manifolds are classified by surgery theory. The reason for dimension 5 is that the Whitney trick works in the middle dimension in dimension 5 and more: two Whitney disks generically don't intersect in dimension 5 and above, by general position ( 2 + 2 < 5 {\displaystyle 2+2<5} ). In dimension 4, one can resolve intersections of two Whitney disks via Casson handles, which works topologically but not differentiably; see Geometric topology: Dimension for details on dimension. More subtly, dimension 5 is the cut-off because the middle dimension has codimension more than 2: when the


id: classification-theorem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_theorem-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:23.500509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-theorem-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a classification theorem answers the classification problem: "What are the objects of a given type, up to some equivalence?". It gives a non-redundant enumeration: each object is equivalent to exactly one class. A few issues related to classification are the following. The equivalence problem is "given two objects, determine if they are equivalent". A complete set of invariants, together with which invariants are realizable, solves the classification problem, and is often a step in solving it. (A combination of invariant values is realizable if there in fact exists an object whose invariants take on the specified set of values) A computable complete set of invariants (together with which invariants are realizable) solves both the classification problem and the equivalence problem. A canonical form solves the classification problem, and is more data: it not only classifies every class, but provides a distinguished (canonical) element of each class. There exist many classification theorems in mathematics, as described below. == Geometry == Classification of Euclidean plane isometries – Isometry of the Eluclidean plane Classification of Platonic solids Classification theorems of surfaces Classification of two-dimensional closed manifolds – Two-dimensional manifoldPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Enriques–Kodaira classification – Mathematical classification of


id: elliptic-surface-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_surface-0.md
category: reference
title: Elliptic surface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_surface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:24.692093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elliptic-surface-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, an elliptic surface is a surface that has an elliptic fibration, in other words a proper morphism with connected fibers to an algebraic curve such that almost all fibers are smooth curves of genus 1. (Over an algebraically closed field such as the complex numbers, these fibers are elliptic curves, perhaps without a chosen origin.) This is equivalent to the generic fiber being a smooth curve of genus one. This follows from proper base change. The surface and the base curve are assumed to be non-singular (complex manifolds or regular schemes, depending on the context). The fibers that are not elliptic curves are called the singular fibers and were classified by Kunihiko Kodaira. Both elliptic and singular fibers are important in string theory, especially in F-theory. Elliptic surfaces form a large class of surfaces that contains many of the interesting examples of surfaces, and are relatively well understood in the theories of complex manifolds and smooth 4-manifolds. They are similar to (have analogies with, that is), elliptic curves over number fields. == Examples == The product of any elliptic curve with any curve is an elliptic surface (with no singular fibers). All surfaces of Kodaira dimension 1 are


id: elliptic-surface-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_surface-1.md
category: reference
title: Elliptic surface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_surface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:24.692093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elliptic-surface-20260505-0
summary:
Here the multiple fibers of f (if any) are written as f ∗ ( p i ) = m i D i {\displaystyle f^{*}(p_{i})=m_{i}D_{i}} , for an integer mi at least 2 and a divisor Di whose coefficients have greatest common divisor equal to 1, and L is some line bundle on the smooth curve S. If S is projective (or equivalently, compact), then the degree of L is determined by the holomorphic Euler characteristics of X and S: deg(L) = χ(X,OX) − 2χ(S,OS). The canonical bundle formula implies that KX is Q-linearly equivalent to the pullback of some Q-divisor on S; it is essential here that the elliptic surface X → S is minimal. Building on work of Kenji Ueno, Takao Fujita (1986) gave a useful variant of the canonical bundle formula, showing how KX depends on the variation of the smooth fibers. Namely, there is a Q-linear equivalence K X ∼ Q f ∗ ( K S + B S + M S ) , {\displaystyle K_{X}\sim _{\bf {Q}}f^{*}(K_{S}+B_{S}+M_{S}),} where the discriminant divisor BS is an explicit effective Q-divisor on S associated to the singular fibers of f, and the moduli divisor MS is ( 1 / 12


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the Enriques–Kodaira classification groups compact complex surfaces into ten classes, each parametrized by a moduli space. For most of the classes the moduli spaces are well understood, but for the class of surfaces of general type the moduli spaces seem too complicated to describe explicitly, though some components are known. Max Noether began the systematic study of algebraic surfaces, and Guido Castelnuovo proved important parts of the classification. Federigo Enriques described the classification of complex projective surfaces. Kunihiko Kodaira later extended the classification to include non-algebraic compact surfaces. == Statement of the classification == The Enriques–Kodaira classification of compact complex surfaces states that every nonsingular minimal compact complex surface is of exactly one of the 10 types listed on this page; in other words, it is one of the rational, ruled (genus > 0), type VII, K3, Enriques, Kodaira, toric, hyperelliptic, properly quasi-elliptic, or general type surfaces. For the 9 classes of surfaces other than general type, there is a fairly complete description of what all the surfaces look like (which for class VII depends on the global spherical shell conjecture, still unproved in 2024). For surfaces of general type not much is known about their explicit classification,


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
χ = p g − q + 1 = h 0 , 2 − h 0 , 1 + 1. {\displaystyle \chi =p_{g}-q+1=h^{0,2}-h^{0,1}+1.} By Noether's formula it is also equal to the Todd genus 1 12 ( c 1 2 + c 2 ) . {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{12}}(c_{1}^{2}+c_{2}).} The signature of the second cohomology group for complex surfaces is denoted by τ {\displaystyle \tau } : τ = 4 χ − e = ∑ i , j ( − 1 ) j h i , j . {\displaystyle \tau =4\chi -e=\sum \nolimits _{i,j}(-1)^{j}h^{i,j}.} b ± {\displaystyle b^{\pm }} are the dimensions of the maximal positive and negative definite subspaces of H 2 , {\displaystyle H^{2},} so: { b + + b − = b 2 b + − b − = τ {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}b^{+}+b^{-}=b_{2}\\b^{+}-b^{-}=\tau \end{cases}}} c2 = e and c 1 2 = K 2 = 12 χ − e {\displaystyle c_{1}^{2}=K^{2}=12\chi -e} are the Chern numbers, defined as the integrals of various polynomials in the Chern classes over the manifold. === Other invariants === There are further invariants of compact complex surfaces that are not used so much in the classification. These include algebraic invariants such as the Picard


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
χ = h 0 , 0 − h 0 , 1 + h 0 , 2 c 2 = 2 − 2 b 1 + b 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\chi &=h^{0,0}-h^{0,1}+h^{0,2}\\c_{2}&=2-2b_{1}+b_{2}\end{aligned}}} we arrive at: 10 + 12 h 0 , 2 = 8 h 0 , 1 + 2 ( 2 h 0 , 1 − b 1 ) + b 2 {\displaystyle 10+12h^{0,2}=8h^{0,1}+2\left(2h^{0,1}-b_{1}\right)+b_{2}} Moreover since κ = 0 we have: h 0 , 2 = { 1 K = 0 0 otherwise {\displaystyle h^{0,2}={\begin{cases}1&K=0\\0&{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}} combining this with the previous equation gives: 8 h 0 , 1 + 2 ( 2 h 0 , 1 − b 1 ) + b 2 = { 22 K = 0 10 otherwise {\displaystyle 8h^{0,1}+2\left(2h^{0,1}-b_{1}\right)+b_{2}={\begin{cases}22&K=0\\10&{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}} In general 2h0,1 ≥ b1, so three terms on the left are non-negative integers and there are only a few solutions to this equation. For algebraic surfaces 2h0,1 − b1 is an even integer between 0 and 2pg. For compact complex surfaces 2h0,1 − b1 = 0 or 1. For Kähler surfaces 2h0,1 − b1 = 0 and h1,0 = h0,1. Most solutions to these conditions correspond to classes of surfaces, as in the following table: === K3 surfaces


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-3.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== Surfaces of Kodaira dimension 1 == An elliptic surface is a surface equipped with an elliptic fibration (a surjective holomorphic map to a curve B such that all but finitely many fibers are smooth irreducible curves of genus 1). The generic fiber in such a fibration is a genus 1 curve over the function field of B. Conversely, given a genus 1 curve over the function field of a curve, its relative minimal model is an elliptic surface. Kodaira and others have given a fairly complete description of all elliptic surfaces. In particular, Kodaira gave a complete list of the possible singular fibers. The theory of elliptic surfaces is analogous to the theory of proper regular models of elliptic curves over discrete valuation rings (e.g., the ring of p-adic integers) and Dedekind domains (e.g., the ring of integers of a number field). In finite characteristic 2 and 3 one can also get quasi-elliptic surfaces, whose fibers may almost all be rational curves with a single node, which are "degenerate elliptic curves". Every surface of Kodaira dimension 1 is an elliptic surface (or a quasielliptic surface in characteristics 2 or 3), but the converse is not true: an elliptic surface


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-4.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Barth, Wolf P.; Hulek, Klaus; Peters, Chris A.M.; Van de Ven, Antonius (2004), Compact Complex Surfaces, Ergebnisse der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete. 3. Folge., vol. 4, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-57739-0, ISBN 978-3-540-00832-3, MR 2030225 – the standard reference book for compact complex surfaces Beauville, Arnaud (1996), Complex algebraic surfaces, London Mathematical Society Student Texts, vol. 34 (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511623936, ISBN 978-0-521-49510-3, MR 1406314; (ISBN 978-0-521-49842-5 softcover) – including a more elementary introduction to the classification Bombieri, E.; Mumford, D. (1977). "Enriques' Classification of Surfaces in Char. P, II". Complex Analysis and Algebraic Geometry. pp. 23–42. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511569197.004. ISBN 9780521217774. Reid, Miles (1997), "Chapters on algebraic surfaces", Complex algebraic geometry (Park City, UT, 1993), IAS/Park City Math. Ser., vol. 3, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, pp. 3–159, arXiv:alg-geom/9602006, Bibcode:1996alg.geom..2006R, doi:10.1090/pcms/003/02, ISBN 9780821811450, MR 1442522, S2CID 116933286 Shafarevich, Igor R.; Averbuh, Boris G.; Vaĭnberg, Ju. R.; Zhizhchenko, A. B.; Manin, Yuri I.; Moishezon, Boris G.; Tjurina, Galina N.; Tjurin, Andrei N. (1967) [1965], "Algebraic surfaces", Proceedings of the Steklov Institute of Mathematics, 75, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society: 1–215, ISBN 978-0-8218-1875-6, MR 0190143{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link) Van de Ven, Antonius (1978), "On the


id: mathematics-subject-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Subject_Classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Mathematics Subject Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Subject_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:27.221756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematics-subject-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical classification scheme that has collaboratively been produced by staff of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. The MSC is used by many mathematics journals, which ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The current version is MSC2020. == Structure == The MSC is a hierarchical scheme, with three levels of structure. A classification can be two, three or five digits long, depending on how many levels of the classification scheme are used. The first level is represented by a two-digit number, the second by a letter, and the third by another two-digit number. For example: 53 is the classification for differential geometry 53A is the classification for classical differential geometry 53A45 is the classification for vector and tensor analysis === First level === At the top level, 63 mathematical disciplines are labeled with a unique two-digit number. In addition to the typical areas of mathematical research, there are top-level categories for "History and Biography", "Mathematics Education", and for the overlap with different sciences. Physics (i.e. mathematical physics) is


id: mathematics-subject-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Subject_Classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Mathematics Subject Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Subject_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:27.221756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematics-subject-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== First-level areas == 00: General (Includes topics such as recreational mathematics, philosophy of mathematics and mathematical modeling.) 01: History and biography 03: Mathematical logic and foundations (including model theory, computability theory, set theory, proof theory, and algebraic logic) 05: Combinatorics 06: Order, lattices, ordered algebraic structures 08: General algebraic systems 11: Number theory 12: Field theory and polynomials 13: Commutative algebra (Commutative rings and algebras) 14: Algebraic geometry 15: Linear and multilinear algebra; matrix theory 16: Associative rings and (associative) algebras 17: Non-associative rings and (non-associative) algebras 18: Category theory; homological algebra 19: K-theory 20: Group theory and generalizations 22: Topological groups, Lie groups (and analysis upon them) 26: Real functions (including derivatives and integrals) 28: Measure and integration 30: Functions of a complex variable (including approximation theory in the complex domain) 31: Potential theory 32: Several complex variables and analytic spaces 33: Special functions 34: Ordinary differential equations 35: Partial differential equations 37: Dynamical systems and ergodic theory 39: Difference equations and functional equations 40: Sequences, series, summability 41: Approximations and expansions 42: Harmonic analysis on Euclidean spaces (including Fourier analysis, Fourier transforms, trigonometric approximation, trigonometric interpolation, and orthogonal functions) 43: Abstract harmonic analysis 44: Integral transforms, operational


id: morphology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:28.729166+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphology-20260505-0
summary:
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to: == Disciplines == Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, or other extended objects Morphology (biology), the study of the form or shape of an organism or part thereof Morphology (folkloristics), the structure of narratives such as folk tales Morphology (linguistics), the study of the structure and content of word forms Mathematical morphology, a theoretical model based on lattice theory, used for digital image processing River morphology, the field of science dealing with changes of river platform Urban morphology, study of the form, structure, formation and transformation of human settlements Geomorphology, the study of landforms Morphology (architecture and engineering), research which is based on theories of two-dimensional and three-dimensional symmetries, and then uses these geometries for planning buildings and structures In chemistry and materials science, the study of allotropes, isomers, or material polymorphs == Other == Journal of Morphology, peer-reviewed scientific journal of anatomy and morphology Morphology (journal), peer-reviewed academic journal in linguistic morphology Morphology, 1994 album by Finnish band Neuroactive == See also == Morphological analysis (disambiguation)


id: morphological-analysis-problem-solving-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphological analysis (problem-solving)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:29.923068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphological-analysis-problem-solving-20260505-0
summary:
Morphological analysis or general morphological analysis is a method for exploring possible solutions to a multi-dimensional, non-quantified complex problem. It was developed by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky. General morphology has found use in fields including engineering design, technological forecasting, organizational development and policy analysis. == Overview == General morphology was developed by Fritz Zwicky, the Bulgarian-born, Swiss-national astrophysicist based at the California Institute of Technology. Among others, Zwicky applied morphological analysis to astronomical studies and jet and rocket propulsion systems. As a problem-structuring and problem-solving technique, morphological analysis was designed for multi-dimensional, non-quantifiable problems where causal modelling and simulation do not function well, or at all. Zwicky developed this approach to address seemingly non-reducible complexity: using the technique of cross-consistency assessment (CCA), the system allows for reduction by identifying the possible solutions that actually exist, eliminating the illogical solution combinations in a grid box (sometimes called a morphological box) rather than reducing the number of variables involved. == Decomposition versus morphological analysis == Problems that involve many governing factors, where most of them cannot be expressed numerically can be well suited for morphological analysis. The conventional approach is to break a complex system into parts, isolate the parts (dropping the


id: morphological-echo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_Echo-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphological Echo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_Echo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:31.099360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphological-echo-20260505-0
summary:
Morphological Echo is a title shared by two oil-on-panel paintings created by the Spanish surrealist Salvador Dalí. == Description == The first of these works was painted between 1934 and 1936 and measures 64 cm × 54 cm (25 in × 21 in). It depicts a seemingly minimal architectural setting with several surrealist images in its finer details. In the distance is a wall housing a bell resembling the figure of a woman in bundled skirts. In the distance towards the center is a strangely eroded rock form. The most significant element of this image is a small figure in the lower right of a woman running with a large hoop. In the shadow cast by the figure, her arms appear to merge into a circle around her head. The shadow cast by the figure's head takes on the appearance of the hub of a wheel. This painting is displayed at the Salvador Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida on loan from the E. and A. Reynolds Morse collection. The second work by this title was painted in 1936 and measures 30.5 cm × 33 cm (12.0 in × 13.0 in). It depicts a table with three objects set upon


id: morphological-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphological freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:32.229477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphological-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
Morphological freedom refers to a proposed civil right of a person to either maintain or modify their own body, on their own terms, through informed, consensual recourse to, or refusal of, available therapeutic or enabling medical technology. The term may have been coined by transhumanist Max More in his 1993 article, “Technological Self-Transformation: Expanding Personal Extropy”, where he defined it as "the ability to alter bodily form at will through technologies such as surgery, genetic engineering, nanotechnology, uploading". The term was later used by science debater and futurist Anders Sandberg as "an extension of one’s right to one’s body, not just self-ownership but also the right to modify oneself according to one’s desires." The Massachusetts-headquartered charity, the Freedom of Form Foundation, was founded in 2018 to advocate and fund scientific research furthering progress on morphological freedom, the tools required to achieve it and its general acceptance in society at large. == Politics == According to technocritic Dale Carrico, the politics of morphological freedom imply a commitment to the value, standing, and social legibility of the widest possible variety of desired morphologies and lifestyles. More specifically, morphological freedom is an expression of liberal pluralism, secularism, progressive cosmopolitanism, and posthumanist multiculturalisms applied


id: morphological-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphological psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:33.405192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphological-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Morphological psychology claims to be one of the most recent full psychology theories. It was developed in the 1960s by Professor Wilhelm Salber at the University of Cologne, Germany. In his understanding, morphology is the science of the structure of living things. "Morphing" describes the seamless transition from one state or appearance into another. Like the morphing technique used in films, morphological psychology studies the structures of our psyche and aims to understand the transitions, the metamorphosis of our mind. Morphological psychology recognizes that the mind is in a constant state of flux, being shaped and shaping at the same time. It is a psychological theory that considers our mental workings as a dynamic system. Morphology asserts that we are in a constant state of change throughout our life. In every millisecond we experience entire psychological worlds. The only constant in life is change, and Salber has taken this principle to morphological psychology. == Motivations == Morphological psychology identifies six motivations (Kerngestalten) which provide a natural framework for the mind, and defines their relationship to each other to explain the mind's holistic workings. It is within these six motivations that we literally "make up our mind". Each of these motivations


id: morphology-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(archaeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphology (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:34.567437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphology-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
In archaeology, morphology is the study of the shape of artefacts and ecofacts. Morphology is a major consideration in grouping artefacts into period styles and, despite modern techniques like radiocarbon dating, remains a crucial tool in the identification and dating not only of works of art but all classes of archaeological artefact, including purely functional ones (ignoring the question of whether purely functional artefacts exist). The term morphology ("study of shapes", from the Greek) is more often used for this. Morphological analyses of many individual artefacts are used to construct typologies for different types of artefact, and by the technique of seriation a relative dating based on shape and style for a site or group of sites is achieved where scientific absolute dating techniques cannot be used, in particular where only stone, ceramic or metal artefacts or remains are available, which is often the case. That artefacts such as pottery very often survive only in fragments makes precise knowledge of morphology even more necessary, as it is often necessary to identify and date a piece of pottery from only a few sherds. In contrast to recent trends in academic art history, the succession of schools of archaeological theory in the


id: morphology-folkloristics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(folkloristics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphology (folkloristics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(folkloristics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:35.754379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphology-folkloristics-20260505-0
summary:
In folkloristics, morphology is the study of the structure of folklore and fairy tales. Some pioneering work in this field was begun in the nineteenth century, such as Marian Roalfe Cox's work on Cinderella, Cinderella: Three Hundred and Forty-Five Variants of Cinderella, Catskin and, Cap O' Rushes, Abstracted and Tabulated with a Discussion of Medieval Analogues and Notes. However, folkloristic morphology took on much more form in the twentieth century, driven by the work of two researchers and theorists: Russian scholar Vladimir Propp and Finnish folklorist Antti Aarne. Antti Aarne's theories, enlarged and expanded by American folklorist Stith Thompson in 1961 and by Hans-Jörg Uther in 2004, look at motifs rather than actions – for example, "a soldier makes a deal with the devil" or "a soldier marries the youngest of three sisters". More than 2500 folk and fairy tales have been cataloged under this taxonomy; the AaTh or Aarne–Thompson number is as well-known to folklorists as Francis James Child's identification of ballads are to scholars of folk songs. Vladimir Propp was a Russian formalist scholar. He criticized Aarne's work for ignoring what motifs did in a tale, and analysed the basic plot, or action, components of Russian folk tales


id: shape-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape-0.md
category: reference
title: Shape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:36.879662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shape-20260505-0
summary:
A shape is a graphical representation of an object's form or its external boundary, outline, or external surface. It is distinct from other object properties, such as color, texture, or material type. In geometry, shape excludes information about the object's position, size, orientation and chirality. A figure is a representation including both shape and size (as in, e.g., figure of the Earth). A plane shape or plane figure is constrained to lie on a plane, in contrast to solid 3D shapes. A two-dimensional shape or two-dimensional figure (also: 2D shape or 2D figure) may lie on a more general curved surface (a two-dimensional space). == Classification of simple shapes == Some simple shapes can be put into broad categories. For instance, polygons are classified according to their number of edges as triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc. Each of these is divided into smaller categories; triangles can be equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, scalene, etc. while quadrilaterals can be rectangles, rhombi, trapezoids, squares, etc. Other common shapes are points, lines, planes, and conic sections such as ellipses, circles, and parabolas. Among the most common three-dimensional shapes are polyhedra, which are shapes with flat faces; ellipsoids, which are egg-shaped or sphere-shaped objects; cylinders; and


id: shape-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape-1.md
category: reference
title: Shape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:36.879662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shape-20260505-0
summary:
In this paper ‘shape’ is used in the vulgar sense, and means what one would normally expect it to mean. [...] We here define ‘shape’ informally as ‘all the geometrical information that remains when location, scale and rotational effects are filtered out from an object.’ Shapes of physical objects are equal if the subsets of space these objects occupy satisfy the definition above. In particular, the shape does not depend on the size and placement in space of the object. For instance, a "d" and a "p" have the same shape, as they can be perfectly superimposed if the "d" is translated to the right by a given distance, rotated upside down and magnified by a given factor (see Procrustes superimposition for details). However, a mirror image could be called a different shape. For instance, a "b" and a "p" have a different shape, at least when they are constrained to move within a two-dimensional space like the page on which they are written. Even though they have the same size, there's no way to perfectly superimpose them by translating and rotating them along the page. Similarly, within a three-dimensional space, a right hand and a left hand have a


id: shape-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape-2.md
category: reference
title: Shape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:36.879662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shape-20260505-0
summary:
p ( 1 − p ) − 1 = S ( u , v , w ) S ( v , w , u ) = u − w v − w = S ( w , v , u ) . {\displaystyle p(1-p)^{-1}=S(u,v,w)S(v,w,u)={\frac {u-w}{v-w}}=S(w,v,u).} These relations are "conversion rules" for shape of a triangle. The shape of a quadrilateral is associated with two complex numbers p, q. If the quadrilateral has vertices u, v, w, x, then p = S(u,v,w) and q = S(v,w,x). Artzy proves these propositions about quadrilateral shapes: If p = ( 1 − q ) − 1 , {\displaystyle p=(1-q)^{-1},} then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram. If a parallelogram has | arg p | = | arg q |, then it is a rhombus. When p = 1 + i and q = (1 + i)/2, then the quadrilateral is square. If p = r ( 1 − q − 1 ) {\displaystyle p=r(1-q^{-1})} and sgn r = sgn(Im p), then the quadrilateral is a trapezoid. A polygon ( z 1 , z 2 , . . . z n ) {\displaystyle (z_{1},z_{2},...z_{n})} has a shape defined by n − 2 complex numbers S (


id: urban-morphology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphology-0.md
category: reference
title: Urban morphology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:38.085549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-morphology-20260505-0
summary:
Urban morphology is the study of the formation of human settlements and the process of their formation and transformation. The study seeks to understand the spatial structure and character of a metropolitan area, city, town or village by examining the patterns of its component parts and the ownership or control and occupation. Typically, analysis of physical form focuses on street pattern, lot (or, in the UK, plot) pattern and building pattern, sometimes referred to collectively as urban grain. Analysis of specific settlements is usually undertaken using cartographic sources and the process of development is deduced from comparison of historic maps. Special attention is given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities compare to each other. Another significant part of this subfield deals with the study of the social forms which are expressed in the physical layout of a city, and, conversely, how physical form produces or reproduces various social forms. The essence of the idea of morphology was initially expressed in the writings of the great poet and philosopher Goethe (1790). However, the term as such was first used in bioscience. Recently it is being increasingly used in geography, geology, philology


id: urban-morphology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphology-1.md
category: reference
title: Urban morphology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:38.085549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-morphology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chicago School === As an urban-industrial city, Chicago's socio-economic problems were obvious and crying out to be studied in depth. Therefore, several urban sociologists and geographers belonging to the so-called Chicago School, such as W.I. Thomas (concerned with migration), Robert E Park and Ernest Burgess, attempted to analyse the morphology of Chicago in order to solve these problems. Burgess employed an ecological approach in placing emphasis on the relationship between organisms and their environment. He used similar biological factors used in explaining plant distribution and established a concentric-zonal theory which included a Central Business District (CBD), an area of transition (invaded by business and migrants), and area of upper class apartments and several commuter zones and suburbs on the edge of the city. === Morphogenetic School === The scientist Maitri Singhai and the mathematician Nikos Salingaros have created a new school of urban morphology based on morphogenesis and emergence. In The Nature of Order Alexander proposes that urban development is a computational process similar to that of cell growth in an organism, and that the unfolding of these processes produces the urban landscape and its typologies. Some urbanists have sought to transform this theory into a practical emergent urbanism.


id: soil-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Soil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:39.637346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use. Soil Classification is used in a variety of disciplines such as soil science, engineering, and environmental management, to elevate soil properties and determine the appropriate land use. Classification systems group soils according to measurable characteristics such as texture, structure, mineral composition, and the formation process. These new frameworks are designed to support research and help with infrastructure planning. Some of these major systems include soil taxonomy developed by the United States Department of Agriculture as well as engineering-based systems used to assess soil stability and performance. Educational resources from institutions such as the University of Idaho emphasize that these systems provide standardized methods for comparing soils across regions and applications. == Overview == Soil classification is a dynamic subject, from the structure of the system, to the definitions of classes, to the application in the field. Soil classification can be approached from the perspective of soil as a material and soil as a resource. Inscriptions at the temple of Horus at Edfu outline a soil classification used by Tanen to determine what kind of temple to build at


id: soil-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Soil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:39.637346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e. grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behaviour, or genesis, results in classes that can be interpreted for many diverse uses. Differing concepts of pedogenesis, and differences in the significance of morphological features to various land uses can affect the classification approach. Despite these differences, in a well-constructed system, classification criteria group similar concepts so that interpretations do not vary widely. This is in contrast to a technical system approach to soil classification, where soils are grouped according to their fitness for a specific use and their edaphic characteristics. Natural system approaches to soil classification, such as the French Soil Reference System (Référentiel pédologique français) are based on presumed soil genesis. Systems have developed, such as USDA soil taxonomy and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources, which use taxonomic criteria involving soil morphology and laboratory tests to inform and refine hierarchical classes. Another approach is numerical classification, also called ordination, where soil individuals are grouped by multivariate statistical methods such as cluster analysis. This produces natural groupings without requiring any inference about soil genesis. In soil survey, as practiced in the United States, soil


id: soil-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Soil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:39.637346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == AASHTO Soil Classification System Australian Soil Classification Canadian system of soil classification French soil classification FAO soil classification (1974–1998) International Committee on Anthropogenic Soils (ICOMANTH) Unified Soil Classification System USDA soil taxonomy World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) (1998-) == References == == Further reading == === Current international system === Buol, S.W., Southard, R.J., Graham, R.C., and McDaniel, P.A. (2003). Soil Genesis and Classification, 5th Edition. Iowa State Press - Blackwell, Ames, IA. Driessen, P., Deckers, J., Spaargaren, O., & Nachtergaele, F. (Eds.). (2001). Lecture notes on the major soils of the world. Rome: FAO. W. Zech, P. Schad, G. Hintermaier-Erhard: Soils of the World. Springer, Berlin 2022. ISBN 978-3-540-30460-9 IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition. International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna 2022. ISBN 979-8-9862451-1-9 ([1]). P. Schad: World Reference Base for Soil Resources - Its fourth edition and its history. In: Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 186, 2023, S. 151–163. doi: 10.1002/jpln.202200417 ([2]). === Current national systems === Agriculture Canada Expert Committee on Soil Survey. (1987). The Canadian system of soil classification (2nd ed.). Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre. Avery, B. W. (1980). Soil classification


id: aashto-soil-classification-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AASHTO_Soil_Classification_System-0.md
category: reference
title: AASHTO Soil Classification System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AASHTO_Soil_Classification_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:40.762171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aashto-soil-classification-system-20260505-0
summary:
The AASHTO Soil Classification System was developed by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and is used as a guide for the classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway construction purposes. The classification system was first developed by Hogentogler and Terzaghi in 1929, but has been revised several times since. Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than the LL - 30. Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL - 30. == References == == See also == Unified Soil Classification System


id: argillic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillic-0.md
category: reference
title: Argillic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:42.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: argillic-20260505-0
summary:
Argillic is a term used in the United States Department of Agriculture Soil taxonomy to describe a subsurface horizon categorized by clay-enrichment. It is analogous to the Argic horizon in the World Reference Base system of soil taxonomy used outside of the United States. The term "Argillic" comes from the Latin argilla, meaning clay. The term Argic used by the WRB system also comes from this same root. Clay accumulation occurs in the mineral soil through primarily illuviation and translocation of preexisting clays with some formation in-situ in the soil. The red color is caused by the formation of iron oxides which form under the same wet conditions as the clay accumulation occurs. == North American distribution and importance == According to a study conduct by James Bockheim at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 2014, the argillic horizon is found in 44% of soil series across the United States. The argillic horizon is also important as starting point from which the kandic and natric horizons form, as well as commonly from which fragipans develop. The kandic is a argillic horizon in which the clays are primarily 1:1 silicate clays causing the soil to have a low cation exchange capacity, meaning


id: argillic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillic-1.md
category: reference
title: Argillic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:42.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: argillic-20260505-0
summary:
Translocation by eluviation The eluviation (downward movement) of clay particles through the soil by physical means (ie. water movement). Where the clay particles originate is termed the "zone of eluviation" and the "zone of illuviation" is the part of the horizon in which the clay particles move to. The argillic horizon is synonymous with the zone of illuviation. Translocation by eolian (wind) processes Previously existing clays are transported into new environments through wind and accumulate on the surface. Weathering in-situ Chemical and physical weathering both cause the reduction of particles into clay sized pieces (smaller than 2 micrometers). Neoformation (synthesis in solution) Clay minerals are precipitated in solution or formed by the alteration of amorphous (non-crystalline) minerals. === Clay mineralogy === There are seven clay primary mineral groups, all of which are silicates. Within these, clays fall under a variety of geometries including tetrahedral, octahedral, cubic, and dodecahedral. These geometries are then layered with different minerals between them contributing to the mineralogical properties. The type of clay formed in the pedogenesis of argillic horizons is dependent on the initial mineral availability and diversity in the parent material, as well as the pH of the soil, and the Eh of the


id: polish-soil-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Polish Soil Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:43.199739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polish-soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The Polish Soil Classification (Polish: Systematyka gleb Polski) is a soil classification system used to describe, classify and organize the knowledge about soils in Poland. == Overview == Presented below the 5th edition of Polish Soil Classification was published by Soil Science Society of Poland in 2011 and was in use to 2019 when 6th edition of Polish Soil Classification was published. Previous ones were published in 1956, 1959, 1974 and 1989, and they, following Dokuchaiev's ideas, were relied mostly on the natural's criteria (quality) like soil forming processes and soil morphological features (4th edition was transient because diagnostic soil horizons appeared there). 5th edition of classification, where it was possible, was built on quantitative criteria, like quantitative described diagnostic horizons, diagnostic materials and diagnostic properties. Soil forming processes are not a part of classification but the relationship between the processes and their morphological effects was taken into account during creating differentiating criteria of diagnostic horizons, materials and properties. The classification derives much of international systems: USDA soil taxonomy (1999) and World Reference Base for Soil Resources - WRB (2006). Polish soil science intellectual tradition has always maintained a balance between genetical-geographic approach (typical for the Russian scientific school) and


id: polish-soil-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Polish Soil Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:43.199739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polish-soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== Genetical classification of soils (2011-2019) == Order 1. Initial soils (Polish: Gleby inicjalne; WRB: Leptosols; ST: Entisols) The order covers all soils where there is thick organic layer or humus horizon (< 10 cm) on solid rock (carbonate or not carbonate) or unconsolidated sediment (like sand, loam, loess). Initial soils can be found both in lowland areas and in mountains. Forming factor of soils from that order can be solid bedrock resistant to weathering, dynamic geomorphologic processes (like erosion) or fluvial accumulation. - Type 1.1 "Rocky initial soils" (Polish: Gleby inicjalne skaliste; WRB: Lithic Leptosol, Nudilithic Leptosol, Lithic Leptosol (Calcaric); ST: Lithic Udorthents, Lithic Haplrendolls) - Type 1.2 "Rubble initial soils" (Polish: Gleby inicjalne rumoszowe; WRB: Haplic Leptosol (Dystric), Leptic Regosol (Dystric), Haplic Leptosol (Calcaric); ST: Lithic Udorthents, Typic Udorthents, Lithic Udifolists) - Type 1.3 "Erosional initial soils" (Polish: Gleby inicjalne erozyjne; WRB: Haplic Regosol; ST: Typic Udorthents) - Type 1.4 "Accumulative initial soils" (Polish: Gleby inicjalne akumulacyjne; WRB: Haplic Fluvisol; ST: Typic Udifluvents) Order 2. Weakly developed soils (Polish: Gleby słabo ukształtowane; WRB: Leptosols, Regosols; ST: Entisols) Soils from that order are the next development stage after initial soils. Humus horizon is deeper and under it are weekly


id: polish-soil-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Polish Soil Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:43.199739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polish-soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
- Type 10.1 "Peat fibric soils" (Polish: Gleby torfowe fibrowe; WRB: Fibric or Fibric Hemic or Limnic Fibric Histosol; ST: Typic or Hemic or Limnic Haplofibrists) - Type 10.2 "Peat hemic soils" (Polish: Gleby torfowe hemowe; WRB: Hemic or Sapric Hemic or Fibric Hemic or Limnic Hemic Histosol; ST: Typic or Sapric or Fibric or Limnic or Fluvaquentic or Terric Haplohemists) - Type 10.3 "Peat sapric soils" (Polish: Gleby torfowe saprowe; WRB: Sapric or Fibric Sapric or Hemic Sapric or Limnic Sapric Histosol; ST: Typic or Hemic or Limnic or Fluvaquentic or Terric Haplosaprists) - Type 10.4 "Organic detritus soils" (Polish: Gleby organiczne ściółkowe; WRB: Folic or Folic Leptic Histosol; ST: Typic or Lithic Udifolists) - Type 10.5 "Organic limnic soils" (Polish: Gleby organiczne limnowe; WRB: Limnic or Hemic Limnic Histosol; ST: Limnic Haplohemists) - Type 10.6 "Organic mucky soils" (Polish: Gleby organiczne murszowe; WRB: Fibric Sapric or Hemic Sapric or Sapric or Limnic Sapric Histosol (Drainic); ST: Muck Haplofibrists) Order 11. Anthropogenic soils (Polish: Gleby antropogeniczne; WRB: Anthrosols, Technosols; ST: Inceptisols - Anthrept) This order covers soils visibly changed by human activity, not only industrial and associated with urbanization but also connected with intensive agriculture. - Type 11.1 "Agriculture


id: unified-soil-classification-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System-0.md
category: reference
title: Unified Soil Classification System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:44.378927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unified-soil-classification-system-20260505-0
summary:
The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is a soil classification system used in engineering and geology to describe the texture and grain size of a soil. The classification system can be applied to most unconsolidated materials, and is represented by a two-letter symbol. Each letter is described below: If the soil has 5–12% by weight of fines passing a #200 sieve (5% < P#200 < 12%), both grain size distribution and plasticity have a significant effect on the engineering properties of the soil, and dual notation may be used for the group symbol. For example, GW-GM corresponds to "well-graded gravel with silt." If the soil has more than 15% by weight retained on a #4 sieve (R#4 > 15%), there is a significant amount of gravel, and the suffix "with gravel" may be added to the group name, but the group symbol does not change. For example, SP-SM could refer to "poorly graded SAND with silt" or "poorly graded SAND with silt and gravel." == Symbol chart == === ASTM D-2487 === == See also == AASHTO Soil Classification System AASHTO ASTM International USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil classification for agricultural purposes) == References == Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes:


id: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy-0.md
category: reference
title: USDA soil taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:45.566443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
USDA soil taxonomy (ST), developed by the United States Department of Agriculture and the National Cooperative Soil Survey, provides an elaborate classification of soil types according to several parameters (most commonly their properties) and in several levels: Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, Family, and Series. The classification was originally developed by Guy Donald Smith, former director of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's soil survey investigations. == Discussion == A taxonomy is an arrangement in a systematic manner; the USDA soil taxonomy has six levels of classification. They are, from most general to specific: order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family and series. Soil properties that can be measured quantitatively are used in this classification system – they include: depth, moisture, temperature, texture, structure, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, clay mineralogy, organic matter content and salt content. There are 12 soil orders (the top hierarchical level) in soil taxonomy. The names of the orders end with the suffix -sol. The criteria for the different soil orders include properties that reflect major differences in the genesis of soils. The orders are: Alfisol – soils with aluminium and iron. They have horizons of clay accumulation, and form where there is enough moisture and warmth


id: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy-1.md
category: reference
title: USDA soil taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:45.566443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
The percentages listed above are for land area free of ice. "Soils of Mountains", which constitute the balance (11.6%), have a mixture of those listed above, or are classified as "Rugged Mountains" which have no soil. The above soil orders in sequence of increasing degree of development are Entisols, Inceptisols, Aridisols, Mollisols, Alfisols, Spodosols, Ultisols, and Oxisols. Histosols and Vertisols may appear in any of the above at any time during their development. The soil suborders within an order are differentiated on the basis of soil properties and horizons which depend on soil moisture and temperature. Forty-seven suborders are recognized in the United States. The soil great group category is a subdivision of a suborder in which the kind and sequence of soil horizons distinguish one soil from another. About 185 great groups are recognized in the United States. Horizons marked by clay, iron, humus and hard pans and soil features such as the expansion-contraction of clays (that produce self-mixing provided by clay), temperature, and marked quantities of various salts are used as distinguishing features. The great group categories are divided into three kinds of soil subgroups: typic, intergrade and extragrade. A typic subgroup represents the basic or 'typical' concept


id: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy-2.md
category: reference
title: USDA soil taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:45.566443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Alfisols: Must have argillic, natric, or kandic horizon; high-to-medium base saturation; moderately weathered; commonly form under boreal or broadleaf forests; rich in iron and aluminum; common in humid areas, semi-tropics, and mediterranean climates; 9.6% of global and 14.5% of U.S. ice-free land. Andisols: Form from volcanic ejecta, dominated by allophane or Al-humic complexes; Must have andic soil properties: high in poorly crystalline Fe and Al minerals, high in phosphorus, low bulk density, and high proportions of glass and amorphous colloidal materials, such as allophane, imogolite and ferrihydrite; high organic matter content, sometimes melanic epipedon; 0.7% of global and 1.7% of U.S. ice-free land. Aridisols: Dry soil (i.e., must have aridic moisture regime); ochric epipedon is common; Sometimes argillic or natric horizon; must have some diagnostic subsurface horizon; commonly in deserts; 12.7% of global and 8.8% of U.S. ice-free land. Entisols: Least soil profile development; ochric epipedon is common; no B horizons; most common order by surface area (16.3% of global and 12.2% of U.S. ice-free land). Gelisols: Soils with permafrost within 100 cm or cryoturbation (frost churning) within 100 cm plus permafrost within 200 cm; commonly at high latitudes and elevations; 8.6% of global and 7.5% of U.S. ice-free land.


id: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources-0.md
category: reference
title: World Reference Base for Soil Resources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:46.764025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
summary:
The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is an international soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. The currently valid version is the fourth edition 2022. It is edited by a working group of the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS). == Background == === History === Since the 19th century, several countries developed national soil classification systems. During the 20th century, the need for an international soil classification system became more and more obvious. From 1971 to 1981, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and UNESCO published the Soil Map of the World, 10 volumes, scale 1 : 5 M). The Legend for this map, published in 1974 under the leadership of Rudi Dudal, became the FAO soil classification. Many ideas from national soil classification systems were brought together in this worldwide-applicable system, among them the idea of diagnostic horizons as established in the '7th approximation to the USDA soil taxonomy' from 1960. The next step was the Revised Legend of the Soil Map of the World, published in 1988. In 1982, the International Soil Science Society (ISSS; now: International Union of Soil Sciences, IUSS) established a working group named International Reference Base


id: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources-1.md
category: reference
title: World Reference Base for Soil Resources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:46.764025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
summary:
Mineral material < 20% soil organic carbon Organic material ≥ 20% soil organic carbon Soil organic carbon organic carbon that does not meet the diagnostic criteria of artefacts. The classification comprises two levels: The first level has 32 Reference Soil Groups (RSGs). At the second level, for further differentiation a set of qualifiers is added to the name of the RSG. There are 202 qualifiers in total. For every RSG, there is a list of available qualifiers, which are subdivided into two types: Principal qualifiers are ranked and given in an order of importance. The ranking of the principal qualifiers reflects major subdivisions of the respective RSG or properties strongly influencing the soil’s functionality. Supplementary qualifiers describe additional characteristics and are not ranked. Qualifiers may be principal for some RSGs and supplementary for others. The names of the RSGs and the qualifiers start with capital letters. They must be given in English and must not be translated into any other language in order to guarantee that a certain soil has the same name all over the world. === Naming a soil === A key is used for allocating a soil to a certain RSG. In a defined sequence, the key


id: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources-2.md
category: reference
title: World Reference Base for Soil Resources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:46.764025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
summary:
Chapter 1 reports on background and basics. It includes tables of the diagnostics and of the RSGs. The latter is given below. Chapter 2 provides the rules for naming soils and creating map legends. It starts with the definition of some general terms in WRB, like ‘fine earth’ and ‘whole soil’. It is highly recommended to read this short chapter before using the WRB. Chapter 3 presents the diagnostic horizons, properties and materials, each with a general description, the diagnostic criteria and some additional information. For the decision, whether a diagnostic is present or absent in a soil, only the diagnostic criteria are relevant. Chapter 4 provides the key to the RSGs and for every RSG a list with the available principal and supplementary qualifiers. Chapter 5 gives the definitions of the qualifiers. Chapter 6 provides the codes for the RSGs, the qualifiers and the specifiers and the rules for the sequence of the codes for naming soils and creating map legends. Chapter 7 is the list of references. The seven chapters are followed by six annexes: Annex 1 is a field guide. It provides all field characteristics (including their definitions) needed for WRB classification and some additional general field


id: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources-3.md
category: reference
title: World Reference Base for Soil Resources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:46.764025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
summary:
argic horizon (clay-richer horizon) stagnic properties (in the clay-richer horizon) reducing conditions (in the clay-richer horizon) claric material (light colours in the lower part of the clay-poorer topsoil) albic horizon (the claric material is the result of a soil-forming process, here: downward migration of clay minerals and oxides) Question 2: To which RSG does the soil belong? We have to go through the key, RSG for RSG. This soil is not a Histosol, not an Anthrosol, not a Technosol etc. Finally, we end up with the Luvisol. This is the first RSG in the key, the criteria of which our soil completely fulfils. Question 3: Which qualifiers apply? From the list of the principal qualifiers, Stagnic (stagnic properties and reducing conditions) and Albic (light colours resulting from a soil-forming process) apply. Stagnic is found further up in the list. Therefore, the soil has to be named until now Albic Stagnic Luvisol. From the list of the supplementary qualifiers, Siltic (silty from 0 to 60 cm), Loamic (loamy from 60 cm downwards), Aric (ploughed), Cutanic (clay coatings), Differentic (the clay migration led to a significant difference in clay content), Endic (the argic horizon starts below 50 cm) and Ochric (relatively small


id: taxonomy-of-diatoms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_diatoms-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy of diatoms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_diatoms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:48.313025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-of-diatoms-20260505-0
summary:
Diatoms belong to a large group called the heterokonts, which include both autotrophs such as golden algae and kelp; and heterotrophs such as water moulds. The classification of heterokonts is still unsettled: they may be designated a division, phylum, kingdom, or something intermediate to those. Consequently, diatoms are ranked anywhere from a class, usually called Diatomophyceae or Bacillariophyceae, to a division (=phylum), usually called Bacillariophyta, with corresponding changes in the ranks of their subgroups. == Genera and species == An estimated 20,000 extant diatom species are believed to exist, of which around 12,000 have been named to date according to Guiry, 2012 (other sources give a wider range of estimates). Around 1,000-1,300 diatom genera have been described, both extant and fossil, of which some 250-300 exist only as fossils. == Classes and orders == === Overview === For many years the diatoms—treated either as a class (Bacillariophyceae) or a phylum (Bacillariophyta)—were divided into just 2 orders, corresponding to the centric and the pennate diatoms (Centrales and Pennales; alternative names Biddulphiales and Bacillariales, as used e.g. in Lee, 1989). This classification was extensively overhauled by Round, Crawford and Mann in 1990 who treated the diatoms at a higher rank (division, corresponding


id: taxonomy-of-diatoms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_diatoms-1.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy of diatoms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_diatoms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:48.313025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-of-diatoms-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ruggiero et al., 2015 === In the treatment for "all life" (down to order, extant taxa only) by Ruggiero et al., 2015, the diatoms are treated as follows. This treatment largely reflects that used by Algaebase as of 2015, and is also reflected in the current (mid 2020) treatment used in DiatomBase, the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) of which DiatomBase is a part, and the Catalogue of Life. This treatment is identical to that of Round et al., 1990, except that all diatoms are treated as a single class, Round et al.'s classes are reduced to subclasses, and the latter's original subclasses are omitted. Superphylum Heterokonta (heterokonts: Ochrophyta plus other phyla)) Phylum Ochrophyta (diatoms plus other classes) Class Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) Subclass Bacillariophycidae Achnanthales Bacillariales Cymbellales Dictyoneidales Eunotiales Lyrellales Mastogloiales Naviculales Rhopalodiales Surirellales Thalassiophysales Subclass Coscinodiscophycidae Anaulales Arachnoidiscales Asterolamprales Aulacoseirales Biddulphiales Chaetocerotales Chrysanthemodiscales Corethrales Coscinodiscales Cymatosirales Ethmodiscales Hemiaulales Leptocylindrales Lithodesmiales Melosirales Orthoseirales Paraliales Rhizosoleniales Stictocyclales Stictodiscales Thalassiosirales Triceratiales Subclass Fragilariophycidae Ardissoneales Climacospheniales Cyclophorales Fragilariales Licmophorales Protoraphidales Rhabdonematales Rhaphoneidales Striatellales Tabellariales Thalassionematales Toxariales === Adl et al., 2019 === Following earlier versions in the treatments of Adl et al. 2005 and 2012, D.G. Mann, in Adl et al. 2019,


id: center-for-food-safety-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Food_Safety-0.md
category: reference
title: Center for Food Safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Food_Safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:49.637173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-for-food-safety-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Food Safety (CFS) is a 501(c)(3), U.S. non-profit advocacy organization, based in Washington, D.C. It maintains an office in San Francisco, California, and Portland, Oregon. CFS's mission is to empower people, support farmers, and protect the earth from the harmful impacts of industrial agriculture through groundbreaking legal, scientific, and grassroots action. The organization was founded in 1997. == Work == The Center for Food Safety has been an associated party in challenges against the planting of genetically modified crops in the US. === Alfalfa === In April, 2004, Monsanto petitioned the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) for deregulation of their product Roundup Ready Alfalfa (RRA). After performing an Environmental Assessment, APHIS deregulated the product in 2005. In 2006, this decision was challenged by Geertson Seed Farms and other parties, including the Center for Food Safety. This led to a decision by the US District Court of San Francisco to suspend the deregulated status of RRA and place an injunction on the sale and planting of RRA until the completion of an Environmental Impact Statement. The US Supreme Court reversed the District Court decision in 2010, in the case of Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms.


id: consumed-2015-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumed_(2015_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Consumed (2015 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumed_(2015_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:50.856063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consumed-2015-film-20260505-0
summary:
Consumed (also known as Food Movie) is a 2015 American political thriller film by Daryl Wein and starring Zoe Lister-Jones, Beth Grant, Anthony Edwards, Victor Garber, Kunal Nayyar, Danny Glover and Taylor Kinney. == Plot == In the summer of 2014, Sophie Kessler, a waitress and single mother, who lives with her diabetic mother Kristin and her son Garret in Iowa, discovers that her son is vomiting in his sleep. Fearing that he had developed a new kind of flu, she rushes him to the doctor who reassures her. Garret then develops a rash that neither a pediatrician, dermatologist, or psychologist can diagnose. Sophie theorizes that Garret might have a disease linked to genetically modified organisms. Sophie then goes to a science lab at the university where her mother works as a secretary and meets scientist, Serge Negani. She then meets Peter Landell, who overhears Sophie talking to Serge about her worries for her son, claiming to be a university scientist, claims about files containing the answers to her questions. Sophie leaves Garret with Eddie, a man she met at Garret's school and sneaks into the university with Peter to find the files, using her mother's keys. After discovering that


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-0.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
Consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists have been involved in controversies around foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food (GM food or GMO food) are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals. Specific concerns include mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified products in the food supply, effects of GMOs on the environment, the rigor of the regulatory process, and consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs. Advocacy groups such as the Center for Food Safety, Organic Consumers Association, Union of Concerned Scientists, and Greenpeace say risks have not been adequately identified and managed, and they have questioned the objectivity of


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-1.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reviews and polls === An EMBO Reports article in 2003 reported that the Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe project (PABE) found the public neither accepting nor rejecting GMOs. Instead, PABE found that public had "key questions" about GMOs: "Why do we need GMOs? Who benefits from their use? Who decided that they should be developed and how? Why were we not better informed about their use in our food, before their arrival on the market? Why are we not given an effective choice about whether or not to buy these products? Have potential long-term and irreversible consequences been seriously evaluated, and by whom? Do regulatory authorities have sufficient powers to effectively regulate large companies? Who wishes to develop these products? Can controls imposed by regulatory authorities be applied effectively? Who will be accountable in cases of unforeseen harm?" PABE also found that the public's scientific knowledge does not control public opinion, since scientific facts do not answer these questions. PABE also found that the public does not demand "zero risk" in GM food discussions and is "perfectly aware that their lives are full of risks that need to be counterbalanced against each other and against the potential


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-2.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
In May 2012, a group called "Take the Flour Back" led by Gerald Miles protested plans by a group from Rothamsted Experimental Station, based in Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England, to conduct an experimental trial wheat genetically modified to repel aphids. The researchers, led by John Pickett, wrote a letter to the group in early May 2012, asking them to call off their protest, aimed for 27 May 2012. Group member Lucy Harrap said that the group was concerned about spread of the crops into nature, and cited examples of outcomes in the United States and Canada. Rothamsted Research and Sense about Science ran question and answer sessions about such a potential. The March Against Monsanto is an international grassroots movement and protest against Monsanto corporation, a producer of genetically modified organism (GMOs) and Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide. The movement was founded by Tami Canal in response to the failure of California Proposition 37, a ballot initiative which would have required labeling food products made from GMOs. Advocates support mandatory labeling laws for food made from GMOs . The initial march took place on May 25, 2013. The number of protesters who took part is uncertain; figures of "hundreds of thousands" and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-3.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
There are various conspiracy theories related to the production and sale of genetically modified crops and genetically modified food that have been identified by some commentators such as Michael Shermer. Generally, these conspiracy theories posit that GMOs are being knowingly and maliciously introduced into the food supply either as a means to unduly enrich agribusinesses or as a means to poison or pacify the population. A work seeking to explore risk perception over GMOs in Turkey identified a belief among the conservative political and religious figures who were opposed to GMOs that GMOs were "a conspiracy by Jewish Multinational Companies and Israel for world domination." Additionally, a Latvian study showed that a segment of the population believed that GMOs were part of a greater conspiracy theory to poison the population of the country. == Lawsuits == === Foundation on Economic Trends v. Heckler === In 1983, environmental groups and protesters delayed the field tests of the genetically modified ice-minus strain of P. syringae with legal challenges. === Alliance for Bio-Integrity v. Shalala === In this case, the plaintiff argued both for mandatory labeling on the basis of consumer demand, and that GMO foods should undergo the same testing requirements as


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-4.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reviews === A 2011 analysis by Diels et al., reviewed 94 peer-reviewed studies pertaining to GMO safety to assess whether conflicts of interest correlated with outcomes that cast GMOs in a favorable light. They found that financial conflict of interest was not associated with study outcome (p = 0.631) while author affiliation to industry (i.e., a professional conflict of interest) was strongly associated with study outcome (p < 0.001). Of the 94 studies that were analyzed, 52% did not declare funding. 10% of the studies were categorized as "undetermined" with regard to professional conflict of interest. Of the 43 studies with financial or professional conflicts of interest, 28 studies were compositional studies. According to Marc Brazeau, an association between professional conflict of interest and positive study outcomes can be skewed because companies typically contract with independent researchers to perform follow-up studies only after in-house research uncovers favorable results. In-house research that uncovers negative or unfavorable results for a novel GMO is generally not further pursued. A 2013 review, of 1,783 papers on genetically modified crops and food published between 2002 and 2012 found no plausible evidence of dangers from the use of then marketed GM crops. In a 2014


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-5.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
Regulators check that GM foods are "substantially equivalent" to their conventional counterparts, to detect any negative unintended consequences. New protein(s) that differ from conventional food proteins or anomalies that arise in the substantial equivalence comparison require further toxicological analysis. In 1999, Andrew Chesson of the Rowett Research Institute warned that substantial equivalence testing "could be flawed in some cases" and that current safety tests could allow harmful substances to enter the human food supply. The same year Millstone, Brunner and Mayer argued that the standard was a pseudo-scientific product of politics and lobbying that was created to reassure consumers and aid biotechnology companies to reduce the time and cost of safety testing. They suggested that GM foods have extensive biological, toxicological and immunological tests and that substantial equivalence should be abandoned. This commentary was criticized for misrepresenting history, for distorting existing data and poor logic. Kuiper claimed that it oversimplified safety assessments and that equivalence testing involves more than chemical tests, possibly including toxicity testing. Keler and Lappe supported Congressional legislation to replace the substantial equivalence standard with safety studies. In a 2016 review, Domingo criticized the use of the "substantial equivalence" concept as a measure of the safety of


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-6.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Allergenicity === A well-known risk of genetic modification is the introduction of an allergen. Allergen testing is routine for products intended for food, and passing those tests is part of the regulatory requirements. Organizations such as the European Green Party and Greenpeace emphasize this risk. The use of genes from known allergenic sources is discouraged in the research and development of GM foods. A 2005 review of the results from allergen testing stated that "no biotech proteins in foods have been documented to cause allergic reactions". Regulatory authorities require that new modified foods be tested for allergenicity before they are marketed. The Codex Alimentarius recommends a weight-of-evidence safety approach for assessing the allergenic potential of genetically modified crops, including the history of exposure and safety of the source of the inserted gene, the structure of the protein, its stability to pepsin digestion, and the degree of exposure in the gastrointestinal tract as a function of the abundance of the recombinant protein in the food. In the assessment of the allergenic safety of genetically modified organisms, bioinformatics is used to analyze whether newly expressed proteins show similarity to known human allergens. This process is based on comparing the amino acid


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-7.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Horizontal gene transfer === Horizontal gene transfer is the movement of genes from one organism to another in a manner other than reproduction. The risk of horizontal gene transfer between GMO plants and animals is very low and in most cases is expected to be lower than background rates. Two studies on the possible effects of feeding animals with genetically modified food found no residues of recombinant DNA or novel proteins in any organ or tissue samples. Studies found DNA from the M13 virus, Green fluorescent protein and RuBisCO genes in the blood and tissue of animals, and in 2012, a paper suggested that a specific microRNA from rice could be found at very low quantities in human and animal serum. Other studies however, found no or negligible transfer of plant microRNAs into the blood of humans or any of three model organisms. Another concern is that the antibiotic resistance gene commonly used as a genetic marker in transgenic crops could be transferred to harmful bacteria, creating resistant superbugs. A 2004 study involving human volunteers examined whether the transgene from modified soy would transfer to bacteria that live in the human gut. As of 2012 it was the only


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-8.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
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parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Animal feeding studies === Reviews of animal feeding studies mostly found no effects. A 2014 review found that the performance of animals fed GM feed was similar to that of animals fed "isogenic non-GE crop lines". A 2012 review of 12 long-term studies and 12 multigenerational studies conducted by public research laboratories concluded that none had discovered any safety problems linked to consumption of GM food. A 2009 review by Magaña-Gómez found that although most studies concluded that modified foods do not differ in nutrition or cause toxic effects in animals, some did report adverse changes at a cellular level caused by specific modified foods. The review concluded that "More scientific effort and investigation is needed to ensure that consumption of GM foods is not likely to provoke any form of health problem". Dona and Arvanitoyannis' 2009 review concluded that "results of most studies with GM foods indicate that they may cause some common toxic effects such as hepatic, pancreatic, renal, or reproductive effects and may alter the hematological, biochemical, and immunologic parameters". Reactions to this review in 2009 and 2010 noted that Dona and Arvanitoyannis had concentrated on articles with an anti-modification bias that were refuted in peer-reviewed


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-9.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Human studies === While some groups and individuals have called for more human testing of GM food, multiple obstacles complicate such studies. The General Accounting Office (in a review of FDA procedures requested by Congress) and a working group of the Food and Agriculture and World Health organizations both said that long-term human studies of the effect of GM food are not feasible. The reasons included lack of a plausible hypothesis to test, lack of knowledge about the potential long-term effects of conventional foods, variability in the ways humans react to foods and that epidemiological studies were unlikely to differentiate modified from conventional foods, which come with their own suite of unhealthy characteristics. Additionally, ethical concerns guide human subject research. These mandate that each tested intervention must have a potential benefit for the human subjects, such as treatment for a disease or nutritional benefit (ruling out, e.g., human toxicity testing). Kimber claimed that the "ethical and technical constraints of conducting human trials, and the necessity of doing so, is a subject that requires considerable attention." Food with nutritional benefits may escape this objection. For example, GM rice has been tested for nutritional benefits, namely, increased levels of Vitamin A.


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-10.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
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parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
In 2007, 2009, and 2011, Gilles-Éric Séralini published re-analysis studies that used data from Monsanto rat-feeding experiments for three modified maize varieties (insect-resistant MON 863 and MON 810 and glyphosate-resistant NK603). He concluded that the data showed liver, kidney and heart damage. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) then concluded that the differences were all within the normal range. EFSA also stated that Séralini's statistics were faulty. EFSA's conclusions were supported by FSANZ, a panel of expert toxicologists, and the French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee (HCB). In 2012, Séralini's lab published a paper that considered the long-term effects of feeding rats various levels of GM glyphosate-resistant maize, conventional glyphosate-treated maize, and a mixture of the two strains. The paper concluded that rats fed the modified maize had severe health problems, including liver and kidney damage and large tumors. The study provoked widespread criticism. Séralini held a press conference just before the paper was released in which he announced the release of a book and a movie. He allowed reporters to have access to the paper before his press conference only if they signed a confidentiality agreement under which they could not report other scientists' responses to the paper.


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-11.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
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parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
== Environment == Genetically modified crops are planted in fields much like regular crops. There they interact directly with organisms that feed on the crops and indirectly with other organisms in the food chain. The pollen from the plants is distributed in the environment like that of any other crop. This distribution has led to concerns over the effects of GM crops on the environment. Potential effects include gene flow/genetic pollution, pesticide resistance and greenhouse gas emissions. === Non-target organisms === A major use of GM crops is in insect control through the expression of the cry (crystal delta-endotoxins) and Vip (vegetative insecticidal proteins) genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Such toxins could affect other insects in addition to targeted pests such as the European corn borer. Bt proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the US since 1958, with no reported ill effects. Cry proteins selectively target Lepidopterans (moths and butterflies). As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in their rupture. Any organism that lacks the appropriate receptors in its gut is unaffected by the cry protein, and therefore is not


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-12.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
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parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gene flow === Genes from a GMO may pass to another organism just like an endogenous gene. The process is known as outcrossing and can occur in any new open-pollinated crop variety. As late as the 1990s this was thought to be unlikely and rare, and if it were to occur, easily eradicated. It was thought that this would add no additional environmental costs or risks - no effects were expected other than those already caused by pesticide applications. Introduced traits potentially can cross into neighboring plants of the same or closely related species through three different types of gene flow: crop-to-crop, crop-to-weedy, and crop-to-wild. In crop-to-crop, genetic information from a genetically modified crop is transferred to a non-genetically modified crop. Crop-to-weedy transfer refers to the transfer of genetically modified material to a weed, and crop-to-wild indicates transfer from a genetically modified crop to a wild, undomesticated plant and/or crop. There are concerns that the spread of genes from modified organisms to unmodified relatives could produce species of weeds resistant to herbicides that could contaminate nearby non-genetically modified crops, or could disrupt the ecosystem, This is primarily a concern if the transgenic organism has a significant survival capacity and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-13.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
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parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
The US has no legislation governing the relationship among mixtures of farms that grow organic, conventional, and GM crops. The country relies on a "complex but relaxed" combination of three federal agencies (FDA, EPA, and USDA/APHIS) and states' common law tort systems to manage coexistence. The Secretary of Agriculture convened an Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) to study coexistence and make recommendations about the issue. The members of AC21 included representatives of the biotechnology industry, the organic food industry, farming communities, the seed industry, food manufacturers, State governments, consumer and community development groups, the medical profession, and academic researchers. AC21 recommended that a study assess the potential for economic losses to US organic farmers; that any serious losses lead to a crop insurance program, an education program to ensure that organic farmers put appropriate contracts in place and that neighboring GMO farmers take appropriate containment measures. Overall the report supported a diverse agriculture system supporting diverse farming systems. The EU implemented regulations specifically governing co-existence and traceability. Traceability has become commonplace in the food and feed supply chains of most countries, but GMO traceability is more challenging given strict legal thresholds for unwanted mixing. Since 2001,


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-14.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
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parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Resistant insect pests === Resistance evolves naturally after a population has been subjected to selection pressure via repeated use of a single pesticide. In November 2009, Monsanto scientists found that the pink bollworm had become resistant to first generation Bt cotton in parts of Gujarat, India—that generation expresses one Bt gene, Cry1Ac. This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto. Similar resistance was later identified in Australia, China, Spain and the US. One strategy to delay Bt-resistance is to plant pest refuges using conventional crops, thereby diluting any resistant genes. Another is to develop crops with multiple Bt genes that target different receptors within the insect. In 2012, a Florida field trial demonstrated that army worms were resistant to Dupont-Dow's GM corn. This resistance was discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006, prompting Dow and DuPont to stop selling the product there. The European corn borer, one of Bt's primary targets, is also capable of developing resistance. == Economy == GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations. A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-15.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
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parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2014 review ==== A 2014 review, concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. According to The Economist, the meta-analysis considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same. Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistance. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points. The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed, and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for publication bias, by considering sources beyond academic journals. The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertiliser use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results. ==== 2010 review ==== A 2010 article, supported by CropLife International summarised the results of 49 peer-reviewed studies. On average, farmers in developed countries increased yields by 6% and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-16.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
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parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Intellectual property === Traditionally, farmers in all nations saved their own seed from year to year. However, since the early 1900s hybrid crops have been widely used in the developed world and seeds to grow these crops are purchased each year from seed producers. The offspring of the hybrid corn, while still viable, lose hybrid vigor (the beneficial traits of the parents). This benefit of first-generation hybrid seeds is the primary reason for not planting second-generation seed. However, for non-hybrid GM crops, such as GM soybeans, seed companies use intellectual property law and tangible property common law, each expressed in contracts, to prevent farmers from planting saved seed. For example, Monsanto's typical bailment license (covering transfer of the seeds themselves) forbids saving seeds, and also requires purchasers to sign a separate patent license agreement. Corporations say that they need to prevent seed piracy, to fulfill financial obligations to shareholders, and to finance further development. DuPont spent approximately half its $2 billion research and development (R&D) budget on agriculture in 2011 while Monsanto spends 9–10% of sales on R&D. Detractors such as Greenpeace say that patent rights give corporations excessive control over agriculture. The Center for Ecoliteracy claimed that "patenting


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-17.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Status ==== In 2014, 64 countries required labeling of all GM foods. These include the European Union, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, China and India. As of March 2015, Israel was in the process of issuing regulations for labeling of food with ingredients from GMOs. Alaska required labeling of GMO fish and shellfish in 2005, even though no GM fish had been approved by the FDA at the time. A 2014 Vermont law went into effect on July 1, 2016, and some food manufacturers (including General Mills, Mars, Kellogg's, the Campbell Soup Company, PepsiCo, ConAgra, Frito-Lay, and Bimbo Bakeries USA) began distributing products either locally or nationwide with labels such as "Partially produced with Genetic Engineering". Other manufacturers removed about 3,000 non-compliant products from sale in Vermont. The federal government of the United States passed a law at the end of that month pre-empting all state laws, including Vermont's. The law requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018, and allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site. It is unclear whether the rules will require labeling of oils and sugars from GM crops, where the final product does not contain any


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-18.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== Four federal district court suits have been brought against Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the agency within USDA that regulates genetically modified plants. Two involved field trials (herbicide-tolerant turfgrass in Oregon; pharmaceutical-producing corn and sugar in Hawaii) and two the deregulation of GM alfalfa. and GM sugar beet. APHIS lost all four cases at trial, with the judges ruling they failed to diligently follow the guidelines set out in the National Environmental Policy Act. However, the Supreme Court overturned the nationwide ban on GM alfalfa and an appeal court allowed the partial deregulation of GM sugar beets. After APHIS prepared Environmental Impact Statements for both alfalfa and sugar beets they were approved. In 2014, Maui County, Hawaii approved an initiative calling for a moratorium on GMO production and research. The initiative specified penalties including fines and jail for knowing violations and did not limit its scope to commercial agriculture. The initiative passed by about 50.2 to 47.9 percent. On December 15, 2015, the New York Times ran an op-ed titled "Are You Eating Frankenfish?", saying that the United States congress will debate whether genetically engineered salmon should be labeled. ==== European Union ==== Until


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-19.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Philippines ==== A petition filed May 17, 2013, by environmental group Greenpeace Southeast Asia and farmer-scientist coalition Masipag (Magsasaka at Siyentipiko sa Pagpapaunlad ng Agrikultura) asked the appellate court to stop the planting of Bt eggplant in test fields, saying the impacts of such an undertaking to the environment, native crops and human health are still unknown. The Court of Appeals granted the petition, citing the precautionary principle stating "when human activities may lead to threats of serious and irreversible damage to the environment that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish the threat". Respondents filed a motion for reconsideration in June 2013 and on September 20, 2013, the Court of Appeals chose to uphold their May decision saying the bt talong field trials violate the people's constitutional right to a "balanced and healthful ecology". The Supreme Court on December 8, 2015, permanently stopped the field testing for Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) talong (eggplant), upholding the decision of the Court of Appeals which stopped the field trials for the genetically modified eggplant. In April 2023, the Supreme Court of the Philippines issued a Writ of Kalikasan ordering the Philippine Department of Agriculture to stop


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-20.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:52.199143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
India is an agrarian country with around 60% of its people depending directly or indirectly upon agriculture. From 1995 to 2013, a total of 296,438 farmers have killed themselves in India, or an average of 16,469 suicides per year. During the same period, about 9.5 million people died per year in India from other causes including malnutrition, diseases and suicides that were non-farming related, or about 171 million deaths from 1995 to 2013. Activists and scholars have offered a number of conflicting reasons for farmer suicides, such as monsoon failure, high debt burdens, genetically modified crops, government policies, public mental health, personal issues and family problems. There are also accusations of states reporting inaccurate data on farmer suicides. In India, GM cotton yields in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu resulted in an average 42% increase in yield in 2002, the first year of commercial planting. A severe drought in Andhra Pradesh that year prevented any increase in yield, because the GM strain was not drought tolerant. Drought-tolerant variants were later developed. Driven by substantially reduced losses to insect predation, by 2011 88% of Indian cotton was modified. There are economic and environmental benefits of GM cotton to farmers in India.


id: gmo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories-0.md
category: reference
title: GMO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:53.448793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gmo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
GMO conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories related to the production and sale of genetically modified crops and genetically modified food (also referred to as genetically modified organisms or "GMOs"). These conspiracy theories include claims that agribusinesses, especially Monsanto, have suppressed data showing that GMOs cause harm, deliberately cause food shortages to promote the use of GM food, or have co-opted government agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration or scientific societies such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Critics charge that GMO conspiracy theories are largely promulgated by those opposing the production and sale of GMOs, and instances of unsubstantiated conspiracy theories have lately occurred in the context of public health issues that are mostly unrelated to GMOs, including the 2015–16 Zika virus outbreak and concerns over food safety at Chipotle Mexican Grill. == Context == The existence of conspiracy theories relating to the fear over GMOs has been attested to by scientists, journalists, and skeptics who oppose much anti-GMO activism. Such commentators include Michael Shermer (writer of a monthly Skeptic column series for Scientific American), Mark Lynas (an environmental activist and writer who opposed GMOs for years but in 2013 switched positions), and


id: gmo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories-1.md
category: reference
title: GMO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:53.448793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gmo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Political science professors Joseph Uscinski and Joseph M. Parent in their book American Conspiracy Theories summarized the people that have adopted GMO conspiracy theories thusly:Another prototypical conspiratorial movement involves those opposed to genetically modified organisms (GMO), in essence a protest against the genetic engineering of food. Not everyone who opposes GMOs is a conspiracy theorist: reasonable people can disagree about research and fail to see small groups of people covertly working against the common good. But most visible and vocal members of this movement, however, are conspiracy theorists. They believe that genetically modified foods are a corporate plot, led by the giant multinational Monsanto, to profit off unhealthy food.Uscinski, writing for Politico in the context of the 2016 United States presidential election, identified GMO conspiracy theories as one of the "honorable mentions" appended to his list of the "five most dangerous conspiracy theories of 2016". He specifically singled-out candidates Bernie Sanders and Jill Stein as promulgators. Michael Shermer and Pat Linse, writing for Skeptic magazine, specify that in terms of political ideology, "GMO conspiracy theories are embraced primarily by those on the left." Scholars have identified ways that the internet has aided proliferation and connection between conspiracy theories including those


id: gmo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories-2.md
category: reference
title: GMO conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:53.448793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gmo-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
== Chipotle food safety == In the context of mid-2010s concerns over food safety at Chipotle Mexican Grill certain commentators have implied that the outbreaks of food-borne illnesses were sabotage carried out by the biotech industry in retaliation over Chipotle's removal of GMOs from their menu. The claims were identified as "unproven" by the debunking website Snopes. == Alpha-gal syndrome == In 2023, a false conspiracy theory connecting tick-borne alpha-gal syndrome (an acquired allergy to red meat) to Gates Foundation tick research was spread on social media. == Ethical criticism == In Scholars & Rogues, an online progressive political journal, David Lambert, a development program officer for the United Nations, compared the conspiracy theories supported by some in the anti-GMO movement to those supported in the anti-vaccination movement, Like preventable childhood diseases, malnutrition is another great moral failing of our time. GMOs such as golden rice—rice modified to contain high levels of beta carotene in order to compensate for the vitamin A deficiency which kills hundreds of thousands of children around the world and blinds many more every year—and drought resistant crops, which will become increasingly vital in the global south due to climate change, have vast potential to help


id: gmo-omg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_OMG-0.md
category: reference
title: GMO OMG
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_OMG
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:55.330188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gmo-omg-20260505-0
summary:
GMO OMG is a 2013 American pseudoscientific documentary film which takes a negative view towards the use of genetically modified organisms used in the production of food, in the United States. The film focuses on Monsanto, a multinational agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation, and their role in the food industry alongside the effects of GMOs and how they are generated. Directed by Jeremy Seifert and produced by Elizabeth Kucinich, it was given a limited release in the United States on September 13, 2013, and received negative reviews from critics. GMO OMG follows Seifert's search of answers: how do GMOs affect people and the planet. These and other questions take Seifert on a journey from his family’s table to Haiti, Paris, Norway, and agra-giant Monsanto. The sole study specifically cited was widely discredited; see Séralini affair. == Film content == Jeremy Seifert’s goal in GMO OMG is to say that citizens of the U.S. are inadequately informed about the corporate manipulation of the food supply. Seifert travels to Haiti, Norway and Paris and interviews commercial and private farmers in order to understand more about their use in these industries. In Haiti Seifert explores the Peasant Movement of Papaye’s resistance towards the


id: march-against-monsanto-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_Against_Monsanto-0.md
category: reference
title: March Against Monsanto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_Against_Monsanto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:57.118713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-against-monsanto-20260505-0
summary:
The March Against Monsanto was an international grassroots movement and protest against Monsanto, a producer of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide. The movement was founded by Tami Canal in response to the failure of California Proposition 37, a ballot initiative which would have required labeling food products made from GMOs. Advocates support mandatory labeling laws for food made from GMOs. The initial march took place on May 25, 2013. The number of protesters who took part is uncertain; figures of "hundreds of thousands" and the organizers' estimate of "two million" were variously cited. Events took place in between 330 and 436 cities around the world, mostly in the United States. Many protests occurred in Southern California, and some participants carried signs expressing support for mandatory labeling of GMOs that read "Label GMOs, It's Our Right to Know", and "Real Food 4 Real People". Canal said that the movement would continue its "anti-GMO cause" beyond the initial event. Further marches occurred in October 2013 and in May 2014 and May 2015. The protests were reported by news outlets including ABC News, the Associated Press, The Washington Post, The Los Angeles Times, USA Today, and CNN (in the


id: march-against-monsanto-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_Against_Monsanto-1.md
category: reference
title: March Against Monsanto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_Against_Monsanto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:57.118713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-against-monsanto-20260505-0
summary:
President Barack Obama's signing, on March 26, 2013, of the Farmer Assurance Provision, which is Section 735 of US H.R. 933, provided further motivation for the protesters. The section of the bill is called the "Monsanto Protection Act" by critics, and it authorizes the United States Department of Agriculture to allow the planting and cultivation of genetically modified food while environmental reviews are being completed, even if there is a legal ruling against their approval. Independent US Senator Bernie Sanders attempted, unsuccessfully, to introduce Senate Amendment 965 to the Agriculture Reform, Food, and Jobs Act of 2013, legislation that would require labeling of GM food products. Sanders criticized Monsanto for its opposition to his initiative, saying that Monsanto and other biotech companies "were able to gather a whole lot of support in the Senate". Prior to the march, the March Against Monsanto group hosted an essay on their website highlighting what they saw as lack of attention to the Act in the mainstream media. Dave Murphy, founder of Food Democracy Now!, called the controversy over H.R. 933 "the turning point in the debate on political lobbying and genetic engineering in the U.S." and he described the March Against Monsanto as


id: a-rock-star-bucks-a-coffee-shop-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Rock_Star_Bucks_a_Coffee_Shop-0.md
category: reference
title: A Rock Star Bucks a Coffee Shop
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Rock_Star_Bucks_a_Coffee_Shop
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:58.309403+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-rock-star-bucks-a-coffee-shop-20260505-0
summary:
"A Rock Star Bucks a Coffee Shop" is a song recorded by Neil Young and Promise of the Real. It is a protest song aimed at the companies Starbucks and Monsanto. The piece comes from the concept album The Monsanto Years, which primarily criticizes Monsanto. == Background and lyrics == The song was released as a single in May 2015 and is the first song on the album The Monsanto Years. It refers to the lawsuit by Monsanto against Vermont due to the state's attempt at passing a GMO labeling law. The song also references "the poison tide of Monsanto" and a farmer who signs a GMO deal when Young sings, "I want a cup of coffee but I don't want a GMO. I'd like to start my day off without helping Monsanto." In a brief review of the song, Stefan Schmidt in The National Singles Round-Up also remarked that song did not hold back against critiquing Starbucks and Monsanto and suggested that Young had not lost his appetite for tackling political issues. === Venue === Young also introduced an acoustic version of the song in Maui while performing at "OUTGROW Monsanto", a festival held to protest Monsanto's business practices


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-0.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Anti-psychiatry, sometimes spelled antipsychiatry, is a movement based on the view that psychiatric treatment can often be more damaging than helpful to patients. The term anti-psychiatry was coined in 1912, and the movement emerged in the 1960s, highlighting controversies about psychiatry. Objections include the reliability of psychiatric diagnosis, the questionable effectiveness and harm associated with psychiatric medications, the failure of psychiatric medications to demonstrate any deterministic treatments, and legal concerns about equal human rights and civil freedom being nullified by the presence of diagnosis. Historical critiques of psychiatry came to light after focus on the extreme harms associated with electroconvulsive therapy and insulin shock therapy. The term "anti-psychiatry" is in dispute and often used to dismiss all critics of psychiatry, many of whom agree that a specialized role of helper for people in emotional distress may at times be appropriate, and allow for individual choice around treatment decisions. Beyond concerns about effectiveness, anti-psychiatry might question the philosophical and ethical underpinnings of psychotherapy and psychoactive medication, seeing them as shaped by social and political concerns rather than the autonomy and integrity of the individual mind. They may believe that "judgements on matters of sanity should be the prerogative of the philosophical


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-1.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
The first widespread challenge to the prevailing medical approach in Western countries occurred in the late 18th century. Part of the progressive Age of Enlightenment, a "moral treatment" movement challenged the harsh, pessimistic, somatic (body-based) and restraint-based approaches that prevailed in the system of hospitals and "madhouses" for people considered mentally disturbed, who were generally seen as wild animals without reason. Alternatives were developed, led in different regions by ex-patient staff, physicians themselves in some cases, and religious and lay philanthropists. This "moral treatment" was seen as pioneering more humane psychological and social approaches, whether or not in medical settings; however, it also involved some use of physical restraints, threats of punishment, and personal and social methods of control. As it became the establishment approach in the 19th century, opposition to its negative aspects also grew. According to Michel Foucault, there was a shift in the perception of madness, whereby it came to be seen as less about delusion, i.e. disturbed judgment about the truth, than about a disorder of regular, normal behavior or will. Foucault argued that, prior to this, doctors could often prescribe travel, rest, walking, retirement and generally engaging with nature, seen as the visible form of


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-2.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Various 19th-century critiques of the newly emerging field of psychiatry overlap thematically with 20th-century anti-psychiatry, for example in their questioning of the medicalization of "madness". Those critiques occurred at a time when physicians had not yet achieved hegemony through psychiatry, however, so there was no single, unified force to oppose. Nevertheless, there was increasing concern at the ease with which people could be confined, with frequent reports of abuse and illegal confinement. For example, Daniel Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe, had previously argued for more government oversight of "madhouses" and for due process prior to involuntary internment. He later argued that husbands used asylum hospitals to incarcerate their disobedient wives, and in a subsequent pamphlet that wives even did the same to their husbands. It was also proposed that the role of asylum keeper be separated from doctor, to discourage exploitation of patients. There was general concern that physicians were undermining personhood by medicalizing problems, by claiming they alone had the expertise to judge, and by arguing that mental disorder was physical and hereditary. The Alleged Lunatics' Friend Society arose in England in the mid-19th century to challenge the system and campaign for rights and reforms. In the United


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-3.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1930s === In the 1930s several controversial medical practices were introduced and framed as "treatments" for mental disorders, including inducing seizures (by electroshock, insulin or other drugs) or psychosurgery (lobotomy). In the US, beginning in 1939 through 1951, over 50,000 lobotomy operations were performed in mental hospitals, a procedure ultimately seen as inhumane. Holocaust historians argued that the medicalization of social programs and systematic euthanasia of people in German mental institutions in the 1930s provided the institutional, procedural, and doctrinal origins of the mass murder of the 1940s. The Nazi programs were called Action T4 and Action 14f13. The Nuremberg Trials convicted a number of psychiatrists who held key positions in Nazi regimes. As one Swiss psychiatrist stated: "A not so easy question to be answered is whether it should be allowed to destroy lives objectively 'unworthy of living' without the expressed request of its bearers. (...) Even in incurable mentally ill ones suffering seriously from hallucinations and melancholic depressions and not being able to act, to a medical colleague I would ascript the right and in serious cases the duty to shorten—often for many years—the suffering" (Bleuler, Eugen, 1936: "Die naturwissenschaftliche Grundlage der Ethik". Schweizer Archiv Neurologie und


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-4.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
In the 1960s fresh voices mounted a new challenge to the pretensions of psychiatry as a science and the mental health system as a successful humanitarian enterprise. These voices included: Ernest Becker, Erving Goffman, R.D. Laing; Laing and Aaron Esterson, Thomas Scheff, and Thomas Szasz. Their writings, along with others such as articles in the journal The Radical Therapist, were given the umbrella label "antipsychiatry" despite wide divergences in philosophy. This critical literature, in concert with an activist movement, emphasized the hegemony of medical model psychiatry, its spurious sources of authority, its mystification of human problems, and the more oppressive practices of the mental health system, such as involuntary hospitalisation, drugging, and electroshock. The psychiatrists R D Laing (from Scotland), Theodore Lidz (from America), Silvano Arieti (from Italy) and others, argued that "schizophrenia" and psychosis were understandable, and resulted from injuries to the inner-self-inflicted by psychologically invasive "schizophrenogenic" parents or others. It was sometimes seen as a transformative state involving an attempt to cope with a sick society. Laing, however, partially dissociated himself from his colleague Cooper's term "anti-psychiatry". Laing had already become a media icon through bestselling books (such as The Divided Self and The Politics of Experience) discussing


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-5.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
New professional approaches were developed as an alternative or reformist complement to psychiatry. The Radical Therapist, a journal begun in 1971 in North Dakota by Michael Glenn, David Bryan, Linda Bryan, Michael Galan and Sara Glenn, challenged the psychotherapy establishment in a number of ways, raising the slogan "Therapy means change, not adjustment." It contained articles that challenged the professional mediator approach, advocating instead revolutionary politics and authentic community making. Social work, humanistic or existentialist therapies, family therapy, counseling and self-help and clinical psychology developed and sometimes opposed psychiatry. The psychoanalytically trained psychiatrist Szasz, although professing fundamental opposition to what he perceives as medicalization and oppressive or excuse-giving "diagnosis" and forced "treatment", was not opposed to other aspects of psychiatry (for example attempts to "cure-heal souls", although he also characterizes this as non-medical). Although generally considered anti-psychiatry by others, he sought to dissociate himself politically from a movement and term associated with the radical left wing. In a 1976 publication "Anti-psychiatry: The paradigm of a plundered mind", which has been described as an overtly political condemnation of a wide sweep of people, Szasz claimed Laing, Cooper and all of anti-psychiatry consisted of "self-declared socialists, communists, anarchists or at least anti-capitalists


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-6.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Civilization as a cause of distress === In recent years,psychotherapists David Smail and Bruce E. Levine, considered part of the anti-psychiatry movement, have written widely on how society, culture, politics and psychology intersect. They have written extensively of the "embodied nature" of the individual in society, and the unwillingness of even therapists to acknowledge the obvious part played by power and financial interest in modern Western society. They argue that feelings and emotions are not, as is commonly supposed, features of the individual, but rather responses of the individual to their situation in society. Even psychotherapy, they suggest, can only change feelings in as much as it helps a person to change the "proximal" and "distal" influences on their life, which range from family and friends, to the workplace, socio-economics, politics and culture. R. D. Laing emphasized family nexus as a mechanism by which individuals become victimized by those around them, and spoke about a dysfunctional society. === Inadequacy of clinical interviews used to diagnose 'diseases' === Psychiatrists have been trying to differentiate mental disorders based on clinical interviews since the era of Kraepelin, but now realize that their diagnostic criteria are imperfect. Tadafumi Kato writes, "We psychiatrists should


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-7.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
==== Experiments admitting "healthy" individuals into psychiatric care ==== In 1972, psychologist David Rosenhan published the Rosenhan experiment, a study questioning the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. The study arranged for eight individuals with no history of psychopathology to attempt admission into psychiatric hospitals. The individuals included a graduate student, psychologists, an artist, a housewife, and two physicians, including one psychiatrist. All eight individuals were admitted with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Psychiatrists then attempted to treat the individuals using psychiatric medication. All eight were discharged within 7 to 52 days. In a later part of the study, psychiatric staff were warned that pseudo-patients might be sent to their institutions, but none were actually sent. Nevertheless, a total of 83 patients out of 193 were believed by at least one staff member to be actors. The study concluded that individuals without mental disorders were indistinguishable from those with mental disorders. Critics such as Robert Spitzer cast doubt on the validity and credibility of the study, but did concede that the consistency of psychiatric diagnoses needed improvement. The challenge of the validity versus the reliability of diagnostic categories continues to plague diagnostic systems. Neuroscientist Tadafumi Kato advocates for a new


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-8.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Psychiatry and the pharmaceutical industry === Critics of psychiatry commonly express a concern that the path of diagnosis and treatment in contemporary society is primarily or overwhelmingly shaped by profit prerogatives, echoing a common criticism of general medical practice in the United States, where many of the largest psychopharmaceutical producers are based. Psychiatric research has demonstrated varying degrees of efficacy for improving or managing a number of mental health disorders through either medications, psychotherapy, or a combination of the two. Typical psychiatric medications include stimulants, antidepressants, anxiolytics, and antipsychotics (neuroleptics). On the other hand, organizations such as MindFreedom International and World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry maintain that psychiatrists exaggerate the evidence of medication and minimize the evidence of adverse drug reaction. They and other activists believe individuals are not given balanced information, and that current psychiatric medications do not appear to be specific to particular disorders in the way mainstream psychiatry asserts; and psychiatric drugs not only fail to correct measurable chemical imbalances in the brain, but rather induce undesirable side effects. For example, though children on Ritalin and other psycho-stimulants become more obedient to parents and teachers, critics have noted that they can also develop


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-9.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Psychiatrists around the world have been involved in the suppression of individual rights by states in which the definitions of mental disease have been expanded to include political disobedience. Nowadays, in many countries, political prisoners are sometimes confined and abused in mental institutions. Psychiatry possesses a built-in capacity for abuse which is greater than in other areas of medicine. The diagnosis of mental disease can serve as proxy for the designation of social dissidents, allowing the state to hold persons against their will and to insist upon therapies that work in favor of ideological conformity and in the broader interests of society. In a monolithic state, psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures for establishing guilt or innocence and allow political incarceration without the ordinary odium attaching to such political trials. Under the Nazi regime in the 1940s, the "duty to care" was violated on an enormous scale. In Germany alone 300,000 individuals that had been deemed mentally ill, work-shy or feeble-minded were sterilized. An additional 200,000 were euthanized. These practices continued in territories occupied by the Nazis further afield (mainly in eastern Europe), affecting thousands more. From the 1960s up to 1986, political abuse of psychiatry was


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-10.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Therapeutic state === The "therapeutic state" is a phrase coined by Szasz in 1963. The collaboration between psychiatry and government leads to what Szasz calls the "therapeutic state", a system in which disapproved actions, thoughts, and emotions are repressed ("cured") through pseudomedical interventions. Thus suicide, unconventional religious beliefs, racial bigotry, unhappiness, anxiety, shyness, sexual promiscuity, shoplifting, gambling, overeating, smoking, and illegal drug use are all considered symptoms or illnesses that need to be cured. When faced with demands for measures to curtail smoking in public, binge-drinking, gambling or obesity, ministers say that "we must guard against charges of nanny statism". The "nanny state" has turned into the "therapeutic state" where nanny has given way to counselor. Nanny just told people what to do; counselors also tell them what to think and what to feel. The "nanny state" was punitive, austere, and authoritarian, the therapeutic state is touchy-feely, supportive—and even more authoritarian. According to Szasz, "the therapeutic state swallows up everything human on the seemingly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of health and medicine, just as the theological state had swallowed up everything human on the perfectly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of God


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-11.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
parsimony, as straightforward as the phenomena to be explained allow (Occam's razor); empirically testable and falsifiable; changeable, i.e. if necessary, changes may be made to the theory as new data are discovered; progressive, encompasses previous successful descriptions and explains and adds more; provisional, i.e. tentative; the theory does not attempt to assert that it is a final description or explanation. Psychiatrists Colin A. Ross and Alvin Pam maintain that biopsychiatry does not qualify as a science on many counts. Psychiatric researchers have been criticized on the basis of the replication crisis and textbook errors. Questionable research practices are known to bias key sources of evidence. Stuart A. Kirk has argued that psychiatry is a failed enterprise, as mental illness has grown, not shrunk, with about 20% of American adults diagnosable as mentally ill in 2013. According to a 2014 meta-analysis, psychiatric treatment is no less effective for psychiatric illnesses in terms of treatment effects than treatments by practitioners of other medical specialties for physical health conditions. The analysis found that the effect sizes for psychiatric interventions are on average on par with other fields of medicine. == Diverse paths == Szasz has since (2008) re-emphasized his disdain for the term


id: anti-psychiatry-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry-12.md
category: reference
title: Anti-psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:59.919288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anti-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Critics of this view from an anti-psychiatry perspective are quick to point to the industrial aspects of psychiatric treatment itself as a primary causal factor in this situation that is described as "deteriorating". The numbers of people labeled "mentally ill", and in treatment, together with the severity of their conditions, have been going up primarily due to the direct efforts of the mental health movement, and mental health professionals, including psychiatrists, and not their detractors. Envisioning "mental health treatment" as violence prevention has been a big part of the problem, especially as you are dealing with a population that is not significantly more violent than any other group. On 7 October 2016, the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto announced that they had established a scholarship for students doing theses in the area of antipsychiatry. Called "The Bonnie Burstow Scholarship in Antipsychiatry", it is to be awarded annually to an OISE thesis student. An unprecedented step, the scholarship should further the cause of freedom of thought and the exchange of ideas in academia. The scholarship is named in honor of Bonnie Burstow, a faculty member at the University of Toronto, a radical feminist, and


id: ah-v-west-london-mental-health-trust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AH_v_West_London_Mental_Health_Trust-0.md
category: reference
title: AH v West London Mental Health Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AH_v_West_London_Mental_Health_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:01.131386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ah-v-west-london-mental-health-trust-20260505-0
summary:
AH vs West London Mental Health Trust was a landmark case in England, which established a legal precedent in 2011 when Albert Laszlo Haines (AH), a patient in Broadmoor Hospital, a high security psychiatric hospital, was able to exercise a right to a fully open public mental health review tribunal to hear his appeal for release. The case and the legal principles it affirmed have been described as opening up the secret world of tribunals and National Health Service secure units, and as having substantial ramifications for mental health professionals and solicitors, though how frequently patients will be willing or able to exercise the right is not yet clear. The detention of Haines under the Mental Health Act had been continuous since 1986, mainly at Broadmoor Hospital run by West London Mental Health NHS Trust. The tribunal panel ultimately decided there were sufficient grounds for continued psychiatric detention but recommended better collaborative work towards psychiatric rehabilitation and gradual supported pathways to lower security then release to community mental health services. == Legal process == === Gaining the right === Haines's request for his mental health tribunal to be fully open to the public was first made in 2009 but was


id: ah-v-west-london-mental-health-trust-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AH_v_West_London_Mental_Health_Trust-1.md
category: reference
title: AH v West London Mental Health Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AH_v_West_London_Mental_Health_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:01.131386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ah-v-west-london-mental-health-trust-20260505-0
summary:
== Personal background == The legal process made extensive reference to Haines's life as a child and adult, and he was the focus of some national press coverage which included personal interviews. Born in 1959 in Hammersmith, London, Albert Haines suffered neglect and abuse from a young age. He was put in residential care for many years, as were his three sisters and two brothers. A mental health assessment at just five years of age described him as 'emotionally maladjusted'. He was sexually and physically abused. After leaving residential homes once an adult, Haines stayed in hostels, bedsits or on the streets. He drank alcohol and took cannabis, cocaine and amphetamines. He was convicted of criminal damage in 1979 and in 1980 for possession of an offensive weapon. He was in and out of psychiatric hospitals. In May 1986 while a patient of the Maudsley Hospital run by South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, Haines went in carrying a machete and a small knife. There is some disagreement between media reports as to whether he threatened staff and gave himself up, or tried to attack a member of staff but was prevented. No one was physically hurt. Later that year


id: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act-0.md
category: reference
title: Alaska Mental Health Enabling Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:02.278569+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-0
summary:
The Alaska Mental Health Enabling Act of 1956 (Public Law 84-830) was an Act of Congress passed to improve mental health care in the United States territory of Alaska. Initially bipartisan and uncontroversial, it became the focus of a major political dispute after far-right anti-communist activists nicknamed it the "Siberia Bill" and denounced it as being part of a communist plot to hospitalize and brainwash Americans. Campaigners asserted that it was part of an international Jewish, Roman Catholic or psychiatric conspiracy intended to establish United Nations-run concentration camps in the United States. The legislation in its original form was sponsored by the Democratic Party, but after it ran into opposition, it was rescued by the conservative Republican Senator Barry Goldwater. Under Goldwater's sponsorship, a version of the legislation without the commitment provisions that were the target of intense opposition from a variety of far-right, anti-Communist and fringe religious groups was passed by the United States Senate. The controversy still plays a prominent role in the Church of Scientology's account of its campaign against psychiatry. The Act succeeded in its initial aim of establishing a mental health care system for Alaska, funded by income from lands allocated to a mental health


id: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act-1.md
category: reference
title: Alaska Mental Health Enabling Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:02.278569+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-0
summary:
to modernize procedures for such hospitalization (including commitment), care, and treatment and to authorize the Territory to modify or supersede such procedures; to assist in providing for the Territory necessary facilities for a comprehensive mental-health program in Alaska, including inpatient and outpatient facilities; to provide for a land grant to the Territory to assist in placing the program on a firm long-term basis; and to provide for a ten-year program, of grants-in-aid to the Territory to enable the Territory gradually to assume the full operating costs of the program. The bill provided for a cash grant of $12.5 million (about $94 million at 2007 prices) to be disbursed to the Alaskan government in a number of phases, to fund the construction of mental health facilities in the territory. To meet the ongoing costs of the program, the bill transferred one million acres (4,000 km2) of federally owned land in Alaska to the ownership of the proposed new Alaska Mental Health Trust as a grant-in-aid—the federal government owned about 99% of the land of Alaska at the time. The trust would then be able to use the assets of the transferred land (principally mineral and forestry rights) to obtain an ongoing


id: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act-2.md
category: reference
title: Alaska Mental Health Enabling Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:02.278569+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-0
summary:
=== Further opposition === After the Santa Ana Register published its article, a nationwide network of activists began a vociferous campaign to torpedo the Alaska Mental Health Bill. The campaigners included, among other groups and individuals, the white supremacist Rev. Gerald L. K. Smith; Women for God and Country; the For America League; the Minute Women of the U.S.A.; the right-wing agitator Dan Smoot; the anti-Catholic former US Army Brigadier General Herbert C. Holdridge; and L. Ron Hubbard's Church of Scientology, which had been founded only two years earlier. Increasingly strong statements were made by the bill's opponents through the course of the spring and summer of 1956. In his February 17 bulletin, Dan Smoot told his subscribers: "I do not doubt that the Alaska Mental Health Act was written by sincere, well-intentioned men. Nonetheless, it fits into a sinister pattern which has been forming ever since the United Nations was organized." Dr. George A. Snyder of Hollywood sent a letter to all members of Congress in which he demanded an investigation of the Alaska Mental Health Bill's proponents for "elements of treason against the American people behind the front of the mental health program". The Keep America Committee of


id: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act-3.md
category: reference
title: Alaska Mental Health Enabling Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:02.278569+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-0
summary:
The arguments of the bill's opponents attracted little support in the Senate. The Eisenhower administration, the Alaska territorial government and mainstream religious groups were all in favor of the bill. The Alaska Presbyterian Church gave the bill its unanimous support, issuing a statement declaring: "As Christian citizens of Alaska we believe this is a progressive measure for the care and treatment of the mentally ill of Alaska. We deplore the present antiquated methods of handling our mentally ill." It also urged the National Council of Churches to mobilize support for the bill. An overwhelming majority of senators of both parties were also supportive. The bill's original author, Alaska Delegate Bob Bartlett, spoke for many of the bill's proponents when he expressed his bafflement at the response that it had received: I am completely at a loss in attempting to fathom the reasons why certain individuals and certain groups have now started a letter-writing campaign ... to defeat the act. I am sure that if the letter writers would consult the facts, they would join with all others not only in hoping this act would become law but in working for its speedy passage and approval. Other senators expressed similar mystification


id: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act-4.md
category: reference
title: Alaska Mental Health Enabling Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Mental_Health_Enabling_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:02.278569+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alaska-mental-health-enabling-act-20260505-0
summary:
I don't know if you're aware that there was a plan in 1955 in this country, Ted, to repeat what was done in Russia. There was going to be a Siberia, USA, set up on a million acres in Alaska to send mental patients. They were going to lessen the commitment laws, you could basically get into an argument with somebody and be sent up there. This sounds very odd. Nobody's ever heard about it. That's in no small part thanks to the Church of Scientology. I must say, though, that when that bill was killed in Congress, the war was on with psychiatry where they declared war on us ... It was a major, major, major flap for the psychiatrists when it got voted down, because then the slogan around the country began, 'Siberia, USA,' and it was really the first time that psychiatry had been denigrated publicly, that they weren't the science that they had been promoting themselves to be. And they took it upon themselves then to start dealing with anybody who would oppose them. === Conspiracy theories === In Ron's Journal 67, Hubbard identified "the people behind the Siberia Bill", who he asserted were less than


id: american-association-for-the-abolition-of-involuntary-mental-hospitalization-20260505-0
category: reference
title: American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:03.450444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-association-for-the-abolition-of-involuntary-mental-hospitalization-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Abolition_of_Involuntary_Mental_Hospitalization-0.md

summary:
The American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization (AAAIMH) was an organization founded in 1970 by Thomas Szasz, George Alexander, and Erving Goffman for the purpose of abolishing involuntary psychiatric intervention, particularly involuntary commitment. The founding of the AAAIMH was announced by Szasz in 1971 on the American Journal of Public Health and American Journal of Psychiatry. In the Platform Statement of the association, one can read: Throughout the entire history of psychiatry, involuntary psychiatric interventions, and especially involuntary mental hospitalization, have been regarded as morally and professionally legitimate procedures. No group of physicians, lawyers, or social scientists has ever rejected such interventions as contrary to elementary principles of dignity and liberty and hence as morally and professionally illegitimate. The AAAIMH does. Board chairman of the association was Thomas Szasz. The association provided legal help to psychiatric patients and published a journal, The Abolitionist. The organisation was dissolved in 1980. == See also == Thomas Szasz Wrongful involuntary commitment == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Abolition_of_Involuntary_Mental_Hospitalization


id: biopsychiatry-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Biopsychiatry controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:04.639948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biopsychiatry-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The biopsychiatry controversy is a dispute over which viewpoint should predominate and form a basis of psychiatric theory and practice. The debate is a criticism of a claimed strict biological view of [psychiatric thinking. Its critics include disparate groups such as the antipsychiatry movement and some academics. == Overview of opposition to biopsychiatry == Biological psychiatry or biopsychiatry aims to investigate determinants of mental disorders devising remedial measures of a primarily somatic nature. This has been criticized by Alvin Pam for being a "stilted, unidimensional, and mechanistic world-view", so that subsequent "research in psychiatry has been geared toward discovering which aberrant genetic or neurophysiological factors underlie and cause social deviance". According to Pam, the "blame the body" approach, which typically offers medication for mental distress, shifts the focus from disturbed behavior in the family to putative biochemical imbalances. == Research issues == === 2003 status in biopsychiatric research === Biopsychiatric research has produced reproducible abnormalities of brain structure and function, as well as a strong genetic component for a number of psychiatric disorders (although the latter has been shown to be correlative rather than causative). It has also elucidated some of the mechanisms of action of medications that effectively treat


id: biopsychiatry-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Biopsychiatry controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:04.639948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biopsychiatry-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reductionism === Niall McLaren emphasizes in his books Humanizing Madness and Humanizing Psychiatry that the major problem with psychiatry is that it lacks a unified model of the mind and has become entrapped in a biological reductionist paradigm. The reasons for this biological shift are intuitive, as reductionism has been very effective in other fields of science and medicine. However, despite reductionism's efficacy in explaining the smallest parts of the brain, this does not explain the mind, which is where he contends the majority of psychopathology stems from. An example would be that every aspect of a computer can be understood scientifically down to the last atom; however, this does not reveal the program that drives this hardware. He also argues that the widespread acceptance of the reductionist paradigm leads to a lack of openness to Self-criticism, "a smugness that stops the very engine of scientific progress." He has proposed his own natural dualist model of the mind, the biocognitive model, which is rooted in the theories of David Chalmers and Alan Turing and does not fall into the "dualist's trap" of spiritualism. == Economic influences on psychiatric practice == American Psychiatric Association president Steven S. Sharfstein, M.D. has


id: citizens-commission-on-human-rights-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_Commission_on_Human_Rights-0.md
category: reference
title: Citizens Commission on Human Rights
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_Commission_on_Human_Rights
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:05.874476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citizens-commission-on-human-rights-20260505-0
summary:
Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR) is a lobbying organization founded in 1969 by the Church of Scientology and psychiatrist Thomas Szasz. Headquartered in Los Angeles, California, its stated mission is to "eradicate abuses committed under the guise of mental health and enact patient and consumer protections." It is regarded by most non-Scientologists as a Scientology front group whose purpose is to push the organization's anti-psychiatry agenda. == Campaigns == The group has organized media campaigns against various psychiatrists, psychiatric organizations and pharmaceutical companies, including Eli Lilly, the manufacturer of Prozac. The campaign against Eli Lilly in 1991 caused Prozac's market share of antidepressants to drop from 25% to 21%. The group campaigned against the use of Ritalin for the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, a disorder which the organization dismisses as nonexistent. The campaign was part of the Ritalin class action lawsuits against Novartis (the manufacturer of Ritalin), CHADD (Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder), and the American Psychiatric Association (APA); all five lawsuits were dismissed in 2002. In 2003, CCHR presented a report with the title "The Silent Death of America's Children" to the New Freedom Commission on Mental Health, with case histories of several dozen under-aged psychiatric


id: citizens-commission-on-human-rights-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_Commission_on_Human_Rights-1.md
category: reference
title: Citizens Commission on Human Rights
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_Commission_on_Human_Rights
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:05.874476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citizens-commission-on-human-rights-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversies == Rissmiller labels CCHR as a radical antipsychiatry organization. It encourages the arrest and incarceration of psychiatrists for their alleged crimes against humanity because L. Ron Hubbard had written, "There is not one institutional psychiatrist alive who ... could not be arraigned and convicted of extortion, mayhem and murder." CCHR is a front group for the Church of Scientology, which sponsors the organization. In 1993, the US Internal Revenue Service granted CCHR tax exemption as part of an agreement with the Church of Scientology International and Religious Technology Center (RTC) under which the RTC took responsibility for CCHR's tax liabilities. CCHR has been criticized by journalist Andrew Gumbel for "crudeness" and "paranoia" in its criticism of psychiatry. In 1988, CCHR claimed that Professor Sir Martin Roth of Newcastle University had used LSD in tests on mental patients in the 1960s. The statements were publicized in the Northern Echo newspaper, which was ordered by an English court to pay "very substantial" libel damages to Roth after the court found that CCHR's claims were "highly defamatory" and "utterly false." Jan Eastgate, President of CCHR and winner of an International Association of Scientologists Freedom Medal award, has been implicated in covering


id: critical-psychiatry-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Critical Psychiatry Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:07.013684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: critical-psychiatry-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Critical Psychiatry Network (CPN) is a group of psychiatrists who advocate for reform towards a more reflective, skeptical and patient-centered approach to psychiatry. CPN was created in January 1999 by psychiatrists in the United Kingdom, in response to proposals by the British government to amend the Mental Health Act 1983. The network was concerned about the potential for increased coercion in the act. Among their founders was Joanna Moncrieff, current co-chair of the network. "Critical psychiatry" can be contrasted with "anti-psychiatry", which is more abolitionist than reformative. Participants in the Critical Psychiatry Network share concerns about psychiatric practice where and when it is heavily dependent upon diagnostic classification and the use of psychopharmacology. These concerns reflect their recognition of poor construct validity amongst psychiatric diagnoses and scepticism about the efficacy of anti-depressants, mood stabilisers and anti-psychotic agents. According to them, these concerns have ramifications in the area of the use of psychiatric diagnosis to justify civil detention and the role of scientific knowledge in psychiatry, and an interest in promoting the study of interpersonal phenomena such as relationship, meaning and narrative in pursuit of better understanding and improved treatment. CPN has similarities and contrasts with earlier criticisms of conventional


id: critical-psychiatry-network-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network-1.md
category: reference
title: Critical Psychiatry Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:07.013684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: critical-psychiatry-network-20260505-0
summary:
=== The role of scientific knowledge in psychiatry === There is a strong view by CPN that contemporary psychiatry relies too much on the medical model, and attaches too much importance to a narrow biomedical view of diagnosis. This can, in part, be understood as the response of an earlier generation of psychiatrists to the challenge of what has been called 'anti-psychiatry'. Psychiatrists such as David Cooper, R. D. Laing and Thomas Szasz (although the latter two rejected the term) were identified as part of a movement against psychiatry in the 1960s and 1970s. Stung by these attacks, as well as accusations that in any case psychiatrists could not even agree who was and who was not mentally ill, academic psychiatrists responded by stressing the biological and scientific basis of psychiatry through strenuous efforts to improve the reliability of psychiatric diagnosis based in a return to the traditions of one of the founding fathers of the profession, Emil Kraepelin. The use of standardized diagnostic criteria and checklists may have improved the reliability of psychiatric diagnosis, but the problem of its validity remains. The investment of huge sums of money in Britain, America and Europe over the last half-century has failed


id: critical-psychiatry-network-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network-2.md
category: reference
title: Critical Psychiatry Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:07.013684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: critical-psychiatry-network-20260505-0
summary:
== Efficacy == One comparison study showed 34% of patients of a 'medical model' team were still being treated after two years, compared with only 9% of patients of a team using a 'non-diagnostic' approach (less medication, little diagnosis, individual treatment plans tailored to the person's unique needs). However the study comments that cases may have left the system in the 'non-diagnostic' approach, not because treatment had worked, but because (1) multi-agency involvement meant long-term work may have been continued by a different agency, (2) the starting question of 'Do we think our service can make a positive difference to this young person's life?' rather than 'What is wrong with this young person?' may have led to treatment not being continued, and (3) the attitude of viewing a case as problematic when no improvement has occurred after five sessions may have led to treatment not being continued (rather than the case 'drifting' on in the system). == Critical Psychiatry and Postpsychiatry == Peter Campbell first used the term 'postpsychiatry' in the anthology Speaking Our Minds, which imagines what would happen in a world after psychiatry. Independently, Patrick Bracken and Philip Thomas coined the word later and used it as the


id: critical-psychiatry-network-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network-3.md
category: reference
title: Critical Psychiatry Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:07.013684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: critical-psychiatry-network-20260505-0
summary:
== Critical Psychiatry Network - Activities == CPN is involved in four main areas of work, writing and the publication of academic and other papers, organizing and participating in conferences, activism and support. A glance at the members' publication page on the CPN website reveals in excess of a hundred papers, books and other articles published by people associated with the network over the last twelve years or so. These cover a wide range of topics, from child psychiatry, psychotherapy, the role of diagnosis in psychiatry, critical psychiatry, philosophy and postpsychiatry, to globalization and psychiatry. CPN has also organized a number of conferences in the past, and continues to do so in collaboration with other groups and bodies. It has run workshops for psychiatrists and offers peer supervision face to face and via videolink. It also supports service user and survivor activists who campaign against the role of the pharmaceutical industry in psychiatry, and the campaign for the abolition of the schizophrenia label. The CPN has published a statement in support. == References == == Further reading == Bracken, Patrick; Thomas, Philip (2005). Postpsychiatry: Mental health in a postmodern world. International perspectives in philosophy and psychiatry. Oxford, UK: Oxford University


id: dialectics-of-liberation-congress-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectics_of_Liberation_Congress-0.md
category: reference
title: Dialectics of Liberation Congress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectics_of_Liberation_Congress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:08.200218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialectics-of-liberation-congress-20260505-0
summary:
The congress on the Dialectics of Liberation was an international congress organised in London between 15 and 30 July 1967. It was organised by R. D. Laing, David Cooper, the American educationalist Joe Berke, and Leon Redler. The scope of the conference was to "demystify human violence in all its forms, and the social systems from which it emanates, and to explore new forms of action". Significant speakers included Black Power leader Stokely Carmichael, beat poet Allen Ginsberg and humanist Marxist Herbert Marcuse. A short book of the conference was published in 1968 by Penguin Books, and some documentaries were made of the event, including Anatomy of Violence and Ah, Sunflower. == History == In 1965, R. D. Laing and colleagues came together as a community for themselves and people in a state of psychosis. As a result, Kingsley Hall became home to the Philadelphia Association and one of the most radical experiments in psychiatry. In January 1967, International Times announced: "This summer, in July, the Institute of Phenomenological Studies will make the move. A congress will convene in London on the Dialectics of Liberation. The congress intends to examine and expose the system of societal and inter-personal influences that


id: family-nexus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_nexus-0.md
category: reference
title: Family nexus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_nexus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:09.390734+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: family-nexus-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology, a family nexus is a common viewpoint held and reinforced by the majority of family members regarding events in the family and relationships with the world. The term was coined by R. D. Laing, who believed that this nexus "exists only insofar as each person incarnates the nexus ... maintaining his interiorization of the group unchanged." The concept is similar to the "family psychic apparatus (FPA) ... an unconscious psychic basis, common to members of the family group, inducing a specific experience of belonging." == Laing and schizophrenia == Laing was particularly interested in schizophrenia, which he believed could be understood if seen from the viewpoint of the person concerned. He saw how a powerful family nexus could victimize one member, usually a child, who found themselves in the position of not being able to speak or even think the truth without being chastised by the group, who often had vested interests in perpetuating the family myth and excluding reality. In Laing's opinion, "what is called a psychotic episode in one person can often be understood as a crisis of a peculiar kind in the inter-experience of the nexus." Often described as part of the "antipsychiatry" movement, Laing


id: icarus-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icarus_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Icarus Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icarus_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:10.561081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: icarus-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Icarus Project (2002–2020) was an American network of peer-support groups and media projects with the stated aim of changing the social stigmas regarding mental health. The project was rebranded as Fireweed Collective in 2020. == History == In 2002, Sascha Altman DuBrul wrote an article published in the San Francisco Bay Guardian about his experiences being diagnosed with bipolar disorder. He founded the Icarus Project with Jacks McNamara, an artist and writer. The Project sought to create spaces where people could talk freely about their lived experiences in regards to their mental health. Years later, musician-activist Bonfire Madigan Shive and counsellor/activist Will Hall became key members in The Icarus Project's administration and development. == Mission == The Icarus Project's stated aims were to provide a "support network and education project by and for people who experience the world in ways that are often diagnosed as mental illness." The responsibilities of the group are to gather people locally for support, and access to alternatives to mainstream medical diagnosis and treatment. The Project advocates self-determination and caution when approaching psychiatric care. It encourages alternatives to the medical model that is accepted by mental health professionals. In 2005, journalist Jennifer Itzenson noted


id: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)-0.md
category: reference
title: Indeterminacy (philosophy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:11.730438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
Indeterminacy, in philosophy, can refer both to common scientific and mathematical concepts of uncertainty and their implications and to another kind of indeterminacy deriving from the nature of definition or meaning. It is related to deconstructionism and to Nietzsche's criticism of the Kantian noumenon. == Indeterminacy in philosophy == === Introduction === The problem of indeterminacy arises when one observes the eventual circularity of virtually every possible definition. It is easy to find loops of definition in any dictionary, because this seems to be the only way that certain concepts, and generally very important ones such as that of existence, can be defined in the English language. A definition is a collection of other words, and in any finite dictionary if one continues to follow the trail of words in search of the precise meaning of any given term, one will inevitably encounter this linguistic indeterminacy. Philosophers and scientists generally try to eliminate indeterminate terms from their arguments, since any indeterminate thing is unquantifiable and untestable; similarly, any hypothesis which consists of a statement of the properties of something unquantifiable or indefinable cannot be falsified and thus cannot be said to be supported by evidence that does not falsify it.


id: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)-1.md
category: reference
title: Indeterminacy (philosophy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:11.730438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
"Every word instantly becomes a concept precisely insofar as it is not supposed to serve as a reminder of the unique and entirely individual original experience to which it owes its origin; but rather, a word becomes a concept insofar as it simultaneously has to fit countless more or less similar cases – which means, purely and simply, cases which are never equal and thus altogether unequal." "What then is truth? A movable host of metaphors, metonymies, and; anthropomorphisms: in short, a sum of human relations which have been poetically and rhetorically intensified, transferred, and embellished, and which, after long usage, seem to a people to be fixed, canonical, and binding. Truths are illusions which we have forgotten are illusions- they are metaphors that have become worn out and have been drained of sensuous force, coins which have lost their embossing and are now considered as metal and no longer as coins." If one states an equation between two things, one states, in effect, that they are the same thing. It can be argued that this cannot possibly be true, since one will then consider the properties which the two sides of the equation share – that which makes them


id: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)-2.md
category: reference
title: Indeterminacy (philosophy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:11.730438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
"Foucault directs his analysis toward the 'statement', the basic unit of discourse that he believes has been ignored up to this point. 'Statement' is the English translation from French énoncé (that which is enunciated or expressed), which has a peculiar meaning for Foucault. 'Énoncé' for Foucault means that which makes propositions, utterances, or speech acts meaningful. In this understanding, statements themselves are not propositions, utterances, or speech acts. Rather, statements create a network of rules establishing what is meaningful, and it is these rules that are the preconditions for propositions, utterances, or speech acts to have meaning. Statements are also 'events'. Depending on whether or not they comply with the rules of meaning, a grammatically correct sentence may still lack meaning and inversely, an incorrect sentence may still be meaningful. Statements depend on the conditions in which they emerge and exist within a field of discourse. It is huge collections of statements, called discursive formations, toward which Foucault aims his analysis. [...] Rather than looking for a deeper meaning underneath discourse or looking for the source of meaning in some transcendental subject, Foucault analyzes the conditions of existence for meaning. In order to show the principles of meaning production in


id: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)-3.md
category: reference
title: Indeterminacy (philosophy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:11.730438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
"Unless there were 'meaningless' or 'indeterminate' variation in the triggering conditions of the various frogs' eyes, there could be no raw material [...] for selection for a new purpose to act upon. The indeterminacy that Fodor (and others) see as a flaw [...] is actually a prediction for such evolution [of "purpose"]. The idea that there must be something determinate that the frog's eye really means – some possibly unknowable proposition in froggish that expresses exactly what the frog's eye is telling the frog's brain – is just essentialism applied to meaning (or function). Meaning, like function on which it so directly depends, is not something determinate at its birth. [...]" Dennet argues, controversially, against qualia in Consciousness Explained. Qualia are attacked from several directions at once: he maintains they do not exist (or that they are too ill-defined to play any role in science, or that they are really something else, i.e. behavioral dispositions). They cannot simultaneously have all the properties attributed to them by philosophers—incorrigible, ineffable, private, directly accessible and so on. The multiple drafts theory is leveraged to show that facts about qualia are not definite. Critics object that one's own qualia are subjectively quite clear and


id: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)-4.md
category: reference
title: Indeterminacy (philosophy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminacy_(philosophy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:11.730438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indeterminacy-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criticism === Proponents of a deterministic universe have criticised various applications of the concept of indeterminacy in the sciences; for instance, Albert Einstein once stated that "God does not play dice" in a succinct (but now unpopular) argument against the theory of quantum indeterminacy, which states that the actions of particles of extremely low mass or energy are unpredictable because an observer's interaction with them changes either their positions or momenta. (The "dice" in Einstein's metaphor refer to the probabilities that these particles will behave in particular ways, which is how quantum mechanics addressed the problem.) At first it might seem that a criticism could be made from a biological standpoint in that an indeterminate idea would seem not to be beneficial to the species that holds it. A strong counterargument, however, is that not all traits exhibited by living organisms will be seen in the long term as evolutionarily advantageous, given that extinctions occur regularly and that phenotypic traits have often died out altogether – in other words, an indeterminate meme may in the long term demonstrate its evolutionary value to the species that produced it in either direction; humans are, as yet, the only species known to


id: integrative-milieu-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrative_milieu_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Integrative milieu model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrative_milieu_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:12.915990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: integrative-milieu-model-20260505-0
summary:
The integrative milieu model, developed by Kevin F. McCready, is an alternative treatment regime to the medical model of psychiatry for treating people suffering from psychological distress. A central part of the anti-psychiatry movement, being a close friend of Peter Breggin and a board member of the International Center for the Study of Psychiatry and Psychology, McCready based his model on the idea that human psychological suffering is not caused by a physiological disease or a chemical imbalance, but by a compromise to a person's humanity. He believed that the biomedical model of psychiatry was a compromise to a person's humanity, stripping its patients from elements he considers to be a necessary and natural part of human life experience. This model of treatment combined elements from psychodynamic theories, particularly the theories of Carl G. Jung, humanism, and existentialism. The integrative milieu model's approach is one which attempts to create a new community for its participants to interact within. This community is based on four main ideas: The milieu must be a therapeutic container which allows an intensive exploration of the personal and collective psyche. It must therefore have a structure which maintains continuity and a sense of security. The professionals


id: involuntary-treatment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment-0.md
category: reference
title: Involuntary treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:14.215035+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: involuntary-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
Involuntary treatment or mandatory treatment refers to medical treatment undertaken without the consent of the person being treated. Involuntary treatment is permitted by law in some countries when overseen by the judiciary through court orders; other countries defer directly to the medical opinions of doctors. Globally and even within countries, what is meant by the term "involuntary treatment" is not agreed upon. In/voluntary when applied to medical treatments could refer to a purely legal perspective, an entirely ethical lens, or with components of both. Therefore use of the term is best accompanied by specification to avoid confusion. Some countries have general legislation allowing for any treatment deemed necessary if an individual is unable to consent to a treatment due to a perceived lack of capacity, other legislation may specifically deal with involuntary psychiatric treatment of individuals who have been diagnosed with a mental disorder. Psychiatric treatment normally happens in a psychiatric hospital after some form of involuntary commitment, though individuals may be compelled to undergo treatment outside of hospitals via outpatient commitment. The diagnosis of mental disorders can be carried out by some form clinical practitioner, or in some cases law enforcement or others, to be a danger to themselves


id: involuntary-treatment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment-1.md
category: reference
title: Involuntary treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:14.215035+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: involuntary-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
Psychiatric diagnoses have been used for political purposes. Psychiatry can be used to bypass standard legal procedures and political incarceration. The use of hospitals instead of jails prevents those detainend from receiving legal aid, makes indefinite incarceration possible, discredits the individuals and their ideas. During the Nazi era and the Soviet rule religious and political dissenters were labeled as "mentally ill" and subjected to inhumane "treatments". From the 1960s to 1986, abuse of psychiatry for political and ideological purposes was reported to be systematic in the Soviet Union, and occasional in Eastern European countries such as Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. == Legislative distinctions == Legislation may allow for involuntary treatment of a particular disease or class of diseases such as mental disorders. Some countries have legislation to involuntarily detain or examine those suspected to have tuberculosis, or treat them if infected. Some countries have general legislation allowing for any treatment deemed necessary if an individual is unable to consent to a treatment due to lack of capacity. Those treated for mental health disorders are committed before involuntary treatment. Those under community treatment orders (also known as outpatient commitment in some countries) may be ordered to take medication, and if


id: involuntary-treatment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment-2.md
category: reference
title: Involuntary treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:14.215035+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: involuntary-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
The faith of Jehovah's Witnesses forbids blood transfusion. Courts in the United States have consistently upheld the right of competent adults to decline blood transfusion even when it would be life-saving, though there have been exceptions where the death of a patient could leave a child orphaned. In the United States, courts have ordered pregnant women to involuntarily undergo caesarean section, intrauterine transfusion, and enforced bed rest. There are cases of clinicians threatening pregnant patients with removal of child custody or withdrawal of care if they decline treatment. In the UK, courts are unable to force treatment on pregnant women who are deemed to have capacity, however as of 2016 there were no cases of a still pregnant woman being deemed to have capacity by a court. == Children == Parents or medical doctors may make decision about the treatment of children, a principle known as parens patriae. In the United States, doctors are responsible for providing a good standard of care for patients who are children which can lead them to make decisions at odds with the parents wishes. Parents have less autonomy to make decisions about their children's care than adult patients have over their own care. Treatment


id: involuntary-treatment-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment-3.md
category: reference
title: Involuntary treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involuntary_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:14.215035+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: involuntary-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Detractors === A number of civil and human rights activists, anti-psychiatry groups, medical and academic organizations, researchers, and members of the psychiatric survivors movement vigorously oppose involuntary treatment on human rights grounds or on grounds of effectiveness and medical appropriateness, particularly with respect to involuntary administration of mind altering substances, ECT, and psychosurgery. Some criticism has been made regarding cost, as well as of conflicts of interest with the pharmaceutical industry. Critics, such as the New York Civil Liberties Union, have denounced the strong racial and socioeconomic biases in forced treatment orders. Special rapporteurs of the United Nations (Catalina Devandas Aguilar and Dainius Puras) consider it as an infringement of the dignity of those subjected to it, with severe consequences for their physical and mental integrity and call on concerned states to put an end to respect individual's autonomy. Involuntary treatment is compared to torture on at least two special reports of the UN, one noting "forced psychiatric interventions, when committed against persons with psychosocial disabilities, satisfies both intent and purpose required under the article 1 of the Convention against Torture, notwithstanding claims of 'good intentions' by medical professionals." However, jurisdiction of some countries (e.g. France) requires intended harm


id: kingsley-hall-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Hall-0.md
category: reference
title: Kingsley Hall
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Hall
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:15.405277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kingsley-hall-20260505-0
summary:
Kingsley Hall is a community centre, in Powis Road, Bromley-by-Bow in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It dates back to the work of Doris and Muriel Lester, who had a nursery school in nearby Bruce Road. Their brother, Kingsley Lester, died aged 26 in 1914, leaving money for work in the local area for "educational, social and recreational" purposes, with which the Lesters bought and converted a disused chapel. The current Hall was built with a stone-laying ceremony taking place on 14 July 1927. A second community centre, also known as Kingsley Hall with a church (KHCCC - Kingsley Hall Church and Community Centre), was later built by the sisters in the neighbouring London Borough of Barking and Dagenham on Parsloes Avenue in Dagenham. KHCCC underwent redevelopment in 2018. During the General Strike of 1926, Kingsley Hall in Bow became a shelter and soup kitchen for workers. Mohandas Gandhi stayed in Kingsley Hall in 1931 and the building now houses the Gandhi Foundation. The room where he stayed has been preserved. In 1935, hunger marchers on the Jarrow March stayed at the Hall. In 1965 R. D. Laing and his associates asked the Lesters for permission to use the


id: kingsley-hall-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Hall-1.md
category: reference
title: Kingsley Hall
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Hall
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:15.405277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kingsley-hall-20260505-0
summary:
Sir Walford Davies laid the brick of MUSIC Mr J.A.R. Cairns laid the brick of CITIZENSHIP Miss Sybil Thorndike laid the brick of DRAMA Miss De Natorp laid the brick of EDUCATION Mrs D.S. Waterlow laid the brick of OPEN AIR and COUNTRY Mr C. Cowles-Voysey laid the brick of ARCHITECTURE Mr P.R. LeMare laid the brick of COMMERCE Dr Maxwell Garnett laid the brick of WORLD BROTHERHOOD Miss Mary Arden Shakespeare laid the brick of FRIENDSHIP Mr John Galsworthy laid the brick of LITERATURE Mrs J. Douglas Watson laid the brick of the KINGDOM OF HEAVEN Margaret Martin laid the brick of KINGSLEY HALL CLUB George Lansbury laid the brick of SUNDAY EVENING SERVICE Mrs Harvey laid the brick of the WOMEN'S CLUB Tom McCarthy laid the brick of the WAYFARERS Mayor T.J.Goodway laid the brick of the BOROUGH Lady Clare Annesley laid the brick of SERVICE George M. Ll. Davies MP laid the brick of POLITICS Gilbert Bayes laid the brick of ART Kingsley Hall (on Powis Road) was opened on 15 September 1928. The building included residential units or cells, and also had a clubroom and dining room, kitchen, office and a space for worship. == Gandhi


id: kingsley-hall-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Hall-2.md
category: reference
title: Kingsley Hall
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsley_Hall
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:15.405277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kingsley-hall-20260505-0
summary:
== R.D. Laing and Kingsley Hall == Following World War II, with the welfare state having undertaken much of the work advocated by the Lester sisters, Kingsley Hall continued on a quieter note as a youth hostel and community activity centre. In 1965 R. D. Laing and his colleagues asked the Lesters for use of the Hall as a community for themselves and people in a state of psychosis. As a result, Kingsley Hall became home to the Philadelphia Association and one of the most radical experiments in psychiatry. Based on the notion that psychosis, a state of reality akin to living in a waking dream, is not an illness simply to be eliminated through the electric shocks favoured in the Western tradition of the time but, as in other cultures, a state of trance which could even be valued as mystical or Shamanistic, it sought to allow schizophrenic people the space to explore their madness and internal chaos. Residents (in the grip of psychosis) were often treated with kindness and respect with sincere efforts to alleviate their suffering. One notable resident of this experiment was Mary Barnes. Along with resident psychiatrist Joseph Berke, Mary later went on to write


id: la-borde-clinic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Borde_Clinic-0.md
category: reference
title: La Borde Clinic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Borde_Clinic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:16.595846+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: la-borde-clinic-20260505-0
summary:
The La Borde Clinic (French: [la bɔʁd]; French: Clinique de la Borde), also known as the Cour-Cheverny Clinic (Clinique de Cour-Cheverny), is a psychiatric clinic that opened in 1953 in the town of Cour-Cheverny in the Loire Valley of France. Still in operation as of August 2023, the La Borde Clinic is a model in institutional psychotherapy, with citizens actively participating in running it. == History == The clinic was founded by Jean Oury, a psychiatrist who previously worked in experimental therapy at the psychiatric clinic of Saint-Alban. The psychiatric practice borrowed the idea of Hermann Simon that it is necessary to look after the establishment and to look after each citizen, while returning initiative and responsibility to them by developing situations in which they can work and express their creativity. According to its constitution written by Oury, La Borde was founded on three principles: democratic centralism, a rotating basis for the division of labor, and anti-bureaucracy. From the mid-50s Félix Guattari worked at La Borde, developing its practice and organization and producing alongside Oury a body of theoretical work on the practice and theory of schizoanalysis, set in practice at La Borde, and included in his 1972 collaboration with


id: mad-in-america-website-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_in_America_(website)-0.md
category: reference
title: Mad in America (website)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_in_America_(website)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:17.817020+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mad-in-america-website-20260505-0
summary:
Mad in America is a webzine dedicated to critical perspectives on modern psychiatry. It was founded in 2012 by Robert Whitaker, who also publishes the site. Whitaker founded the Mad in America website in response to the positive reactions to his books Mad in America and Anatomy of an Epidemic. Its mission statement originally stated, Mad in America’s mission is to serve as a catalyst for rethinking psychiatric care in the United States (and abroad). We believe that the current drug-based paradigm of care has failed our society, and that scientific research, as well as the lived experience of those who have been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder, calls for profound change. The site has been described as "one important umbrella site for critical engagements with psychiatry" and an example of "active groups and actors with a history of providing robust commentary on the DSM" by Martyn Pickersgill in the Journal of Medical Ethics. == References == == External links == Official website


id: mad-pride-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_pride-0.md
category: reference
title: Mad pride
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_pride
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:19.001355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mad-pride-20260505-0
summary:
Mad pride is a mass movement of current and former users of mental health services, as well as those who have never used mental health services but are aligned with the mad pride framework. The movement encourages individuals with mental illness to be proud of their 'Mad' identity. In recent years, Mad pride has increasingly aligned with the neurodiversity movement, recognizing the interconnected nature of mental health advocacy and neurodivergent experiences. == Core principles == Mad pride activists seek to reclaim terms such as "mad", "nutter", crazy and "psycho" from misuse, such as in tabloid newspapers, and to transform them from negative to positive descriptors. Through mass media campaigns, mad pride activists seek to re-educate the general public on the causes of mental disorders and the experiences of those using the mental health system. Mad pride was formed in 1993 in response to local community prejudices towards people with a psychiatric history living in boarding homes in the Parkdale area of Toronto, Ontario, Canada; since then, an event has been held in Toronto every year (except for 1996). A similar movement began around the same time in the United Kingdom, and by the late 1990s, mad pride events were organized


id: mast-meher-baba-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mast_(Meher_Baba)-0.md
category: reference
title: Mast (Meher Baba)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mast_(Meher_Baba)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:21.308869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mast-meher-baba-20260505-0
summary:
A mast (from Persian مست mast), in Meher Baba's teaching, is a person who is overwhelmed with love for God, accompanied with external disorientation resembling intoxication. The word was coined by Meher Baba and originates from the Sufi term mast-Allah meaning "intoxicated with God" from Persian mast, literally meaning "intoxicated." Another interpretation of its origin is that it is derived from masti, a Persian word meaning "overpowered." == Overview == According to Meher Baba, a mast is one who is entranced or spellbound by internal spiritual experiences and ecstasies, who cannot function outwardly in an ordinary way, and may appear mad to a casual outside observer. Such experiences, according to Meher Baba, stem from the station of a mast's consciousness (his or her state of consciousness) on inner planes of involution. In The Wayfarers: Meher Baba With the God-Intoxicated, British medical doctor William Donkin documents at length Meher Baba's contacts with masts throughout South Asia (primarily Iran, India, and Pakistan). The introduction, written by Meher Baba, explains their unique state and their outward characteristics. He carefully distinguishes the mast state from madness and explains that in the case of the mad person, the mind is sped up, while in the


id: mindfreedom-international-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindFreedom_International-0.md
category: reference
title: MindFreedom International
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindFreedom_International
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:22.495272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mindfreedom-international-20260505-0
summary:
MindFreedom International is an international antipsychiatry organization. Based in the United States, it was founded in 1990 to advocate against involuntary psychiatric treatment. Its stated mission is to protect the rights of people who have been labeled with psychiatric disorders. == Origins and purpose == MindFreedom International is rooted in the psychiatric survivors movement, which arose out of the civil rights movement. The precursors of MFI include ex-patient groups of the 1970s such as the Portland, Oregon-based Insane Liberation Front and the Mental Patients' Liberation Front in New York. The organization was inspired by Judi Chamberlin's 1978 work, On Our Own: Patient Controlled Alternatives to the Mental Health System. Chamberlin was an ex-patient and co-founder of the Mental Patients' Liberation Front. Coalescing around the ex-patient newsletter Dendron, in late 1988 leaders from several of the main national and grassroots psychiatric survivor groups felt that an independent, human rights coalition focused on problems in the mental health system was needed. That year the Support Coalition International (SCI) was formed. In 2005, the SCI changed its name to MFI with David W. Oaks as its director. SCI's first public action was to stage a counter-conference and protest in May 1990 in New


id: philadelphia-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: Philadelphia Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:24.760270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philadelphia-association-20260505-0
summary:
The Philadelphia Association is a UK charity concerned with the understanding and relief of mental suffering. It was founded in 1965 by the radical psychiatrist and psychoanalyst R. D. Laing along with fellow psychiatrists David Cooper, Joseph Berke, Aaron Esterson, writer Clancy Sigal as well as John Heaton, Joan Cunnold and Sid Briskin. Kingsley Hall, the first of a number of community houses, was founded in 1965 (a building dating from 1928). The Philadelphia Association (PA) came into being to challenge and to widen the discourse around the teaching and practise of psychotherapy and continues to offer a training, an affordable therapy service and two community houses for those seeking retreat. == References == == External links == Philadelphia Association website


id: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement-0.md
category: reference
title: Psychiatric survivors movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:25.950630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The psychiatric survivors movement (more broadly consumer/survivor/ex-patient movement) is a diverse association of individuals who either currently access mental health services (known as consumers or service users), or who have experienced interventions by psychiatry that were unhelpful, harmful, abusive, or illegal. The psychiatric survivors movement arose out of the civil rights movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s and the personal histories of psychiatric abuse experienced by patients. The key text in the intellectual development of the survivor movement, at least in the US, was Judi Chamberlin's 1978 text On Our Own: Patient Controlled Alternatives to the Mental Health System. Chamberlin was an ex-patient and co-founder of the Mental Patients' Liberation Front. Coalescing around the ex-patient newsletter Dendron, in late 1988, leaders from several of the main national and grassroots psychiatric survivor groups felt that an independent, human rights coalition focused on problems in the mental health system was needed. That year the Support Coalition International (SCI) was formed. SCI's first public action was to stage a counter-conference and protest in New York City, in May 1990, at the same time as (and directly outside of) the American Psychiatric Association's annual meeting. In 2005, the SCI changed its name


id: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement-1.md
category: reference
title: Psychiatric survivors movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:25.950630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early 20th century === A few decades later, another former psychiatric patient, Clifford W. Beers, founded the National Committee on Mental Hygiene, which eventually became the National Mental Health Association. Beers sought to improve the plight of individuals receiving public psychiatric care, particularly those committed to state institutions. His book, A Mind that Found Itself (1908), described his experience with mental illness and the treatment he encountered in mental hospitals. Beers' work stimulated public interest in more responsible care and treatment. However, while Beers initially blamed psychiatrists for tolerating mistreatment of patients, and envisioned more ex-patient involvement in the movement, he was influenced by Adolf Meyer and the psychiatric establishment, and toned down his hostility as he needed their support for reforms. His reliance on rich donors and his need for approval from experts led him to hand over to psychiatrists the organization he helped establish. In the UK, the National Society for Lunacy Law Reform was established in 1920 by angry ex-patients sick of their experiences and complaints being patronisingly discounted by the authorities who were using medical "window dressing" for essentially custodial and punitive practices. In 1922, ex-patient Rachel Grant-Smith added to calls for reform of the


id: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement-2.md
category: reference
title: Psychiatric survivors movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:25.950630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
summary:
"With the advent of the modern antipsychotic medications and psychosocial treatments, the great majority are able to live in a range of open settings in the community—with family, in their own apartments, in board-and-care homes, and in halfway houses." Coming to the fore in the 1960s, an anti-psychiatry movement challenged the fundamental claims and practices of mainstream psychiatry. The ex-patient movement of this time contributed to, and derived much from, antipsychiatry ideology, but has also been described as having its own agenda, described as humanistic socialism. For a time, the movement shared aims and practices with "radical therapists", who tended to be Marxist. However, the consumer/survivor/ex-patients gradually felt that the radical therapists did not necessarily share the same goals and were taking over, and they broke away from them in order to maintain independence. By the 1970s, the women's movement, gay rights movement, and disability rights movements had emerged. It was in this context that former mental patients began to organize groups with the common goals of fighting for patients' rights and against forced treatment, stigma and discrimination, and often to promote peer-run services as an alternative to the traditional mental health system. Unlike professional mental health services, which were


id: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement-3.md
category: reference
title: Psychiatric survivors movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:25.950630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1980s and 1990s === By the 1980s, individuals who considered themselves "consumers" of mental health services rather than passive "patients" had begun to organize self-help/advocacy groups and peer-run services. While sharing some of the goals of the earlier movement, consumer groups did not seek to abolish the traditional mental health system, which they believed was necessary. Instead, they wanted to reform it and have more choice. Consumer groups encouraged their members to learn as much as possible about the mental health system so that they could gain access to the best services and treatments available. In 1985, the National Mental Health Consumers' Association was formed in the United States. A 1986 report on developments in the United States noted that "there are now three national organizations ... The ‘conservatives’ have created the National Mental Health Consumers' Association ... The ‘moderates’ have formed the National Alliance of Mental Patients ... The ‘radical’ group is called the Network to Abolish Psychiatry". Many, however, felt that they had survived the psychiatric system and its "treatments" and resented being called consumers. The National Association of Mental Patients in the United States became the National Association of Psychiatric Survivors. "Phoenix Rising: The Voice of


id: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement-4.md
category: reference
title: Psychiatric survivors movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:25.950630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
summary:
== The movement today == In the United States, the number of mental health mutual support groups (MSG), self-help organizations (SHO) (run by and for mental health consumers and/or family members) and consumer-operated services (COS) was estimated in 2002 to be 7,467. In Canada, CSI's (Consumer Survivor Initiatives) are the preferred term. "In 1991 Ontario led the world in its formal recognition of CSI's as part of the core services offered within the mental health sector when it began to formally fund CSI's across the province. Consumer Survivor Initiatives in Ontario Building an Equitable Future' (2009) pg 7. The movement may express a preference for the "survivor" label over the "consumer" label, with more than 60 percent of ex-patient groups reported to support anti-psychiatry beliefs and considering themselves to be "psychiatric survivors." There is some variation between the perspective on the consumer/survivor movement coming from psychiatry, anti-psychiatry or consumers/survivors themselves. The most common terms in Germany are "Psychiatrie-Betroffene" (people afflicted by/confronted with psychiatry) and "Psychiatrie-Erfahrene" (people who have experienced psychiatry). Sometimes the terms are considered as synonymous but sometimes the former emphasizes the violence and negative aspects of psychiatry. The German national association of (ex-)users and survivors of psychiatry is


id: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement-5.md
category: reference
title: Psychiatric survivors movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:25.950630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
summary:
== Impact == Research into consumer/survivor initiatives (CSIs) suggests they can help with social support, empowerment, mental wellbeing, self-management and reduced service use, identity transformation and enhanced quality of life. However, studies have focused on the support and self-help aspects of CSIs, neglecting that many organizations locate the causes of members’ problems in political and social institutions and are involved in activities to address issues of social justice. A 2006 series of studies in Canada compared individuals who participated in CSIs with those who did not. The two groups were comparable at baseline on a wide range of demographic variables, self-reported psychiatric diagnosis, service use, and outcome measures. After a year and a half, those who had participated in CSIs showed significant improvement in social support and quality of life (daily activities), fewer days of psychiatric hospitalization, and more were likely to have stayed in employment (paid or volunteer) and/or education. There was no significant difference on measures of community integration and personal empowerment, however. There were some limitations to the findings; although the active and nonactive groups did not differ significantly at baseline on measures of distress or hospitalization, the active group did have a higher mean score and


id: outline-of-the-psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_the_psychiatric_survivors_movement-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_the_psychiatric_survivors_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:27.093109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-the-psychiatric-survivors-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the psychiatric survivors movement: Psychiatric survivors movement – diverse association of individuals who are either currently clients of mental health services, or who consider themselves survivors of interventions by psychiatry, or who identify themselves as ex-patients of mental health services. The movement typically campaigns for more choice and improved services, for empowerment and user-led alternatives, and against the prejudices they face in society. == What is the psychiatric survivors movement? == The psychiatric survivors movement can be described as all of the following: a political movement a human rights movement part of the disability rights movement Psychiatric survivors as a group is: an advocacy group a community a special interest group == Participants == Victim of psychiatry Mental health consumer Mental patient : currently redirects to Mental disorder Former mental patient Lunatic === Supporters === Richard Bentall Patch Adams Robert Whittaker The Radical Therapist == History of the psychiatric survivors movement == History of mental disorders === People === 18th century Samuel Bruckshaw 19th century Elizabeth Packard Early 20th century Clifford Whittingham Beers Late 20th century to the present Linda Andre Ted Chabasinski Judi Chamberlin Lyn Duff


id: psychrights-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PsychRights-0.md
category: reference
title: PsychRights
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PsychRights
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:28.239758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychrights-20260505-0
summary:
The Law Project for Psychiatric Rights, or PsychRights, is an Alaskan organization that seeks to "end the abuses against people diagnosed with mental illness through individual legal representation." The organization is especially focused on fighting involuntary medication and the forced use of electroshock therapy. It contends that the involuntary treatment system operates largely illegally, in that requirements such as the "less restrictive alternative" requirement are often not followed. PsychRights has mounted legal challenges in Alaska, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, and other states. == References == == External links == PsychRights homepage


id: radical-psychology-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Radical Psychology Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:29.451481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radical-psychology-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Radical Psychology Network (RadPsyNet) is an organization with the goal of encouraging reform in the field of psychology. It began in Toronto in 1993 when two dozen people attended a discussion at the American Psychological Association convention entitled "Will Psychology Pay Attention to Its Own Radical Critics?" == Overview == The aim of the group is to change the status quo of psychology. Challenging psychology's traditional focus on minor reform, members emphasise enhancing human welfare by working for fundamental social change. They claim that psychology itself has too often oppressed people rather than liberated them and they work to redress this imbalance. In keeping with this aim, RadPsyNet co-founders Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky co-edited Critical Psychology: An Introduction in 1997, and many RadPsyNet members are active in academic critical psychology as well as in opposition to psychological abuses. Today the group has more than 500 members in over three dozen countries. Members include psychologists and others, academics and practitioners, faculty and students, psychotherapists and patients. It publishes the online Radical Psychology Journal (published for ten years until its final issue in 2011) and sponsors an active email discussion list. == See also == Critical psychology Psychopolitical validity, coined


id: the-radical-therapist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Radical Therapist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:30.684198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-radical-therapist-20260505-0
summary:
The Radical Therapist was a journal that emerged in the early 1970s in the context of the counter-culture and the radical U.S. antiwar movement. It was an "alternative journal" in the mental health field that published 12 issues between 1970 and 1972, and "voiced pointed criticisms of psychiatrists during this period". It was run by a group of psychiatrists and activists who believed that mental illness was best treated by social change, not behaviour modification. Their motto was "Therapy means social, political and personal change, not adjustment". == Background == In the 1960s, a movement developed to challenge many principals of psychiatry and dispute the mental health system as a successful humanitarian enterprise. The challenge came from Ernest Becker, Erving Goffman, R.D. Laing, Thomas Scheff, and Thomas Szasz. Their writings, along with articles in the journal The Radical Therapist, were given the umbrella label anti-psychiatry despite wide divergences in philosophy. This critical literature, with an associated left-wing activist movement, "emphasized the hegemony of medical model psychiatry, its spurious sources of authority, its mystification of human problems, and the more oppressive practices of the mental health system, such as involuntary hospitalisation, drugging, and electroshock". == Beginnings: Minot, North Dakota == The


id: the-radical-therapist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist-1.md
category: reference
title: The Radical Therapist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:30.684198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-radical-therapist-20260505-0
summary:
The Manifesto promised that the journal would provide a needed forum for all people working in the therapy fields; work to liberate therapy, therapists and others from backwards ideology; help develop new training programs; encourage the elaboration of a new psychology of men and women, as well as a new concept of family and community life; foster the development of more responsive therapy programs under client control; encourage new techniques; and confront the various ways U.S. society uses mental health institutions to oppress various people. The journal was highly critical of the "Establishment" and all its institutions. In this sense, The Radical Therapist was similar to The Insurgent Sociologist, Science for the People, Radical Teacher, and other publications that targeted various groups of professionals whose political spectrum included left-leaning, radical, and revolutionary-minded activists. During its time in Minot, the journal was typeset and published locally, and mailed out via a collective effort. The journal printed articles critiquing the therapy "establishment" and its practice and outlining a "radical" approach to the ways therapy could be used instead. It enthusiastically promoted women's liberation and gay liberation, and critically examined how therapy ideology and practice were alleged to contribute to sexist and homophobic


id: the-radical-therapist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist-2.md
category: reference
title: The Radical Therapist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:30.684198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-radical-therapist-20260505-0
summary:
== The Somerville Years: The Radical Therapist becomes Rough Times == The new Radical Therapist Collective that formed in Somerville in the late summer of 1971 included Michael Glenn, Sara Snow (Glenn) and Debbie Levitt from the Minot group, as well as Michael Galan, who continued to handle the business aspects of the journal. Phil Brown, who had been active in Psychologists for a Democratic Society, and who had enthusiastically worked with the journal since its inception, moved from New York to join the collective that summer; so did Nancy Henley, an activist feminist psychologist from Baltimore. Other new members joined the Somerville collective over the next few months. These included the therapists John Bayliss, Cynthia Ganung, and Chuck Robinson; as well as Anne Mine, Christine Nozchese and Laurin Pensel. After publishing the first Somerville issue (Volume Two, Number 2) the third issue was entirely devoted to articles from the Radical Psychiatry movement in Berkeley, California—including a number of articles by Claude Steiner, Hogie Wyckoff, and Dot Vance. By the winter of 1971, sharp political struggle had broken out in the collective over issues of elitism and professionalism. Some members raised questions as to whether therapists really had any skills


id: the-radical-therapist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist-3.md
category: reference
title: The Radical Therapist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radical_Therapist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:09:30.684198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-radical-therapist-20260505-0
summary:
== The new direction continues: Rough Times which later became State and Mind == By the time Volume Three, Number 1 of Rough Times formerly The Radical Therapist came out in December 1972, the collective had contracted down to a few people. An "RT Position Paper" laid out the staff's evolved position: support for worldwide socialist revolution; belief in the exploitation of labor as today's primary cause of people's oppression; support for all just liberation struggles; deep involvement in and support for the mental health/self-help struggle; belief that the psychological/psychiatric establishment per se is a tool of oppression and that mental illness is a myth; demands for an end to abuses of mental patients; dedication to a search for new, liberating ways of helping people in emotional pain; and at the same time an openness to working with therapy professionals who could identify with the interests of the people. Rough Times continued on for several more years, continuing to contain sections such as "Unmasking the Enemy", "Mental Hospitals", and "On the Move". It reported on the struggles of mental patients for their rights and against all forms of abusive treatment. And it continued to support movements for liberation—for women, gays,


