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+---
+title: "Applied ecology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ecology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:09.491265+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Applied ecology is a sub-field within ecology that considers the application of the science of ecology to real-world (usually management) questions. It is also described as a scientific field that focuses on the application of concepts, theories, models, or methods of fundamental ecology to environmental problems.
+
+
+== Concept ==
+Applied ecology is an integrated treatment of the ecological, social, and biotechnological aspects of natural resource conservation and management. Applied ecology typically focuses on geomorphology, soils, and plant communities as the underpinnings for vegetation and wildlife (both game and non-game) management.
+Applied ecology includes all disciplines that are related to human activities so that it does not only cover agriculture, forestry and fisheries but also global change. It has two study categories. The first involves the outputs or those fields that address the use and management of the environment, particularly for its ecosystem services and exploitable resources. The second are the inputs or those that are concerned with the management strategies or human influences on the ecosystem or biodiversity.
+The discipline is often linked to ecological management on the grounds that the effective management of natural ecosystems depends on ecological knowledge. It often uses an ecological approach to solve problems of specific parts of the environment, which can involve the comparison of plausible options (e.g. best management options).
+The role of applied science in agricultural production has been brought into greater focus as fluctuations in global food production feed through into prices and availability to consumers.
+
+
+== Approaches ==
+Applied ecologists often use one or more of the following approaches, namely, observation, experimentation, and modeling. For example, a wildlife preservation project could involve: observational studies of the wildlife ecology;  experiments to understand causal relationships; and the application of modeling to determine the information beyond the scope of experimentation.
+The ecological approach used in applied ecology could include inputs from management strategies such as conservation biology, restoration ecology, global change, ecotoxicology, biomonitoring, biodiversity, environmental policies, and economics, among others. Restoration ecology is a particularly prominent strategy in the discipline since it applies the principles of restoring and repairing damaged ecological systems to their original state.
+Like those used in ecological theory, many areas of the discipline employ approaches that are based on simple statistical and analytic models (e.g. spatial models) as well as those with mathematical properties (e.g. matrix models). There is also the digital computer simulation modeling, which is designed to solve statistical ecology problems and to achieve bioeconomic goals such as the forecasting and the evaluation of consequences for specific activities.
+Applied ecology also requires human interest, particularly the exercise of judgments of relative values and goals.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+Applied ecology can be applied to the economic development process. The discipline, for example, can be integrated into the national economic planning to comprehensively address environmental concerns since these problems are intersectoral and interdisciplinary in nature.
+Aspects of applied ecology include:
+
+Agro-ecosystem management
+Biodiversity conservation
+Biotechnology
+Conservation biology
+Disturbance management
+Ecosystem restoration
+Environmental engineering
+Environmental technology
+Habitat management
+Invasive species management
+Landscape use (including development planning)
+Protected areas management
+Rangeland management
+Restoration ecology
+Wildlife management (including game)
+Major journals in the field include:
+
+Journal of Applied Ecology
+Ecological Applications
+Applied Ecology and Environmental Research
+Related organizations include:
+
+Ecological Society of America (The Americas)
+Society for Ecological Restoration (Global)
+Institute for Applied Ecology (USA)
+Kazakh Agency of Applied Ecology
+Öko-Institut (Institute for Applied Ecology) (in Germany)
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Holistic management
+Natural environment
+Natural resource
+Nature
+Environmental impact design
+Landscape planning
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Applied ecology at Wikimedia Commons
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics-0.md
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+---
+title: "Applied economics"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:10.777450+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Applied economics is the application of economic theory and econometrics in specific settings. As one of the two sets of fields of economics (the other set being the core), it is typically characterized by the application of the core, i.e. economic theory and econometrics to address practical issues in a range of fields including  demographic economics, labour economics, business economics, industrial organization, agricultural economics, development economics, education economics, engineering economics, financial economics, health economics, monetary economics, public economics, and economic history. From the perspective of economic development, the purpose of applied economics is to enhance the quality of business practices and national policy making.
+The process often involves a reduction in the level of abstraction of this core theory. There are a variety of approaches including not only empirical estimation using econometrics, input-output analysis or simulations but also case studies, historical analogy and so-called common sense or the "vernacular".  This range of approaches is indicative of what Roger Backhouse and Jeff Biddle argue is the ambiguous nature of the concept of applied economics. It is a concept with multiple meanings. Among broad methodological distinctions, one source places it in neither positive nor normative economics but the art of economics, glossed as "what most economists do".
+
+== Origins of the term ==
+The origin and meanings of applied economics have a long history going back to the writing of Say and Mill. Say wrote about "applying" the "general principles of political economy" to "ascertain the rule of action of any combination of circumstances presented to us". The full title of Mill's (1848) work is Principles of Political Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy.
+
+== J.N. Keynes discussion ==
+John Neville Keynes was perhaps the first to use the phrase "applied economics". He noted that the "English School" (John Stuart Mill, John Elliott Cairnes, and Nassau William Senior) believed that political economy was a positive, abstract, deductive science; and that this school made a clear distinction  "between political economy itself and its applications to practice" (1917, 12). This school thought that a general body of theory could be established through abstract reasoning – not relying on a wide knowledge of economic facts. From this point of view applying this theory involved making allowances for some of the factors ignored in building the abstract theories.  Keynes wrote about applying the political economies hypothetical laws to interpreting and explaining of "concrete industrial facts". The issue of conceptual distinction between political economy as a science (involving formulating laws which govern  the production and distribution of wealth) and political economy as an art (using the laws to tackle practical problems).
+Whilst noting the rival view of the historical economists, who believed that the goals being pursued by policy makers and the means to pursue them were an integral part of the science of economics, J.N Keynes believed in the desirability of the "English School's" distinction between the discovery of principles and their application (1917, 54).
+Indeed, it was he who proposed using the phrase "applied economics" instead of "the art of political economy".  Keynes further discussed the uses of the phrases applied political economy and applied economics noting three different uses:
+
+in the sense suggested in the text [in association with the art of political economy];
+to designate the application of economic theory to the interpretation and explanation of particular economic phenomena, without any necessary reference however, to the solution of practical questions;
+to mark off the more concrete and specialized portions of economic doctrine from those more abstract doctrines that are held to pervade all economic reasoning. (1917, 58–59) and applying theories of economy on what we have in reality to get a healthy enterprise and business prosperity.
+
+== Other 19th and early 20th century economists' use of the term ==
+Léon Walras, for example, planned to organize his main work into volumes on "pure", "applied", and "social" economics. Jaffé (1983) describes Walras's plan as involving making a distinction between that which is true, is useful, and is just.  In using the term true, Walras referred to propositions that necessarily followed from the nature of things. Pure economics then involves pure logic. Applied economics involves examining ways to achieve practical goals and requires the making judgments about whether or not the logic of pure economics was relevant to the real world. Social economics also presumed pure economics, but dealt with a different range of questions than did applied economics.
+Vilfredo Pareto ([1906] 1971, 104) follows as similar usage suggesting economics might begin by eliminating that which is inessential to  examine problems as reduced to their principal and essentials. He distinguishes between "pure economics" from "applied economics" with pure economics containing only the principal lines of argument and applied economics involving supplying the details.
+Joseph Schumpeter (1954, 23) referred to some applied fields in economics the repetition of which might help highlight some of the issues involved in what defining applied economics involves. He discussed the following fields:
+
+those that are typically thought of as part of economics but which also looked at individually to allow greater attention to detail – e.g. money and banking, trade, cycles, and location
+those that are independent of economics but study of them is needed for economics. These include subjects such as accounting, actuarial science, and insurance
+those that are areas of public policy: agriculture, labour, transportation, utility industries, control of industry, and public finance
+comparative economic systems
+demography
+area studies
+
+== More modern views ==
+
+=== Mainstream view ===
+Modern mainstream economics holds the view that there is a body of abstract economic theory —  the "core" — and applied economics involves the practitioner in the lowering some elements of the abstraction of this to examine particular issues. This lowering of the level of abstraction may involve:
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+---
+title: "Applied economics"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:10.777450+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+relabeling variables as more specific, concrete concepts;
+providing some structure to allow the drawing of more detailed conclusions;
+producing numerical estimates for some of the parameters;
+using the analysis to interpret the real world phenomena which are interpreted as examples of some more general class of events that the core theory might be used to examine.
+
+=== Economics as a science ===
+Pesaran and Harcourt (2000) describe Stone's attempt to face the challenge of making economics into a science by combining theory and measurement within a cohesive framework. They report Stone's proposal for the establishment of the now famous Department of Applied Economics at Cambridge. Stone argued that:
+
+"The ultimate aim of applied economics is to increase human welfare by the investigation and analysis of economic problems of the real world. It is the view of the Department that this can best be achieved by the synthesis of three types of study which now tend to be pursued in isolation. The Department will concentrate simultaneously on the work of observations, i.e. the discovery and preparation of data; the theoretical appraisal of problems, i.e. the framing of hypotheses in a form suitable for quantitative testing; and the development of statistical methods appropriate to the special problems of economic information. The special character of the Department's approach to problems of the real world will lie in this attempt at systematic synthesis." (Stone in Pesaran and Harcourt (2000) pp. 149–150)
+
+=== Other views ===
+The basis for rival approaches tends to be the denial that sound theory can be made without some concrete linking with its area of application. Both the 19th century Historical School and the 20th Century Institutionalists argue in this way. Mitchell (1936) noted that those working in "specialized fields" had little use for kind of qualitative theory postulated by Marshall and Jevons. Mitchell suggested that knowledge of "real markets," would cause the complexion and content of economic theory (Mitchell 1937, 26–28). Friedman shared this view that theoretical concepts might or rather should arise out of the analysis of real world data. For both Mitchell and Friedman economics should involve an interaction between examining data and formulating hypotheses.
+Another issue which is related to the McCloskey critique. This is economists do not necessarily practice what they preach. In this context that is the claim to be an "applied economist," is just shorthand for saying they are looking at the real economy. What is being applied need not be "economic theory", as conventionally defined rather something more basic. Eli Devons made a distinction between three different kinds of "things", any of which might be being applied:
+
+theoretical models;
+commonsense axioms, and
+theoretical concepts.
+
+=== Journals ===
+
+==== The Journal of Applied Economics ====
+The Journal of Applied Economics publishes original contributions on applied issues in micro and macroeconomics. The primary criteria for selecting papers are quality and importance for the field. Papers based on a well motivated research problem that make a concrete contribution to empirical economics or applied theory are especially encouraged.
+
+==== Applied Economics ====
+Applied Economics is a journal that interprets its subject area as "the application of economic analysis to specific problems in both the public and private sectors" and seeks to publish "quantitative studies, the results of which are of use in the practical field" and thus may help "bring economic theory nearer to reality"; Applied Economics is a leading peer-reviewed journal in economics and its practical applications.
+
+==== American Economic Journal: Applied Economics ====
+This quarterly journal which began publication in 2009 is from the American Economic Association. It publishes papers on a range of topics in applied economics, particularly empirical microeconomic issues, such as in labor economics, development microeconomics, health,  education, demography, empirical corporate finance, empirical studies of trade, and empirical behavioral economics.
+
+==== American Journal of Agricultural Economics ====
+These journals are published by the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association.  The American Journal of Agricultural Economics has been produced since 1919, and publishes research in the "economics of agriculture and food, natural resources and the environment, and rural and community development throughout the world".
+
+==== Applied Economics Perspectives and Policy ====
+Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy (AEPP) is the leading  peer-reviewed journal of applied economics and policy. Published four times per year by Oxford University Press, it is the one of two journals published by the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association (AAEA), along with the American Journal of Agricultural Economics (AJAE). Today is the leading journal in 'applied economics' with a 2011 impact factor of 1.552. The purpose of AEPP is to analyze areas of current applied economic research in an effort to inform the policy-makers and decision makers; and to generate connections between sub-fields of agricultural and applied economics in order to focus future research and increase knowledge of those in the field about the impact of public policy.
+
+== Critique ==
+Backhouse and Biddle argue that the mainstream view, that there is an accepted "theoretical core" and that this can be applied in a range of areas, relies on this core having specific characteristics – namely, that it has a wide scope and can be developed independently of individual applications. But they note that as with the definition of applied economics itself, there are within the economics profession differing views as to what belongs in the core – where one draws the line between research that is contributing to the core and research that is applying the core, and the relative importance or significance of research on topics in the core versus applied economics research.
+Some examples of the problems of applied economics from various fields and issues:
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+---
+title: "Applied economics"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:10.777450+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Examples of problems of applied economics: Macroeconomics
+One example of this is macroeconomics. In the 1960s and 1970s, macroeconomics was a part of the core of the subject. Why? Because macroeconomics was not only sufficiently important to be part of any economist's training, but also embodied a set of concepts and principles not found in microeconomic theory. However the replacement of Keynesian approach to macroeconomics with new classical macroeconomics and its successors, macroeconomics might now be regarded by the mainstream as merely an application of microeconomic theory.
+
+Examples of problems of applied economics: Development Economics
+Another example is the situation within Development Economics. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s most development economist regarded  the application of standard "core" microeconomic theory to their area as being entirely inappropriate. An alternative set of models provided their core. This might be best described as the structuralist approach. More recently development economics texts have provided applications of mainstream core theory.
+
+Examples of problems of applied economics: Economic Growth Theory
+Comim uses the history of the economics of growth in order to illustrate the historical nature of the concept of applied economics. He first discusses the perspective of the theorists' views of the applied dimension of their work and examines each from the perspective of the work carried out at the Department of Applied Economics (DAE) at Cambridge University. He emphasizes the divergences concerning economists' understanding of the proper use of economic theory, divergences that might ultimately reveal the influence of distinct practices as far as applied economics is concerned and the role of institutional environments.
+
+Examples of problems of applied economics: the Minimum-wage controversy
+Leonard notes one area of disagreement amongst applied economists which became famous in the US. That was the minimum-wage controversy. He notes that the fierceness of this controversy was odd because the likely effects were small and that several seemingly more important policy issues such as (entitlement reform, health insurance, CPI calculation) generated nothing like the storm. His explanation is that while this controversy was not especially important to the economy, it was very important to economics and economics as a policy science. His explanation for this is that minimum wage research came to be seen as a test of the usefulness of applying neoclassical price theory to the wages and employment. In other words, it was not just a technical quarrel over such things as the sign and size of wage-elasticity but rather an installment in a long running  methodological dispute over whether neoclassical price theory is in reality of any use.
+
+A critique of the dominance of econometrics
+Swann (2006) queries the dominance of such econometric techniques within Applied Economics and suggests what he describes as the "vernacular of the everyday practice of economics" should be taken seriously. Swann points out that econometrics's privileged position has not been supported by its disappointing results  and rather suggests other applied techniques, the vernacular, are also worthy of consideration. These approaches to applied economics, include simulation, engineering economics, case studies and common sense.
+
+== See also ==
+Applied statistics
+Applied anthropology
+Applied physics
+Applied theology
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+Begg, I and S. G. B. Henry (1998). Applied Economics and Public Policy, Cambridge University Press. Description.
+Campbell, M. (1989). "Sources of Controversy in Applied Economics." In Controversy in Applied Economics, edited by M. Campbell, M. Hardy, and N. Healey. New York: Wheatsheaf.
+Department of Applied Economics (1948). "First Report: Activities in the Years 1946–1948." Cambridge: University of Cambridge.
+Dow, S. (1987). "The Scottish Political Economy Tradition. Scottish Journal of Political Economy", 34(4), pp. 335–48.
+Harcourt, G. C., and M. Kitson (1993). "Fifty Years of Measurement: A Cambridge View". Review of Income and Wealth, ser. 39, no. 4, December, 435–47.
+History of Political Economy (2000). Toward a History of Applied Economics. Annual Supplement, Volume 32.  Durham, NC and London:  Duke University Press Table of Contents.
+Robinson, J. ([1974] 1979). "History versus Equilibrium." In vol. 5 of Collected Economic Papers. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
+Schabas, M.  (2001). "Economics, History of," sect. 3 Applied Economics, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 4152–4158. Abstract.
+Swann, G. M. P. (2006). Putting Econometrics in Its Place: A New Direction in Applied Economics, Edward Elgar Description.
+
+== Further reading ==
+Woolridge, Jeffrey M. (2013). Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach (5 ed.). Michigan State University: South-Western Cengage Learning.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_science-0.md
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+---
+title: "Archaeological science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:59.589695+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Archaeological science consists of the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites. It is related to methodologies of archaeology.  Martinón-Torres and Killick distinguish 'scientific archaeology' (as an epistemology) from 'archaeological science' (the application of specific techniques to archaeological materials). Martinón-Torres and Killick claim that 'archaeological science' has promoted the development of high-level  theory in archaeology. However, Smith rejects both concepts of archaeological science because neither emphasize falsification or a search for causality. Marwick demonstrated that archaeologists' publication habits are more like social scientists than hard sciences such as physics.
+In the United Kingdom, the Natural and Environmental Research Council provides funding for archaeometry separate from the funding provided for archaeology.
+
+
+== Types of archaeological science ==
+Archaeological science can be divided into the following areas:
+
+physical and chemical dating methods which provide archaeologists with absolute and relative chronologies
+artifact studies
+environmental approaches which provide information on past landscapes, climates, flora, and fauna; as well as the diet, nutrition, health, and pathology of people
+mathematical methods for data treatment (including computer-based methods)
+remote-sensing and geophysical-survey techniques for buried features
+conservation sciences, involving the study of decay processes and the development of new methods of conservation
+Techniques such as lithic analysis, archaeometallurgy, paleoethnobotany, palynology and zooarchaeology also form sub-disciplines of archaeological science.
+
+
+=== Dating techniques ===
+Archaeological science has particular value when it can provide absolute dates for archaeological strata and artifacts. Some of the most important dating techniques include:
+
+radiocarbon dating — especially for dating organic materials
+dendrochronology — for dating trees; also very important for calibrating radiocarbon dates
+thermoluminescence dating — for dating inorganic material (including ceramics)
+optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) — for absolutely dating and relatively profiling buried land-surfaces in vertical and horizontal stratigraphic sections, most often by measuring photons discharged from grains of quartz within sedimentary bodies (although this technique can also measure potassium feldspars, complications caused by internally induced dose-rates often favor the use of quartz-based analyzes in archaeological applications)
+electron spin resonance, as used (for example) in dating teeth
+potassium-argon dating — for dating (for example) fossilized hominid remains by association with volcanic sediments (the fossils themselves are not directly dated)
+
+
+=== Artifact studies ===
+Another important subdiscipline of archaeometry is the study of artifacts. Archaeometrists have used a variety of methods to analyze artifacts, either to determine more about their composition, or to determine their provenance. These techniques include:
+
+X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
+inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
+neutron activation analysis (NAA)
+scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
+laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)
+Lead, strontium and oxygen isotope analysis can also test human remains to estimate the diets and even the birthplaces of a study's subjects.
+Provenance analysis has the potential to determine the original source of the materials used, for example, to make a particular artifact. This can show how far the artifact has traveled and can indicate the existence of systems of exchange.
+
+
+== Influence of archaeometry ==
+Archaeometry has greatly influenced modern archaeology. Archaeologists can obtain significant additional data and information using these techniques, and archaeometry has the potential to revise the understanding of the past. For example, the "second radiocarbon revolution" significantly re-dated European prehistory in the 1960s, compared to the "first radiocarbon revolution" from 1949.
+
+
+== Locating archaeological sites ==
+Archaeometry is an important tool in finding potential dig sites.  The use of remote sensing has enabled archaeologists to identify many more archaeological sites than they could have otherwise. The use of aerial photography (including satellite imagery and Lidar) remains the most widespread remote-sensing technique. Ground-based geophysical surveys often help to identify and map archaeological features within identified sites.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Post-excavation analysis – Processes for studying archaeological materials after an excavation
+Dating methods in archaeology – Methods for estimating a realistic date for old items and events
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artes_mechanicae-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artes_mechanicae-0.md
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+---
+title: "Artes mechanicae"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artes_mechanicae"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:00.863363+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Artes mechanicae (mechanical arts) are a medieval concept of ordered practices or skills, often juxtaposed to the traditional seven liberal arts (artes liberales). Also called "servile" and "vulgar", from antiquity they had been deemed "unbecoming" for a free man, as they minister to basic needs.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Johannes Scotus Eriugena (9th century) divided them into seven parts: 
+
+vestiaria (tailoring, weaving)
+agricultura (agriculture)
+architectura (architecture, masonry)
+militia and venatoria (warfare and hunting, military education, "martial arts")
+mercatura (trade)
+coquinaria (cooking)
+metallaria (blacksmithing, metallurgy)
+In his Didascalicon, Hugh of St Victor (12th century) includes navigation, medicine and theatrical arts instead of commerce, agriculture and cooking. Hugh's treatment somewhat elevates the mechanical arts as ordained to the improvement of humanity, a promotion which was to represent a growing trend among late medievals.
+The classification of the artes mechanicae as applied geometry was introduced to Western Europe by Dominicus Gundissalinus (12th century) under the influence of his readings in Arabic scholarship.
+In the 19th century, "mechanic arts" referred to some of the  fields that are now known as engineering.  Use of the term was apparently an attempt to distinguish these fields from creative and artistic endeavors like the performing arts and the fine arts, which were for the upper class of the time, and the intelligentsia.  The mechanic arts were also considered practical fields for those that did not come from good families.
+Related phrases, "useful arts" or "applied arts" probably encompass the mechanic arts as well as craftsmanship in general.
+In the United States, the most famous usage of the term "mechanic arts" (and the one in which it is most commonly encountered today) is in the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Artes liberales
+Medieval technology
+
+
+== Footnotes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+Walton, S.A., An Introduction to the Mechanical Arts in the Middle Ages, AVISTA, University of Toronto, 2003
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_membrane-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_membrane-0.md
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+---
+title: "Artificial neural membrane"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_membrane"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:02.106965+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Artificial neural membrane (ANM) refers to a new class of functional structure developed through research adaptive and evolutionary neural networks and programmable materials.  The greatest interest in ANM structures surround their potential as open architecture environments for the integration of microscale and nanoscale devices.
+Originally based on the Neurogenesis Algorithms developed by mathematician and engineering physicist Dr. P. A. Menges.  While working as a postdoctoral research associate at Los Alamos National Laboratory, Dr. Menges became interested in thin film materials used in specialized sensors also referred to as smart skins.  After leaving the laboratory she established a computational method allowing networks to automatically embed or simulate on other networks based in functional materials. 
+Artificial neural membrane technology development has been funded by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts, for application to flapping wing flight.  Currently Aerospace Research Systems, Inc – the agency that pioneered work in developing artificial neurons for use in control of multifunctional smart structures – is applying the technology to reusable launch vehicles.  Other applications include biotechnology processes, morphing aircraft and spacecraft, adaptive wind generators, and artificial organs.  Recent research also indicates that ANM systems may provide the first truly automated intentional or conceptual programming environment.  The ANM technology has been referred as being as significant as semiconductors in the 1950s.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Aerospace Research Systems, Inc.
+NASA
+NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_Excellence_in_Regulatory_Science_and_Innovation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_Excellence_in_Regulatory_Science_and_Innovation-0.md
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Conservation science (cultural property)"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:04.570765+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+With respect to cultural property, conservation science is the interdisciplinary study of the conservation of art, architecture, technical art history and other cultural works through the use of scientific inquiry. General areas of research include the technology and structure of artistic and historic works. In other words, the materials and techniques from which cultural, artistic and historic objects are made. 
+There are three broad categories of conservation science with respect to cultural heritage: understanding the materials and techniques used by artists, study of the causes of deterioration, and improving techniques and materials for examination and treatment. Conservation science includes aspects of materials science, chemistry, physics, biology, and engineering, as well as art history and anthropology. Institutions such as the Getty Conservation Institute specialize in publishing and disseminating information relating to both tools used for and outcomes of conservation science research, as well as recent discoveries in the field.
+
+== Introduction ==
+Prior to thorough scientific analysis, a detailed visual assessment of the object, heritage site, or artwork is necessary in addition to gathering all relevant historic and current documentation. Diagnosing the current state in a non-invasive way allows both conservators and conservation scientists to determine exactly what further analysis would be required and whether the subject of the study will be able to withstand more rigorous examination. Additionally, since the goal of conservation-restoration is to use minimal intervention for the purpose of preservation, this initial assessment falls in line with various codes of ethics which outline best practices for conservators and scientists. Many countries have their own code of ethics for conservators, such as the following:
+
+American Institute for Conservation (AIC) Code of Ethics
+Canadian Association of Professional Conservators (CAPC) and the Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property (CAC) Code of Ethics and Guidance for Practice
+Along with assessing the current state and potential risk of future deterioration of artworks and objects, scientific study may be necessary to determine if there is risk to the conservators themselves. For example, some pigments used in paintings contain highly toxic elements such as arsenic or lead and could be hazardous to those working with them. Alternatively, previous restoration efforts may have involved chemicals that are now known to have dangerous side effects with prolonged exposure. In these cases, conservation science may reveal the nature of these hazards as well as present solutions for how to prevent current and future exposure.
+
+== Material properties ==
+Research into the chemical and physical properties intrinsic to the materials used to create cultural heritage objects is a large part of the study of conservation science. Materials science, in conjunction with the broader field of restoration and preservation, has resulted in what is now recognized as modern conservation. Using analytical techniques and tools, conservation scientists are able to determine what makes up a particular object or artwork. In turn, this knowledge informs how deterioration is likely to occur due to both environmental effects and the inherent traits of that given material. The necessary environment to maintain or prolong the current state of that material, and which treatments will have the least amount of reaction and impact on the materials of the objects being studied, are the primary goals of conservation research. Conservation treatments fall under four broad categories including cleaning, desalination, consolidation, and pest control. Knowledge of the material properties of cultural heritage and how they deteriorate over time helps conservators formulate actions to preserve and conserve cultural heritage.
+In many countries, including the United Kingdom and Italy, conservation science is considered part of the broader field called 'Heritage Science' which also encompasses scientific aspects less directly related to cultural heritage conservation, as well its management and interpretation.
+
+=== Paper ===
+The majority of paper is made up of cellulose fibers. The deterioration of paper may be the result of pests such as vermin, insects, and microbes, or by theft, fire, and flood. More specifically, paper deteriorates from two mechanisms that alter its hue and weaken its fibers: acid-catalyzed hydrolysis and oxidation. Treatment for paper includes deacidification, bleaching and washing.
+Safe environments for the storage and display of paper artifacts include having a relative humidity (RH) of below 65% and above 40% and an ideal temperature between 18 and 20 °C (64 and 68 °F).
+
+=== Textiles ===
+Textiles are woven fabrics or cloth that represent culture, material legacy of international trade, social history, agricultural development, artistic trends, and technological progress. There are four main material sources: animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. Deterioration of textiles can be caused by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) or infrared light (IR), incorrect relative humidity and temperature, pests, pollutants, and physical forces such as fire and water. Textiles may be treated in a number of ways including vacuuming, wet cleaning, dry cleaning, steaming, and ironing. To preserve the integrity of textiles, storage and display environments result in as little light exposure as possible. Safe environments for textiles include those with a temperature of around 21 °C (70 °F) and relative humidity of 50%.
+
+=== Leather ===
+Leather is a manufactured product made from the skin of animals. Leather can deteriorate from red rot, excessive dryness resulting in cracking and breakage, fading from exposure to light, mold resulting in odors, stains, and distortion, and insects and dust, both of which can cause holes and abrasions. Corrosion can also occur when leather comes into contact with metals. There are two primary methods for leather conservation: application of dressings or treatments to prolong the life of the leather and improving the means by which leather is stored. The second method is a preventive approach while the first, an older method, is an interventive approach. Leather artifacts are best stored with relative humidity between 45% and 55% and a temperature of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F).
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)-1.md
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+---
+title: "Conservation science (cultural property)"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:04.570765+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Glass and ceramics ===
+Glass and ceramics can be maintained for much longer periods of time and are two of the most durable materials. The biggest risk to glass and ceramics is breakage, however improper display and storage can lead to stains and discoloration. Ceramics can become stained from inappropriate cleaning and repair while porous or cracked ceramics can develop stains from being soaked in water during cleaning. Increased temperatures can cause darkening of already existing stains and can lead to cracks. Glass can become damaged from 'weeping glass' wherein droplets of moisture form on glass surfaces. This can lead to a leaching out of unstable components that produce an alkaline solution. If allowed to remain on the glass for an extended period of time, this solution can produce fine cracks known as crizzling. Careful handling and storage is the surest means to preventing damage to glass and ceramics. The below table displays recommended storage conditions for damaged and unstable objects:
+
+=== Metals ===
+Metals are produced from ores that are found naturally in the environment. Most metal objects are made from a combination of individual metals called alloys and exhibit different strengths and colors based on their composition. Metals and alloys commonly found in cultural objects include gold, silver, copper, pewter, tin, and iron. The most common form of deterioration for metal is corrosion. Corrosion occurs when metals come into contact with water, acids, bases, salts, oils, polishes, pollutants and chemicals. Mechanical damage, breakage, dents, and scratches can occur from mishandling metal objects and result in damage to the metal object. Over polishing can lead to deterioration and potentially misidentification by removing plating, decoration, makers' marks, or engravings. Mechanical, electrical, and chemical interventions are often used in the treatment of metals. Appropriate storage of metal objects helps to increase their longevity; it is recommended that metal objects be stored in closed systems with well-sealed doors and drawers with relative humidity between 35 and 55%.
+
+=== Plastics ===
+Plastics experience degradation from several factors including light, ultraviolet radiation, oxygen, water, heat, and pollutants. There are no international standards for the storage of plastics so it is common for museums to employ similar methods to those used to preserve paper and other organic materials. A wide range of instruments and techniques can be used in the treatment of plastics including 3-D scanning and printing technologies as a means of reproducing broken or missing parts. Recommended relative humidity for plastics is 50% along with a temperature of 18–20 °C (64–68 °F).
+
+=== Stone ===
+Stone objects take on many forms including sculpture, architecture, ornamental decoration, or functional pieces. Deterioration of stone depends on several factors such as the type of stone, geographical or physical location, and maintenance. Stone is subject to a number of decay mechanisms that include environmental, mechanical, and applied decay. Erosion from air, water, and physical touch can wear away surface texture. Carved stone should not be regularly cleaned as cleaning can cause deterioration by opening its pores as well as removing surface features such as engravings, artists' tools, and historical marks. Dirt, moss, and lichen do not usually cause decay to stone but may add to its patina.
+
+=== Wood ===
+Wood is a biodegradable, organic material that is susceptible to deterioration from both living organisms and environmental factors. Some ancient wood is recognized for its archaeological value and falls into two categories: dry and waterlogged. The recommended temperature for storage and display of wooden artifacts is 21 °C (70 °F) during the winter months and 21–24 °C (70–75 °F) during the summer months. The recommended relative humidity for storage and display of wooden artifacts during the winter months is 35%–45% and 55%–65% during the summer months. Effective cleaning of wooden artifacts includes waxing, polishing, dusting, and buffing. For the maintenance of the wooden structure of the architectural heritage, fire-resistant coatings can be used to enhance the fire-resistant performance of the structure.
+See also conservation and restoration of wooden artifacts.
+
+=== Paintings ===
+Painting materials include acrylic paint, oil paint, egg tempera, lacquer, water color, and gouache. Conservation techniques for paintings include dirt and varnish removal, consolidation, structural treatments, in-painting, in-filling, and retouching of losses. It is recommended that paintings be stored with other heritage and art collections.
+See also conservation and restoration of paintings.
+
+== Mechanisms of deterioration ==
+
+Conservation science studies the process by which the various mechanisms of deterioration cause changes to material culture that affect their longevity for future generations. These mechanisms may produce chemical, physical, or biological changes and differ based on the material properties of the subject at hand. A large portion of conservation science research is the study of the behavior of different materials under a range of environmental conditions. One method used by scientists is to artificially age objects in order to study what conditions cause or mitigate deterioration. The results of these investigations informs the field on the major risk factors as well as the strategies to control and monitor environmental conditions to aid in long term preservation. Further, scientific inquiry has led to the development of more stable and long-term treatment methods and techniques for the types of damages that do occur.
+
+=== Fire ===
+Fire is caused by chemical reactions resulting in combustion. Organic material such as paper, textiles, and wood are especially susceptible to combustion. Inorganic material, while less susceptible, may still suffer damage if exposed to fire for any period of time. The materials used to extinguish fires, such as chemical retardants or water, can also result in further damage to material culture.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Conservation science (cultural property)"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:04.570765+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Water ===
+Water primarily causes physical changes such as warping, stains, discoloration, and other weakening to both inorganic and organic materials. Water can come from natural sources such as flooding, mechanical/technological failures, or human error. Water damage to organic material may lead to the growth of other pests such as mold. In addition to the physical effects of water directly on an object or artwork, moisture in the air directly affects relative humidity which can in turn exacerbate deterioration and damage.
+
+=== Light ===
+Light causes cumulative and irreversible damage to light-sensitive objects. The energy from light interacts with objects at the molecular level and can lead to both physical and chemical damage such as fading, darkening, yellowing, embrittlement, and stiffening. Ultraviolet radiation and Infrared radiation, in addition to visible light, can be emitted from light sources and can also be damaging to material culture. Cultural institutions are tasked with finding the balance between needing light for patrons and guests and exposure to the collection. Any amount of light can be damaging to a variety of objects and artworks and the effects are cumulative and irreversible. Conservation science has helped establish 50 Lux as the benchmark level of light intensity that allows the human eye to operate within the full range the visible light spectrum. While this is a baseline for many museums, adjustments are often needed for based on specific situations. Conservation science has informed the industry on the levels of light sensitivity of common materials used in material culture and the length of time permissible before deterioration is likely to occur. Control strategies must be considered on an item by item basis. Light, ultraviolet, and thermometers for infrared radiation are some of the tools used to detect when levels fall outside of an acceptable range.
+
+=== Lightning ===
+Lightning strikes are the primary natural cause of damage to architectural heritage because ancient buildings generally use timber with high oil content, such as pine. Lightning strikes can cause the timber in the building to catch fire by the heat of the lightning arc. Lightning can also split wood and cause damage to the building structure. The lightning current will generate heat after passing through the timber and generate gas inside, and the impact force formed by the instantaneous expansion of the gas will knock the wood out of damage pits or cracks. Stone decorations on ancient buildings may also suffer physical damage from lightning.
+
+=== Incorrect relative humidity ===
+Relative humidity (RH) is the measure of the humidity, or the water vapor content, in relation to the atmosphere and ranges from damp to dry. Material properties determine the effect that different levels of RH can have on any particular item. Organic materials like wood, paper, and leather, as well as some inorganic material like metals are susceptible to damage from incorrect RH. Damage ranges from physical changes like cracking and warping of organic materials to chemical reactions like corrosion of metals. Temperature has a direct effect on relative humidity: as warm air cools, relative humidity increases and as cool air warms up, relative humidity falls. Dampness can cause the growth of mold which has its own damaging properties. Research in the field has determined the various ranges and fluctuations of incorrect humidity, the sensitivity of various objects to each one, and has helped establish guidelines for proper environmental conditions specific to the objects in question.
+
+=== Incorrect temperature ===
+Material properties directly determine the appropriate temperature needed to preserve that item. Incorrect temperatures, whether too high, too low, or fluctuating between the two, can cause varying levels of deterioration for objects. Temperatures that are too high can lead to chemical and physical damage such as embrittlement, cracking, fading, and disintegration. Too high temperatures can also promote biological reactions like mold growth. Temperatures that are too low can also result in physical damages such as embrittlement and cracking. Temperature fluctuations can cause materials to expand and contract rapidly which causes stress to build up within the material and eventual deterioration over time.
+
+=== Pests ===
+Pests include microorganisms, insects, and rodents and are able to disfigure, damage, and destroy material culture. Both organic material and inorganic material are highly susceptible. Damage can occur from pests consuming, burrowing into, and excreting on material. The presence of pests can be the result of other deterioration mechanisms such as incorrect temperature, incorrect relative humidity, and the presence of water. Fumigation and pesticides may also be damaging to certain materials and requires careful consideration. Conservation science has aided in the development of thermal control methods to eradicate pests.
+
+=== Pollutants ===
+Pollutants consist of a wide range of compounds that can have detrimental chemical reactions with objects. Pollutants can be gases, aerosols, liquids, or solids and are able to reach objects from transference from other objects, dissipation in the air, or intrinsically as part of the object's makeup. They all have the potential to cause adverse reactions with material culture. Conservation science aids in identifying both material and pollutant properties and the types of reactions that will occur. Reactions range from discoloration and stains, to acidification and structural weakening. Dust is one of the most common airborne pollutants and its presence can attract pests as well as alter the object's surface. Research in the field informs conservators on how to properly manage damage that occurs as well as means to monitor and control pollutant levels.
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+---
+title: "Conservation science (cultural property)"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:04.570765+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Physical forces ===
+Physical forces are any interaction with an object that changes its current state of motion. Physical forces can cause a range of damage from small cracks and fissures to complete destruction or disintegration of material. The level of damage is dependent on the brittleness or hardness of the object's material and the magnitude of the force being inflicted. Impact, shock, vibration, pressure, and abrasion are a few examples of physical forces that can have adverse effects on material culture. Physical forces can occur from natural disasters like earthquakes, working forces like handling, cumulative forces like gravity, or low-level forces like building vibrations. During an object's risk assessment, the material properties of the object will inform the necessary steps (i.e. building, housing, and handling) that need to take place to mitigate the effects of physical forces.
+
+=== Theft and vandalism ===
+Theft, the removal of an asset, and vandalism, the deliberate destruction or disfigurement of an asset, are directly controlled and limited by the security measures put in place at a cultural institution. Conservation science can aid in the authentication or identification of stolen objects. In addition, the research of the field can help inform decisions as to the best course of action repair, minimize, or mitigate damage from vandalism.
+
+=== Dissociation ===
+Dissociation is the loss of an object, its associated data, or its value due to outside influence. Adherence to proper policies and procedures is the best defense against dissociation and as such, meticulous record keeping is the basis for all good practice. Conservation science aids in the authentication or identification of misplaced objects and detailed records of all past, present, and future study is necessary for the prevention of dissociation.
+
+== Methods ==
+
+There are a variety of methods used by conservation scientists to support work in the fields of art conservation, architectural conservation, cultural heritage, and care of cultural objects in museums and other collections. In addition to the use of specialized equipment, visual inspections are often the first step in order to look for obvious signs of damage, decay, infilling, etc.
+Prior to any type of scientific analysis, detailed documentation of the initial state of the object and justification for all proposed examinations is required to avoid unnecessary or potentially damaging study and keep the amount of handling to a minimum. Processes such as stereomicroscopy can reveal surface features such as the weave of parchment paper, whether a print was done in relief or in intaglio, and even what kind of tools an artist may have used to create their works. While there are many different specialized and generic tools used for conservation science studies, some of the most common are listed below.
+
+=== Scientific equipment ===
+Source:
+
+Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
+Able to take high resolution and high magnification micrographs to study structural and surface features
+Also may involve using Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) to identify specific elements or compounds present in the object
+Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) can provide better contrast within the microscope in order to better visualize different phases, materials, and compounds present to identify composition
+Can help to determine paint composition (specific type of paint used) in art works and compounds that may aid in provenance queries
+Allows scientists to analyze whether the object's appearance merits preservation or if there are products of deterioration and decay that ought to be removed or cleaned prior to preservation
+Destructive/invasive method – requires obtaining a sample from an object or artwork and exposing it to X-Ray radiation
+X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF)
+Can identify elements both on the surface and sub-surface by performing x-ray scans over the entirety of an artwork
+Non-destructive/non-invasive method - scans of the object's surface do not require sampling or removal of material
+Computerized Tomography Scanning (CT Scan) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
+Non-destructive way to image larger objects
+Can reveal sub-surface structure as well as some composition information
+Particularly useful for imaging artifacts such as mummified remains to aid in identification and understanding of burial practices
+When combined with "computational surface flattening" CT can be used to analyze and read rolled, folded or sealed documents without disturbing the artifacts' condition.
+Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI)
+Method of surface imaging whereby the location of the light source can be changed to image so an object or artwork is illuminated from a variety of directions
+Non-invasive method that yields surface topography and texture to analyze surface features
+Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
+Method for identifying materials in works of art based on the fact that each compound or element has a specific combination of atoms, each of which will have a unique peak in the resultant spectra
+Non-invasive and non-destructive method for chemical analysis that requires very small quantities of sample from inconspicuous locations on artworks and objects
+Most common IR technique used to obtain spectral information through the constructive and destructive interference of electromagnetic waves using an interferometer
+Known for their excellent speed, sensitivity, and resolution, better light-gathering power than dispersive instruments, and wavelength precision and accuracy
+The type of material present will be the deciding factor in what method will be appropriate for study. For example, organic materials are likely to be destroyed if exposed to too much radiation, a concern when doing X-ray and electron-based imaging. Conservation scientists may specialize with specific materials and work closely with conservators and curators in order to determine appropriate analysis and treatment methods.
+
+== Further reading ==
+Erin Blakemore (17 Sep 2022). "Art meets science in analysis of ancient dancing horse statue". The Washington Post.
+
+== See also ==
+Conservation scientist
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC) – Research and Technical Studies Group
+Centre for Doctoral Training in Science and Engineering in Arts, Heritage and Archaeology at UCL, University of Oxford and University of Brighton
+AIC/NU Art Conservation Science
+Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Archived 2010-12-12 at the Wayback Machine
+Canadian Conservation Institute
+Getty Conservation Institute
+Heritage Science Masters at UCL Centre for Sustainable Heritage Archived 2010-05-10 at the Wayback Machine
+Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione e il Restauro, Rome
+[1] Archived 2011-05-19 at the Wayback Machine
+Italian Risk Map of the Cultural Heritage.
+National Archives and Records Administration Preservation Programs
+Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage, peer-reviewed open access journal, University of Bologna.
+Italian Association of Conservation Scientists
+Heritage Science
+Observatorio para la Investigación en Conservación del Patrimonio
+Plan Nacional de Investigación en Conservación (España)
+Icon Heritage Science Group
+National Heritage Science Forum
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_investigation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_investigation-0.md
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+---
+title: "Criminal investigation"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_investigation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:05.750228+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Criminal investigation is an applied science that involves the study of facts that are then used to inform criminal trials. A complete criminal investigation can include searching, interviews, interrogations, evidence collection and preservation, and various methods of investigation. Modern-day criminal investigations commonly employ many modern scientific techniques known collectively as forensic science.
+Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c. 1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi. In the code, it is suggested that both the accuser and the accused had the right to present evidence they collected. In the modern era, criminals investigations are most often done by government police forces. Private investigators are also commonly hired to complete or assist in criminal investigations.
+An early recorded professional criminal investigator was the English constable. Around 1250 CE, it was recorded that the constable was to "... record...matters of fact, not matters of judgment and law."
+Use of on-site methods to investigate crimes is nicknamed 'shoe leather'.
+
+
+== Investigative techniques ==
+
+In determining the course of investigation, many law enforcement organizations use three "indicators of suspicion" describing potential suspects, jointly known as MMO:
+
+means to commit the crime (including tools and physical capabilities)
+motive to commit the crime (for example, financial gain or to seek revenge)
+opportunity to commit the crime (including being at the crime scene at the time of the offence); persons presenting an alibi can be eliminated from suspicion
+They will also establish the relationships between the victim and any potential offenders.
+
+
+== Investigation priority bias problems and proposed solutions ==
+
+After observing recent changes in the demographic composition of particular crimes during higher priority of their investigation, such as the increase of the percentage of women convicted for joining and fighting for terrorist organizations from a very low percentage (similar to those of murder and rape) to almost as many women as men (women in the 40–50 percent range in some jurisdictions) as the priority of investigating terror crimes increased, certain criminologists are expressing the notion that there may be more crimes that would change their demographics if they got higher priority. These criminologists theorize that in the case of limited budgets,  criminal investigators rely on profiled and statistical likelihood of  particular groups of people being convicted for the type of crimes that are being investigated, and ignore complaints that are filed about people who they consider less likely to commit the crimes or give the tracking or individual matching to the evidence lower priority. According to the hypotheses , even a minimal or nonexistent difference in the likelihood of committing crimes can be hidden behind a difference of a factor by many multiples in the likelihood of being convicted due to self-fulfilling prophecies in the statistics. These criminologists feel that criminals who are not getting caught, due to being profiled as unlikely offenders, are a major problem. Some of these criminologists propose an increased number of police officers. Others argue that investigations of the evidence are more expensive than police patrols and that not all crimes can be investigated, suggesting that profiling of criminal psychology should be replaced with randomized priorities of individual suspects within similar types of crime. The latter criminologists also argue that such randomization would not only fight hidden crimes by exposing the currently unsuspected criminals to the risk of being punished, but also that the abolition of profiling by forensic psychology and forensic psychiatry would be a monetary saving that could be used for investigation of technical evidence, tracking of criminals who are hiding, and other investigation work that can reduce the need to ignore complaints for budget reasons.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Murder book
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Criminal investigation at Wikimedia Commons
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discover_Applied_Sciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discover_Applied_Sciences-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discover_Applied_Sciences-0.md
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+---
+title: "Discover Applied Sciences"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discover_Applied_Sciences"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:08.318272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Discover Applied Sciences, formerly known as SN Applied Sciences is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that publishes papers from all areas of applied science. It was established in 2019 and is published by Springer Science+Business Media. The journal publishes research articles, reviews, case studies, and short communications. The senior editor is  Thomas von Larcher.
+
+
+== Abstracting and indexing ==
+The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
+
+Ei Compendex
+Emerging Sources Citation Index
+Food Science & Technology Abstracts
+Inspec
+Scopus
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation-0.md
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+---
+title: "Ecosystem-based adaptation"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:12.230119+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) encompasses a broad set of approaches to adapt to climate change. They all involve the management of ecosystems and their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the impacts of climate change. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines EBA as "the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change".
+EbA involves the conservation, sustainable management and restoration of ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, mangroves or coral reefs to reduce the harmful impacts of climate hazards including shifting patterns or levels of rainfall, changes in maximum and minimum temperatures, stronger storms, and increasingly variable climatic conditions. EbA measures can be implemented on their own or in combination with engineered approaches (such as the construction of water reservoirs or dykes), hybrid measures (such as artificial reefs) and approaches that strengthen the capacities of individuals and institutions to address climate risks (such as the introduction of early warning systems).
+Collaborative planning among scientists, policy makers, and community members is an essential element of Ecosystem-based Adaptation. By drawing on the expertise of outside experts and local residents alike, EbA seeks to develop unique solutions to unique problems, rather than simply replicating past projects.
+EbA is nested within the broader concept of nature-based solutions and complements and shares common elements with a wide variety of other approaches to building the resilience of social-ecological systems. These approaches include community-based adaptation, ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction, climate-smart agriculture, and green infrastructure, and often place emphasis on using participatory and inclusive processes and community/stakeholder engagement. The concept of EbA has been promoted through international fora, including the processes of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the CBD. A number of countries make explicit references to EbA in their strategies for adaptation to climate change and their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
+While the barriers to widespread uptake of EbA by public and private sector stakeholders and decision makers are substantial, cooperation toward generating a greater understanding of the potential of EbA is well established among researchers, advocates, and practitioners from nature conservation and sustainable development groups. EbA is increasingly viewed as an effective means of addressing the linked challenges of climate change and poverty in developing countries, where many people are dependent on natural resources for their lives and livelihoods.
+
+== Overview ==
+Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) describes a variety of approaches for adapting to climate change, all of which involve the management of ecosystems to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the impacts of climate change such as storm and flood damage to physical assets, coastal erosion, salinisation of freshwater resources, and loss of agricultural productivity. EbA lies at the intersection of climate change adaptation, socio-economic development, and biodiversity conservation (see Figure 1).
+While ecosystem services have always been used by societies, the term Ecosystem-based Adaptation was coined in 2008 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and its member institutions at the UN Climate Change Convention Conference in 2008. EbA was officially defined in 2009 at the UN Convention on Biological Diversity Conference.
+
+=== Adaptation to climate change hazards ===
+Healthy ecosystems provide important ecosystem services that can contribute to climate change adaptation. For example, healthy mangrove ecosystems provide protection from the impacts of climate change, often for some of the world's most vulnerable people, by absorbing wave energy and storm surges, adapting to rising sea levels, and stabilizing shorelines from erosion. EbA focuses on benefits that humans derive from biodiversity and ecosystem services and how these benefits can be used for managing risk to climate change impacts. Adaptation to climate change is particularly urgent in developing countries and many Small Island Developing States that are already experiencing some of the most severe impacts of climate change, have economies that are highly sensitive to disruptions, and that have lower adaptive capacity.
+
+=== Making active use of biodiversity and ecosystem services ===
+EbA can involve a wide range of ecosystem management activities that aim to reduce the vulnerability of people to climate change hazards (such as rising sea levels, changing rainfall patterns, and stronger storms) through using nature. For example, EbA measures include coastal habitat restoration in ecosystems such as; coral reefs, mangrove forests, and marshes to protect communities and infrastructure from storm surges; agroforestry to increase resilience of crops to droughts or excessive rainfall; integrated water resource management to cope with consecutive dry days and change in rainfall patterns; and sustainable forest management interventions to stabilise slopes, prevent landslides, and regulate water flow to prevent flash flooding (see Table 1 and Figure 2).
+
+=== Co-benefits of EbA ===
+By deploying EbA, proponents cite that many other benefits to people and nature are delivered simultaneously. These correlated benefits include improved human health, socioeconomic development, food security and water security, disaster risk reduction, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation. For example, restoration of ecosystems such as forests and coastal wetlands can contribute to food security and enhance livelihoods through the collection of non-timber forest products, maintain watershed functionality, and sequester carbon to mitigate global warming. Restoration of mangrove ecosystems can help increase food and livelihood security by supporting fisheries, and reduce disaster risk by decreasing wave height and strength during hurricanes and storms.
+
+== Implementation and examples ==
+
+=== Examples of EBA measures and outcomes ===
+Particular ecosystems can provide a variety of specific climate change adaptation benefits (or services). The most suitable EbA measures will depend on local context, the health of the ecosystem and the primary climate change hazard that needs to be addressed. The below table provides an overview of these factors, common EbA measures and intended outcomes.
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+---
+title: "Ecosystem-based adaptation"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:55:12.230119+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Principles and standards for implementing EBA ===
+Since the evolution of the concept and practice of EBA, various principles and standards have been developed to guide best practices for implementation. The guidelines adopted by the CBD build on these efforts and include a set of principles to guide planning and implementation. The principles are broadly clustered into four themes:
+
+Building resilience and enhancing adaptive capacity through EBA interventions;
+Ensuring inclusivity and equity in planning and implementation;
+Consideration of multiple spatial and temporal scales in the design of EBA interventions;
+Improving the effectiveness and efficiency of EBA, for example, by incorporating adaptive management, identifying limitations and trade-offs, integrating the knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities.
+These principles are complemented by safeguards, which are social and environmental measures to avoid unintended consequences of EBA to people, ecosystems and biodiversity.
+Standards have also been developed to help practitioners understand what interventions qualify as EBA, including the elements of helping people adapt to climate change, making active use of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and being part of an overall adaptation strategy.
+
+==== Challenges ====
+Although interest in Ecosystem-based Adaptation has grown, and meta-analyses of case studies are demonstrating the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of EbA interventions, there are recognized challenges that should be addressed or considered to increase adoption of the approach. These include:
+
+===== Potential limitations of ecosystem services under a changing climate. =====
+One challenge facing EbA is the identification of limits and thresholds beyond which EbA might not deliver adaptation benefits and the extent ecosystems can provide ecosystem services under a changing climate.
+
+===== Difficulty in monitoring, evaluation, and establishing the evidence base for effective EbA =====
+Confusion around what Ecosystem-based Adaptation means has led to an array of different methodologies used for assessments, and the lack of consistent and comparable quantitative measures of EbA success and failure makes it difficult to argue the case for EbA in socio-economic terms. EbA research has also relied heavily on Western scientific knowledge without due consideration of local and traditional knowledge. In addition, it can be difficult to implement a plan for monitoring and evaluation due to potentially long timescales required to observe the impacts of EbA.
+
+===== Governance and institutional constraints =====
+Because EbA is a multi-sectoral policy issue, the challenges of governing and planning are immense. This is due in part to the fact that EbA involves both the sectors that manage ecosystems and those that benefit from ecosystem services.
+
+===== Economic and financial constraints =====
+Broad macroeconomic considerations such as economic development, poverty, and access to financial capital to implement climate adaptation options are contributing factors to constraints impeding greater uptake of EbA. Public and multilateral funding for EbA projects thus far has been available through the International Climate Initiative of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, the European Union, the Department for International Development of the Government of the United Kingdom, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and the Danish International Development Agency, among other sources.
+
+===== Social and cultural barriers =====
+A clear factor constraining EbA is varying perceptions of risks and cultural preferences for particular types of management approaches such as cultural preferences for what a particular landscape should look like. Potential stakeholders can hold negative perceptions about particular types of EbA strategies.
+
+== Policy frameworks ==
+Several international policy fora have acknowledged the multiple roles that ecosystems play in delivering services and addressing global challenges, including those related to climate change, natural disasters, sustainable development, and biodiversity conservation.
+
+=== Climate change policy ===
+The Paris Agreement explicitly recognises nature's role in helping people and societies address climate change, calling on all Parties to acknowledge "the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognised by some cultures as Mother Earth"; its Articles include several references to ecosystems, natural resources and forests.
+This notion has translated into high-level national intent, as revealed by comparative analyses of the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) submitted to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) by signatories of the Paris Agreement. The UNFCCC also established the national adaptation plan (NAP) process as a way to facilitate adaptation planning in least developed countries (LDCs) and other developing countries. Because of their lower level of development, climate change risks magnify development challenges for LDCs.
+
+=== Disaster risk reduction policy ===
+Measures and interventions applied as part of EbA are often closely linked or similar to those employed under ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR). The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction acknowledges that in order to strengthen disaster risk governance and manage disaster risk and risk reduction at global and regional levels, it is important "to promote transboundary cooperation to enable policy and planning for the implementation of ecosystem-based approaches with regard to shared resources, such as within river basins and along coastlines, to build resilience and reduce disaster risk, including epidemic and displacement risk".
+
+=== Sustainable development policy ===
+The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015. Biodiversity and ecosystems feature prominently across many of the SDGs and associated targets. They contribute directly to human well-being and development priorities. Biodiversity is at the centre of many economic activities, particularly those related to crop and livestock agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Globally, nearly half of the human population is directly dependent on natural resources for its livelihood, and many of the most vulnerable people depend directly on biodiversity to fulfil their daily subsistence needs. Ecosystem-based Adaptation offers potential to contribute towards the implementation of numerous SDGs, including the goals related to climate adaptation (SDG 13), eliminating poverty and hunger (SDGs 1 and 2), ensuring livelihoods and economic growth (SDG 8) and life on land and life under water (SDGs 14 and 15), among others.
+
+=== Biodiversity conservation policy ===
+The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), aim to halt the loss of biodiversity to ensure ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide essential services. Most recently, the Conference of the Parties has adopted voluntary guidelines for the design and effective implementation of ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation and disaster risk reduction.
+EbA and similar approaches have been called for in other policy frameworks, including the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and the Ramsar Convention.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+AdaptationCommunity
+Coastal EbA
+Friends of EbA
+PANORAMA Solutions – EbA Portal Archived 2019-06-03 at the Wayback Machine
+We Adapt
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