Scrape wikipedia-science: 197 new, 3 updated, 215 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC@Home-0.md

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+---
+title: "ABC@Home"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:23.968961+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ABC@Home was an educational and non-profit network computing project finding abc-triples related to the abc conjecture in number theory using the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) volunteer computing platform.
+In March 2011, there were more than 7,300 active participants from 114 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 2.9 billion, reporting about 10 teraflops (10 trillion operations per second) of processing power.
+In 2011, the project met its goal of finding all abc-triples of at most 18 digits. By 2015, the project had found 23.8 million triples in total, and ceased operations soon after.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of volunteer computing projects
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Mathematical Institute of Leiden University

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award-0.md

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+---
+title: "AIC Judd Award"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:01.149314+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The AIC - Deane B. Judd Award is an international prize, created in 1973 and instituted for the first time in 1975 by the International Colour Association (AIC). It is given to researchers or research groups in recognition of outstanding contributions to the field of color science. The award is named in honor of Deane B. Judd, an American scientist who made significant contributions to colorimetry, color discrimination, color models, and color vision.
+The AIC has been carrying out the process of selection of the recipients for this award every two years, since 1975. The selection is an arduous procedure that includes nominations by AIC members and analysis of antecedents of the nominees by a Committee composed of previous recipients of the award and AIC past-presidents. The award is given at AIC Congresses.
+
+
+== Awardees ==
+The researchers who have received this award in the past 50 years are:
+
+1975: Dorothy Nickerson (USA);
+1977: William David Wright (UK);
+1979: Günter Wyszecki (Germany, USA, Canada);
+1981: Manfred Richter (Germany);
+1983: David L. MacAdam (USA);
+1985: Leo Hurvich & Dorothea Jameson (USA);
+1987: Robert William G. Hunt (UK);
+1989: Tarow Indow (Japan, USA);
+1991: Johannes J. Vos & Pieter L. Walraven (Netherlands);
+1993: Yoshinobu Nayatani (Japan);
+1995: Heinz Terstiege (Germany);
+1997: Anders Hård, Gunnar Tonnquist & Lars Sivik (Sweden);
+1999: Fred W. Billmeyer Jr. (USA);
+2001: Roberto Daniel Lozano (Argentina);
+2003: Mitsuo Ikeda (Japan);
+2005: John B. Hutchings (UK);
+2007: Alan R. Robertson (Canada);
+2009: Arne Valberg (Norway);
+2011: Lucia Ronchi (Italy);
+2013: Roy S. Berns (USA);
+2015: Françoise Viénot (France);
+2017: Ming-Ronnier Luo (UK);
+2019: Hirohisa Yaguchi (Japan);
+2021: John McCann (USA);
+2023: Rolf G. Kuehni (USA);
+2025: José Luis Caivano (Argentina).
+The contributions of these color scientists cover a wide variety of fields: colorimetry, color vision, color technology, color appearance, visual appearance, color psychology, visual psychophysics, standards and normalization, lighting, etc. K. Fridell Anter has compiled a list of selected publications by these authors.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQUA@home-0.md

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+---
+title: "AQUA@home"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQUA@home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:27.333034+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+AQUA@home was a volunteer computing project operated by D-Wave Systems that ran on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It ceased functioning in August 2011. Its goal was to predict the performance of superconducting adiabatic quantum computers on a variety of problems arising in fields ranging from materials science to machine learning. It designed and analyzed quantum computing algorithms, using Quantum Monte Carlo techniques.
+AQUA@home was the first BOINC project to provide multi-threaded applications. It was also the first project to deploy an OpenCL test application under BOINC.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Papers resulting from AQUA@home's computations

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa@home-0.md

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+---
+title: "Africa@home"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa@home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:25.053444+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Africa@home is a website that allow users to use their home computers to contribute for humanitarian causes at Africa. This project first went public on 13 July 2006. It partners with Swiss Tropical Institute, the University of Geneva, CERN, and ICVolunteers (ICV). It is sponsored by the Geneva International Academic Network (GIAN).
+Africa@home together with ICVolunteers, recruited volunteers across Africa to help with the project. The Malaria Control Project (MCP) was the first and the only volunteer computing project run by Africa@home. MCP ran for 10 years and became inactive since 21 June 2016.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Malaria Control Project
+List of volunteer computing projects
+Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC)
+Volunteer computing
+Grid computing
+Geneva International Academic Network
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md

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+---
+title: "All models are wrong"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:27.003416+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"All models are wrong" is a common aphorism in statistics. It is often expanded as "All models are wrong, but some are useful". The aphorism acknowledges that statistical models always fall short of the complexities of reality but can still be useful nonetheless. The aphorism is generally attributed to George E. P. Box, a British statistician, although the underlying concept predates Box's writings.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+The phrase "all models are wrong" was attributed to George Box who used the phrase in a 1976 paper to refer to the limitations of models, arguing that while no model is ever completely accurate, simpler models can still provide valuable insights if applied judiciously.
+In their 1983 book on generalized linear models, Peter McCullagh and John Nelder stated that while modeling in science is a creative process, some models are better than others, even though none can claim eternal truth. In 1996, an Applied Statistician's Creed was proposed by M.R. Nester, which incorporated the aphorism as a central tenet.
+The longer form appears on in a 1987 book by Box and Norman Draper in a section "The Use of Approximating Functions,":
+
+"The fact that the polynomial is an approximation does not necessarily detract from its usefulness because all models are approximations. Essentially, all models are wrong, but some are useful."
+
+
+== Discussions ==
+Box used the aphorism again in 1979, where he expanded on the idea by discussing how models serve as useful approximations, despite failing to perfectly describe empirical phenomena. He reiterated this sentiment in his later works, where he discussed how models should be judged based on their utility rather than their absolute correctness.
+David Cox, in a 1995 commentary, argued that stating all models are wrong is unhelpful, as models by their nature simplify reality. He emphasized that statistical models, like other scientific models, aim to capture important aspects of systems through idealized representations.
+In their 2002 book on statistical model selection, Burnham and Anderson reiterated Box's statement, noting that while models are simplifications of reality, they vary in usefulness, from highly useful to essentially useless.
+J. Michael Steele used the analogy of city maps to explain that models, like maps, serve practical purposes despite their limitations, emphasizing that certain models, though simplified, are not necessarily wrong. In response, Andrew Gelman acknowledged Steele's point but defended the usefulness of the aphorism, particularly in drawing attention to the inherent imperfections of models.
+Philosopher Peter Truran, in a 2013 essay, discussed how seemingly incompatible models can make accurate predictions by representing different aspects of the same phenomenon, illustrating the point with an example of two observers viewing a cylindrical object from different angles.
+In 2014, David Hand reiterated that models are meant to aid in understanding or decision-making about the real world, a point emphasized by Box's famous remark.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Anscombe's quartet – Four data sets with the same descriptive statistics, yet very different distributions
+Bonini's paradox – As a model of a complex system becomes more complete, it becomes less understandable
+Lie-to-children – Teaching a complex subject via simpler models
+Map–territory relation – Relationship between an object and a representation of that object
+Pragmatism – Philosophical tradition
+Reification (fallacy) – Fallacy of treating an abstraction as if it were a real thing
+Scientific modelling – Scientific activity  that produces models
+Statistical model – Type of mathematical model
+Statistical model validation – Evaluating whether a chosen statistical model is appropriate or not
+Verisimilitude – Resemblance to reality
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Anderson, C. (23 June 2008), "The end of theory", Wired
+Box, G. E. P. (1999), "Statistics as a catalyst to learning by scientific method Part II—A discussion", Journal of Quality Technology, 31: 16–29, doi:10.1080/00224065.1999.11979890
+Enderling, H.; Wolkenhauer, O. (2021), "Are all models wrong?", Computational and Systems Oncology, 1 (1) e1008, doi:10.1002/cso2.1008, PMC 7880041, PMID 33585835
+Saltelli, A.; Funtowicz, S. (Winter 2014), "When all models are wrong", Issues in Science and Technology, 30
+
+
+== External links ==
+"All Models are Right, Most are Useless"—Andrew Gelman blog
+All models are wrong—Peter Coles blog

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md

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+---
+title: "And yet it moves"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:28.330517+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve] ('And yet it moves' or 'Although it does move') is an Italian phrase commonly attributed to the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). The Catholic Church persecuted Galileo for promoting the Copernican model of the Solar System in which the Earth moves around the Sun, which contradicted Catholic orthodoxy that the Earth remained fixed in the center of the universe. 
+According to popular legend, Galileo muttered this in 1633 after the Roman Inquisition forced him to recant his claims, though this is likely apocryphal.
+
+
+== History ==
+According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri.
+The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition.
+The event was first reported in English print in 1757 by Giuseppe Baretti in his book The Italian Library:
+
+The moment he was set at liberty, he looked up to the sky and down to the ground, and, stamping with his foot, in a contemplative mood, said, Eppur si muove, that is, still it moves, meaning the Earth.
+The book became widely published in Querelles Littéraires in 1761.
+In 1911, the words E pur si muove were found on a painting which had just been acquired by an art collector, Jules van Belle, of Roeselare, Belgium. This painting is dated 1643 or 1645 (the last digit is partially obscured), within a year or two of Galileo's death. The signature is unclear but van Belle attributed it to the seventeenth century Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo. The painting would seem to show that some variant of the Eppur si muove anecdote was in circulation immediately after his death, when many who had known him were still alive to attest to it, and that it had been circulating for over a century before it was published. However, this painting, whose whereabouts is currently unknown, was discovered to be nearly identical to one painted in 1837 by Eugene van Maldeghem, and, basing their opinions on the style, many art experts doubt that the van Belle painting was painted by Murillo, or even that it was painted before the nineteenth century.
+United States Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia gave an "E pur si muove" award to district court judges whose opinions were overturned by appellate courts but later vindicated by the Supreme Court.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov_Prize_(APS)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Andrei Sakharov Prize (APS)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov_Prize_(APS)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:26.241935+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Andrei Sakharov Prize is a prize that is to be awarded every two years by the American Physical Society since 2006. The recipients are chosen for "outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights." It is named after Andrei Sakharov (1921-1989), a Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident, and human rights activist. Since 2007, it has been valued at $10,000. The first Sakharov Prize was awarded to physicist and former Soviet gulag prisoner Yuri Orlov.
+
+
+== Recipients ==
+Source:
+
+2006 Yuri Orlov (Cornell University)
+2008 Liangying Xu (Chinese Academy of Sciences)
+2010 Herman Winick (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center), Joseph Birman (City University of New York), and Morris (Moishe) Pripstein (National Science Foundation)
+2012 Mulugeta Bekele (University of Addis Ababa) and Richard Wilson (Harvard University)
+2014 Boris Altshuler (P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute) and Omid Kokabee (University of Texas at Austin)
+2016 Zafra M. Lerman (Malta Conferences Foundation)
+2018 Narges Mohammadi (Iran Engineering Inspection Corporation) and Ravi Kuchimanchi (Association for India's Development)
+2020 Ayşe Erzan (Istanbul Technical University) and Xiaoxing Xi (Temple University)
+2022 John C. Polanyi (University of Toronto)
+2024 Eugene Chudnovsky (City University of New York)
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of American Physical Society prizes and awards
+List of physics awards
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Andrei Sakharov Prize, American Physical Society

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Applied science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:13.583287+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Applied science is the application of the scientific method and scientific knowledge to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines, such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena.
+There are applied natural sciences, as well as applied formal and social sciences. Applied science examples include genetic epidemiology which applies statistics and probability theory, and applied psychology, including criminology.
+
+
+== Applied research ==
+Applied research is the use of empirical methods to collect data for practical purposes. It accesses and uses accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques for a specific state, business, or client-driven purpose. In contrast to engineering, applied research does not include analyses or optimization of business, economics, and costs. Applied research can be better understood in any area when contrasting it with basic or pure research. Basic geographical research strives to create new theories and methods that aid in explaining the processes that shape the spatial structure of physical or human environments. Instead, applied research utilizes existing geographical theories and methods to comprehend and address particular empirical issues. Applied research usually has specific commercial objectives related to products, procedures, or services. The comparison of pure research and applied research provides a basic framework and direction for businesses to follow.
+Applied research deals with solving practical problems and generally employs empirical methodologies. Because applied research resides in the messy real world, strict research protocols may need to be relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use a random sample. Thus, transparency in the methodology is crucial. Implications for the interpretation of results brought about by relaxing an otherwise strict canon of methodology should also be considered.
+Moreover, this type of research method applies natural sciences to human conditions:
+
+Action research: aids firms in identifying workable solutions to issues influencing them.
+Evaluation research: researchers examine available data to assist clients in making wise judgments.
+Industrial research: create new goods/services that will satisfy the demands of a target market. (Industrial development would be scaling up production of the new goods/services for mass consumption to satisfy the economic demand of the customers while maximizing the ratio of the good/service output rate to resource input rate, the ratio of good/service revenue to material & energy costs, and the good/service quality. Industrial development would be considered engineering. Industrial development would fall outside the scope of applied research.)
+Gauging research: A type of evaluation research that uses a logic of rating to assess a process or program. It is a type of normative assessment and used in accreditation, hiring decisions and process evaluation. It uses standards or the practical ideal type and is associated with deductive qualitative research.
+Since applied research has a provisional close-to-the-problem and close-to-the-data orientation, it may also use a more provisional conceptual framework, such as working hypotheses or pillar questions. The OECD's Frascati Manual describes applied research as one of the three forms of research, along with basic research & experimental development.
+Due to its practical focus, applied research information will be found in the literature associated with individual disciplines.
+
+
+== Branches ==
+
+Applied research is a method of problem-solving and is also practical in areas of science, such as its presence in applied psychology. Applied psychology uses human behavior to grab information to locate a main focus in an area that can contribute to finding a resolution. More specifically, this study is applied in the area of criminal psychology. With the knowledge obtained from applied research, studies are conducted on criminals alongside their behavior to apprehend them. Moreover, the research extends to criminal investigations. Under this category, research methods demonstrate an understanding of the scientific method and social research designs used in criminological research. These reach more branches along the procedure towards the investigations, alongside laws, policy, and criminological theory.
+Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. Some scientific subfields used by engineers include thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluid mechanics, statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials, kinematics, electromagnetism, materials science, earth sciences, and engineering physics.
+Medical sciences, such as medical microbiology, pharmaceutical research, and clinical virology, are applied sciences that apply biology and chemistry to medicine.
+Food science is also a branch of applied science.
+
+
+== In education ==
+In Canada, the Netherlands, and other places, the Bachelor of Applied Science (BASc) is sometimes equivalent to the Bachelor of Engineering and is classified as a professional degree. This is based on the age of the school where applied science used to include boiler making, surveying, and engineering. There are also Bachelor of Applied Science degrees in Child Studies. The BASc tends to focus more on the application of the engineering sciences. In Australia and New Zealand, this degree is awarded in various fields of study and is considered a highly specialized professional degree.
+In the United Kingdom's educational system, Applied Science refers to a suite of "vocational" science qualifications that run alongside "traditional" General Certificate of Secondary Education or A-Level Sciences. Applied Science courses generally contain more coursework (also known as portfolio or internally assessed work) compared to their traditional counterparts. These are an evolution of the GNVQ qualifications offered up to 2005. These courses regularly come under scrutiny and are due for review following the Wolf Report 2011; however, their merits are argued elsewhere.
+In the United States, The College of William & Mary offers an undergraduate minor as well as Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in "applied science". Courses and research cover varied fields, including neuroscience, optics, materials science and engineering, nondestructive testing, and nuclear magnetic resonance. University of Nebraska–Lincoln offers a Bachelor of Science in applied science, an online completion Bachelor of Science in applied science, and a Master of Applied Science. Coursework is centered on science, agriculture, and natural resources with a wide range of options, including ecology, food genetics, entrepreneurship, economics, policy, animal science, and plant science. In New York City, the Bloomberg administration awarded the consortium of Cornell-Technion $100 million in City capital to construct the universities' proposed Applied Sciences campus on Roosevelt Island.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Applied mathematics
+Basic research
+Exact sciences
+Hard and soft science
+Invention
+Secondary research
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Applied sciences at Wikimedia Commons

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System-0.md

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+---
+title: "Artificial Intelligence System"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:28.481382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Artificial Intelligence System (AIS) was a volunteer computing project undertaken by Intelligence Realm, Inc. with the long-term goal of simulating the human brain in real time, complete with artificial consciousness and artificial general intelligence. They claimed to have found, in research, the "mechanisms of knowledge representation in the brain which is equivalent to finding artificial intelligence", before moving into the developmental phase.
+
+
+== History ==
+The project's initial goal was recreating the largest brain simulation to date, performed by neuroscientist Eugene M. Izhikevich of The Neurosciences Institute in San Diego, California. Izhikevich simulated 1 second of activity of 100 billion neurons (the estimated number of neurons in the human brain) in 50 days using a cluster of 27 3-gigahertz processors.  He extrapolated that a real-time simulation of the brain could not be achieved before 2016.  The project aimed to disprove this prediction.
+Artificial Intelligence System announced on Sep 5, 2007 that they will use the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software to perform intensive calculations.
+On July 12, 2008, the first phase of the project had been completed by reaching the 100 billion neuron mark. The project then continued to simulate neurons while they completed the development of other related applications.
+
+
+== Application description ==
+the application is a brain network test system that reenacts biophysical sensory cells characterized as numerical models and use the Hodgkin–Huxley model to portray the properties of brain cells
+the rundown of models will keep developing and will ultimately arrive at many models
+the test system gets information from XML records that contain cell properties which portray behavior
+the test system will process the framework's way of behaving over the long haul
+calculation results will be saved in records
+
+
+== Conclusion ==
+Artificial Intelligence System had successfully simulated over 700 billion neurons by April 2009 and the project reported 7119 participants in January, 2010
+AIS was last seen working on the post data stage before the website was no longer available after November 2010.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Artificial consciousness
+Blue Brain
+Outline of artificial intelligence
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md

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+---
+title: "Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:13.714112+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes  - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals.  Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles.
+
+
+== Geometric optics (ray tracing) ==
+
+Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow  of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. 
+Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications.
+The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction  
+Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to apply the ray-tracing technique to hexagonal ice crystal. Wendling et al. (1979) extended Jacobowitz's work from  hexagonal ice particle with infinite length to finite length and combined Monte Carlo technique to the ray-tracing simulations. 
+
+
+== Classification ==
+The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by hexagonal ice crystals, large raindrops, and relevant links and applications.
+
+
+=== Codes for light scattering by hexagonal ice crystals ===
+
+
+== Relevant scattering codes ==
+Discrete dipole approximation codes
+Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
+Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
+
+
+== External links ==
+Scatterlib - Google Code repository of light scattering codes
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md

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+---
+title: "Atmospheric radiative transfer codes"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:14.810942+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere.
+
+
+== Methods ==
+At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation.  For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument.
+A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending on temperature and other parameters). In addition, models may consider scattering from molecules or particles, as well as polarisation; however, not all models do so.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+Radiative transfer codes are used in broad range of applications. They are commonly used as forward models for the retrieval of geophysical parameters (such as temperature or humidity). Radiative transfer models are also used to optimize solar photovoltaic systems for renewable energy generation. Another common field of application is in a weather or climate model, where the radiative forcing is calculated for greenhouse gases, aerosols, or clouds. In such applications, radiative transfer codes are often called radiation parameterization. In these applications, the radiative transfer codes are used in forward sense, i.e. on the basis of known properties of the atmosphere, one calculates heating rates, radiative fluxes, and radiances.
+There are efforts for intercomparison of radiation codes. One such project was ICRCCM (Intercomparison of Radiation Codes in Climate Models) effort that spanned the late 1980s – early 2000s.  The more current (2011) project, Continual Intercomparison of Radiation Codes, emphasises also using observations to define intercomparison cases.
+
+
+== Table of models ==
+
+
+=== Molecular absorption databases ===
+For a line-by-line calculation, one needs characteristics of the spectral lines, such as the line centre, the intensity, the lower-state energy, the line width and the shape.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Discrete dipole approximation codes
+Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
+Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
+Optical properties of water and ice
+
+
+== References ==
+Footnotes
+
+General
+Bohren, Craig F. and Eugene E. Clothiaux, Fundamentals of atmospheric radiation: an introduction with 400 problems, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2006, 472 p., ISBN 3-527-40503-8.
+Goody, R. M. and Y. L. Yung, Atmospheric Radiation: Theoretical Basis. Oxford University Press, 1996 (Second Edition), 534 pages, ISBN 978-0-19-510291-8.
+Liou, Kuo-Nan, An introduction to atmospheric radiation, Amsterdam; Boston: Academic Press, 2002, 583 p., International geophysics series, v.84, ISBN 0-12-451451-0.
+Mobley, Curtis D., Light and water: radiative transfer in natural waters; based in part on collaborations with Rudolph W. Preisendorfer, San Diego, Academic Press, 1994, 592 p., ISBN 0-12-502750-8
+Petty, Grant W, A first course in atmospheric radiation (2nd Ed.), Madison, Wisconsin: Sundog Pub., 2006, 472 p., ISBN 0-9729033-1-3
+Preisendorfer, Rudolph W., Hydrologic optics, Honolulu, Hawaii: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Research Laboratories, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, 1976, 6 volumes.
+Stephens, Graeme L., Remote sensing of the lower atmosphere: an introduction, New York, Oxford University Press, 1994, 523 p. ISBN 0-19-508188-9.
+Thomas, Gary E. and Knut Stamnes, Radiative transfer in the atmosphere and ocean, Cambridge, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1999, 517 p., ISBN 0-521-40124-0.
+Zdunkowski, W., T. Trautmann, A. Bott, Radiation in the Atmosphere. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 496 pages, ISBN 978-0-521-87107-5
+
+
+== External links ==
+ITWC for radiative transfer

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_Centre_for_the_Public_Awareness_of_Science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Australian National Centre for the Public Awareness of Science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_Centre_for_the_Public_Awareness_of_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:29.680356+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Centre for the Public Awareness of Science is part of the Australian National University. In March 2000 it became an accredited Centre for the Australian National Commission for UNESCO.
+
+
+== Work of the Centre ==
+As a UNESCO Centre, CPAS engages with science communication and communicators in the Pacific region and beyond.  In partnership with the UNESCO Pacific Office in Apia, Samoa, CPAS has focused on science teaching training and communication in Pacific nations.  As well as running a science journalism workshop for Pacific Island journalists in 2001, CPAS  followed up in the same year with a science teacher workshop and the first Pacific Science Communication Forum. The UNESCO office in Jakarta invited CPAS to join a mission to Cambodia to conduct a survey to identify and assess the needs of the country with respect to science education in schools and universities. Other activities include joining with UNESCO (Apia) to help in its aims to raise social participation in science in and around the Pacific.
+CPAS also established, as a pilot project, the Register of Pacific Scientists, an online database for those involved with Pacific Science to record their details and/or search for other people with similar or complementary interests.
+Other activities of CPAS include the presentation of workshops for secondary school science teachers and others in Fiji, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Japan and New Zealand. A joint teaching program is being developed with the National University of Singapore. In South Africa, CPAS helped to develop a touring hands-on science exhibition and has been invited to work in and with various South African science centres.
+
+
+== Teaching, Outreach and Research ==
+With a flourishing graduate program, CPAS encourages research in all aspects of science communication. Degrees are offered at all tertiary levels. Outreach programs within Australia include workshops for research scientists, science teachers, science and engineering students and science centre personnel, as well as the ANU Shell Questacon Science Circus. CPAS is also home to Popsicule, the Science in Popular Culture and Entertainment Hub of ANU.
+CPAS has a wide research program dealing with issues at the interface of science and the public. Apart from a long-standing agenda of research in science centres, CPAS is concerned with current issues in science, with the communication agendas of scientists, and with effective communication of science concepts. The research program is interdisciplinary and contributes to the emerging framework of science communication theory.
+
+
+== History ==
+CPAS was launched by Professor Richard Dawkins in 1996. It owes it origin to the establishment, twenty years earlier, of a modest science centre in a vacant primary school in Canberra. This burgeoning science centre eventually grew into Questacon – The National Science and Technology Centre. Questacon was the brainchild of Michael Gore, a senior lecturer in Physics at the Australian National University, who became its first director. An important part of its activities was outreach, supported from the beginning by sponsorship from Shell Australia.
+Dr Gore approached Professor Chris Bryant, then Dean of Science at the Australian National University, with a proposal to set up a science circus to travel Australia, to be staffed by graduate science students enrolled in a course of science communication. Thus was born the Graduate Certificate in Science Communication that rapidly metamorphosed into a Graduate Diploma. This initiative proved extremely popular and it became clear that there was a hitherto undetected demand for such a course. Over the next few years, Masters and PhD courses were offered and science communication became a full-fledged graduate program.
+By 1994, the demand was so great that the Faculty of Science at the Australian National University agreed to fund a Lectureship in Science Communication. This was the first in Australia and, possibly, the world. Dr Susan Stocklmayer was appointed to the position and immediately announced her intention of establishing a university centre for science communication.  The centre was established in 1996, with Professor Bryant as its first, interim, Director. Dr Stocklmayer took over the position in 1998, where she remained until 2015. In 2016, Professor Joan Leach assumed the role of Director, leading CPAS until 2025.
+In July 2025, Professor Sujatha Raman was appointed CPAS Director, where she remains today.
+
+
+== Awards ==
+In subsequent years, the work of CPAS has been recognised by a number of awards and honours: In 1999, CPAS, Shell Australia and Questacon jointly won the Business/Higher Education Round Table Award. The citation commends CPAS as “a university centre whose brief is to empower Australians by encouraging in them the confidence of 'ownership' of modern science. It is intended to increase science awareness in the Australian community and to improve communication skills of scientists.”  In 2000, its standing was such that it was designated as the first UNESCO Centre for Science Communication.
+In 2004, the triple partnership was awarded the Financial Review National Award for long term sponsorship, and in 2006 it won the Special Award for Excellence in the Prime Ministers Community Business Partnerships. The individual contributions of members of CPAS have also been widely recognised and they have received many personal accolades.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Training Course in Science Journalism

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md

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+---
+title: "Azeotrope tables"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:17.407332+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers.
+The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table).
+A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh.
+
+
+== Binary azeotropes ==
+
+
+== Ternary azeotropes ==
+Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight.
+
+‡Saddle azeotrope
+
+‡Saddle azeotrope
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-0.md

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+---
+title: "Body Worlds"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Body Worlds (German title: Körperwelten) is a traveling exposition of dissected human bodies, animals, and other anatomical structures of the body that have been preserved through the process of plastination. Gunther von Hagens developed the preservation process which "unite[s] subtle anatomy and modern polymer chemistry", in the late 1970s.
+A series of Body Worlds anatomical exhibitions has toured many countries worldwide, sometimes raising controversies about the sourcing and display of actual human corpses and body parts. Von Hagens maintains that all human specimens were obtained with full knowledge and consent of the donors before they died, but this has not been independently verified, and in 2004 von Hagens returned seven corpses to China because they showed evidence of being executed prisoners. A competing exhibition, Bodies: The Exhibition, openly sources its bodies from "unclaimed bodies" in China, which can include executed prisoners.
+In addition to temporary traveling exhibitions, permanent Body Worlds exhibits exists in Berlin, Amsterdam, Heidelberg, Guben, and San Jose, CA.
+
+== Description ==
+
+The exhibit states that its purpose and mission is the education of laypeople about the human body, leading to better health awareness. Each Body Worlds exhibition contains approximately 25 full-body plastinates with expanded or selective organs shown in positions that enhance the role of certain systems.
+To produce specimens for Body Worlds, von Hagens employs around 100 people at his laboratory in Guben, Germany. One of the most difficult specimens to create was the giraffe that appears in Body Worlds: Animal Inside Out. The specimen took three years to complete—ten times longer than it takes to prepare a human body. Ten people are required to move the giraffe, because its final weight (like all specimens after plastination) is equal to the original animal.
+Many of the whole-body specimens are partially dissected in the Écorché style of 17th and 18th century European tradition, while others are sliced in various anatomical planes to permit understanding of anatomical structure. In addition, more than 200 specimens of real human organs and organ systems are typically separately displayed in glass cases, some showing various medical conditions. Some of the whole-body specimens, such as the "Tai Chi Man", demonstrate interventions, and include prosthetics such as artificial hip joints or heart valves. Often featured is a liver with cirrhosis, and the lungs of a smoker and non-smoker are placed for side by side comparison. A prenatal display may feature fetuses and embryos, some with congenital disorders.
+
+== Exhibitions ==
+
+Body Worlds exhibitions have received more than 50 million visitors, making them the world's most popular touring attraction. Body Worlds was first presented in Tokyo in 1995, and related exhibitions have since been hosted by more than 50 museums and venues in North America, Europe, and Asia. Body Worlds 2 & The Brain – Our Three Pound Gem (concerning the brain and nervous system) opened in 2005 at the California Science Center in Los Angeles. As of September 2010 it was showing at the Telus World of Science in Vancouver. Several Body Worlds exhibits (as well as von Hagens himself) were featured in the 2006 film Casino Royale. Among the plastinates seen were the Poker Playing Trio (which plays a key role in one scene) and Rearing Horse and Rider.
+Body Worlds 3 & The Story of the Heart (concerning the cardiovascular system) opened on 25 February 2006, at the Houston Museum of Natural Science. On 9 July 2009 this show appeared at the Buffalo Museum of Science in Buffalo, New York. As of May 2010, it was showing at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science in Denver, Colorado. Body Worlds 4 debuted 22 February 2008 at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester in England and was in the Cureghem Cellars in Brussels until March 2009. Body Worlds & The Mirror of Time (featuring human development and aging) debuted at The O2 in London in October 2008. Körperwelten & Der Zyklus Des Lebens (The Cycle of Life) opened in Heidelberg in January 2009. Body Worlds: Animal Inside Out premiered in 2010 at a German Museum. It was first conceived when von Hagens received a gorilla, a giraffe, an elephant, a bear, a sturgeon, a camel, a caribou, a horse, a cow, a bull, a yak, a crocodile, an octopus, an ostrich, a monkey, a shark, a sheep, a goat, a dog, a rabbit, a duck, a great white shark, a seal, a frog, an oryx, a squid, and other various animals, all of which are being donated from various zoos, institutions, museums, and aquariums from around the world when they all died from various causes of deaths and demises. Body Worlds Vital was inaugurated at the Universum museum of the National Autonomous University of Mexico in 2012.
+In 2017, the Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose, California, opened a semi-permanent exhibition called Body Worlds Decoded. Sponsored by venture capitalist John Doerr and his wife Ann, the exhibit features plastinated specimens supplemented by augmented reality and a digital anatomy table. The exhibit is intended to run for at least 10 years.
+
+== Education ==
+Body Worlds has prepared free teaching guides for secondary school education, typically made available through organizations hosting its exhibitions.
+In 2005, the New York University College of Dentistry experimented with replacing traditional laboratory dissection with the study of dissected and plastinated slices of specimens, for the training of beginning dental students.
+
+== Regulatory framework ==
+
+=== Czech Republic ===
+In July 2008, the Czech Senate passed a law to address illegal trading in human tissue and ban "advertising of donation of human cells and tissues for money or similar advantages".

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-1.md

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+---
+title: "Body Worlds"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== France ===
+In response to the Paris exhibition of Our Body: The Universe Within, two local human rights groups filed a legal complaint against the owner of the exhibit, Gunther Von Hagens. The groups' lawyer Richard Sedillot argued that the existence of exhibits profiting from the display of human bodies creates a supply demand to produce and traffick more bodies through ethically dubious means to supply the exhibits. Potential scenarios given by the lawyer included structural violence such as neglecting medical patients or incentising an increase in death row convictions in China. Sedillot stated "I am convinced that the exhibition is the last step in a horrible traffic [sic] operation of human bodies originating in China."
+On Tuesday 21 April 2009, Judge Louis-Marie Raingeard ruled that exhibiting dead bodies for profit was a "violation of the respect owed to them". "Under the law, the proper place for corpses is in the cemetery". Raingeard ordered the exhibition to close within 24 hours or face a fine of €20,000 (over $26,000 USD) for each day it stayed open. The judge also ordered authorities to seize the 17 bodies on display and all of the organs on display from an unknown number of people for proper burial. Von Hagens issued a press statement denying any connection between the closed Chinese exhibition and his Body Worlds franchise. Similar exhibitions had already been successfully staged in Lyon and Marseille.
+
+=== United Kingdom ===
+
+==== England and Wales ====
+The UK Parliament created legislation for exhibits of human remains, including plastinated bodies and body parts, in England and Wales under the Human Tissue Act 2004. This requires a licence to be granted by the Human Tissue Authority. The Human Tissue Act superseded the Anatomy Act 1832, which had been found by an independent commission (The Redfern Report) to be inadequate on contemporary collection and use of human tissues, following the Alder Hey organs scandal. There was initially controversy over whether the exhibition needed a licence in compliance with the Anatomy Act 1984. But, after consideration by the Department of Health, it was found that the legislation had not been designed to relate to exhibitions like Body Worlds and so no licence was required. In March 2008, the Manchester Museum of Science and Industry was granted such a licence to hold Body Worlds 4 and a further licence was granted to the exhibition in the O2, London, in 2008.
+
+==== Scotland ====
+The Human Tissue (Scotland) Act 2006 – which amended the Anatomy Act 1984 – covers Scotland. Under the terms of this Act, licences for the handling of human remains, including display, must be granted directly by the Scottish Ministry: "Subsection 9: If the Scottish Ministers think it desirable to do so in the interests of education, training or research, they may grant a license to a person to publicly display the body or, as the case may be, the part, and a person is authorized under this subsection to so display a body or a part of a body if, at the time of the display he is licensed under this subsection."
+Various organizations gave evidence to the Scottish Executive during the consultation process, including the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, the Wellcome Trust, and the Museums Association.
+
+=== United States ===
+Various legislation has been proposed and enacted in different American states. Most proposals concentrate on issues regarding the sale of human remains and the consent of the donors.
+National legislation on consent and tissue donation issues is expressed in the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (2006) passed by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws which states that "an anatomical gift of a donor's body or part may be made during the life of the donor for the purpose of transplantation, therapy, research, or education", and prohibits trafficking in donated human organs for profit.
+In early 2008, former US Republican Representative W. Todd Akin proposed an amendment to the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 to "make it unlawful for a person to import plastinated human remains into the United States." The President of the American Association of Anatomists has expressed concern that the scope of the act is "too broad" and that "Preventing importation of all plastinated specimens could severely restrict their use for medical education." The amendment was not enacted during the 2007–2008 Congressional session.
+
+==== California ====
+California's proposed bill AB1519 (Ma), sponsored by Assemblywoman Fiona Ma, tried to "require exhibitors to get a county permit; to do so, they would have to prove to county health officials that the people whose cadavers were on display—or their next of kin—had consented".
+Assembly Bill 1519 would have made California the first state to require such proof. It was vetoed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on 26 September 2008.
+
+==== Florida ====
+The state of Florida prohibits the sale or purchase of human remains and "Authorizes certain science centers located in this state to transport plastinated bodies into, within, or out of this state and exhibit such bodies for the purpose of public education without the consent of this state's anatomical board if the science center notifies the board of any such transportation or exhibition, as well as the location and duration of any exhibition, at least 30 days before such transportation or exhibition". The Museum of Science and History in Jacksonville and the Museum of Science and Industry in Tampa have hosted BODY WORLDS exhibitions. 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-2.md

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+---
+title: "Body Worlds"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Hawaii ====
+In January 2009, Rep. Marcus Oshiro introduced two bills prompted by presentation of the BODIES Exhibition in that state. HB28 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would add to the prohibition against buying dead human bodies, the selling of dead human bodies and defines the term "dead human body" to include plastinated bodies and body parts. It would increase the fine for buying or selling a dead human body to up to $5,000. HB29 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would prohibit the commercial display of dead human bodies without a permit from the Department of Health.
+
+==== New York ====
+In June 2008, New York State Senate passed legislation regulating body exhibits. A bill that was sponsored by Senator Jim Alesi requires anyone showing an exhibit that uses real human bodies in New York museums to produce a permit detailing their origin. BODY WORLDS was hosted at Discovery Times Square in New York City. 
+
+==== Pennsylvania ====
+Representative Mike Fleck's proposed bill would require evidence of informed consent from the decedent or relatives of all humans whose remains are put on display. BODY WORLDS exhibitions have been hosted in Philadelphia at the Franklin Institute and in Allentown at the Da Vinci Science Center. 
+
+==== Washington ====
+The state of Washington considered a bill that would "require written authorization to display human remains for a commercial purpose".
+
+== Controversies ==
+
+=== Consent ===
+There have been several reports of corpses in the Body Worlds exhibit being prepared and shown without consent. In January 2004, the German news magazine Der Spiegel reported, based on internal emails and records as well as statements from von Hagens, that his company had acquired corpses of Chinese prisoners from capital punishment. In response to the article, von Hagens said that he has told his Chinese employees not to accept bodies that were executed, and returned seven cadavers to China that had head injuries, including at least two with bullet holes in the skull. In 2004, von Hagens obtained an injunction against Der Spiegel for making the claims. Paul Harris, director of North Carolina's State Board of Funeral Services, has stated, "Somebody at some level of government ought to be able to look at a death certificate, a statement from an embalmer, donation documents... That's a reasonable standard to apply." Assemblywoman Fiona Ma (D-San Francisco) said, "These displays do have important educational benefits, but using bodies against a person's will is unacceptable".
+In 2002, two Russian doctors from the University of Novosibirsk were charged with illegally supplying von Hagens with 56 bodies, including convicts, homeless people, and mentally ill people, without consent from their relatives. Von Hagens said that none of the body parts were used in the Body Worlds exhibitions. Bodies from the Kyrgyz State Medical Academy were also found to have been obtained illegally in 2005.
+Consent is not regulated worldwide according to the same ethical standards, raising ethical concerns. "[P]aperwork is... separated from the bodies, which can be used for displays or sold in pieces to medical schools. No one will know for sure, because each plastinated corpse is made anonymous to protect its privacy." Hans Martin Sass, a philosophy professor with a speciality in ethics, was hired by the California Science Center to investigate Body Worlds before the show's US debut in 2004. He matched over 200 donation forms to death certificates, but he did not match the paperwork to specific bodies von Hagens has on display.
+
+=== Import laws ===
+International trade experts have objected to the way in which bodies for commercial display are imported, because the way their categorization codes (as "art collections") do not require Centers for Disease Control stamps or death certificates, both of which are required for medical cadavers. In most countries plastinated human specimens are classified under Customs Classification Code 97050000.48 "items in anatomical collections". This customs code encompasses "zoological, botanical, mineralogical or anatomical collections or items in such collections."
+
+=== Ethical concerns about cadaver displays ===
+In an ethical analysis, Thomas Hibbs, professor of ethics and culture at Baylor University, a private Baptist-affiliated institution, compared cadaver displays to pornography, in that they reduce the subject to "the manipulation of body parts stripped of any larger human significance."
+In a 2006 lecture entitled "Plasti-Nation: How America was Won", Lucia Tanassi, professor of medical ethics and anthropology at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, explored questions for ethicists regarding this new scientific frontier. Tanassi called it provocative that ethics committees have contributed to the popularization of the exhibits without setting forth any process of a line of inquiry, pointing to an ethics report from the California Science Center. As part of that review, bioethicist Hans Martin Sass was sent to Heidelberg to match donor consents with death certificates.
+Concerns have been expressed about the educational aspects, especially the inclusion of these displays for school field trips. St. Louis Archbishop Raymond Burke strongly suggested that Catholic schools avoid scheduling field trips, stating that parents, and not children, should retain the freedom of deciding whether or not their children will view the exhibit. Concerned with how "some kids process" these "graphic" images, Des McKay, school superintendent in Abbotsford, British Columbia (near Greater Vancouver), barred field trips to exhibits of plasticized human beings. In an editorial to the Abbotsford News, Rev. Christoph Reiners questions what effect the exhibits will have on the values of children attending for school field trips. Others—such as the Catholic Schools Office of Phoenix—acknowledge the educational content of Body Worlds. Reporting on the exhibition at the O2 bubble in 2008/2009, Melanie Reid of The Times stated "(Body Worlds) should be compulsory viewing for every child of 10 or over".

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-3.md

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+---
+title: "Body Worlds"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Religious objections ===
+Religious groups, including some rabbis have objected to the display of human remains, stating that it is inconsistent with reverence towards the human body. A group of Catholic Christians voiced their opinions towards the Body Worlds exhibition in a reflection paper written by the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. This was in response to the arrival of the Body Worlds Exhibition in the Milwaukee Public Museum in 2014. The group were largely in favour of the exhibition due to its educational goals. But, the paper also discussed fears surrounding whether the exhibit's educational aims were secondary to the experience of voyeurism. There were also concerns over the display of plastinated fetuses, due to beliefs surrounding abortion.
+
+=== Sex plastinate ===
+In 2003, while promoting a display in the Hamburg Museum of Erotica, von Hagens announced his intention to create a sex plastinate. In May 2009 he unveiled a plastinate of a couple having sex, intended for a Berlin exhibition.
+
+=== Lessening donor organ availability ===
+In 2007, the Bishop of Manchester launched a campaign to coincide with the opening of Body Worlds in that city, accusing the exhibitors of being "body snatchers" and "robbing the NHS", arguing that donation of bodies for plastination would deprive the National Health Service of organs for transplant. The site included a government petition calling for "a review of the law regarding the policies and practices of touring shows involving corpses".
+
+=== Press limitations ===
+Von Hagens has maintained tight copyright control over pictures of his exhibits. Visitors were not allowed to take pictures, and press photographers were required to sign restrictive agreements permitting only a single publication in a defined context, followed by a return of the copyright to von Hagens. Because of a similar agreement applied to sound bites (O-Töne, in German) a German press organization suggested that the press refrain from reporting about the exhibition in Munich in 2003. In recent years, the restriction on photography has been relaxed for personal non-publication use only.
+
+=== Sale of plastinates ===
+Von Hagen’s website offers plastinated pieces for sale. There are a wide range of products from plastinated fruit jewelry to entire humans. Although some of the pieces require purchasers to be a qualified user—those intending to use the pieces for "research, educational, medical or therapeutic purposes"—many pieces, including animal testicles and baby chicks, require no authorization. There are also extremely realistic plastinate impressions of human hearts and slices (including one slice of copulating humans) for sale to the general public.
+
+== Competitors ==
+The success of Body Worlds has given rise to several similar shows featuring plastinated cadavers, including BODIES... The Exhibition and Our Body: The Universe Within in the United States, Bodies Revealed in the United Kingdom, Body Exploration in Taiwan, Mysteries of the Human Body in South Korea, Jintai Plastomic: Mysteries of the Human Body in Japan, Cuerpos Entrañables in Spain.
+Some of these contain exhibits very similar to von Hagens' plastinates; von Hagens has asserted copyright protection, and has sued Body Exploration and Bodies Revealed.
+The suits were based on a presumed copyright of certain positions of the bodies, but the counterparty asserts that the human body in its diversity cannot be copyrighted.
+Such lawsuits have not stopped the competition. While the Korean police in Seoul confiscated a few exhibits from Bodies Revealed, the exhibition went on successfully.
+Several of the competing exhibitions have been organized by the publicly traded US company Premier Exhibitions. They started their first Bodies Revealed exhibition in Blackpool, England which ran from August through October 2004. In 2005 and 2006 the company opened their Bodies Revealed and BODIES... The Exhibition exhibitions in Seoul, Tampa, Miami, New York City, and Seattle. Other exhibition sites in 2006 were Mexico City; Atlanta, Georgia, US; London; and Las Vegas, Nevada.
+Unlike Body Worlds, none of the competing exhibitions or their suppliers have a body donation programme. Dr Roy Glover, a spokesperson for BODIES... The Exhibition said all their exhibits use unclaimed cadavers from China, a category which the Laogai Research Foundation has charged could include executed prisoners. In May 2008, a settlement with the attorney general of New York obliged Premier Exhibitions to offer refunds to visitors when it could not prove consent for the use of the bodies in its exhibitions. New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo commented: "Despite repeated denials, we now know that Premier itself cannot demonstrate the circumstances that led to the death of the individuals. Nor is Premier able to establish that these people consented to their remains being used in this manner."
+
+== See also ==
+Bodies: The Exhibition
+Embalming
+Mummification
+Organ transplantation in China
+Plastination
+Musée Fragonard d'Alfort museum of historical écorchés
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-4.md

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+---
+title: "Body Worlds"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Gottfried Bogusch, Renate Graf, Thomas Schnalke. Auf Leben und Tod Beiträge zur Diskussion um die Ausstellung "Körperwelten", Schriften aus dem Berliner Medizinhistorischen Museum, 2003, VII, 136 S. 62 Abb., Softcover ISBN 978-3798514249.
+Burns, Lawrence (2007). "Gunther Von Hagens' Body Worlds: Selling Beautiful Education". The American Journal of Bioethics. 7 (4): 12–23. doi:10.1080/15265160701220659. PMID 17454986. S2CID 31456090. Archived from the original on 9 December 2008.
+Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: Wissenschaftliche Transzendenz der Körperwelten. Aufhebung der "Beschränkung von Freiheit" durch Leben, Tod und Körper. In: Wolf Gerhard Schmidt (Hg.): Körperbilder in Kunst und Wissenschaft Würzburg 2014, S. 107–138.
+Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: "Ich will in meinem Knochenleben endlich zufrieden und glücklich sein": Eschatologie der Körperwelten. In: Dominik Groß, Brigitte Tag und Christoph Schweikardt (Hg.): Who wants to live forever? Frankfurt, New York 2011, S. 197–218.
+Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: La plastination, une technique d'incarnation des espoirs scientifiques. In : Annette Leibing et Virginie Tournay (Hg.): Les technologies de l'espoir: La fabrique d'une histoire à accomplir. PUL-Presses de l'Université Laval, 2010.
+Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca. Wachsfigur – Mensch – Plastinat. Über die Mitteilbarkeit von Sehen, Nennen und Wissen, Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte (1999), Heft 1.
+Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca und Thomas Kliche (Hg.). Verführerische Leichen – verbotener Verfall, "Körperwelten" als gesellschaftliches Schlüsselereignis, Lengerich u.a.: Pabst Verlag 2006
+Misia Sophia Doms. Die Ausstellung "Körperwelten" und der Umgang mit der endlichen Leiblichkeit, Volkskunde in Rheinland Pfalz 17/1 (2002). S. 62–108.
+Gunther von Hagens. Body Worlds – The Anatomical Exhibition of Real Human Bodies. Amazon-UK.
+Gunther von Hagens, No Skeletons in the Closet – Facts, Background and Conclusions. Institute for Plastination, 17 November 2003.
+Franz Josef Wetz, Brigitte Tag (Ed.). Schöne Neue Körperwelten, Der Streit um die Ausstellung, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart 2001. Sixteen authors discuss the various ethical and aesthetical aspects of Body Worlds, in German.
+Angelina Whalley (Ed.). Pushing the Limits – Encounters with Gunther von Hagens, pp. 45–36. 2005.
+Schulte-Sasse, Linda (2006). "Advise and Consent: On the Americanization of Body Worlds". BioSocieties. 1 (4): 369–384. doi:10.1017/S1745855206004017. S2CID 146344274.
+
+== External links and sources ==
+True Anatomy for New Ways of Teaching von Hagens Plastination offers one-of-a-kind, real human teaching specimens!
+Official website (English and German)
+ Media related to Body Worlds at Wikimedia Commons

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Branches of science"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:18.701714+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, scientific fields or scientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups:
+
+Formal sciences: the study of formal systems, such as those under the branches of logic and mathematics, which use an a priori, as opposed to empirical, methodology. They study abstract structures described by formal systems.
+Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and biological factors of the universe). Natural science can be divided into two main branches: physical science and life science.
+Social sciences: the study of human behavior in its social and cultural aspects.
+Scientific knowledge must be grounded in observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions.
+Natural, social, and formal science make up the basic sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinarity - and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises.
+
+== Formal sciences ==
+
+The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics.
+Unlike other branches, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world (empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules.  Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal sciences actually constitute as a science.  Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality, and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences.
+
+=== Logic ===
+ 
+
+Logic (from Greek: λογική, logikḗ, 'possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative') is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the conclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments.
+It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of the logical forms; the validity and soundness of deductive reasoning; the strength of inductive reasoning; the study of formal proofs and inference (including paradoxes and fallacies); and the study of syntax and semantics.
+Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy (since ancient times) and mathematics (since the mid-19th century).  More recently, logic has been studied in cognitive science, which draws on computer science, linguistics, philosophy and psychology, among other disciplines.
+
+=== Information science ===
+Information science is an academic field which is primarily concerned with analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information. Practitioners within and outside the field study the application and the usage of knowledge in organizations in addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing information systems with the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems.
+
+=== Mathematics ===
+
+Mathematics, in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of formal science; but traditionally mathematics means more specifically the coalition of four areas: arithmetic.
+
+=== Statistics ===
+
+Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.
+A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.
+The word statistics, when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art." This should not be confused with the word statistic, referring to a quantity (such as mean or median) calculated from a set of data, whose plural is statistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading").
+
+=== Systems theory ===
+
+Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the sociological autopoiesis of Niklas Luhmann.
+In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through feedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of the human body, in local and global ecosystems, and climate.
+
+=== Decision theory ===
+
+Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be confused with choice theory) is the study of an agent's choices. Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines the optimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzes how agents actually make the decisions they do.
+Decision theory is closely related to the field of game theory and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by economists, statisticians, psychologists, biologists, political and other social scientists, philosophers, and computer.
+Empirical applications of this rich theory are usually done with the help of statistical and econometric methods.
+
+=== Theoretical computer science ===
+
+Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing, and includes the theory of computation.
+It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. The ACM's (Association for Computing Theory) Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description:

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-1.md

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+---
+title: "Branches of science"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:18.701714+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation, quantum computation, automata theory, information theory, cryptography, program semantics and verification, machine learning, computational biology, computational economics, computational geometry, and computational number theory and algebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigor.
+
+== Natural sciences ==
+
+Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances.
+Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields).
+
+=== Physical science ===
+
+Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.
+
+==== Physics ====
+
+Physics (from Ancient Greek: φύσις, romanized: physis, lit. 'nature') is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.
+Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.
+
+==== Chemistry ====
+
+Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed) is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based).  Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include: biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system.
+
+==== Earth science ====
+
+Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, geography, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.
+
+===== Geology =====
+
+Geology (from the Ancient Greek γῆ, gē ("earth") and -λoγία, -logia, ("study of", "discourse")) is an Earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major aspect of integrated Earth system science and planetary science.
+
+===== Oceanography =====
+
+Oceanography, or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the seafloor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as well as geography.
+
+===== Meteorology =====
+
+Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.
+
+==== Astronomy ====
+
+Space science is the study of everything in outer space. This has sometimes been called astronomy, but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields, such as studying issues related to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine), space archaeology and science performed in outer space (see space research).
+
+=== Biological science ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-2.md

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+---
+title: "Branches of science"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:18.701714+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Life science, also known as biology, is the natural science that studies life such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings, – including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development, and evolution. Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. Living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis.
+
+==== Biochemistry ====
+
+Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.  It is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology.  Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, and physiology.
+
+==== Microbiology ====
+
+Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells).  Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology and parasitology.
+
+==== Botany ====
+
+Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology.  Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants), and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes.
+
+==== Zoology ====
+
+Zoology () is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i.e. "animal" and λόγος, logos, i.e. "knowledge, study". Some branches of zoology include: anthrozoology, arachnology, archaeozoology, cetology, embryology, entomology, helminthology, herpetology, histology, ichthyology, malacology, mammalogy, morphology, nematology, ornithology, palaeozoology, pathology, primatology, protozoology, taxonomy, and zoogeography.
+
+==== Ecology ====
+
+Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house", or "environment"; -λογία, "study of") is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic and abiotic components. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. Organisms with specific life history traits sustain these processes.
+
+== Social sciences ==
+
+Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, education, history, human geography, law, linguistics, political science, and psychology.
+Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term "social research" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.
+
+== Applied sciences ==
+
+Applied science is the use of existing scientific knowledge to achieve practical goals, like technology or inventions.
+Within natural science, disciplines that are basic science develop basic information to explain and perhaps predict phenomena in the natural world. Applied science is the use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a particularly practical or useful result. This includes a broad range of applied science-related fields, including engineering and medicine.
+Applied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology. Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods.
+
+== Relationships between the branches ==
+The relationships between the branches of science are summarized by the  table.
+
+== Visualizations and metascience ==
+Metascience refers to or includes a field of science that is about science itself. OpenAlex and Scholia can be used to visualize and explore scientific fields and research topics.
+
+== See also ==
+Index of branches of science
+List of words with the suffix -ology
+Outline of science
+Exact sciences
+Basic research
+Hard and soft science
+Branches of philosophy
+Philosophy of science
+Engineering physics
+Human science
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Footnotes ===
+
+=== Works cited ===
+
+== External links ==
+Branches of Science, sciencemirror

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope-0.md

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+---
+title: "Bugscope"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:31.991478+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bugscope is a web-based science outreach program that connects K-12 classrooms with microscopists at the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology at UIUC to explore insects under a high-powered scanning electron microscope (SEM). Launched in 1998, Bugscope allows students to observe microscopic details of insects and other organisms, sparking curiosity and fostering scientific discovery. The program has reached students globally, offering live, interactive sessions that align with educational standards.
+
+
+== Award ==
+The Science Prize for Online Resources in Education (SPORE) from AAAS was awarded to Bugscope for its impact on science education in 2011.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project-0.md

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+---
+title: "Clean Energy Project"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:33.186574+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Clean Energy Project (CEP) was a virtual high-throughput discovery and design effort for the next generation of plastic solar cell materials that has finished. It studies millions of candidate structures to identify suitable compounds for the harvesting of renewable energy from the sun and for other organic electronic applications. It ran on the BOINC platform.
+
+
+== Project purpose ==
+The project searched for the most suitable organic compounds with which to make solar cells, the best polymeric membranes with which to make fuel cells, and how best to assemble the molecules for such devices.
+
+
+== Current project status ==
+On June 24, 2013, the Clean Energy Project released its database to the public and the research community.  The release was featured on the White House Blog and by several news organizations including the MIT Technology Review. The database contains 150 million density functional theory calculations on 2.3 million molecules.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+C. Amador-Bedolla, R. Olivares-Amaya, J. Hachmann, A. Aspuru-Guzik, Towards Materials Informatics for Organic Photovoltaics, in Informatics for Materials Science and Engineering, K. Rajan, Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam (2013). In press.
+R. Olivares-Amaya, C. Amador-Bedolla, J. Hachmann, S. Atahan-Evrenk, R.S. Sánchez-Carrera, L. Vogt, A. Aspuru-Guzik, Accelerated Computational Discovery of High-performance Materials for Organic Photovoltaics by Means of Cheminformatics. Energy & Environmental Science 4 (2011), 4849–4861.
+J. Hachmann; R. Olivares-Amaya; S. Atahan-Evrenk; C. Amador-Bedolla; R.S. Sánchez-Carrera; A. Gold-Parker; L. Vogt; A.M. Brockway; A. Aspuru-Guzik (2011). "The Harvard Clean Energy Project: Large-Scale Computational Screening and Design of Organic Photovoltaics on the World Community Grid" (PDF). The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 2 (17): 2241–2251. doi:10.1021/jz200866s. S2CID 54001464.
+A.N. Sokolov, S. Atahan-Evrenk, R. Mondal, H.B. Akkerman, R.S. Sánchez-Carrera, S. Granados-Focil, J. Schrier, S.C.B. Mannsfeld, A.P. Zoombelt, Z. Bao, A. Aspuru-Guzik, From Computational Discovery to Experimental Characterization of a High Hole Mobility Organic Crystal. Nature Communications 2 (2011), 437.
+R.S. Sánchez-Carrera; S. Atahan; J. Schrier; A. Aspuru-Guzik (2010). "Theoretical Characterization of the Air-Stable, High-Mobility Dinaphtho[2,3- b :2′3′- f ]thieno[3,2- b ]-thiophene Organic Semiconductor". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 114 (5): 2334–2340. doi:10.1021/jp910102f. S2CID 35899420.
+R.S. Sánchez-Carrera; M.C. Ruiz Delgado; C. Capel Ferrón; R. Malavé Osuna; V. Hernández; J.T. López Navarrete; A. Aspuru-Guzik (October 2010). "Optical absorption and emission properties of end-capped oligothienoacenes: A joint theoretical and experimental study". Organic Electronics. 11 (10): 1701–1712. doi:10.1016/j.orgel.2010.07.001. S2CID 21724802.
+
+
+== See also ==
+BOINC
+List of volunteer computing projects
+World Community Grid
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Clean Energy Project at the World Community Grid
+Clean Energy Project Website Archived 2020-11-07 at the Wayback Machine
+Clean Energy Project Database

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-0.md

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+---
+title: "Climateprediction.net"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:34.423623+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+climateprediction.net (CPDN) is a volunteer computing project to investigate and reduce uncertainties in climate modelling. It aims to do this by running hundreds of thousands of different models (a large climate ensemble) using the donated idle time of ordinary personal computers, thereby leading to a better understanding of how models are affected by small changes in the many parameters known to influence the global climate.
+The project relies on the BOINC framework where voluntary participants agree to run some processes of the project at the client-side in their personal computers after receiving tasks from the server-side for treatment.
+CPDN, which is run primarily by Oxford University in England, has harnessed more computing power and generated more data than any other climate modelling project. It has produced over 100 million model years of data so far. As of June 2016, there are more than 12,000 active participants from 223 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 27 billion, reporting about 55 teraflops (55 trillion operations per second) of processing power.
+
+== Aims ==
+
+The aim of the climateprediction.net project is to investigate the uncertainties in various parameterizations that have to be made in state-of-the-art climate models. The model is run thousands of times with slight perturbations to various physics parameters (a 'large ensemble') and the project examines how the model output changes. These parameters are not known exactly, and the variations are within what is subjectively considered to be a plausible range. This will allow the project to improve understanding of how sensitive the models are to small changes and also to things like changes in carbon dioxide and sulphur cycle. In the past, estimates of climate change have had to be made using one or, at best, a very small ensemble (tens rather than thousands) of model runs. By using participants' computers, the project will be able to improve understanding of, and confidence in, climate change predictions more than would ever be possible using the supercomputers currently available to scientists.
+The climateprediction.net experiment is intended to help "improve methods to quantify uncertainties of climate projections and scenarios, including long-term ensemble simulations using complex models", identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2001 as a high priority. Hopefully, the experiment will give decision makers a better scientific basis for addressing one of the biggest potential global problems of the 21st century.
+As shown in the graph above, the various models have a fairly wide distribution of results over time. For each curve, on the far right, there is a bar showing the final temperature range for the corresponding model version. The further into the future the model is extended, the wider the variances between them. Roughly half of the variation depends on the future climate forcing scenario rather than uncertainties in the model. Any reduction in those variations, whether from better scenarios or improvements in the models, are wanted. climateprediction.net is working on model uncertainties, not the scenarios.
+Currently, scientists can run models and see that x% of the models warm y degrees in response to z climate forcings, but are uncertain as to whether x% is a good representation of the probability of that happening in the real world. Some models will be good and some poor at producing past climate when given past climate forcings and initial conditions (a hindcast). It does make sense to trust the models that do well at recreating the past more than those that do poorly. Therefore, models that do poorly will be down weighted.
+
+== The experiments ==
+
+The different models that climateprediction.net has and will distribute are detailed below in chronological order. Therefore, anyone who has joined recently is likely to be running the transient coupled model.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-1.md

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+---
+title: "Climateprediction.net"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:34.423623+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Classic Slab Model - The original experiment not under BOINC. See #The original model for further details. This model remains in use solely for the OU short course.
+BOINC Slab Model - The same as the classic Slab Model, but released under BOINC.
+ThermoHaline Circulation (THC) Model - An investigation of how the climate might change in the event of a decrease in the strength of the ThermoHaline Circulation. This experiment has now been closed to new participants as they have sufficient results. It was a four phase model totaling 60 model years. The first three phases were identical to the above Slab Models. The fourth phase imposed the effects of a 50% slowdown in the Thermohaline circulation by imposing SST changes in the north Atlantic derived from other runs.
+Sulfur Cycle Model - An investigation of the effect of sulfate aerosols on the climate. The experiment will model sulfur in a number of compound forms including dimethyl sulfide and sulfate aerosols. This experiment started in August 2005 and was a pre-requirement for the Hindcast. It is a 5 phase model totalling 75 model years. Timesteps are around 70% longer, making the model around 2.8 times longer than the initial slab model. While a few models are still tricking, model have not been issued since 2006.
+Coupled Spin-Up Model - Inclusion of oceanic influences into the basic model in a more dynamic and realistic way than the initial Slab Model. This was a pre-requirement for the Hindcast. This has been completed and, as planned, was not publicly released. The fastest 200 - 500 computers were invited to join because it is a 200-year model and results were needed by February 2006 for the transient coupled model launch.
+Transient coupled Model - This comprises an 80-year Hindcast and an 80-year forecast. The Hindcast is to test how well the models perform at recreating the climate of 1920 to 2000. It was launched February 2006 under BBC Climate Change Experiment branding and later also released from the CPDN site.
+Seasonal Attribution Project - This is a high resolution model for a single model year to look at extreme precipitation events. This experiment is much shorter due to its single model year, but there are 13.5 times as many cells and timesteps are only 10 minutes instead of 30 minutes. This extra resolution means it requires at least 1.5 gigabytes of RAM. It uses the HadAM3-N144 climate model.
+
+== History ==
+Myles Allen first thought about the need for large climate ensembles in 1997, but was only introduced to the success of SETI@home in 1999. The first funding proposal in April 1999 was rejected as utterly unrealistic.
+Following a presentation at the World Climate Conference in Hamburg in September 1999 and a commentary in Nature in October 1999, thousands signed up to this supposedly imminently available program. The dot-com bubble bursting did not help and the project realised they would have to do most of the programming themselves rather than outsourcing.
+It was launched September 12, 2003, and on September 13, 2003, the project exceeded the capacity of the Earth Simulator to become the world's largest climate modelling facility.
+The 2003 launch only offered a Windows "classic" client. On 26 August 2004 a BOINC client was launched which supported Windows, Linux and Mac OS X clients. "Classic" will continue to be available for a number of years in support of the Open University course. BOINC has stopped distributing classic models in favour of sulfur cycle models. A more user friendly BOINC client and website called GridRepublic, which supports climateprediction.net and other BOINC projects, was released in beta in 2006.
+A thermohaline circulation slowdown experiment was launched in May 2004 under the classic framework to coincide with the film The Day After Tomorrow. This program can still be run but is no longer downloadable. The scientific analysis has been written up in Nick Faull's thesis. A paper about the thesis is still to be completed. There is no further planned research with this model.
+A sulfur cycle model was launched in August 2005. They took longer to complete than the original models as a result of having five phases instead of three. Each timestep was also more complicated.
+By November 2005, the number of completed results totalled 45,914 classic models, 3,455 thermohaline models, 85,685 BOINC models and 352 sulfur cycle models. This represented over 6 million model years processed.
+In February 2006, the project moved on to more realistic climate models. The BBC Climate Change Experiment was launched, attracting around 23,000 participants on the first day. The transient climate simulation introduced realistic oceans. This allowed the experiment to investigate changes in the climate response as the climate forcings are changed, rather than an equilibrium response to a significant change like doubling the carbon dioxide level. Therefore, the experiment has now moved on to doing a hindcast of 1920 to 2000 as well as a forecast of 2000 to 2080. This model takes much longer.
+The BBC gave the project publicity with over 120,000 participating computers in the first three weeks.
+In March 2006, a high resolution model was released as another project, the Seasonal Attribution Project.
+In April 2006, the coupled models were found to have a data input problem. The work was useful for a different purpose than advertised. New models had to be handed out.
+
+== Results to date ==
+The first results of the experiment were published in Nature in January 2005, showing that with only slight changes to the parameters within plausible ranges, the models can show climate sensitivities from less than 2 °C to more than 11 °C. The higher climate sensitivities have been challenged as implausible. For example, by Gavin Schmidt (a climate modeler with the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-2.md

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+---
+title: "Climateprediction.net"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:34.423623+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Explanation ===
+Climate sensitivity is defined as the equilibrium response of global mean temperature to doubling levels of carbon dioxide. As of June 2025, current levels of carbon dioxide are 426 ppm and grew by 3.72ppm in the last year, compared with preindustrial levels of 280 ppm. 
+Climate sensitivities of greater than 5 °C are widely accepted as being catastrophic. The possibility of such high sensitivities being plausible given observations had been reported prior to the climateprediction.net experiment but "this is the first time GCMs have produced such behaviour".
+Even the models with very high climate sensitivity were found to be "as realistic as other state-of-the-art climate models". The test of realism was done with a root mean square error test. This does not check on realism of seasonal changes and it is possible that more diagnostic measures may place stronger constraints on what is realistic. Improved realism tests are being developed.
+It is important to the experiment and the goal of obtaining a probability distribution function (pdf) of climate outcomes to get a very wide range of behaviours even if only to rule out some behaviours as unrealistic. Larger sets of simulations have more reliable pdfs. Therefore, models with climate sensitivities as high as 11 °C are included despite their limited accuracy. The sulfur cycle experiment is likely to extend the range downwards.
+
+=== Piani et al. (2005) ===
+Published in Geophysical Review Letters, this paper concludes:When an internally consistent representation of the origins of model-data discrepancy is used to calculate the probability density function of climate sensitivity, the 5th and 95th percentiles are 2.2 K and 6.8 K respectively. These results are sensitive, particularly the upper bound, to the representation of the origins of model data discrepancy.
+
+== Use in education ==
+There is an Open University short course and teaching material available for schools to teach subjects relating to climate and climate modelling. There is also teaching material available for use in Key Stage 3/4 Science, A level Physics (Advanced Physics), Key Stage 3/4 Mathematics, Key Stage 3/4 Geography, 21st Century Science, Science for Public Understanding, Use of Mathematics, Primary.
+
+== The original model ==
+The original experiment is run with HadSM3, which is the HadAM3 atmosphere from the HadCM3 model but with only a "slab" ocean rather than a full dynamic ocean. This is faster (and requires less memory) than the full model, but lacks dynamical feedbacks from the ocean, which are incorporated into the full coupled-ocean-atmosphere models used to make projections of climate change out to 2100.
+Each downloaded model comes with a slight variation in the various model parameters.
+In the initial "calibration phase" of 15 model years, the model calculates the "flux correction"; extra ocean-atmosphere fluxes that are needed to keep the model ocean in balance (the model ocean does not include currents; these fluxes to some extent replace the heat that would be transported by the missing currents).
+In the "control phase" of 15 years, the ocean temperatures are allowed to vary. The flux correction ought to keep the model stable, but feedbacks developed in some of the runs. There is a quality control check, based on the annual mean temperatures, and models which fail this check are discarded.
+In the "double CO2 phase", the CO2 content is instantaneously doubled and the model run for a further 15 years, which in some cases is not quite sufficient model time to settle down to a new (warmer) equilibrium. In this phase some models which produced physically unrealistic results were again discarded.
+The quality control checks in the control and 2*CO2 phases were quite weak: they suffice to exclude obviously unphysical models but do not include (for example) a test of the simulation of the seasonal cycle; hence some of the models passed may still be unrealistic. Further quality control measures are being developed.
+The temperature in the doubled CO2 phase is exponentially extrapolated to work out the equilibrium temperature. Difference in temperature between this and the control phase then gives a measure of the climate sensitivity of that particular version of the model.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-3.md

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+---
+title: "Climateprediction.net"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:34.423623+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Visualisations ==
+Many volunteer computing projects have screensavers to visually indicate the activity of the application, but they do not usually show its results as they are being calculated. By contrast, climateprediction.net not only uses a built-in visualisation to show the climate of the world being modelled, but it is interactive which allows different aspects of climate (temperature, rainfall, etc.) to be displayed. In addition, there are other, more advanced visualisation programs that allow the user to see more of what the model is doing (usually by analysing previously generated results) and to compare different runs and models.
+The real-time desktop visualisation for the model launched in 2003 was developed by Jeremy Walton at NAG, enabling users to track the progress of their simulation as the cloud cover and temperature changes over the surface of the globe. Other, more advanced visualisation programs in use include CPView and IDL Advanced Visualisation. They have similar functionality. CPView was written by Martin Sykes, a participant in the experiment. The IDL Advanced Visualisation was written by Andy Heaps of the University of Reading (UK), and modified to work with the BOINC version by Tesella Support Services plc.
+Only CPView allows you to look at unusual diagnostics, rather than the usual Temperature, Pressure, Rainfall, Snow, and Clouds. Up to 5 sets of data can be displayed on a map. It also has a wider range of functions like Max, Min, further memory functions, and other features.
+The Advanced Visualisation has functions for graphs of local areas and over 1 day, 2 days, and 7 days, as well as the more usual graphs of season and annual averages (which both packages do). There are also Latitude - Height plots and Time - Height plots.
+The download size is much smaller for CPView and CPView works with Windows 98.
+As of December 2008 there is no visualisation tool that works with the newer CPDN models. Neither CPView nor Advanced Visualisation have been updated to display data gathered from those models. So users can only visualize the data through the screensaver.
+
+== BBC Climate Change Experiment ==
+The BBC Climate Change Experiment was a BOINC project led by Oxford University with several partners including the UK Met Office, the BBC, the Open University and Reading University. It is the transient coupled model of the climateprediction.net project.
+Many participants joined the project with over 120,000 people signing up in teams.
+Results continued to be collected for some time with the follow-up television program being aired in January 2007. On 8 March 2009, climateprediction.net officially declared that BBC Climate Change Experiment was finished, before shutting down the project.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md

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+---
+title: "Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:30.191049+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder.
+Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series.
+
+
+== Classification ==
+The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications.
+
+
+=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder ===
+
+
+== Relevant scattering codes ==
+Discrete dipole approximation codes
+Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
+
+
+== See also ==
+Computational electromagnetics
+List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md

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+---
+title: "Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:31.401878+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres  - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres.
+
+
+== Solution techniques ==
+Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks.
+
+
+== Classification ==
+The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications.
+
+
+=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere ===
+
+
+=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere ===
+Algorithmic literature includes several contributions
+
+
+=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres ===
+
+
+== Relevant scattering codes ==
+Discrete dipole approximation codes
+Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
+
+
+== See also ==
+Computational electromagnetics
+Light scattering by particles
+List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes
+Optical properties of water and ice
+Mie theory
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Committee on the Public Understanding of Science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:35.593448+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Committee on the Public Understanding of Science or Copus was founded in 1985 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS), the Royal Institution and the Royal Society. Copus came about as a result of the 'Bodmer Report' by the eminent geneticist Walter Bodmer. The aim of Copus was to interpret scientific advances and make them more accessible to non-scientists.
+It played a part in developing the public understanding of science it establishing standards for communicating science and technology
+The Copus Grant Schemes was set up in 1987 and the last round of grants was for 2003/4. The scheme was funded by the Office of Science and Technology and the Royal Society. 25 grants worth a total of over £750,000 were awarded in 2003/2004.
+In 2000 The new Copus Council was formed to be a more inclusive partnership for science communication in the UK. In 2002 following a report commissioned by the Office of Science and Technology the Copus Council was discontinued.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md

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+---
+title: "Conversazione"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:36.794837+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A conversazione is a "social gathering [predominantly] held by [a] learned or art society" for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature, medicine, and science.
+
+It would not be easy to devise a happier way [than the conversazione] of bringing novelties at once under practical criticism—of making the outliers of science acquainted with the centre, of enabling investigators to compare operations and discuss facts and speculations, and of giving occasion for renewal of intercourse and removal of misunderstandings. …[The] tangible gain to science [from the conversazione is that] inventors and experimentalists … hear [directly] what contemporaries say of their schemes and experiments, and much can be said and done with advantage amid the free talk of a general gathering which could not be permitted in the formal meeting of a scientific society. (Nature, 5 May 1870.)
+
+
+== Origin ==
+The writer Horace Walpole is credited with the first recorded English use of conversazione in a letter written (from Italy) on 11 November 1739 to Richard West (1716–1742) in which he writes, "After the play we were introduced to the assembly, which they [viz., the Italians] call the conversazione".
+
+
+== Historical usage in Britain ==
+
+In Italy, the term generally refers to a gathering for conversation; and was first used in English to identify the sort of private social gathering more generally known today as an "At Home".
+In England, however, it soon came to be far more widely used to denote the gatherings of a far more intellectual character and was applied in the more specific sense of a scientific, artistic, or literary assembly/soirée, generally held at night.
+
+A conversazione like everything else has undergone conspicuous development in these days.Formerly the word was applicable only to a meeting of cognoscenti, who were themselves proficient in some art or science which might be the immediate subject of learned interest.At the present time the materials for discussion are supplied by the proficients, and the general public are invited to provide the talk or the criticism.Moreover a "conversation" of this kind is not limited to a specific subject, but may comprise topics incidental to any branch of science and art whatever. (New Zealand Herald, 17 September 1880.)
+In its report on the first conversazione ever conducted by the Lambeth Literary Institution (on 22 June 1836), The Gentleman's Magazine noted that,
+
+the principal object [of the Lambeth Literary Institution's inaugural conversazione] has been—by the collection of articles of virtù, antiquity, science, or art, and by the reading of original papers, conversation, and music,— to unite its members, at stated periods, into one focus of neighbourly community; where all may be on a footing of social equality,—the aristocracy of mind, united with urbanity of manners, alone maintaining its ascendancy here; where the high attainments of the classical scholar,—the lofty imaginings of the poet,—the deep researches of the man of science,—and the sturdy intelligence of the skilful artizan [sic], may all be amalgamated under one roof; and the rough energies of manly intellect be thus softened and refined by the amenities of the social circle.
+
+
+== Knowledge dissemination ==
+According to Yeates (2018):
+
+In Victorian England, the conversazione was one of the most important educational, cultural, and recreational means through which scientific knowledge was disseminated and explanations of technical innovation were delivered to the general public.Conducted by individuals, institutions, or learned bodies, a (usually mixed amateur/expert, male/female) audience was enlightened by explanations, two-way interactions with participants, experiments, demonstrations, hands-on displays of equipment, and/or the exhibition of specimens (see Alberti, 2003; and Plunkett & Sullivan, 2012).The conversazione’s lectures/explanations delivered knowledge by description, and its experiments, demonstrations, hands-on displays of equipment, and exhibition of specimens delivered knowledge by acquaintance (with the concomitant psychological ownership of the knowledge so-acquired).
+
+
+== Other uses ==
+
+
+=== University of Cambridge ===
+The intellectual society at Cambridge University known as the Apostles was founded in 1820 as the  Conversazione Society by George Tomlinson.
+The Cambridge University Natural History Society continues to call its annual public exhibition a Conversazione.
+
+
+=== Conversazione.org ===
+The arts-orientated social media website Conversazione.org takes its name from the English meaning.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Le Conversazioni – an anglophone literary festival held on the island of Capri, Italy
+Public awareness of science
+Science communication
+The Cambridge Apostles also known as the Cambridge Conversazione Society
+Sacra conversazione – (holy or sacred conversation), a genre developed in Italian Renaissance painting, with a depiction of the Virgin and Child amidst a group of saints
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Alberti, Samuel J.M.M. (2003), "Conversaziones and the Experience of Science in Victorian England". Journal of Victorian Culture 8.2): 208-30. doi:10.3366/jvc.2003.8.2.208
+de Clerq, Peter (2003), "Scientific instruments displayed at the Royal Society conversazioni or soirées in the nineteenth century", in Marco Beretta, Paolo Galluzzi and Carlo Triarico (eds.), Musa Musaei: Studies on Scientific Instruments and Collections in Honour of Mara Miniati, (Florence), Biblioteca di Nuncius Studi e Testi XLIX, pp.395–405.
+Hartrick, Elizabeth (2008), "'Curiosities and rare scientific instruments': Colonial conversazioni in Australia and New Zealand in the 1870s and 1880s", pp.11.1–11.19 in Seize the Day: Exhibitions, Australia and the World, edited by Kate Darian-Smith, Richard Gillespie, Caroline Jordan, and Elizabeth Willis, Elizabeth, Monash University ePress, (Melbourne).
+Plunkett, J., & Sullivan, J.A. (2012), "Fetes, Bazaars and Conversaziones: Science, Entertainment and Local Civic Elites", in J. Kember, J. Plunkett, and J.A. Sullivan (eds.), Popular Exhibitions, Science and Showmanship, 1840-1910, (pp.41–60). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
+Wood, Jane (2006), "A Culture of Improvement: Knowledge, Aesthetic Consciousness, and the Conversazione", Nineteenth Century Studies, Vol.20, pp.79-97.
+Yeates, Lindsay B., "James Braid (II): Mesmerism, Braid’s Crucial Experiment, and Braid’s Discovery of Neuro-Hypnotism", Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis, Vol.40, No.1, (Autumn 2018), pp.40-92.
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Martz, Teal (8 March 2013). "The repository: Women of the conversazioni". blogs.royalsociety.org. Royal Society. Retrieved 9 July 2020.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+---
+title: "Cosmology@Home"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:37.940540+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Cosmology@Home was a volunteer computing project that used the BOINC platform and was formerly run at the Departments of Astronomy and Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The project has moved to the Institut Lagrange de Paris and the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris, both of which are located in the Pierre and Marie Curie University. 
+
+
+== Goals ==
+The goal of Cosmology@Home is to compare theoretical models of the universe to the data measured to date and search for the model that best matches it. Other goals may include:
+
+results from Cosmology@Home can help design future cosmological observations and experiments.
+results from Cosmology@Home can help prepare for the analysis of future data sets, e.g. from the Planck spacecraft.
+
+
+== Science ==
+The goal of Cosmology@Home is to search for the model that best describes our Universe and to find the range of models that agree with the available astronomical and particle physics data. The models generated by Cosmology@Home can be compared to measurements of the universe's expansion speed from the Hubble Space Telescope as well as fluctuations in the Cosmic microwave background as measured by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe.
+
+
+== Method ==
+Cosmology@Home uses an innovative way of using machine learning to effectively parallelize a large computational task that involves many inherently sequential calculations over a substantial number of distributed computers.
+For any given class of theoretically possible models of the Universe, Cosmology@Home generates tens of thousands of example Universes and packages the cosmological parameters describing these Universes as work units. Each work unit represents a single Universe. When the work unit is requested by a participating computer, this computer simulates this Universe from the Big Bang until today. The result of this simulation is a list of observable properties of this Universe.
+This result is then sent back and archived at the Cosmology@Home server. When a sufficient number of example Universes have been simulated, a machine learning algorithm called Pico, which was developed by the project scientists of Cosmology@Home for this purpose, learns from these example calculations how to do the simulation for any Universe similar to the example Universes. The difference is that Pico takes a few milliseconds per calculation rather than several hours. Training Pico on 20,000 examples takes about 30 minutes. Once Pico is trained, it can run a full comparison of the class of models (which involves hundreds of thousands of model calculations) with the observational data in a few hours on a standard CPU.
+The Cosmology@Home application is proprietary.
+
+
+== Milestones ==
+2007-06-30 Project launches for closed alpha testing - invitation only.
+2007-08-23 Project opens registration for public alpha testing.
+2007-11-05 Project enters beta testing stage.
+2016-12-15 Project moved to the Institut Lagrange de Paris and the Institut d'astrophysique de Paris, both of which are located at the Pierre and Marie Curie University.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of volunteer computing projects
+Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+---
+title: "Denialism"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:39.073957+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the sciences and in historiography, denialism is the rejection of basic facts and concepts that are undisputed, well-supported parts of the scientific consensus or historical record on a subject, in favor of ideas that are radical, controversial, or fabricated. Examples include Holocaust denial, AIDS denialism, and climate change denial. The forms of denialism present the common feature of the person rejecting overwhelming evidence and trying to generate political controversy in attempts to deny the existence of consensus.
+In psychology, denialism is a person's choice to deny reality as a way to avoid believing in an uncomfortable truth. Denialism is an essentially irrational human behavior that withholds the validation of a historical experience or event when a person refuses to accept an empirically verifiable reality.
+The motivations and causes of denialism include religion, self-interest (economic, political, or financial), and defence mechanisms meant to protect the psyche of the denialist against mentally disturbing facts and ideas; such disturbance is called cognitive dissonance.
+
+== Definition and tactics ==
+Anthropologist Didier Fassin distinguishes between denial, defined as "the empirical observation that reality and truth are being denied", and denialism, which he defines as "an ideological position whereby one systematically reacts by refusing reality and truth". Persons and social groups who reject propositions on which there exists a mainstream and scientific consensus engage in denialism when they use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of argument and legitimate debate, when there is none. It is a process that operates by employing one or more of the following five tactics to maintain the appearance of legitimate controversy:
+
+Conspiracy theories – Dismissing the data or observation by suggesting opponents are involved in "a conspiracy to suppress the truth".
+Cherry picking – Selecting an anomalous critical paper supporting their idea, or using outdated, flawed, and discredited papers to make their opponents look as though they base their ideas on weak research. Diethelm and McKee (2009) note, "Denialists are usually not deterred by the extreme isolation of their theories, but rather see it as an indication of their intellectual courage against the dominant orthodoxy and the accompanying political correctness."
+False experts – Paying an expert in the field, or another field, to lend supporting evidence or credibility. This goes hand-in-hand with the marginalization of real experts and researchers.
+Moving the goalposts – Dismissing evidence presented in response to a specific claim by continually demanding some other (often unfulfillable) piece of evidence (aka Shifting baseline)
+Other logical fallacies – Usually one or more of false analogy, appeal to consequences, straw man, or red herring.
+Common tactics to different types of denialism include misrepresenting evidence, false equivalence, half-truths, and outright fabrication. South African judge Edwin Cameron notes that a common tactic used by denialists is to "make great play of the inescapable indeterminacy of figures and statistics". Historian Taner Akçam states that denialism is commonly believed to be negation of facts, but in fact "it is in that nebulous territory between facts and truth where such denialism germinates. Denialism marshals its own facts and it has its own truth."
+Focusing on the rhetorical tactics through which denialism is achieved in language, in Alex Gillespie (2020) of the London School of Economics has reviewed the linguistic and practical defensive tactics for denying disruptive information. These tactics are conceptualized in terms of three layers of defence:
+
+Avoiding – The first line of defence against disruptive information is to avoid it.
+Delegitimizing – The second line of defence is to attack the messenger, by undermining the credibility of the source.
+Limiting – The final line of defence, if disruptive information cannot be avoided or delegitimized, is to rationalize and limit the impact of the disruptive ideas.
+In 2009, author Michael Specter defined group denialism as "when an entire segment of society, often struggling with the trauma of change, turns away from reality in favor of a more comfortable lie".
+
+== Prescriptive and polemic perspectives ==
+If one party to a debate accuses the other of denialism they are framing the debate. This is because an accusation of denialism is both prescriptive and polemic: prescriptive because it carries implications that there is truth to the denied claim; polemic since the accuser implies that continued denial in the light of presented evidence raises questions about the other's motives. Edward Skidelsky, a lecturer in philosophy at Exeter University writes that "An accusation of 'denial' is serious, suggesting either deliberate dishonesty or self-deception. The thing being denied is, by implication, so obviously true that the denier must be driven by perversity, malice or wilful blindness." He suggests that, by the introduction of the word denier into further areas of historical and scientific debate, "One of the great achievements of The Enlightenment – the liberation of historical and scientific enquiry from dogma – is quietly being reversed".
+Some people have suggested that because denial of the Holocaust is well known, advocates who use the term denialist in other areas of debate may intentionally or unintentionally imply that their opponents are little better than Holocaust deniers. However, Robert Gallo et al. defended this latter comparison, stating that AIDS denialism is similar to Holocaust denial since it is a form of pseudoscience that "contradicts an immense body of research".
+
+== Politics and science ==
+
+=== Climate change ===
+
+=== HIV/AIDS ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-1.md

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+---
+title: "Denialism"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:39.073957+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+AIDS denialism is the denial that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the cause of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS denialism has been described as being "among the most vocal anti-science denial movements". Some denialists reject the existence of HIV, while others accept that the virus exists but say that it is a harmless passenger virus and not the cause of AIDS. Insofar as denialists acknowledge AIDS as a real disease, they attribute it to some combination of recreational drug use, malnutrition, poor sanitation, and side effects of antiretroviral medication, rather than infection with HIV. However, the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive and the scientific community rejects and ignores AIDS-denialist claims as based on faulty reasoning, cherry picking, and misrepresentation of mainly outdated scientific data. With the rejection of these arguments by the scientific community, AIDS-denialist material is now spread mainly through the Internet.
+Thabo Mbeki, former president of South Africa, embraced AIDS denialism, proclaiming that AIDS was primarily caused by poverty. About 365,000 people died from AIDS during his presidency; it is estimated that around 343,000 premature deaths could have been prevented if proper treatment had been available.
+
+=== COVID-19 ===
+
+The term "COVID-19 denialism" or merely "COVID denialism" refers to the thinking of those who deny the reality of the COVID-19 pandemic, at least to the extent of denying the scientifically recognized COVID mortality data of the World Health Organization. The claims that the COVID-19 pandemic has been faked, exaggerated, or mischaracterized are pseudoscience. Some famous people who have engaged in COVID-19 denialism include Elon Musk, U.S. President Donald Trump, and former Brazilian President Bolsonaro.
+
+=== Evolution ===
+
+Religious beliefs may prompt an individual to deny the validity of the scientific theory of evolution. Evolution is considered an undisputed fact within the scientific community and in academia, where the level of support for evolution is essentially universal, yet this view is often met with opposition by biblical literalists. The alternative view is often presented as a literal interpretation of the Book of Genesis's creation myth. Many fundamentalist Christians teach creationism as if it were fact under the banners of creation science and intelligent design. Beliefs that typically coincide with creationism include the belief in the global flood myth, geocentrism, and the belief that the Earth is only 6,000–10,000 years old. These beliefs are viewed as pseudoscience in the scientific community and are widely regarded as erroneous.
+
+=== Flat Earth ===
+
+The superseded belief that the Earth is flat, and denial of all of the overwhelming evidence that supports an approximately spherical Earth that rotates around its axis and orbits the Sun, persists into the 21st century. Modern proponents of flat-Earth cosmology (or flat-Earthers) refuse to accept any kind of contrary evidence, dismissing all spaceflights and images from space as hoaxes and accusing all organizations and even private citizens of conspiring to "hide the truth". They also claim that no actual satellites are orbiting the Earth, that the International Space Station is fake, and that these are lies from all governments involved in this grand cover-up. Some even believe other planets and stars are hoaxes.
+Adherents of the modern flat-earth model propose that a dome-shaped firmament encloses a disk-shaped Earth. They may also claim, after Samuel Rowbotham, that the Sun is only 3,000 miles (4,800 km) above the Earth and that the Moon and the Sun orbit above the Earth rather than around it. Modern flat-earthers believe that Antarctica is not a continent but a massive ice floe, with a wall 150 feet (46 m) or higher, which circles the perimeter of the Earth and keeps everything (including all the oceans' water) from falling off the edge.
+Flat-Earthers also assert that no one is allowed to fly over or explore Antarctica, despite contrary evidence. According to them, all photos and videos of ships sinking under the horizon and of the bottoms of city skylines and clouds below the horizon, revealing the curvature of the Earth, have been manipulated, computer-generated, or somehow faked. Therefore, regardless of any scientific or empirical evidence provided, flat-Earthers conclude that it is fabricated or altered in some way.
+When linked to other observed phenomena such as gravity, sunsets, tides, eclipses, distances and other measurements that challenge the flat earth model, claimants replace commonly accepted explanations with piecemeal models that distort or over-simplify how perspective, mass, buoyancy, light or other physical systems work. These piecemeal replacements rarely conform with each other, finally leaving many flat-Earth claimants to agree that such phenomena remain "mysteries" and more investigation is to be done. In this conclusion, adherents remain open to all explanations except the commonly accepted globular Earth model, shifting the debate from ignorance to denialism.
+
+=== Genetically modified foods ===
+
+There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from genetically modified crops (GM) poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.
+Psychological analyses indicate that over 70% of GM food opponents in the US are "absolute" in their opposition, experience disgust at the thought of eating GM foods, and are "evidence insensitive".
+
+=== Statins ===
+Statin denialism is a rejection of the medical worth of statins, a class of cholesterol-lowering drugs. Cardiologist Steven Nissen at Cleveland Clinic has commented "We are losing the battle for the hearts and minds of our patients to Web sites..." promoting unproven medical therapies. Harriet Hall sees a spectrum of statin denialism ranging from pseudoscientific claims to the understatement of benefits and overstatement of side effects, all of which is contrary to the scientific evidence.
+
+=== Mental illness denial ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-2.md

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+---
+title: "Denialism"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:39.073957+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mental illness denial or mental disorder denial is where a person denies the existence of mental disorders. Serious analysts, as well as pseudoscientific movements, question the existence of certain disorders. A minority of professional researchers see disorders such as depression from a sociocultural perspective and argue that the solution to it is fixing a dysfunction in society, not in the person's brain. Some people may also deny that they have a mental illness after being diagnosed, and certain analysts argue this denialism is usually fueled by narcissistic injury. Anti-psychiatry movements such as Scientology promote mental illness denial by having alternative practices to psychiatry.
+
+=== Election denial ===
+
+Election denial is baseless rejection of the outcome of a fair election. Since the 2020 United States presidential election, there has been an ongoing narrative asserting that it was fraudulent. Similar events have occurred in different countries: Brazil in 2022 when former president Jair Bolsonaro after his defeat in the 2022 Brazilian general election, questioning the accuracy of the country's electronic voting system. In the 2021 Peruvian general election, presidential candidate Keiko Fujimori alleged fraud and irregularities in the voting count which were disproved by election authorities and international observers.
+
+== Historiography ==
+
+Historical negationism, the denialism of widely accepted historical facts, is a major source of concern among historians and it is frequently used to falsify or distort accepted historical events. In attempting to revise the past, negationists are distinguished by the use of techniques inadmissible in proper historical discourse, such as presenting known forged documents as genuine, inventing ingenious but implausible reasons for distrusting genuine documents, attributing conclusions to books and sources that report the opposite, manipulating statistical series to support the given point of view, and deliberately mistranslating texts.
+Some countries, such as Germany, have criminalized the negationist revision of certain historical events, while other countries take a more cautious position for various reasons, such as the protection of free speech. Others mandate negationist views, such as California, where schoolchildren have been explicitly prevented from learning about the California genocide.
+
+=== Armenian genocide denialism ===
+
+=== Holocaust denialism ===
+
+Holocaust denial refers to the denial of the murder of 5 to 6 million Jews by the Nazis in Europe during World War 2. In this context, the term is a subset of genocide denial, which is a form of politically motivated denialism.
+
+=== Nakba denialism ===
+
+Nakba denial refers to attempts to downgrade, deny and misdescribe the ethnic cleansing of Palestinians during the Nakba, in which four-fifths of all Palestinians were driven off their lands and into exile.
+
+=== Srebrenica massacre denialism ===
+
+Sonja Biserko, president of the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia, and Edina Bečirević, the Faculty of Criminalistics, Criminology and Security Studies of the University of Sarajevo have pointed to a culture of denial of the Srebrenica massacre in Serbian society, taking many forms and present in particular in political discourse, the media, the law and the educational system.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Works cited ===
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+=== Articles ===
+Holtcamp, W. (2012). "Flavors of uncertainty: The difference between denial and debate". Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (8): a314–a319. doi:10.1289/ehp.120-a314 (inactive January 6, 2026). PMC 3440096. PMID 22854265.{{cite journal}}:  CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2026 (link)
+Kahn-Harris, Keith (August 3, 2018). "Denialism: what drives people to reject the truth". The Guardian.
+Oreskes, Naomi, "History Matters to Science: It helps to explain how cynical actors undermine the truth", Scientific American, vol. 323, no. 6 (December 2020), p. 81. "In our 2010 book, Merchants of Doubt, Erik M. Conway and I showed how the same arguments [as those used to cast doubt on the link between tobacco use and lung cancer] were used to delay action on acid rain, the ozone hole and climate change – and this year [2020] we saw the spurious "freedom" argument being used to disparage mask wearing [during the COVID-19 pandemic]."
+Rees, M. (2013). "Denial of catastrophic risks". Science. 339 (6124): 1123. Bibcode:2013Sci...339.1123R. doi:10.1126/science.1236756. PMID 23471373.
+Rosenau, J. (2012). "Science denial: A guide for scientists". Trends in Microbiology. 20 (12): 567–569. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2012.10.002. PMID 23164600.
+Sharot, T.; Korn, C.W.; Dolan, R.J. (2011). "How unrealistic optimism is maintained in the face of reality". Nature Neuroscience. 14 (11): 1475–1479. doi:10.1038/nn.2949. PMC 3204264. PMID 21983684.
+
+=== Books ===
+Gorman, Sara E.; Gorman, Jack M. (2016). Denying to the Grave: Why We Ignore the Facts That Will Save Us. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-939660-3.
+McIntyre, Lee (2019). The Scientific Attitude: Defending Science from Denial, Fraud and Pseudoscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 149–166. ISBN 978-0-262-53893-0.
+Norgaard, Kari Marie (2011). Living In Denial: Climate Change, Emotions, and Everyday Life. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51585-6.
+Specter, Michael (2009). Denialism: How Irrational Thinking Hinders Scientific Progress, Harms the Planet, and Threatens Our Lives. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-59420-230-8.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Denialism Blog
+"Refusing Flu Shots? Maybe You're A 'Denialist'" National Public Radio

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home-0.md

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+---
+title: "Docking@Home"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:40.330477+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Docking@Home was a volunteer computing project hosted by the University of Delaware and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform.  It models protein-ligand docking using the CHARMM program. Volunteer computing allows an extensive search of protein-ligand docking conformations and selection of near-native ligand conformations are achieved by using ligand based hierarchical clustering. The ultimate aim was the development of new pharmaceutical drugs.
+The project was retired on May 23, 2014.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of volunteer computing projects
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+"Computer Idle? Now You Can Donate Its Time to Find a Cure for Major Diseases". Newswise. June 16, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-27.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website 
+Docking@Home screensaver video on YouTube

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn-0.md

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+---
+title: "EOn"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:42.702583+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+eOn was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, which uses theoretical chemistry techniques to solve problems in condensed matter physics and materials science.  It was a project of the Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences at the University of Texas.
+Traditional molecular dynamics can accurately model events that occur within a fraction of a millisecond.  In order to model events that take place on much longer timescales, Eon combines transition state theory with kinetic Monte Carlo.  The result is a combination of classical mechanics and quantum methods like density functional theory.
+Since the generation of new work units depended on the results of previous units, the project could only give each host a few units at a time.
+On May 26, 2014, it was announced that eOn would be retiring from BOINC.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of volunteer computing projects
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Earth science"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:43.511457+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history.
+
+== Geology ==
+
+Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the Earth's crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time.
+Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands. Resource geology studies how energy resources can be obtained from minerals. Environmental geology studies how pollution and contaminants affect soil and rock. Mineralogy is the study of minerals and includes the study of mineral formation, crystal structure, hazards associated with minerals, and the physical and chemical properties of minerals. Petrology is the study of rocks, including the formation and composition of rocks. Petrography is a branch of petrology that studies the typology and classification of rocks.
+
+== Earth's interior ==
+
+Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth's crust. Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries. Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction.
+Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of seafloor spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere vehemently returns to the convecting mantle. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes.
+
+== Atmospheric science ==
+
+Atmospheric science initially developed in the late-19th century as a means to forecast the weather through meteorology, the study of weather. Atmospheric chemistry was developed in the 20th century to measure air pollution and expanded in the 1970s in response to acid rain. Climatology studies the climate and climate change.
+The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. Seventy-five percent of the mass in the atmosphere is located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon, and small amounts of other gases including CO2 and water vapor. Water vapor and CO2 cause the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through the greenhouse effect. This makes Earth's surface warm enough for liquid water and life. In addition to trapping heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays. The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind. As the Earth is 4.5 billion years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.
+
+== Earth's magnetic field ==
+
+== Hydrology ==
+
+Hydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the movement of water on Earth. It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies. Study of water's movement is closely related to geomorphology and other branches of Earth science. Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies. Subdisciplines of hydrology include oceanography, hydrogeology, ecohydrology, and glaciology. Oceanography is the study of oceans. Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater. It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants. Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and mineral springs and make it available as drinking water. The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC, and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in the 17th century. Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the hydrosphere. It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms. Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecosystems are affected by humans. Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere, including glaciers and coverage of the Earth by ice and snow. Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater, mitigation of glacial hazards, obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land, and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere.
+
+== Ecology ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md

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+---
+title: "Earth science"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:43.511457+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature.
+
+== Physical geography ==
+
+Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment.
+
+== Methodology ==
+Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g., Antarctica or hot spot island chains).
+A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth history to apply knowledge of how the Earth's processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history.
+
+== Earth's spheres ==
+
+In Earth science, it is common to conceptualize the Earth's surface as consisting of several distinct layers, often referred to as spheres: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. This concept of spheres is a useful tool for understanding the Earth's surface and its various processes; these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere.
+The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences:
+
+Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology, and sedimentology.
+Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science. Physical geography is the study of Earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields, as follows: geomorphology, biogeography, environmental geography, palaeogeography, climatology, meteorology, coastal geography, hydrology, ecology, glaciology.
+Geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere. Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Seismologists use geophysics to understand plate tectonic movement, as well as predict seismic activity.
+Geochemistry studies the processes that control the abundance, composition, and distribution of chemical compounds and isotopes in geologic environments. Geochemists use the tools and principles of chemistry to study the Earth's composition, structure, processes, and other physical aspects. Major subdisciplines are aqueous geochemistry, cosmochemistry, isotope geochemistry and biogeochemistry.
+Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere). Major subdivisions in this field of study include edaphology and pedology.
+Ecology covers the interactions between organisms and their environment. This field of study differentiates the study of Earth from other planets in the Solar System, Earth being the only planet teeming with life.
+Hydrology, oceanography and limnology are studies which focus on the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involve all the components of the hydrologic cycle on the Earth and its atmosphere (or hydrosphere). "Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface water hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology, and water chemistry."
+Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).
+Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics.
+
+=== Earth science breakup ===
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Sources ===
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Earth Science Picture of the Day, a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
+Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration.
+Geology Buzz: Earth Science Archived 2021-11-04 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-0.md

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+---
+title: "Einstein@Home"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Einstein@Home is a volunteer computing project that searches for signals from spinning neutron stars in data from gravitational-wave detectors, from large radio telescopes, and from a gamma-ray telescope. Neutron stars are detected by their pulsed radio and gamma-ray emission as radio and/or gamma-ray pulsars. They also might be observable as continuous gravitational wave sources if they are rapidly spinning and non-axisymmetrically deformed. The project was officially launched on 19 February 2005 as part of the American Physical Society's contribution to the World Year of Physics 2005 event.
+Einstein@Home searches data from the LIGO gravitational-wave detectors. The project conducts the most sensitive all-sky searches for continuous gravitational waves. While no such signal has yet been detected, the upper limits set by Einstein@Home analyses provide astrophysical constraints on the galactic population of spinning neutron stars in our Milky Way galaxy.
+Einstein@Home also searches radio telescope data from the Arecibo Observatory, and has in the past analyzed data from Parkes Observatory. On 12 August 2010, the first discovery by Einstein@Home of a previously undetected radio pulsar J2007+2722, found in data from the Arecibo Observatory, was published in Science. This was the first data-based discovery by a volunteer computing project. As of December 2023, Einstein@Home had discovered 55 radio pulsars.
+The project also analyses data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope to discover gamma-ray pulsars. On 26 November 2013, the first Einstein@Home results of the Fermi data analysis was published: the discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in data from Fermi's Large Area Telescope (LAT). As of December 2023, Einstein@Home has discovered 39 previously unknown gamma-ray pulsars in data from the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The Einstein@Home search makes use of novel and more efficient data-analysis methods and discovered pulsars missed in other analyses of the same data.
+The project runs on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform and uses free software released under the GNU General Public License, version 2. Einstein@Home is hosted by the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (Albert Einstein Institute, Hannover, Germany) and the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. The project is supported by the Max Planck Society (MPG), the American Physical Society (APS), and the US National Science Foundation (NSF). The Einstein@Home project director is Bruce Allen.
+Einstein@Home uses the power of volunteer computing in solving the computationally intensive problem of analyzing a large volume of data. Such an approach was pioneered by the SETI@home project, which is designed to look for signs of extraterrestrial life by analyzing radio wave data. Einstein@Home runs through the same software platform as SETI@home, the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC). As of December 2023, more than 492,000 volunteers in 226 countries had participated in the project, making it the third-most-popular active BOINC application. Users regularly contribute about 7.7 petaFLOPS of computational power, which would rank Einstein@Home among the top 105 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers.
+
+== Scientific objectives ==
+The Einstein@Home project was originally created to perform all-sky searches for previously unknown continuous gravitational-wave (CW) sources using data from the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) detector instruments in Washington and Louisiana, USA. The best understood potential CW sources are rapidly spinning neutron stars (including pulsars) which are expected to emit gravitational waves due to a deviation from Rotational symmetry. Besides validating Einstein's theory of General Relativity, direct detection of gravitational waves would also constitute an important new astronomical tool. As most neutron stars are electromagnetically invisible, gravitational-wave observations might also reveal completely new populations of neutron stars. A CW detection could potentially be extremely helpful in neutron-star astrophysics and would eventually provide unique insights into the nature of matter at high densities, because it provides a way of examining the bulk motion of the matter.
+Since March 2009, part of the Einstein@Home computing power has also been used to analyze data taken by the PALFA Consortium at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. This search effort is designed to find radio pulsars in tight binary systems. It is expected that there is one radio pulsar detectable from Earth in an orbital system with a period of less than one hour. A similar search has also been performed on two archival data sets from the Parkes Multi-beam Pulsar Survey. The Einstein@Home radio pulsar search employs mathematical methods developed for the search for gravitational waves.
+Since July 2011, Einstein@Home is also analyzing data from the Large Area Telescope (LAT), the primary instrument on Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope to search for pulsed gamma-ray emission from spinning neutron stars (gamma-ray pulsars). Some neutron stars are only detectable by their pulsed gamma-ray emission, which originates in a different area of the neutron star magnetosphere than the radio emission. Identifying the neutron star's rotation rate is computationally difficult, because for a typical gamma-ray pulsar only thousands of gamma-ray photons will be detected by the LAT over the course of billions of rotations. The Einstein@Home analysis of the LAT data makes use of methods initially developed for the detection of continuous gravitational waves.
+
+== Gravitational-wave data analysis and results ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-2.md

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+---
+title: "Einstein@Home"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An Einstein@Home study on how to optimally use the limited computing power for directed searches (where prior information on the target object such as the sky position is available) was published on 31 January 2018. It describes the design of searches for continuous gravitational waves over a wide frequency range from three supernova remnants (Vela Jr, Cassiopeia A, and G347.3). The results from the directed Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central objects of the supernova remnants Vela Jr., Cassiopeia A, and G347.3 was published on 29 July 2019. It covered a frequency range from 20 Hertz to 1500 Hertz and used data from LIGO's first observing run O1. No signal was found and the most stringent upper limit at the time of publication were set, improving earlier results by a factor of two for all three targets. A follow-up of the Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central objects of the supernova remnants Vela Jr., Cassiopeia A, and G347.3 was published on 29 June 2020. It investigated the most promising 10,000 candidates from the previous search and followed them up in two stretches of data from LIGO's second observing run (O2). A single candidate associated with G347.3 remained as a possible signal after the follow-up, but was not conclusively confirmed based on gravitational-wave data. Archival X-ray data were searched for pulsations at the putative rotation frequency of the neutron star and its integer multiples. No signal was found. It is expected that data from LIGO's third observing run (O3) will suffice to shed light on the nature of this potential candidate. On 8 March 2021 results from an Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO O2 data were published. It used an eight-stage follow-up process and covered a frequency range from 20 Hertz to 585 Hertz and reached the highest sensitivity for any all-sky survey below 500 Hertz. Six candidates were found after all follow-up stages. They are consistent with and caused by validation hardware injections in the LIGO instruments. No other signal was found. The most stringent upper limit (90% confidence) was set in a 0.5 Hertz band at 163 Hertz at a gravitational-wave strain amplitude of 1.3×10−25. The results begin to probe neutron star astrophysics and population properties. They exclude neutron stars with rotation frequencies above 200 Hertz with ellipticities larger than 10−7 (which are predicted by some models of neutron star crusts) closer than 100 parsec. Results from a dedicated Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central object of the supernova remnant G347.3 was published on 5 August 2021. In the analysed frequency range between 20 Hertz and 400 Hertz no signal was found. The derived upper limits correspond to ellipticities of less than 10−6 for most of the frequency band. In the most sensitive frequency band at 166 Hertz the upper limit (90% confidence) on gravitational-wave strain is 7.0×10−26. In July 2023, the results of an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in the public LIGO O3 data were published. The search was the most sensitive at that time for gravitational waves with frequencies between 2o Hertz and 800 Hertz and with spin-downs of up to −2.6×10−9 Hz s−1. No astrophysical gravitational-wave signal was identified, and all candidate signals could be attributed to artificial signals injected into the LIGO data for validation purposes. The results exclude the existence of isolated neutron stars spinning at rotational frequencies of more than 200 Hertz with ellipticities larger than 5×10−8 closer than 100 parsec.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-3.md

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+---
+title: "Einstein@Home"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Radio data analysis and results ==
+On 24 March 2009, it was announced that the Einstein@Home project was beginning to analyze data received by the PALFA Consortium at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico.
+On 26 November 2009, a CUDA-optimized application for the Arecibo Binary Pulsar Search was first detailed on official Einstein@Home webpages. This application uses both a regular CPU and an NVIDIA GPU to perform analyses faster (in some cases up to 50% faster).
+On 12 August 2010, the Einstein@Home project announced the discovery of a new disrupted binary pulsar, PSR J2007+2722; it may be the fastest-spinning such pulsar discovered to date. The computers of Einstein@Home volunteers Chris and Helen Colvin and Daniel Gebhardt observed PSR 2007+2722 with the highest statistical significance.
+On 1 March 2011, the Einstein@Home project announced their second discovery: a binary pulsar system PSR J1952+2630. The computers of Einstein@Home volunteers from Russia and the UK observed PSR J1952+2630 with the highest statistical significance.
+By 15 May 2012 a new application for ATI/AMD graphic cards had been released. Using OpenCL, the new application was ten times faster than running on a typical CPU.
+On 22 July 2013, an Android application version of the radio pulsar search was announced. Like the CPU application, the Android application processes data from Arecibo Observatory.
+On 20 August 2013, the discovery of 24 pulsars in data from the Parks Multi-beam Pulsar Survey was published. The re-analysis of the data found these pulsars, which were missed by previous analyses and re-analyses of the data. Six of the discovered pulsars are in binary systems.
+The discovery of a double neutron star binary in PALFA data by the project was published on 4 November 2016. PSR J1913+1102 is in a 4.95 hour orbit with a neutron star partner. By measuring the relativistic periastron advance, the total mass of the system was determined to 2.88 solar masses, similar to the mass of the most massive double neutron star, B1913+16.
+Timing analysis of 13 radio pulsars discovered by Einstein@Home were published by the PALFA Consortium in August 2021.
+On 31 October 2023 the project announced the launch of a new Zooniverse project called "Pulsar Seekers". In this project, citizen scientists visually inspect and classify sets of diagnostic plots for pulsar candidates produced from the Einstein@Home analysis of observations from the large Arecibo telescope's PALFA pulsar survey. The goal is to identify new pulsars in these data.
+As of December 2023, the Einstein@Home project had discovered a total of 55 radio pulsars: 24 using Parkes Multibeam Survey data and 31 using Arecibo radio data (including two from the Arecibo Binary Radio Pulsar Search and 29 using data from the PALFA Mock spectrometer data from Arecibo Observatory).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-4.md

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+---
+title: "Einstein@Home"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Gamma-ray data analysis and results ==
+On 1 July 2011 the project announced a new application to search for pulsars in data from the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope.
+On 26 November 2013, the discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in LAT data by the Einstein@Home project was published. All four pulsars are located in the plane of our Galaxy and have spin frequencies of less than 10 Hertz and characteristic ages between 35,000 and 56,000 years. No radio waves were detected from any of the pulsars.
+The discovery of the gamma-ray pulsar PSR J1906+0722 was published on 4 August 2015. The discovery confirmed the pulsar nature of the object which had been suspected since 2012 based on the energy distribution of the gamma-ray photons observed by the LAT. The pulsar is young and energetic. In August 2009 it suffered one of the largest glitches observed from a gamma-ray pulsar. No radio pulsations were detected in any follow-up search, making PSR J1906+0722 likely radio-quiet. Advanced methods of timing the arrival times of gamma-ray pulsations were introduced to improve the parameter inference of astrophysical properties.
+On 16 November 2016 the discovery and timing measurements of PSR J1208−6238, the youngest known radio-quiet gamma-ray pulsar, were published. Even though the inferred age is 2,700 years, no associated supernova remnant or pulsar wind nebula could be identified.
+On 11 January 2017, the first results from a survey of 118 unidentified pulsar-like sources from the Fermi-LAT Catalog were published. A total of 13 new pulsars were found. Most of them are young and were formed in supernovae several tens to hundreds of thousands of years ago. The discoveries and the methods used in the survey were published in the first of two associated papers. The second paper reports faint radio pulsations from two of the 13 gamma-ray pulsars, and presents modeling of the gamma-ray and radio pulse profiles with different geometric emission models.
+The discovery of two millisecond pulsars discovered by Einstein@Home through their pulsed gamma radiation was published on 28 February 2018. PSR J1035−6720, spinning at 348 Hertz, has detectable radio pulsations which were found in follow-up searches. The other discovery PSR J1744−7619 is the first radio-quiet millisecond pulsar ever discovered. The project also announced that it was searching for gamma-ray pulsars in binary systems, which are more difficult to find due to the additional orbital parameters.
+The first Einstein@Home discovery of a gamma-ray pulsar in a binary system was published on 22 October 2020. PSR J1653-0158, a neutron star with about two solar masses and one of the highest known rotation frequencies of 508 Hertz, orbits the common center of mass with a companion of only 1% of the Sun's mass. The orbital period is 75 minutes, shorter than that of any comparable binary systems. The discovery was made using a GPU-accelerated version of a modified gamma-ray pulsar search code, which included binary orbital parameters. No radio waves were found in follow-up searches. A search for gravitational waves from the pulsar discovered no such emission. The pulsar is from a class known as black widow pulsars. The pulsar evaporates its companion with its energetic radiation and a particle wind. The ablated material fills the binary system with a cloud of plasma absorbing radio waves, but not gamma radiation.
+A second discovery of a gamma-ray pulsar in an unusual binary system was reported on 2 February 2021. It was thought to be a "redback" millisecond pulsar system, but no pulsations from the neutron star had been observed. Optical observations of the pulsar companion were used to constrain the orbital parameters of the system. A thus targeted search for gamma-ray pulsations with Einstein@Home found a low-mass pulsar spinning at 377 Hertz in a 5.5 hour orbit with a companion of about a fifth of a solar mass. Precision timing of the gamma-ray pulsations revealed unpredictable changes in the orbital period of up to ten milliseconds. They might be linked to changes in the mass distribution of the companion caused by its magnetic activity, which in turn would affect the pulsar orbit through the changing external gravitational field.
+The discovery of 14 previously unknown gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi-LAT data was announced by the project on 15 June 2021.
+In November 2023 the Third Fermi Large Area Telescope Catalog of Gamma-Ray Pulsars was published. The catalog lists 39 pulsars discovered with Einstein@Home and 14 with Einstein@Home methods implemented on a large compute cluster. The catalog also includes 13 candidate spider pulsar systems, that could be targets for future searches for their gamma-ray pulsations with Einstein@Home.
+As of December 2023, the Einstein@Home project had discovered a total of 39 gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi LAT data.
+
+== See also ==
+Gravitational wave
+Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO)
+List of volunteer computing projects
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-5.md

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+---
+title: "Einstein@Home"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Scientific Publications ==
+Clark, C. J.; et al. (2016). "The Braking Index of a Radio-quiet Gamma-ray Pulsar". The Astrophysical Journal. 832 (1): L15. arXiv:1611.01292. Bibcode:2016ApJ...832L..15C. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/832/1/L15. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 54531854.
+Clark, Colin J.; et al. (2016). "The Einstein@Home Gamma-ray Pulsar Survey I: Search Methods, Sensitivity and Discovery of New Young Gamma-ray Pulsars". The Astrophysical Journal. 834 (2): 106. arXiv:1611.01015. Bibcode:2017ApJ...834..106C. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/106. S2CID 5750104.
+Lyne, A. G.; Stappers, B. W.; Bogdanov, S.; Freire, P. C. C.; Kaspi, V. M.; et al. (2016). "Timing of 29 Pulsars Discovered in the PALFA Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 834 (2): 137. arXiv:1608.09007. Bibcode:2017ApJ...834..137L. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/137. S2CID 53639204.
+Papa, M. A.; Eggenstein, H.-B.; Walsh, S.; Di Palma, I.; Allen, B.; et al. (2016). "Hierarchical follow-up of sub-threshold candidates of an all-sky Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves on LIGO sixth science run data". Physical Review D. 94 (12) 122006. arXiv:1608.08928. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94l2006P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.122006. S2CID 4595158.
+Lazarus, P.; et al. (2016). "Einstein@Home discovery of a Double-Neutron Star Binary in the PALFA Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 831 (2): 150. arXiv:1608.08211. Bibcode:2016ApJ...831..150L. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/831/2/150. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 20833657.
+Zhu, Sylvia J.; et al. (2016). "Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from Cassiopeia A". Physical Review D. 94 (8) 082008. arXiv:1608.07589. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94h2008Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.082008. ISSN 2470-0010. S2CID 118479596.
+Singh, Avneet; et al. (2016). "Results of an all-sky high-frequency Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO's fifth science run". Physical Review D. 94 (6) 064061. arXiv:1607.00745. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94f4061S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.064061. ISSN 2470-0010. S2CID 119229506.
+The LIGO Scientific Collaboration; The Virgo Collaboration (2016). "Results of the deepest all-sky survey for continuous gravitational waves on LIGO S6 data running on the Einstein@Home volunteer distributed computing project". Physical Review D. 94 (10) 102002. arXiv:1606.09619. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94j2002A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.102002. S2CID 118385297.
+Clark, C. J.; et al. (2015). "PSR J1906+0722: An elusive gamma-ray pulsar". The Astrophysical Journal. 809 (1): L2. arXiv:1508.00779. Bibcode:2015ApJ...809L...2C. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/809/1/L2. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 51946861.
+Knispel, B.; et al. (2015). "Einstein@Home Discovery of a PALFA Millisecond Pulsar in an Eccentric Binary Orbit". The Astrophysical Journal. 806 (1): 140. arXiv:1504.03684. Bibcode:2015ApJ...806..140K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/806/1/140. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 53510852.
+Pletsch, H. J.; et al. (2013). "Einstein@Home discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi LAT data". The Astrophysical Journal. 779 (1): L11. arXiv:1311.6427. Bibcode:2013ApJ...779L..11P. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/779/1/L11. ISSN 2041-8205. S2CID 53588282.
+Knispel, B.; et al. (2013). "Einstein@Home Discovery of 24 Pulsars in the Parkes Multi-beam Pulsar Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 774 (2): 93. arXiv:1302.0467. Bibcode:2013ApJ...774...93K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/93. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 118539374.
+Allen, B.; et al. (2013). "The Einstein@Home search for radio pulsars and PSR J2007+2722 discovery". The Astrophysical Journal. 773 (2): 91. arXiv:1303.0028. Bibcode:2013ApJ...773...91A. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/773/2/91. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 119253579.
+Knispel, B.; et al. (2011). "Arecibo PALFA Survey and Einstein@Home: Binary Pulsar Discovery by Volunteer Computing". The Astrophysical Journal. 732 (1): L1. arXiv:1102.5340. Bibcode:2011ApJ...732L...1K. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/732/1/L1. ISSN 2041-8205. S2CID 30392929.
+Knispel, B.; et al. (2010). "Pulsar Discovery by Global Volunteer Computing". Science. 329 (5997): 1305. arXiv:1008.2172. Bibcode:2010Sci...329.1305K. doi:10.1126/science.1195253. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 20705813. S2CID 29786670.
+Pletsch, Holger J.; Allen, Bruce (2009). "Exploiting Large-Scale Correlations to Detect Continuous Gravitational Waves". Physical Review Letters. 103 (18) 181102. arXiv:0906.0023. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.103r1102P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.181102. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 19905796. S2CID 40560957.
+Abbott, B. P.; et al. (2009). "Einstein@Home search for periodic gravitational waves in early S5 LIGO data". Physical Review D. 80 (4) 042003. arXiv:0905.1705. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..80d2003A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.80.042003. ISSN 1550-7998. S2CID 13364107.
+Abbott, B.; et al. (2009). "Einstein@Home search for periodic gravitational waves in LIGO S4 data". Physical Review D. 79 (2) 022001. arXiv:0804.1747. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..79b2001A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.79.022001. ISSN 1550-7998. S2CID 16542573.
+LIGO Scientific Collaboration. "Final report on the S3 analysis". Archived from the original on 2011-11-21. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
+LIGO Scientific Collaboration. "First report on the S3 analysis". Archived from the original on 2011-12-21. Retrieved 2005-09-11.
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes-0.md

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+---
+title: "El Sueño de Arquímedes"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:14.322210+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+El Sueño de Arquímedes was a Spanish science podcast and radio program which was broadcast by Radio Nacional de España (RNE) from September 2006 until June, 2007. The program was created by Ángel Rodríguez Lozano. A total of 35 programs are still available for download. In addition to El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano also hosted Vanguardia de la Ciencia, which was broadcast weekly without interruption from April 1995 until June 2007. The name of the program means "the dream of Archimedes", and alludes to Archimedes' statement that given a lever and a fixed point, he could move the world. To Ángel Rodríguez Lozano, the dream was moving the world by popularizing and sharing knowledge.
+
+
+== Format ==
+Before the startup of El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano had been hosting Vanguardia de la Ciencia for more than a decade. When RNE
+asked if he would host a second popular science program, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano realised that the scheduled timing, Sundays between 3 and 4 p.m, meant that it would be sandwiched between sports broadcasts. Therefore, he would have to capture the attention of listeners who were not looking for this type of program. The intention was therefore to make the program even more accessible than Vanguardia de la Ciencia, with shorter interviews and more music. Ángel Rodríguez Lozano stated that it had been a marvellous experience, and that the response had been tremendous.
+The program included science news, interviews, and biographies of great scientists, written by Carmen Buergo. In the final, humorous section of the program, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano paid a visit to the archetypical mad scientist
+Alejandro Laguna, who supposedly lived and worked in a hidden laboratory in the basements of Radio Nacional de España, seven floors below ground level. Alejandro would demonstrate one of his latest inventions, which usually defied the laws of physics, and Ángel played the role of a rather gullible spectator. Alejandro then explained the physics of the corresponding real-world device. Finally, the demonstration of his invention usually had some highly unpleasant consequence for Ángel.
+
+
+== Termination of El Sueño de Arquímedes ==
+In June 2007, El Sueño de Arquímedes and Vanguardia de la Ciencia were abruptly terminated. In the correspondence section of one of the last programs of Vangurardia de la Ciencia, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano explained, in response to a letter from an outraged listener, that the decision to terminate the program was made due to a re-structuration of RNE, and that he was but one of 4,150 employees who had to leave.
+In the previously referenced interview, he explained that everyone older than 52 years had to retire early, and that he was 54 years old at the time.
+The decision to terminate the programs was widely criticized in Spanish-speaking blogs.
+
+
+== Available programs ==
+At the web-site of RNE, 36 programs are still available.
+
+
+== Notes and references ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Web site of Vanguardia de la Ciencia http://www.rtve.es/programas/vanguardia
+El Vanguardia de la Ciencia at eSnips: https://web.archive.org/web/20110121042457/http://www.esnips.com/web/VanguardiaDeLaCiencia

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology-0.md

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+---
+title: "Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:50.669715+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology is a neurobiology prize that is awarded annually by Science magazine (published by American Association for the Advancement of Science) and underwritten by Eppendorf AG, a laboratory equipment and supply company.  Entries are reviewed by editors from Science magazine and the top 10% are forwarded to the judging panel. The judging panel is chaired by the Neuroscience Editor of Science and the remaining judges are nominated from the Society for Neuroscience.  The award was established in 2002 to promote the work of promising early-career neurobiologists with $25,000 cash award to support their careers. Each applicant must submit a 1000-word essay explaining the focus and motivation for their last three years of work. The winner is awarded $25,000 and the scientist's winning essay is then published in Science (the winning essay and the other finalists' essays are all published on Science Online).
+
+
+== List (2013–) ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of neuroscience awards
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects research"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:43.859591+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The acronyms ELSI (in the United States) and ELSA (in Europe) refer to research activities that anticipate and address ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI) or aspects (ELSA) of emerging sciences, notably genomics and nanotechnology. ELSI was conceived in 1988 when James Watson, at the press conference announcing his appointment as director of the Human Genome Project (HGP), suddenly and somewhat unexpectedly declared that the ethical and social implications of genomics warranted a special effort and should be directly funded by the National Institutes of Health.
+
+
+== Spread ==
+Various ELSI or ELSA programs have been developed, in Canada, Europe and the Far East. Overview:
+
+U.S.A.: Ethical, ....Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding agency: NIH, 1990)
+Canada: Genomics-related Ethical, Environmental, Economic, Legal and Social Aspects (GE3LS) (funding agency: Genome Canada, 2000)
+South-Korea: Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding: Government of South-Korea, 2001)
+United Kingdom: ESRC Genomics Network (EGN), including: Cesagen, Innogen, Egenis, Genomics Forum (funding agency: ESRC 2002)
+Netherlands: Centre for Society and the Life Sciences (CSG) (funding agency: Netherlands Genomics Initiative, 2002); more recently the ELSA labs programme related to Artificial Intelligence
+Norway: ELSA Program (funding agency: Research Council of Norway, 2002)
+Germany, Austria, Finland: ELSAGEN Transnational Research Programme (funding agencies: GEN-AU, FFG, DFG, Academy of Finland, 2008)
+
+
+== Features ==
+At least four features seem typical for an ELSA approach, namely: 
+
+proximity (closeness to or embedding in large-scale scientific programs);
+early anticipation (of societal issues and potential controversies);
+interactivity (encouraging stakeholders and publics to assume an active role in co-designing research agendas);
+interdisciplinarity (bridging boundaries between research communities such as for instance bioethics and STS).
+
+
+== Reception ==
+The ELSA approach has been widely endorsed by academics studying the societal impact of science and technology, but also criticized. Michael Yesley, responsible for the US Department of Energy (DOE) part of the ELSI programme, claims that the ELSI Program was in fact a discourse of justification, selecting topics of ethics research that will facilitate rather than challenge the advance of genetic technology. In other words, ELSA genomics as the handmaiden of genomics research. In Europe, in the context of the Horizon 2020 program, ELSA-style research is now usually framed as Responsible Research and Innovation. 
+Examples of academic journals open to publishing ELSA research results are New Genetics and Society (Taylor and Francis) and Life Sciences, Society and Policy (SpringerOpen).
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ethnoscience"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:45.159564+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ethnoscience has been defined as an attempt "to reconstitute what serves as science for others, their practices of looking after themselves and their bodies, their botanical knowledge, but also their forms of classification, of making connections, etc." (Augé, 1999: 118).
+
+== Origins ==
+Ethnoscience has not always focused on ideas distinct from those of "cognitive anthropology", "component analysis", or "the New Ethnography"; it is a specialization of indigenous knowledge-systems, such as ethno-botany, ethno-zoology, ethno-medicine, etc. (Atran, 1991: 595). According to Scott Atran, ethnoscience looks at culture with a scientific perspective (1991: 650), although most anthropologists abhor this definition. Ethnoscience helps to understand how people develop with different forms of knowledge and beliefs, and focuses on the ecological and historical contributions people have been given (Atran, 1991: 650). Tim Ingold describes ethnoscience as a cross-discipline (2000: 160). He writes that ethnoscience is based on increased collaboration between social sciences and the humanities (e.g., anthropology, sociology, psychology, and philosophy) with natural sciences such as biology, ecology, or medicine (Ingold, 2000: 406–7). At the same time, ethnoscience is increasingly transdisciplinary in its nature (Ingold, 2000: 407).
+Of course, naturally over time, the ways in which data has been collected and studied has changed and the field has evolved, becoming more detailed and specific (Urry, 1972: 45). The ideas, mechanics, and methods of ethnoscience evolved from something else - a combination of several things. This pretext amalgamation of theories, processes, and –isms led to the evolution of today's ethnoscience.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-1.md

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+---
+title: "Ethnoscience"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:45.159564+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Early approaches ==
+Early on, Franz Boas established cultural relativism as an approach to understanding indigenous scientific practices (Uddin, 2005: 980). Cultural relativism identifies people's differences and shows how they are a result of the social, historical, and geographical conditions (Uddin, 2005: 980). Boas is known for his work in Northern Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, working with the Kwakwaka'wakw Indians, which is where he established the importance of culture (Uddin, 2005: 980). Lévi-Strauss' structuralism was a strong contributor to the ideas of ethnoscience (Uddin, 2005: 980). It, itself, was the leading idea of providing structure to the research and a guide to organizing and relating different cultures. "Ethnoscience refers to a 'reduction of chaos' achieved by a particular culture, rather than to the 'highest possible and conscious degree' to which such chaos may be reduced"; basically, the ethnoscience of a society creates its culture (Sturtevant, 1964: 100). Much of the influence of anthropology, e.g., geographical determinism, was through the contributions of Jean Bodin (Harris, 1968: 42). In his text, he tried to explain why "northern people were faithful, loyal to the government, cruel, and sexually uninterested, compared to why southern people were malicious, craft, wise, expert in science but ill-adapted to political activity (Harris, 1968: 52)." The Greek historian, Polybius, asserted "we mortals have an irresistible tendency to yield to climatic influences; and to this cause, and no other, may be traced the great distinctions that prevail among us in character, physical formation, complexion, as well as in most of our habits..." (quoted in Harris, 1968: 41).
+Another aspect of anthropology prior to ethnoscience is enculturation. Newton and Newton described enculturation as a process whereby the novice, or "outsider", learns what is important to the "insider" (1998). Marvin Harris writes, "One of [enculturation's] most important technical expressions is the doctrine of 'psychic unity,' the belief that in the study of sociocultural differences, hereditary (genetic) differences cancel each other out, leaving 'experience' as the most significant variable" (Harris, 1968: 15). This is one of the many starts of people opening up to the idea that just because people are different, does not mean they are wrong in their thinking. Harris describes how religious beliefs hinder and affect the progress of anthropology and ethnography. The moral beliefs and restrictions of religion fought against anthropological ideas, possibly due to (especially at the time) to the newly hyped idea of evolutionism and Darwinism (Harris, 1968).
+Bronislaw Malinowski was one of many who contributed heavily to the precursor of ethnoscience. His earlier work brought attention to sociological studies; his earliest publication focused on a family in Australia, using a sociological study perspective (Harris, 1968: 547). After the First World War, anthropological work was at a standstill; nothing had evolved, if not regressed (Urry, 1972: 54). This allowed him to start from scratch, and rebuild his ideas and methods (Harris, 1968: 547).
+Later, however, Malinowski branched out to political evolution during World War II. The period after World War II is what led to ethnoscience; anthropologists learned their skills could be applied to problems that were affecting modern societies (Mead, 1973: 1). Malinowski said "... with his tables of kinship terms, genealogies, maps, plans and diagrams, proves an extensive and big organization, shows the contribution of the tribe, of the clan, of the family, and he gives a picture of the natives subjected to a strict code of behavior and good manners, to which in comparison the life at the Court of Versailles or Escurial was free and easy" (1922: 10). After World War II, there was an extreme amount of growth in the anthropological field, not only with research opportunities but academically, as well (Mead, 1973: 2).
+The anthropologist Robin Horton, who taught at several Nigerian universities, considered the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples as incorporated within conceptual world views that bear certain similarities to, and differences from, the modern scientific worldview.  Like modern science, traditional thought provides a theoretical structure that "places things in a causal order wider than that provided by common sense" (Horton, 1967, p. 53).  In contrast to modern science, he saw traditional thought as having a limited awareness of theoretical alternatives and, consequently, displaying "an absolute acceptance of the established theoretical tenets" (Horton, 1967, pp. 155–6).
+There are dozens, if not hundreds, of related methods and processes that preceded ethnoscience. Ethnoscience is just another way to study the human culture and the way people interact in society. Taking a look at the ideas and analyses prior to ethnoscience can help understand why it was developed in the first place. Although, it is not widely used and there is criticism on both ends, ethnoscience allows for a more comprehensive way to collect data and patterns of a people. This is not to say the process is its best or that there will be nothing better. That is the best part: everything evolves, even thought. Just as the ideas did in the past, they can improve over time and regress over time but change is inevitable.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-2.md

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+---
+title: "Ethnoscience"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:45.159564+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Development ==
+Ethnoscience is a new term and study that came into anthropological theory in the 1960s. Often referred to as 'indigenous' or 'traditional' knowledge, ethnoscience introduces a perspective based on native perceptions. It is based on a complete emic perspective, which excludes all observations, interpretations and or any personal notions belonging to the ethnographer. The taxonomy and classification of indigenous systems, to name a few, used to categorize plants, animals, religion and life is adapted from a linguistic analysis. The concept of "Native Science" is also related to the understanding the role of the environment intertwined with the meaning humans place upon their lives. Understanding the language and the native people's linguistic system is one method to understand a native people's system of knowledge of organization. Not only is there categorization for things pertaining to nature and culture thought language, but more importantly and complex is the relationship between environment and culture. Ethnoscience looks at the intricacies of the connection between culture and its surrounding environment. There are also potential limitations and shortcomings in interpreting these systems of knowledge as a dictation of culture and behavior.
+Since an ethnographer is not able to physically enter inside an indigenous person's mind, it is essential to not only create a setting or question-answer format to understand perspective but to analyze semantics and word order of given answer to derive an emic understanding. The main focus on a particular component of the languages is placed on its lexicon. The terms "etic" and "emic" are derived from the linguistic terms of "phonetic" and "phonemic".
+As introduced by Gregory Cajete, some limitations the concept of indigenous knowledge, is the potential to bypass non-indigenous knowledge as pertinent and valuable. The labels of "indigenous" are overly accepted by those who seek more support by outsiders to further their cause. There might also be an unequal distribution of knowledge amongst a tribe or peoples. There is also the idea that culture is bound by environment. Some theorists conclude that indigenous people's culture is not operated by mental concentrations but solely by the earth that surrounds them. Some theorists go the extent to state that biological processes are based upon the availability, of lack thereof, environmental resources. The methods for sustainability are founded through the workings of the land. These techniques are exercised from the basis of tradition. The importance of the combination of ecological process, social structures, environmental ethics and spiritual ecology are crucial to the expression of the true connection between the natural world and "ecological consciousness".
+The origin of Ethnoscience began between the years 1960 to 1965; deriving from the concept of "ethno- + science". Ethno- a combining form meaning "race", "culture", "people", used in the formation of compound words: ethnography. The two concepts later emerged into "ethno-science". The origin of the word 'science' involves the empiric observation of measurable quantities and the testing of hypotheses to falsify or support them. 
+"Ethnoscience refers to the system of knowledge and cognition typical of a given culture...to put it another way a culture itself amounts to the sum of a given society's folk classifications, all of that society's ethnoscience, its particular ways of classifying its material and social universe" (Sturtevant 1964: 99–100). The aim of ethnoscience is to gain a more complete description of cultural knowledge. Ethnoscience has been successfully used on several studies of given cultures relating to their linguistics, folk taxonomy, and how they classify their foods, animals and plants.
+
+=== Ethnolinguistics ===
+Ethnoscience is the examination of the perceptions, knowledge, and classifications of the world as reflected in their use of language, which can help anthropologists understand a given culture. By using an ethnographic approach to studying a culture and learning their lexicon and syntax they are able to gain more knowledge in understanding how a particular culture classifies its material and social universe. In addition, this approach "adopted provides simultaneously a point at which the discipline of linguistics, or at least some of its general attitudes, may sensibly be used in anthropology and as a means of gaining insight not only into the nature of man but also into the nature of culture" (Videbeck and Pia, 1966).
+Researchers can use linguistics to study what a given culture considers important in a given situation or unforeseen event, and can rank those potential situations in terms of their likelihood to recur. In addition, "understanding the contingencies is helpful in the task of comprehending folk taxonomies on the one hand, and, on the other, an understanding of the taxonomy is required for a full scale appreciation of criteria considered relevant in a given culture (Videbeck and Pia, 1966).
+
+=== Taxonomy and classification ===
+Ethnoscience can be used to analyze the kinship terminology of a given culture, using their language and according to how they view members of their society. Taxonomies "are models of analysis whose purpose is the description of particular types of hierarchical relationships between members of a given set of elements" (Perchonock and Werner, 1969). For example, in our society we classify family groups by giving members the title of father, mother, sister, daughter, brother, son, grandfather, grandmother, etc.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-3.md

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+---
+title: "Ethnoscience"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:45.159564+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== System of classification – among cultures ===
+Ethnoscience deals with how a given culture classifies certain principles in addition to how it is express through their language. By understanding a given culture through how they view the world, anthropologists attempt to eliminate any bias through translation as well as categorized their principles in their own ways. "The new methods, which focus on the discovery and description of folk systems, have come to be known as Ethnoscience. Ethnoscience analysis has thus far concentrated on systems of classification within such cultural and linguistic domains as colors, plants, and medicines" (Perchonock and Werner, 1969). An ethnoscientific approach can be used to better understand a given culture and their knowledge of their culture. Using an ethnographic approach can help anthropologists understand how that given culture views and categorizes their own foods, animal kingdom, medicines, as well as plants.
+
+=== Contemporary research ===
+Ethnoscience can be effectively summed up as a classification system for a particular culture in the same way that a botanist would use a taxonomic system for the classification of plant species. Everything from class levels, food consumption, clothing, and material culture objects would be subjected to a taxonomic classification system. In essence, ethnoscience is a way of classifying cultural systems in a structured order to better understand the culture.
+The roots of ethnoscience can be traced back to influential anthropologists such as Franz Boas, Bronislaw Malinowski, and Benjamin Whorf who attempted to understand other cultures from an insider's perspective. Ward Goodenough is accredited for bringing ethnoscience to the stage when he define cultural systems of knowledge by stating:
+
+"A societies culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members. Culture is not a material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, behavior, or emotions. It is rather an organization of these things. It is the form of things that people have in mind, their models for perceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them."
+
+(Goodenough 1957:167)
+In order to properly put ethnoscience in context we must first understand the definition of ethnoscience. it is defined as "an attempt at cultural description from a totally emic perspective (a perspective in ethnography that uses the concepts and categories that are relevant and meaningful to the culture that is insider analysis) standpoint, this eliminating all of the ethnographer's own categories" (Morey and Luthans 27). Ethnoscience is also a way of learning and understanding how an individual or group perceive their environment and how they fit in with their environment as reflected in their own words and actions.
+Ethnoscience has many techniques when applied to an emic perspective. Ethnosemantics, ethnographic semantics, ethnographic ethnoscience, formal analysis, and componential analysis are the terms that apply to the practice of ethnoscience. Ethnosemantics looks at the meaning of words in order to place them in context of the culture being studied. It allows for taxonomy of a certain part of the culture being looked at so that there is a clear breakdown which in turn leads to a deeper understanding of the subject at hand. Ethnographic semantics are very similar to cognitive anthropology in that its primary focus is the intellectual and rational perspectives of the culture being studied. Ethnographic semantics specifically looks at how language is used throughout the culture. Lastly, ethnographic ethnoscience is related to ethnosemantics such that, it uses a taxonomic system to understand how cultural knowledge is accessible through language. Ethnographic ethnoscience uses similar classification systems for cultural domains like ethnobotany and ethnoanatomy. Again, ethnoscience is a way of understanding a how a culture sees itself through its own language. Understanding the cultural language allows the ethnographer to have a deeper and more intimate understanding of the culture.
+
+== See also ==
+ethno-
+astronomy
+biology
+botany
+chemistry
+ecology
+mathematics
+medicine
+pharmacy
+zoology
+musicology
+'traditional'
+knowledge
+medicine
+
+== References ==
+Atran, Scott (1991). "Social Science Information / Sur Les Sciences Sociales". Ethnoscience Today. 30 (4): 595–662. doi:10.1177/053901891030004001. S2CID 144923237.
+Augé, Marc. 1999.  The war of dreams: exercises in ethno-fiction, London: Pluto Press, 1999
+Cajete, Gregory. 2000. "Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence."Santa Fe, N.M.: Clear Light Publishers.
+Harris, Marvin. 1968. The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A history of Theories of Culture. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company.
+Horton, Robin (1967), "African Traditional Thought and Western Science", Africa, 37: 50–71, 155–187, doi:10.2307/1157195, JSTOR 1157195, S2CID 145507695
+Ingold, Tim. 2000. The Perception of The Environment: Essays on livelihood, dwelling and skill. London, UK: Routledge.
+Malinowski, BC. 1922. Argonauts of the western pacific. London, UK: Routledge.
+Mead, Margaret (1973). "Changing Styles of Anthropological Work". Annual Review of Anthropology. 2: 1–16. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.02.100173.000245.
+Meehan, Peter M. 1980. Science, ethnoscience, and agricultural knowledge utilization. In: Warren DM, Brokensha D, Werner O (Eds). Indigenous knowledge systems and development. Lanham, MD, USA: University Press of America. p 383–91.
+Newton, DP; Newton, LD (1998). "Enculturation and understanding: Some differences between sixth formers' and graduates' conceptions of understanding in history and science". Teaching in Higher Education. 3 (3): 339–64. doi:10.1080/1356215980030305.
+Perchonock, Norma; Werner, Oswald (1969). "Navaho Systems of Classifications: Some Implications for Ethnoscience". Ethnology. 8 (3): 229–242. doi:10.2307/3772753. JSTOR 3772753.
+Sturtevant, William C (1964). "Studies in Ethnoscience". American Anthropologist. 66 (3): 99–131. doi:10.1525/aa.1964.66.3.02a00850.
+Urry, James (1972). "Notes and Queries on Anthropology". Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1972: 45–57. doi:10.2307/3031732. JSTOR 3031732.
+Videbeck, R. and J. Pia. 1966. Plans for Coping: An Approach to Ethnoscience. Syracuse University. Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 8, No. 8. Ethnoscience: A Symposium Presented at the 1966 Meeting of the Central States Anthropological Society (Nov., 1966), pp. 71–77.
+Werner, Oswald (1972). "Ethnoscience 1972". Annual Review of Anthropology. 1: 271–308. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.01.100172.001415.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac-0.md

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+---
+title: "Eurotrac"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:02.301111+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+EUROTRAC (European Experiment on Transportation and Transformation of Environmentally Relevant Trace Constituents) was a joint European scientific research programme within the Eureka Framework.
+EUROTRAC was accepted as a Eureka project at the second Eureka Ministerial Conference held in Hannover (Germany) in November 1985. After a two-year definition phase, the work started in January 1988 and ended in 1995. At the peak of the programme, it included more than 250 research groups from 24 European countries and its budget exceeded 16 million ECU per year (equivalent to approx. 16 million Euro).
+
+
+== Objectives and focus areas ==
+The objectives of Eurotrac were to:
+
+Increase the basic knowledge in atmospheric science;
+Promote the technological development of sensitive, specific, and fast response instruments for environmental research and monitoring;
+Improve the scientific basis for future political decisions on environmental management in European countries.
+EUROTRAC studied the impact of human activities on the troposphere over Europe, focusing on:
+
+The chemistry and transport of photo-oxidants (especially ozone) in the troposphere
+The processes leading to the formation of acidity in the atmosphere
+The uptake and release of atmospheric trace substances by the biosphere.
+EUROTRAC was an interdisciplinary programme involving field experiments and campaigns, laboratory studies, comprehensive model developments and simulations, emission estimation, studies of biosphere/atmosphere exchange and the development of advanced instruments for laboratory and field measurements.
+
+
+=== Projects and outcome ===
+Fourteen projects were established as part of the EUROTRAC programme. Under each project, several subprojects and studies were carried out. Numerous articles and findings resulting from numerous studies have been presented at symposiums held during and after the EUROTRAC period. These articles can be found on websites like Springer, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, and ResearchGate. The 14 EUROTRAC projects were:
+Cloud studies: 
+
+ACE: Acidity in Cloud Experiments
+GCE: Ground Based Cloud Experiment
+Field measurements:
+
+ALPTRAC: High Alpine Air and Snow Chemistry
+TOR: Tropospheric Ozone Research
+TRACT: Transport of Pollutants over Complex Terrain
+Biosphere / Atmosphere exchange:
+
+ASE: Air-Sea Exchange
+BIATEX: Biosphere-Atmosphere exchange of pollutants and Trace substances
+Laboratory studies:
+
+HALIPP: Heterogeneous and Liquid Phase Processes
+LACTOZ: Laboratory Studies of Chemistry Related to Tropospheric Ozone
+Model development:
+
+EUMAC: European Modelling of Atmospheric Constituents
+GLOMAC: Global Modelling of Atmospheric Chemistry
+Instrument Development:
+
+JETDLAG: Joint European Development of Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy for Measurement of Atmospheric Trace Gases
+TESLAS: Tropospheric Environmental Studies by Laser Sounding
+TOPAS:  Tropospheric Optical Absorption Spectroscopy
+
+
+== Funding and cooperation ==
+EUROTRAC was a science-driven, "bottom-up" research programme, where the scientist involved in the programme proposed research projects. The scientist had to seek funding themselves, primarily through their national funding sources. In some cases also the European Commission contributed to the funding.
+In order to become a EUROTRAC-project, the project proposals had to be evaluated by the Scientific Steering Committee (SSC) and finally approved by the International Executive Committee (IEC).
+
+
+== Organisation ==
+EUROTRAC was headed by an International Executive Committee (IEC). The IEC consisted of one representative from each member country, and approved the subproject proposals and appointed members to the Scientific Steering Committee (SSC). The SSC reviewed the subproject proposals and the progress and results of the individual subprojects. The International Scientific Secretariat (ISS) coordinated the EUROTRAC project. The ISS was operated by Fraunhofer Institute for Atmospheric Research (Fraunhofer Institut für Atmosphärische Umweltforschung - IFU), located in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, GermanyGermany.
+
+
+== Second phase ==
+After ending the first phase of EUROTRAC (1988–1995, described above), EUROTRAC-2 was initiated in 1996. During the second phase, 25 countries and more than 300 research groups were involved.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home-0.md

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+---
+title: "Evolution@Home"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:46.377254+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+evolution@home was a volunteer computing project for evolutionary biology, launched in 2001. The aim of evolution@home is to improve understanding of evolutionary processes. This is achieved by simulating individual-based models. The Simulator005 module of evolution@home was designed to better predict the behaviour of Muller's ratchet.
+The project was operated semi-automatically; participants had to manually download tasks from the webpage and submit results by email using this method of operation. yoyo@home used a BOINC wrapper to completely automate this project by automatically distributing tasks and collecting their results. Therefore, the BOINC version was a complete volunteer computing project. yoyo@home has declared its involvement in this project finished.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Artificial life
+Digital organism
+Evolutionary computation
+Folding@home
+List of volunteer computing projects
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial_Net_Plastination_Project-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fascial Net Plastination Project"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial_Net_Plastination_Project"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:47.550222+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Fascial Net Plastination Project is an anatomical research initiative established in 2018 aimed at plastinating and studying the human fascial network. The collaboration was initiated by Robert Schleip as a joint effort between Body Worlds, Fascia Research Group, and the Fascia Research Society. The project focuses on preserving the fascia, a complex connective tissue network that plays a crucial role in the human body's structure and function.
+One outcome of this three-year project is the creation of the world's first 3-D representation of the fascial network of a whole human body, named FR:EIA (Fascia Revealed: Educating Interconnected Anatomy), which is on display at the Body Worlds museum in Berlin, Germany.
+
+
+== Origination and objectives ==
+The project was conceived to provide a comprehensive and tangible understanding of the fascial system through plastination. This technique, developed by Gunther von Hagens, involves replacing water and fat in biological tissues with polymers to create durable, lifelike specimens. The specific goals of the project include:
+
+Enhancing Educational Outreach: By creating detailed and durable plastinated specimens of the fascial net, the project aims to elevate the anatomical education of medical professionals and the general public.
+Advancing Research: Detailed anatomical studies of plastinated fascia specimens facilitate a deeper understanding of its structure and function.
+Public Exhibitions: Specimens from the project are displayed in Body Worlds exhibitions worldwide, providing an unprecedented view of the human fascial system.
+
+
+== Background ==
+
+The fascia is a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, that supports and surrounds muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels. It extends from head to toe without interruption. Recent studies have highlighted the fascia's significance in movement, stability, and overall bodily function, debunking the previous notion of fascia being merely passive tissue.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+In January 2018, the Fascia Research Society, Somatics Academy, the Plastinarium, and Body Worlds embarked on a collaborative journey to create the world's first 3D representation of the fascial network of a whole human body via plastination. Directed by fascia research scientist Robert Schleip, professor of anatomy Carla Stecco, with the assistance of clinical anatomist John Sharkey and support from several other experts, the project is taking place in Guben, Germany, at the renowned Plastinarium under the direction of Dr. Vladimir Chereminskiy.
+The project was supported by a Scientific Advisory Board consisting of  Vladimir Chereminskiy, Gil Hedley, Thomas W. Myers, John Sharkey, Robert Schleip, Carla Stecco, Jaap Van der Wal, Gunther von Hagens, and Angelina Whalley.
+The first ten plastinated specimens from this project, demonstrating fascial architecture of different selected body regions from this project were exhibited for the first time at the Fifth International Fascia Research Congress in Berlin, Germany, on November 14 and 15, 2018, in an exhibition titled "Fascia in a NEW LIGHT: The Exhibition."
+
+
+=== Phase one ===
+The first phase began in January 2018 with a team of scientists, academics, and anatomy enthusiasts. Several formalin-fixed specimens were dissected to illustrate fascial structures from superficial fascia/subcutaneous tissues, including the abdomen, arm, and lower limb. Additionally, several deep fascia structures were dissected, such as the fascia lata, a 5 cm cross-section of the thigh, a 5 cm cross-section of the leg, the fibrous pericardium with the respiratory diaphragm, and the lumbodorsal fascia.
+These specimens went through the first two stages of plastination; soaking in high and low temperature baths to replace water with acetone and dissolve fats, followed by another bath to replace acetone with plastic polymer. These stages typically take up to six months depending on the size of the specimen.
+
+
+=== Phase two ===
+In June 2018, the team returned to Guben to position the specimens. Now infused with silicone rubber, the specimens were still supple and could be positioned back into their original shapes. The team created forms to support the soft specimens so they could undergo the final stage of gas curing to harden them into durable plastinates ready for exhibition.
+During this phase, additional dissections were undertaken, including a second attempt at the lumbodorsal fascia, a 10 cm cross-section of the abdomen, the deep fascia of the arm, and an anterior prosection of the pelvis.
+
+
+=== Phase three ===
+The third phase aimed to create a full-body fascia plastinate for exhibition at the Sixth International Fascia Research Congress in Montreal, Canada, in 2021. This phase involved complex decisions on how best to dissect and display the fascial structures in a meaningful way. This plastinate has now become a major highlight at the Body Worlds museum in Berlin.
+A collection of ten plastinated specimens from this project showing fascial architecture of selected human body regions was given as a long-term loan to the University of Padova in Italy in 2023, where the collection is currently displayed for the purpose of educating medical students at the entrance hall of the Department of Neuroscience.
+
+
+== Techniques and methodologies ==
+The project employs advanced plastination techniques to preserve the intricate details of the fascial network. This involves a meticulous process where water and lipids in biological tissues are replaced with curable polymers like silicone, epoxy, or polyester, resulting in odorless, durable, and anatomically precise specimens. These plastinates are then used for educational and research purposes, showcasing the complexity and functionality of fascia.
+
+
+== Scientific significance ==
+The plastination of the fascial net has significant implications for both medical research and education. It allows for detailed examination of the fascia's role in musculoskeletal health, its contribution to proprioception, and its involvement in various medical conditions. The project has provided critical insights into how fascia affects movement, stability, and overall physical health, thus influencing treatment approaches in physiotherapy, sports medicine, and surgery.
+
+
+== Controversies and ethical considerations ==
+Plastination, while groundbreaking, has not been without controversy. Ethical concerns have been raised regarding the sourcing of bodies for plastination and the display of human remains in public exhibitions. The Fascial Net Plastination Project however, adheres to strict ethical guidelines, ensuring that all specimens are sourced from legally and ethically approved donations, with explicit consent from donors or their families.
+
+
+== Presentation and reception ==
+The project was prominently featured at the 2021 Fascia Research Congress. This presentation included detailed discussions on the techniques used, the scientific findings from the plastinated specimens, and their applications in medical education and research. The project received considerable attention from the scientific community for its innovative approach to studying fascia and its potential to revolutionize anatomical science.
+FR:EIA was officially unveiled on November 24, 2021, over a webinar with 1000+ participants as they unveiled its permanent display at the Body Worlds museum in Berlin, Germany.
+
+
+== Impact and future directions ==
+The Fascial Net Plastination Project has already made significant contributions to the field of fascia research. By providing a durable and detailed representation of the fascial network, it has enhanced the understanding of this critical component of human anatomy. Future directions for the project include expanding the range of specimens, refining plastination techniques, and fostering international collaborations to further explore the clinical implications of fascia.
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Plastination Project
+FR:EIA at Body Worlds Museum
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Feminist philosophy of science"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:48.721198+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Feminist philosophy of science is a branch of feminist philosophy that seeks to understand how the acquirement of knowledge through scientific means has been influenced by notions of gender identity and gender roles in society.  Feminist philosophers of science question how scientific research and scientific knowledge itself may be influenced and possibly compromised by the social and professional framework within which that research and knowledge is established and exists. The intersection of gender and science allows feminist philosophers to reexamine fundamental questions and truths in the field of science to reveal how gender biases may influence scientific outcomes. The feminist philosophy of science has been described as being located "at the intersections of the philosophy of science and feminist science scholarship" and has attracted considerable attention since the 1980s.
+Feminist philosophers of science use feminist epistemology as a lens through which to analyze scientific methods, results, and analysis. This epistemology emphasizes "situated knowledge" that hinges on one's individual perspectives on a subject; feminist philosophers often highlight the under-representation of female scientists in academia and the resulting androcentric biases that exist in science. Feminist philosophers suggest that integrating feminine modes of thought and logic that are undervalued by current scientific theory will enable improvement and broadening of scientific perspectives. Advocates assert that inclusive epistemology via applying a feminist philosophy of science will allow for a field of science that is more accessible to public. Practitioners of feminist philosophy of science also seek to promote gender equality in scientific fields and greater recognition of the achievements of female scientists.
+
+Critics have argued that the political commitments of advocates of feminist philosophy of science is incompatible with modern-day scientific objectivity, emphasizing the success of the scientific method due to its lauded objectivity and "value-free" methods of knowledge-making.
+
+== History ==
+The feminist philosophy of science was born out of feminist science studies in the 1960s, when female primatologists began to reevaluate stereotypes of male and female behavior in animals. However, feminist reform born from this branch of philosophy did not receive formal backing from the federal government until the late 1980s, after which its prominence as a philosophy of science grew. In 1986, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) instituted a requirement for both male and female subjects in medical and clinical research. In the early 1990s, the NIH Office of Research on Women's Health and $625 million in funding for the Women's Health Initiative represented drastic support for applications of the feminist philosophy of science in the public sphere.
+These reforms coincided with the growth of the feminist philosophy of science in the academic realm. In August 1978, Catharine R. Stimpson and Joan Burstyn published an editorial in a special volume of Signs titled  "Women, Science, and Society" highlighting the lack of female scholarship in science and its effects. Their article introduced three areas of scholarship: critiques of gender bias in science, a history of women in science, and social science data and public policy considerations on the status of women in the science.
+In the 1980s, feminist science studies had become more philosophical, corresponding to a shift in many fields of academic feminism. Two main fields of thought emerged, creating a divide between scholarship on "women in science" and "feminist critiques of science". While both agreed on the existence of an androcentric bias in science, the former focused on an increase in funding and hiring of female scientists, while the latter called for an interrogation of the underlying assumptions and biases present in scientific theory and methods. The latter became the primary focus of feminist philosophers of science moving forward, and conflict arose between women who were actually involved in scientific research and those attempting a feminist critique of gender roles in science.
+By the late nineties, feminist science studies had become well-established and had many prominent scholars within its field of study. Philosopher John Searle characterized feminism in 1993 as a "cause to be advanced" more so than a "domain to be studied", signaling the rise in the use of feminist philosophy as a lens through which to perform science.
+
+== Feminist philosophy of science ==
+
+=== Objectivity and values ===
+Feminist philosophers of science state that, rather being purely objective, science is necessarily biased and not value free. This branch of feminist philosophy argues that full understanding and interpretation of scientific results requires an interrogation of how gender inequities influence the credibility of research methods.
+Feminist philosophers of science argue that equity and inclusion can help create more robust research methods to alleviate gender bias and produce more thorough results. For example, a lack of female research subjects and perspectives in academic research undermines the "contextual empiricism" required by true neutrality". Thus, because science is affected by social, cultural, and political agendas via funding, feminist philosophers of science believe equitable funding is a critical first step in removing biases from research and increasing autonomy of science.
+The values and criticisms of the feminist philosophy of science are more broadly categorized under the idea of "Socially Responsible Science (SRS)". Socially responsible science argues for an impartial evaluation that makes a distinction between facts and values, which is necessary for the creation of "good science". In "The Source and Status of Values for Socially Responsible Science," Matthew Brown discusses the lens of being socially engaged in science as a means of "craft[ing] better ethics codes for their professional societies." He believes this is done by emphasizing "Ethics and social and political philosophy at least as much as epistemology and metaphysics." Valuing the study of ethics, politics, and social studies in understanding the basis upon which research is performed, Brown argues that a new, impartial agenda for science can be developed.

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+---
+title: "Feminist philosophy of science"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:48.721198+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Standpoint and knowledge ===
+The feminist philosophy of science has traditionally been highly critical of the lack of access and opportunities for women in science, resulting in scientific results that have been "distorted by sexist values." Sharon Crasnow highlights how the "exclusion of women as researchers and subjects"  in scientific research, studies and projects can lead to incomplete methods and methodologies and ultimately unreliable or inaccurate results. Some feminist philosophies of science question whether science can lay claim to "impartiality, neutrality, autonomy, and indifference to political positions and the values" when the "neutral" position is benchmarked against the values held by one culture (i.e. western patriarchy) among the multitude of cultures participating in modern science.
+A complete Standpoint theory contains seven parts to fully understand the location of power one has, their "epistemic privilege". Anderson lays these out in her journal Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science. The first point of the theory must state the social location of the authority. The second, how large is the grasp of this authority, what does it claim privilege over. Third, what aspect of the social location allows authority. Fourth, the grounds of the authority, what justifies their privilege. Fifth, the type of epistemic privilege it is claiming to have. Sixth, the other perspectives similar to its own. Lastly, access to this privilege, by occupying the social location is it sufficient to gain access to the perspective.
+Relating to Objectivity, epistemology can give a fuller understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge. Feminist epistemology is one of a group of approaches in science studies that urges us to recognize the role of the social in the production of knowledge. Feminist epistemology directs people to consider features of themselves and culture as beings of knowledge that had been outside what was considered appropriate. The goals of researchers and the values that shape the choice of goals are relevant to the knowledge we arrive at. This has implications both for how we train scientists and for how we educate everyone about science. If science is seen as more connected to application, more related to human needs and desires, traditionally underrepresented groups will have greater motivation to succeed and persist in their science courses or pursue scientific careers. Motivation will be greater as members of underrepresented groups see how science can produce knowledge that has value to their concerns in ways that are consistent with good scientific methodology. Feminist epistemology urges a continued exploration of science in this way and so has much to offer science education.
+
+=== Criticisms of feminist epistemology in science ===
+External critics of the feminist philosophy of science find several flaws in its logic and values. Because feminist philosophers argue that scientific "facts" are necessarily biased by values, one major criticisms is scientists under this epistemological constraint will "impos[e] political constraints on the conclusions it will accept" and that "truths inconvenient to a feminist perspective will be censored." Moreover, some critics contend that while values are important in the interpretation of scientific results, attention to the values present in scientific inquiry does not displace the importance of scientific evidence. Some further argue that because of the "corrosive cynicism about science" suggested by feminist critique, feminist philosophers of science may support a wholly anti-science movement.
+Another criticism commonly levied at the feminist philosophy of science is that it suggests all women have the same perspectives and that objective truths can be revealed by performing science in a "feminine" way, which creates multiple issues. By homogenizing the perspectives of women into one monolithic viewpoint, the feminist philosophy of science may valorize a certain female mode of thinking that can be used to diminish individual female perspectives. Furthermore, some critics worry that promoting a feminist epistemological lens through which to perform research will result in an intellectual ghetto for female scientists, who will be pigeonholed into particular fields where feminist theory is deemed more relevant.
+
+=== Applications of the feminist philosophy of science ===
+Many applications of the feminist philosophy of science exist in recent work, with feminist epistemology applied to research a variety of scientific fields.
+Feminist epistemology is particularly relevant in the area of reproductive biology. Emily Martin describes how stereotypes of male and female behavior have affected descriptions of the human fertilization process. She argues that, due to various perceptions of women throughout history, biologists have mischaracterized the interaction between egg and sperm; Martin applies the feminist philosophy of science to call for an objective model of fertilization unbiased by societal gender roles and harmful perceptions of female behavior.
+Further work regarding the application of the feminist philosophy of science in evolutionary biology has been explored. Historically, evolutionary biologists assumed that the female orgasm was assumed to assist in reproduction, since it was analogous to the male orgasm, despite clear evidence to the contrary  However, recent accounts describe that these assumptions were largely incorrect. Elisabeth A. Lloyd's findings from extended case studies of the female orgasm illustrate that core beliefs developed solely through assumptions predicated on gender result in major flaws in scientific research, illustrating the importance of applying feminist philosophy in academic work.
+Supporters also argue that the feminist philosophy of science should be applied to primary and secondary schooling. To combat the underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and math, reforms should be implemented through a feminist philosophical viewpoint. Rather than combating gender biases in science by implementing feminist viewpoints into research and analysis, some suggest that encouraging girls to pursue STEM via educational reforms will intrinsically revert gender biases in scientific research.
+
+== See also ==
+Feminist technoscience
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Formal science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:14.787257+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems. 
+Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using theoretical and empirical methods, the formal sciences use language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by formal systems and the deductions that can be made from them. 
+The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures used to describe the physical world, and what inferences may be made about them.
+
+
+== Branches ==
+Logic (also a branch of philosophy)
+Mathematics
+Statistics
+Theoretical computer science
+Artificial intelligence
+Game theory
+Systems theory
+Theoretical linguistics
+Decision theory
+Systems science
+Data science
+Information theory
+Computer science
+Cryptography
+
+
+== Differences from other sciences ==
+One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts.
+Because of their non-empirical nature, formal sciences are construed by outlining a set of axioms and definitions from which other statements (theorems) are deduced. For this reason, in Rudolf Carnap's logical-positivist conception of the epistemology of science, theories belonging to formal sciences are understood to contain no synthetic statements, instead containing only analytic statements.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Mario Bunge (1985). Philosophy of Science and Technology. Springer.
+Mario Bunge (1998). Philosophy of Science. Rev. ed. of: Scientific research. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1967.
+C. West Churchman (1940). Elements of Logic and Formal Science, J.B. Lippincott Co., New York.
+James Franklin (1994). The formal sciences discover the philosophers' stone. In: Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 513–533, 1994
+Stephen Leacock (1906). Elements of Political Science. Houghton, Mifflin Co, 417 pp.
+Popper, Karl R. (2002) [1959]. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York, NY: Routledge Classics. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149.
+Bernt P. Stigum (1990). Toward a Formal Science of Economics. MIT Press
+Marcus Tomalin (2006), Linguistics and the Formal Sciences. Cambridge University Press
+William L. Twining (1997). Law in Context: Enlarging a Discipline. 365 pp.
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Formal sciences at Wikimedia Commons
+Interdisciplinary conferences — Foundations of the Formal Sciences

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+---
+title: "FreeHAL"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeHAL"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:49.850900+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+FreeHAL was a volunteer computing project to build a self-learning chatbot. This project is no longer active.
+Originally, the program was called JEliza referring to the chatbot ELIZA by Joseph Weizenbaum. The J stood for Java because JEliza has first been programmed in Java. In May 2008, the program has been renamed to FreeHAL because the programming language has changed. The name is related to the computer in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey.
+FreeHAL uses a semantic network and technologies like pattern recognition, stemming, part of speech databases and Hidden Markov Models in order to imitate a human behaviour. FreeHAL learns autonomously. While communicating by keyboard, the program extends its database.  Currently, English and German are supported.
+By using the BOINC platform, new semantic networks for the program are built. FreeHAL@home appears to have terminated operations.
+
+
+== Awards ==
+In 2008, the program won the first prize in the category "Most Popular" at the Chatterbox Challenge, a yearly competition between different similar chatbots.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+There was an article about FreeHAL in the Linux Magazine, Issue 97 from December 2008. In the German magazine com!, the program was on the CD/DVD and in the list of the Top-10-Open-Source programs of the month.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Website archive
+Linux-Magazine Issue 97, p. 94f
+com! Magazine, Issues 4/08 and 5/08 (in German)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_of_Science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Frontiers of Science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_of_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:50.979588+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Frontiers of Science was an illustrated comic strip created by Professor Stuart Butler of the School of Physics at the University of Sydney in collaboration with Robert Raymond, a documentary maker from the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) in 1961. The artist was Andrea Bresciani. After 1970 the comic was illustrated by David Emerson.
+It explained scientific concepts and recent research and in a 3 or 4 panel illustrated strip in an accessible and easily comprehensible way. The strip was syndicated to over 200 newspapers around the world for 25 years, from 1961 to 1987. It was also published as soft cover books. As of 2011, it "retains the record of being the longest-running newspaper science comic strip in the world."
+The strips are archived at Rare Books and Special Collections in Fisher Library at the University of Sydney. The entire series is available for viewing online.  
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Drifting Through Inner Space Ocean deep exploration explained in 5 cartoon strips c late 1960s - at NASA website - Accessed July 2006.
+University of Sydney Outreach projects, Frontiers of Science, - Accessed July 2006.
+Frontiers of Science  Digital Collections, University of Sydney - Accessed April 2019.

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+---
+title: "Funding of science"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Research funding is a term that generally encompasses any funding for scientific research in the areas of natural science, technology, and social science. While different methods can be used to disburse funding, the term generally connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated, with only the most promising and economically viable receiving funding. Usually, it is measured through gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD).  GERD includes R&D performed within a country and funded from abroad but excludes payments for R&D performed abroad.
+The largest share of research funding comes from two major sources: corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies, often known as research councils). A smaller amount of scientific research is funded by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria, and AIDS.
+According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), more than 60% of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. Comparatively, in countries with a relatively lower national GDP, such as Portugal and Mexico, the industry contribution is significantly lower. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in the social sciences and humanities. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than "blue-sky" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).
+
+== History ==
+
+Conducting research requires funds. The funding trend for research has gone from a closed patronage system, to which only a few could contribute, to an open system with multiple funding possibilities.
+In the early Zhou dynasty (-c. 6th century to 221 BCE), government officials used their resources to fund schools of thought of which they were patrons. The bulk of their philosophies is still relevant today, including Confucianism, Legalism, and Taoism.
+During the Mayan Empire (-c. 1200–1250), scientific research was funded for religious purposes. Research there developed a Venus Table, showing precise astronomical data about the position of Venus in the sky. In Cairo (-c. 1283), the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun funded a monumental hospital, patronizing the medical sciences over the religious sciences. Furthermore, Tycho Brahe was given an estate (-c. 1576 – 1580) by his royal patron King Frederik II, which was used to build Uraniborg, an early research institute.
+
+=== The age of the academies ===
+Between 1700 and 1799, scientific academies became central creators of scientific knowledge. Funded by state sponsorship, academic societies were free to manage scientific developments. Membership was exclusive in terms of gender, race, and class, but academies opened the world of research up beyond the traditional patronage system.
+In 1799, French inventor and mechanical engineer Louis-Nicolas Robert patented the paper machine. When he quarreled over invention ownership, he sought financing from the Fourdrinier brothers. In 19th-century Europe, businessmen financed the application of science to industry.
+In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as the pace of technological progress increased before and during the Industrial Revolution, most scientific and technological research was carried out by individual inventors using their own funds. A system of patents was developed to allow inventors a period of time (often twenty years) to commercialize their inventions and recoup a profit, although in practice, many found this difficult.
+The Manhattan Project (1942 – 1946) had cost $27 billion and employed 130,000 people, many of them scientists charged with producing the first nuclear weapons. In 1945, 70 scientists signed the Szilard petition, asking President Truman to make a demonstration of the power of the bomb before using it. Most of the signers lost their jobs in military research.
+In the twentieth century, scientific and technological research became increasingly systematized, as corporations developed and discovered that continuous investment in research and development could be a key element of competitive success. It remained the case, however, that imitation by competitors - circumventing or simply flouting patents, especially those registered abroad - was often just as successful a strategy for companies focused on innovation in matters of organization and production technique, or even in marketing.
+Nowadays, in 2025, a growing number of funders have decided to make research outcomes transparent and accessible in data repositories or Open-access. Moreover, some researchers turn to crowdfunding in search of new projects to fund. Private and public foundations, governments, and others sponsor opportunities for researchers. As new funding sources become available, the research community grows and becomes accessible to a wider and more diverse group of scientists.

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+---
+title: "Funding of science"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Methodology to measure science funding ==
+The guidelines for R&D data collections are laid down in the Frascati Manual published by the OECD. In the publication, R&D denotes three types of activities: basic research, applied research, and experimental development. This definition does not cover innovation, but it may feed into the innovative process. Additionally, the business sector innovation has a dedicated OECD manual.
+The most frequently used measurement for R&D is gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). GERD is often represented in GERD-to-GDP ratios, as it allows for easier comparisons between countries. The data collection for GERD is based on reporting by performers. GERD differentiates according to the funding sector (business, enterprise, government, higher education, private non-profit, rest of the world) and the sector of performance (all funding sectors with the exception of rest of the world, as GERD only measures activity within the territory of a country). The two may coincide, for example, when the government funds government-performed R&D.
+Government funded science may also be measured by the Government budget appropriations and outlays for R&D (GBAORD/ GBARD). GBARD is a funder-based method, it denotes what governments committed to R&D (even if final payment might be different). GERD-source of funding-government and GBARD are not directly comparable. On data collection, GERD is performer based, GBARD is funder. The level of government considered also differs: GERD may include spending by all levels of the government (federal – state – local), whereas GBARD excludes the local level and often lacks state level data. On geographic coverage, GERD takes into account performance within the territory of a country whereas GBARD also payments to the Rest of the world. 
+Furthermore, several comparisons on the effectiveness of both the different sources of funding and sectors of performance as well as their interplay have been made. The analysis often boils down to whether public and private finance show crowding-in or crowding-out patterns.
+
+== Funding types: public and private ==
+
+=== Public/State Funding ===
+
+Public funding refers to activities financed by tax-payers money. This is primarily the case when the source of funds is channeled through government agencies. Higher education institutions are usually not completely publicly financed as they charge tuition fees and may receive funds from non-public sources.
+
+==== Rationale for funding ====
+R&D is a costly, and long-term investment to which disruptions are harmful.
+The public sector has multiple reasons to fund science. The private sector is said to focus on the closer to the market stage of R&D policy, where appropriability hence private returns are high. Basic research is weak on appropriability and so remains risky and under-financed. Consequently, although governmental sponsorship of research may provide support across the R&D value chain, it is often characterized as a market failure induced intervention.   Market incentives to invest in early-stage research are low. The theory of public goods seconds this argument. Publicly funded research often supports research fields where social rate of return may be higher than private rate of return.  Appropriability potential is the potential for an entity to capture the value of an innovation or research outcome. The general free rider problem of public goods is a threat especially in case of global public goods such as climate change research, which may lower incentives to invest by both the private sector but also other governments.  
+In endogenous growth theories, R&D contributes to growth. Some have depicted this relationship in the inverse, claiming that growth drives innovation. As of 2013, science workers applying their (tacit) knowledge may be considered an economic driver. When this knowledge and/or human capital emigrates, countries face the so-called brain–drain. Science policy can assist to avoid this as large shares of governmental R&D is spent on researchers and supporting staff personnel salaries. In this sense, science funding is not only discretionary spending but also has elements of entitlement spending.
+R&D funded and especially performed by the State may allow greater influence over its direction. This is particularly important in the case of R&D contributing to public goods. However, the ability of governments have been criticized over whether they are best positioned to pick winners and losers. In the EU, dedicated safeguards have been enacted under a dedicated form of competition law called State Aid. State Aid safeguards business activities from governmental interventions. This invention was largely driven by the German ordoliberal school as to eliminate state subsidies advocated by the French dirigiste. Threats to global public goods has refueled the debate on the role of governments beyond a mere market failure fixer, the so-called mission-driven policies.
+
+==== Funding modalities ====
+Governments may fund science through different instruments such as: direct subsidies, tax credits, loans, financial instruments, regulatory measures, public procurement etc. While direct subsidies have been the prominent instrument to fund business R&D, since the 2008 financial crisis a shift has taken place in OECD countries in the direction of tax breaks. The explanation seems to lay in the theoretical argument that firms know better, and in the practical benefit of lower administrative burden of such schemes. Depending on the funding type, different modalities to distribute the research funds may be used. For regulatory measures, often the competition/antitrust authorities will rule on exemptions. In case of block funding the funds may be directly allocated to given institutions such as higher education institutions with relative autonomy over their use. For competitive grants, governments are often assisted by research councils to distribute the funds. Research councils are (usually public) bodies that provide research funding in the form of research grants or scholarships. These include arts councils and research councils for the funding of science.
+
+==== List of research councils ====
+An incomplete list of national and international pan-disciplinary public research councils:

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+---
+title: "Funding of science"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Conditionality ====
+In addition to project deliverables, funders also increasingly introduce new eligibility requirements alongside traditional ones such as research integrity/ethics.
+The 2016 Open Science movement, tied funding increasingly tied to data management plans and making data FAIR. The Open Science requirement complements Open Access mandates which in 2025 are widespread.
+The gender dimension also gained ground in recent years. The European Commission mandates research applicants to adopt gender equality plans across their organization. The UK Research and Innovation Global Challenges Research Fund mandates a gender equality statement.
+As of 2022, the European Commission also introduced a "Do No Significant Harm" principle to the Framework Program which aims to curb the environmental footprint of scientific projects. "Do No Significant Harm" has been criticized as coupled with other eligibility requirements it is often characterized as red-tape. Since 2020,  European Commission has been trying to simplify the Framework Program with limited success. Simplification attempts were also taken by the UK Research and Innovation.
+
+==== Process ====
+Often scientists apply for research funding which a granting agency may (or may not) approve to financially support. These grants require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher(s)'s background, the facilities used, the equipment needed, the time involved, and the overall potential of the scientific outcome. The process of grant writing and grant proposing is a somewhat delicate process for both the grantor and the grantee: the grantors want to choose the research that best fits their scientific principles, and the individual grantees want to apply for research in which they have the best chances but also in which they can build a body of work towards future scientific endeavors.
+As of 2009, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council in the United Kingdom devised an alternative method of fund-distribution: the sandpit.
+Most universities have research administration offices to facilitate the interaction between the researcher and the granting agency. "Research administration is all about service—service to our faculty, to our academic units, to the institution, and to our sponsors. To be of service, we first have to know what our customers want and then determine whether or not we are meeting those needs and expectations."
+In the United States of America, the National Council of University Research Administrators serves its members and advances the field of research administration through education and professional development programs, the sharing of knowledge and experience, and by fostering a professional, collegial, and respected community.
+
+==== Hard money versus soft money ====
+In academic contexts, hard money may refer to funding received from a government or other entity at regular intervals, thus providing a steady inflow of financial resources to the beneficiary. The antonym, soft money, refers to funding provided only through competitive research grants and the writing of grant proposals.
+Hard money is usually issued by the government for the advancement of certain projects or for the benefit of specific agencies. Community healthcare, for instance, may be supported by the government by providing hard money. Since funds are disbursed regularly and continuously, the offices in charge of such projects are able to achieve their objectives more effectively than if they had been issued one-time grants.
+Individual jobs at a research institute may be classified as "hard-money positions" or "soft-money positions"; the former are expected to provide job security because their funding is secure in the long term, whereas individual "soft-money" positions may come and go with fluctuations in the number of grants awarded to an institution.
+
+=== Private funding: industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding ===
+
+Private funding for research comes from philanthropists, crowd-funding, private companies, non-profit foundations, and professional organizations. Philanthropists and foundations have been pouring millions of dollars into a wide variety of scientific investigations, including basic research discovery, disease cures, particle physics, astronomy, marine science, and the environment. Privately funded research has been adept at identifying important and transformative areas of scientific research. Many large technology companies spend billions of dollars on research and development each year to gain an innovative advantage over their competitors, though only about 42% of this funding goes towards projects that are considered substantially new, or capable of yielding radical breakthroughs. New scientific start-up companies initially seek funding from crowd-funding organizations, venture capitalists, and angel investors, gathering preliminary results using rented facilities, but aim to eventually become self-sufficient.
+Europe and the United States have both reiterated the need for further private funding within universities. The European Commission highlights the need for private funding via research in policy areas such the European Green Deal and Europe's role in the digital age.
+
+== Criticism of science funding ==
+
+The source of funding may introduce conscious or unconscious biases into a researcher's work. This is highly problematic due to academic freedom in case of universities and regulatory capture in case of government-funded R&D.
+
+=== Conflict of Interest ===

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+---
+title: "Funding of science"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest (COIs) is used by journals to guarantee credibility and transparency of the scientific process. Conflict of interest disclosure, however, is not systematically nor consistently dealt with by journals that publish scientific research results.
+When research is funded by the same agency that can be expected to gain from a favorable outcome there is a potential for biased results and research shows that results are indeed more favorable than would be expected from a more objective view of the evidence. A 2003 systematic review studied the scope and impact of industry sponsorship in biomedical research. The researchers found financial relationships among industry, scientific investigators, and academic institutions widespread. Results showed a statistically significant association between industry sponsorship and pro-industry conclusions and concluded that "Conflicts of interest arising from these ties can influence biomedical research in important ways." A British study found that a majority of the members on national and food policy committees receive funding from food companies.
+In an effort to cut costs, the pharmaceutical industry has turned to the use of private, nonacademic research groups (i.e., contract research organizations [CROs]) which can do the work for less money than academic investigators.  In 2001 CROs came under criticism when the editors of 12 major scientific journals issued a joint editorial, published in each journal, on the control over clinical trials exerted by sponsors, particularly targeting the use of contracts which allow sponsors to review the studies prior to publication and withhold publication of any studies in which their product did poorly. They further criticized the trial methodology stating that researchers are frequently restricted from contributing to the trial design, accessing the raw data, and interpreting the results.
+The Cochrane Collaboration, a worldwide group that aims to provide compiled scientific evidence to aid well informed health care decisions,  conducts systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials of health care interventions and tries to disseminate the results and conclusions derived from them.  A few more recent reviews have also studied the results of non-randomized, observational studies. The systematic reviews are published in the Cochrane Library. A 2011 study done to disclose possible conflicts of interests in underlying research studies used for medical meta-analyses reviewed 29 meta-analyses and found that conflicts of interest in the studies underlying the meta-analyses were rarely disclosed.  The 29 meta-analyses reviewed an aggregate of 509 randomized controlled trials. Of these, 318 trials reported funding sources with 219 (69%) industry funded. 132 of the 509 trials reported author disclosures of conflict of interest, with 91 studies (69%) disclosing industry financial ties with one or more authors. However, the information was seldom reflected in the meta-analyses. Only two (7%) reported funding sources and none reported author-industry ties. The authors concluded, "without acknowledgment of COI due to industry funding or author industry financial ties from RCTs included in meta-analyses, readers' understanding and appraisal of the evidence from the meta-analysis may be compromised."
+In 2003 researchers looked at the association between authors' published positions on the safety and efficacy in assisting with weight loss of olestra, a fat substitute manufactured by the Procter & Gamble (P&G), and their financial relationships with the food and beverage industry.  They found that supportive authors were significantly more likely than critical or neutral authors to have financial relationships with P&G and all authors disclosing an affiliation with P&G were supportive. The authors of the study concluded: "Because authors' published opinions were associated with their financial relationships, obtaining noncommercial funding may be more essential to maintaining objectivity than disclosing personal financial interests."
+A 2005 study in the journal Nature surveyed 3247 US researchers who were all publicly funded (by the National Institutes of Health). Out of the scientists questioned, 15.5% admitted to altering design, methodology or results of their studies due to pressure of an external funding source.
+
+=== Regulatory capture ===
+Private funding may also be channeled to public funders. In 2022, a news story broke following the resignation of Eric Lander, former director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) in the Biden administration, that the charity of former Google executive Eric Schmidt, Schmidt Futures, paid salaries of numerous OSTP employees. Eventually, ethics inquiries were initiated in the OSTP.
+
+=== Efficiency of funding ===
+
+The traditional measurement for efficiency of funding are publication output, citation impact, number of patents, number of PhDs awarded etc. However, the use of journal impact factor has generated a publish-or-perish culture and a theoretical model has been established whose simulations imply that peer review and over-competitive research funding foster mainstream opinion to monopoly. Calls have been made to reform research assessment, most notably in the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment and the Leiden Manifesto for research metrics. The current system also has limitations to measure excellence in the Global South. Novel measurement systems such as the Research Quality Plus has been put forward to better emphasize local knowledge and contextualization in the evaluation of excellence. A wide range of interventions has been proposed to improve science funding. Open peer review can improve the quality of scholarly peer review. A systematic review found a scarcity of randomized controlled trials on peer review interventions.
+Another question is how to allocate funds to different disciplines, institutions, or researchers. A recent study by Wayne Walsh found that "prestigious institutions had on average 65% higher grant application success rates and 50% larger award sizes, whereas less-prestigious institutions produced 65% more publications and had a 35% higher citation impact per dollar of funding."
+
+== Trends ==
+
+In endogenous growth theory, R&D investments contribute to the country's increase in economic growth. Therefore, countries have strong incentives to maintain R&D investments.

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+---
+title: "Funding of science"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== By country ===
+Different countries spend vastly different amounts on research, in both absolute and relative terms. For instance, South Korea and Israel dedicate more than 4% of their national GDP to research and development, while numerous less developed countries allocate less than 1% of their national GDP to R&D. In developed economies, GERD is financed mainly by the business sector, whereas the government and the university sector dominate in less-developed economies. In some countries, funding from the major part of the international community represents up to 20-30% of total GERD, which is likely due to FDI and foreign aid; however, only in the case of Mali it is the main source of funding. Private non-profit is not the main source of funds in any country, but it reaches 10% of total GERD in Colombia and Honduras.
+When comparing annual GERD and GDP Growth, it can be seen that countries with lower GERD are often growing faster. However, as most of these countries are developing, their growth is probably driven by other factors of production. On the other hand, developed countries with a higher share of GERD are usually also the ones that produce positive growth rates. GERD in these countries has a more substantial contribution to growth rate.
+
+=== Recessions ===
+In times of crisis, business R&D tends to act in a procyclical way. Considering that R&D falls under long-term investments, disruptions should ideally be avoided. In the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis, there was a significant public advocacy for the implementation of Keynesian countercyclical reactions; however, this was relatively difficult to achieve for some countries. Due to the nature of Coronavirus disease 2019, the subsequent worldwide pandemic significantly accelerated publicly funded R&D spending in 2020, primarily in the pharmaceutical industry. While a slight decrease in spending was recorded in 2021, it nevertheless remained considerably above the pre-2020 levels. The pandemic made health research and sectors with strategic value-chain dependencies the main target of science funding.
+
+== See also ==
+Adversary evaluation
+Scientific funding advisory bodies (category)
+Funding bias
+Industry funding of academic research
+Intellectual inbreeding
+Metascience
+Science policy
+Scientific pluralism
+Self-Organized Funding Allocation
+Tertiary education#Statistics
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Eisfeld-Reschke, Jörg, Herb, Ulrich, & Wenzlaff, Karsten (2014). Research Funding in Open Science. In S. Bartling & S. Friesike (Eds.), Opening Science (pp. 237–253). Heidelberg: Springer.  doi:10.1007/978-3-319-00026-8_16
+Herb, Ulrich (2014-07-31). "Open science's final frontier". Research Europe Magazine. Archived from the original on 2014-09-03. Retrieved 2014-08-30.
+Martinson, Brian C.; De Vries, Raymond; et al. (2005). "Scientists behaving badly". Nature. 435 (7043): 737–738. Bibcode:2005Natur.435..737M. doi:10.1038/435737a. PMID 15944677. S2CID 4341622.
+Mello, Michelle M.; et al. (2005). "Academic Medical Centers' Standards for Clinical-Trial Agreements with Industry". New England Journal of Medicine. 352 (21): 2202–2210. doi:10.1056/nejmsa044115. PMID 15917385. S2CID 8283797.
+Odlyzko, Andrew (1995-10-04). "The Decline of Unfettered Research". Retrieved 2007-11-02.
+
+== External links ==
+Where to Search for Funding | Science | AAAS, from Science Careers, from the Journal Science.
+ResearchCrossroads Aggregated funding data from the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, NSF, private foundations and the European Union
+Seventh Framework Programme (2007–2013) The European Unions's programme for funding and promoting research at the European level
+CORDIS - the official website of the European Unions's programme for funding and promoting research This website contains comprehensive information on research projects already funded.
+Research Councils UK The portal for the UK-based Research Councils.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net-0.md

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+---
+title: "GPUGRID.net"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:54.654547+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+GPUGRID is a volunteer computing project hosted by Pompeu Fabra University and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It performs full-atom molecular biology simulations that are designed to run on Nvidia's CUDA-compatible graphics processing units.
+
+
+== Former support for PS3s ==
+Support for the PS3's Cell microprocessor and the subsequent PS3GRID project was dropped in 2009 due to updated firmware preventing the installation of required third-party software. This included Linux distributions that are required to run BOINC. The massive throughput of Nvidia GPUs has also made the PS3 client largely redundant. As of September 2009, a mid-range Nvidia GPU ran GPUGRID applications approximately five times faster than the Cell microprocessor.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of volunteer computing projects
+Molecular dynamics
+GPGPU
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Research topics in GPUGRID website's science sections
+GPUGRID's about us Archived 2016-11-04 at the Wayback Machine section
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Geographic information science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:23.258702+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Geographic information science (GIScience, GISc) or geoinformation science is a scientific discipline at the crossroads of computational science, social science, and natural science that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans understand the world, and how it can be captured, organized, and analyzed. It is a sub-field of geography, specifically part of technical geography. It has applications to both physical geography and human geography, although its techniques can be applied to many other fields of study as well as many different industries. 
+As a field of study or profession, it can be contrasted with geographic information systems (GIS), which are the actual repositories of geospatial data, the software tools for carrying out relevant tasks, and the profession of GIS users. That said, one of the major goals of GIScience is to find practical ways to improve GIS data, software, and professional practice; it is more focused on how GIS is applied in real life as opposed to being a geographic information system tool in and of itself. The field is also sometimes called geographical information science.
+British geographer Michael Goodchild defined this area in the 1990s and summarized its core interests, including spatial analysis, visualization, and the representation of uncertainty.  GIScience is conceptually related to geomatics, information science, computer science, and data science, but it claims the status of an independent scientific discipline. Recent developments in the field have expanded its focus to include studies on human dynamics in hybrid physical-virtual worlds, quantum GIScience, the development of smart cities, and the social and environmental impacts of technological innovations. These advancements indicate a growing intersection of GIScience with contemporary societal and technological issues. Overlapping disciplines are: geocomputation, geoinformatics, geomatics and geovisualization.  Other related terms are geographic data science (after data science)
+and geographic information science and technology (GISci&T), with job titles geospatial information scientists and technologists.
+
+
+== Definitions ==
+
+Since its inception in the 1990s, the boundaries between GIScience and cognate disciplines are contested, and different communities might disagree on what GIScience is and what it studies. In particular, Goodchild stated that "information science can be defined as the systematic study according to scientific principles of the nature and properties of information. Geographic information science is the subset of/or information science that is about geographic information." Another influential definition is that by geographic information scientist (GIScientist) David Mark, which states:Geographic Information Science (GIScience) is the basic research field that seeks to redefine geographic concepts and their use in the context of geographic information systems. GIScience also examines the impacts of GIS on individuals and society, and the influences of society on GIS. GIScience re-examines some of the most fundamental themes in traditional spatially oriented fields such as geography, cartography, and geodesy, while incorporating more recent developments in cognitive and information science. It also overlaps with and draws from more specialized research fields such as computer science, statistics, mathematics, and psychology, and contributes to progress in those fields. It supports research in political science and anthropology, and draws on those fields in studies of geographic information and society.
+In 2009, Goodchild summarized the history of GIScience and its achievements and open challenges.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Category:Geographic information scientists
+Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge
+Geostatistics
+Organizations
+
+Association of Geographic Information Laboratories for Europe
+National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis
+UCSB Center for Spatial Studies
+University Consortium for Geographic Information Science
+United States Geospatial Intelligence Foundation
+Journals
+
+GIScience & Remote Sensing
+International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation
+International Journal of Geographical Information Science
+Journal of Spatial Information Science
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website of GIScience
+List of GIScience Conferences Archived 2023-05-30 at the Wayback Machine
+Conference on Spatial Information Theory (COSIT)

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+---
+title: "Geomatics"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:24.428255+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. Surveying engineering was the common name used for geomatics engineering in the past. The term was placed by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under the branch of technical geography, which is geared towards interpreting and communicating spatial data. In Germany, "geodesy and geoinformatics" or "geodesy and geoinformation" is commonly used for describing this discipline. In addition, geospatial engineering is an alternative term to geomatic(s) engineering.
+
+== History and etymology ==
+The term was proposed in French ("géomatique") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. On June 1, 1971, 'geomatics' was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum instituting a "standing committee of geomatics" in the government.
+At the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982, the new classification was further popularised in English by French-Canadian surveyor Michel Paradis in keynote address. Paradis claimed that at the end of the 20th century the needs for geographical information would reach a scope without precedent in history and that, in order to address these needs, it was necessary to integrate in a new discipline both the traditional disciplines of land surveying and the new tools and techniques of data capture, manipulation, storage and diffusion.
+Evolving from its Canadian origins, the term has since been adopted by recognized governmental groups, like the International Organization for Standardization and the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Many other international authorities, such as those in the United States, have shown a preference for the term geospatial technology, which may be defined as a synonym of "geospatial information and communications technology".
+
+== Types of geomatics ==
+Geomatics is an umbrella term that includes the tools and techniques used to analyze the Earth's surface. These can range from land surveying, remote sensing, nautical charts, geographic information systems (GIS), and several other related forms of earth mapping. Some scientists and researchers intend to restrict geomatics to the perspective of surveying and engineering toward geographic information in order to avoid forming a vague concept. Geoinformatics and Geographic information science has been proposed as alternative comprehensive term; however, their popularity is, like geomatics, largely dependent on country.
+
+=== Land surveying ===
+The methodology of land surveying includes the measurement and analysis of points on the ground. These readings relay information regarding the angles, distances, and heights, of the points. It is often regarded as the art and science that helped established land boundaries that cultivated into current, legal property.
+Land surveying is heavily involved with subdivision planning and design, civil engineering, and construction.
+
+=== Geovisualization ===
+Geovisualization combines both cartography and computer science to bring spatial data to life. The interactive tools and techniques used assist in supporting exploration and communicate a finished conclusion. As such, the process of knowledge construction is emphasized, unlike traditional maps. These can be presented in the form of 3D models, time-lapse animations, and manipulated images.
+The computer processing involved allows users to quickly change visual parameters through filter data layers, which produces an image of higher clarity in relation to static, paper maps. In relation to geomatics, a geomatics engineer will gather raw data and geovisualization will make this information easily understandable.
+
+=== Hydro geomatics ===
+The related field of hydrogeomatics covers the area associated with surveying work carried out on, above, or below the surface of the sea or other areas of water. The subfield is otherwise, and more commonly, known as hydrography, which was coined in the mid-16th century.
+One pioneer of hydro geomatics is Alexander Dalrymple, the first hydrographer and was appointed by the British navy in 1795. His job was to prep and print charts for travel, thus contributing to naval and merchant shipping. Dalrymple's history ties directly into the foundational militant ties that the field possesses, and its modern-day scope has widened to include more aspects of hydrogeography from military surveillance to oceanic habitat conservation. After the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) was founded in 1795, the U.S. Naval Observatory and Hydrographic Office (USNO) was officially instituted in 1854, paving the way for safe navigation, global shipping, and defense.
+A U.S. governmental agency called the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is one example of how hydro geomatics/hydrography is applied. Underwater topography (or bathymetry) is sought after, and common geomatics technology like multibeam sonars are used to accomplish seabed mapping.
+
+=== Health geomatics ===
+Health geomatics can improve our understanding of the important relationship between location and health, and thus assist us in Public Health tasks like disease prevention, and also in better healthcare service planning. An important area of research is the use of open data in planning lifesaving activities.
+
+=== Mining geomatics ===
+Mining geomatics is the branch of geomatics dedicated to mining. It focuses on acquiring, processing and analysing spatial data about objects and phenomena in mining environments to support monitoring, modelling, prediction, visualisation and decision-making in mining operations. Its development is increasingly linked with specialized education and the formation of professional competences adapted to the needs of modern mining. 
+A growing number of university departments which were once titled "surveying", "survey engineering" or "topographic science" have re-titled themselves using the terms "geomatics" or "geomatics engineering", while others have switched to program titles such as "spatial information technology", and similar names.
+The rapid progress and increased visibility of geomatics since the 1990s has been made possible by advances in computer hardware, computer science, and software engineering, as well as by airborne and space observation remote-sensing technologies.
+
+=== Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) ===

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+---
+title: "Geomatics"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:24.428255+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Global navigation satellite systems are a collection of geospatial systems that provide global coverage. The technology has a variety of purposes from communications to mobile navigation. The six GNSS constellations in operation are the U.S. GPS Operational Constellation, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) stemming from Russia, the European Galileo, China's BeiDou/Compass, Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), and The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
+
+== Geomatics engineering ==
+
+Geomatics engineering is a rapidly developing engineering discipline which focuses on spatial information (i.e. information that has a location). The location is the primary factor used to integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization. Geomatics engineers design, develop, and operate systems for collecting and analyzing spatial information about the land, the oceans, natural resources, and manmade features. Geomatics engineers or geomatician apply engineering principles to spatial information and implement relational data structures involving measurement sciences, thus using geomatics and acting as spatial information engineers. They sit at the nexus of geography and computer science. A geomatician practices geomatics, by combining "geo", (the earth) with information and automation.
+Geomatics engineers manage local, regional, national and global spatial data infrastructures. Geomatics engineering also involves aspects of Computer Engineering, Software Engineering and Civil Engineering. Geomatic engineers acquire, measure, create, and process data using a geographic information system (GIS) and then model phenomena associated with places. Geomaticians have alternative titles, including Geographic Information System (GIS) technologist, spatial data analyst, city/urban planner and cartographer.
+Geomaticians are often found working in the public sector, in land registry, urban planning departments where they are involved in surveying and cadastral mapping. They also work in the private sector, in mapping companies, publishing houses or in remote sensing companies.
+
+=== Required skills ===
+Geomaticians handle the entire value chain associated with processing geodata. Their work begins with data collection and acquisition. Geomatics specialists must be able to distinguish between topographic methods (e.g., total station or differential GPS) (which involve going to the point to be measured) and remote sensing methods (e.g., photogrammetry or lidar) (remote measurement). They must also be able to perform planimetric measurements (x, y or latitude, longitude), altimetric surveys (z or H), or satellite telemetry measurements (analysis of measurements taken from space). The collected data is then cleaned and made available for further processing.
+
+=== Education ===
+Geomaticians are responsible for verifying the accuracy (spatial and temporal), completeness, and, if verification is impossible (e.g., inaccessible terrain), the plausibility of geodata. Despite attempts at automation, they are still called to calculate the location and the geographic coordinate system, then at least two coordinates: latitude and longitude, and sometimes altitude of entities (points, lines, areas) and their associated attributes (e.g., their nature, area, volume, population, and whether or not they are connected to a drinking water network). Their geodata then undergoes processing and analysis to create data models and thus databases. If necessary, the data is formatted (selection of scale, colors, line thicknesses, and legend) to create maps.
+Skilled geomaticians are in short supply, and there are not sufficient professionals in the pipeline who can distinguish between different data exchange formats, convert them, and evaluate, interpret, and merge data from various sources.
+
+=== Spatial statistics ===
+The work of geomatics engineers includes the analysis of spatial data and statistics. This information models "spatially-indexed dependence structures", which combats the idea of an independent and identically distributed set of data. It is also known as geospatial analytics, and is the information pertaining to a specific location in geospace. The analysis done by geomatics engineers in this field provides actionable insight in accordance to what is being examined.
+
+=== Subdivision planning ===
+Working alongside civil engineers, geomatics engineers will utilize the GNSS and high precision instruments to determine legal and geographic boundaries of an area. The raw data is processed through a Geographic Information System (GIS) database, which will then be used as a source by a team.
+To assess the most optimal layout, the proposed design is run through constraint data such as floodplains, wetlands, and steep slopes. A Subdivision Plat is prepared, which is the legally recorded map illustrating boundaries, dimensions, and associated partitions.
+
+== Impact ==
+Geomatics and the technology associated with it has made several breakthroughs in climate change efforts, population health, and oceanic activities. This application is especially evident in the use of photogrammetry, where images utilized by geomatics can be turned into 3D models. Furthermore, data from geospatial techniques are employed for governmental use to ameliorate the issues on Earth's surface.
+
+=== Sustainability ===
+The ability to interpret geodata is pushing companies in the industry to achieve net-zero emissions. Agreements and plans across the globe promote climate neutrality such as the Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDGs) and the various editions of the United Nations Climate Change conference series.
+The Earth Archive Initiative, launched by Christopher Fisher, aims to create a digital baseline of Earth and mitigate the climate crisis. LiDAR, a remote sensing technology, will be used to carry out scans of the planet's landmass, which estimates to about 30% of the Earth's surface area. The LiDAR scans would provide a dataset of present data available and the Earth's future state. Doing so will assist in understanding and combating the climate change crisis with a visual representation.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Geographic Information Science
+Geoinformatics
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Geomatics at Wikimedia Commons

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+---
+title: "Google Science Fair"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:53.515832+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Google Science Fair was a worldwide (excluding Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, Myanmar/Burma, Syria, Zimbabwe and any other U.S. sanctioned country) online science competition sponsored by Google, Lego, Virgin Galactic, National Geographic and Scientific American. It was an annual event from 2011 to 2018.
+The first Google Science Fair was announced in January 2011; entries were due on April 7, 2011, and judging occurred in July 2011. The competition is open to 13- to 18-year-old students around the globe, who formulate a hypothesis, perform an experiment, and present their results. All students had to have an internet connection and a Google Account to participate, and the projects had to be in English, German, Italian, Spanish, or French. The final submission had to include ten sections, which were the summary, an "About Me" page, the steps of the project, and a works cited page.
+Entries were judged on the student's presentation, question, hypothesis, research, experiment, data, observations, and conclusion. Prizes were awarded to three finalists. The grand prize included a National Geographic trip to the Galapagos Islands, and a US$50,000 scholarship; finalists received a US$15,000 scholarship and assorted packages from sponsoring organizations.
+
+== Guest interviews ==
+The on-line site also contains a number of highlighted guest interviews with selected individuals, each well established and prominent in their field of science, with the aim being for them to act as inspiration to young students. The individuals chosen include Mitch Resnick, Spencer Wells, Kevin Warwick, and Mariette DiChristina.
+
+== 2011 Winners ==
+Shree Bose, a 17-year-old girl from Fort Worth, Texas, won the grand prize and $50,000 for her research on the chemotherapy drug, cisplatin, that is commonly taken by women with ovarian cancer, tackling the problem of cancer cells growing resistant to cisplatin over time.
+Naomi Shah of Portland, OR, won the age 15–16 category with a study of the effects of air quality on lungs, particularly for people who have asthma. Ms. Shah recruited 103 test subjects, performed 24-hour air quality measurements at their homes and workplaces and had each blow into a device that measured the force of their breath.
+Lauren Hodge of York, PA, won the age 13–14 category for research on whether marinades reduce the amount of cancer-causing compounds produced by the grilling of meat. She found that lemon juice and brown sugar cut the level of carcinogens sharply, while soy sauce increased them.
+People around the world (90 countries) had the opportunity to vote for their favorite projects in Google's online voting gallery. Google has had more than 100,000 votes  and the competition was highly competitive. Among the 60 semi-finalists, Nimal Subramanian received the highest number of votes and was awarded the People’s Choice Award. His project, Cancer Busters, received significant public support. As a result of this achievement, he was awarded a $10,000 scholarship.
+
+== 2012 Winners ==
+Brittany Wenger, who was 17, won the grand prize with her "Global Neural Network Cloud Service for Breast Cancer". Designed to noninvasively diagnose malignant cancerous tumors, it successfully detected over 99% of malignant breast tumors in a test set. She received $50,000, a trip to the Galapagos Islands, mentoring and internship opportunities for winning the competition.
+Iván Hervías Rodríguez, Marcos Ochoa, and Sergio Pascual, all of Spain, won the 15–16 age group using microscopy to examine microscopic creatures in aquatic ecosystems.
+Jonah Kohn won the age 13–14 group by designing and building a device designed to enhance the listening experience of those with hearing loss. His device attached to different parts of the body, translating sound into tactile stimulation.
+
+== 2013 Winners ==
+The winners of the 2013 Google Science Fair were:
+13–14 age category: Viney Kumar (Australia) — The PART (Police and Ambulances Regulating Traffic) Program. Viney's project looked for new ways to provide drivers with more notice when an emergency vehicle is approaching, so they can take evasive action to get out of the emergency vehicle's way.
+15–16 age category: Ann Makosinski (Canada) — The Hollow Flashlight. Using Peltier tiles and the temperature difference between the palm of the hand and ambient air, Ann designed a flashlight that provides bright light without batteries or moving parts.
+17–18 age category Grand Prize Winner: Eric Chen (USA) — Computer-aided Discovery of Novel Influenza Endonuclease Inhibitors to Combat Flu Pandemic. Combining computer modeling and biological studies, Eric's project looks at influenza endonuclease inhibitors as leads for a new type of anti-flu medicine, effective against all influenza viruses including pandemic strains.
+
+== 2014 Winners ==
+The 2014 Google Science Fair started accepting entries on February 12, 2014, and the entries closed on May 13, 2014. And the results for the local, regional and Science in Action award nominees were declared. The Grand Prize was won by three girls from Ireland, Ciara Judge (16), Emer Hickey (16) and Sophie Healy-Thow (17). They were the first group winners of the competition and the youngest winners to date (they also won the 15–16 age category prize). Their project was entitled 'Combating the Global Food Crisis: Diazotroph Bacteria as a Cereal Crop Growth Promoter.'
+The 13–14 age category was won by Mihir Garimella (14) from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania with a project titled 'Fruit-fly Inspired Robots.' Hayley Todesco (17) of Canada won the 17–18 age category with her project titled 'Cleaning up Oil Sands Waste.'
+Along with the overall prizes for each category, a number of special awards were also announced. Kenneth Shinozuka (15) was declared as the Science In Action Award winner in recognition of the practical potential of his project 'Wearable Sensors for Aging Society.' Arsh Shah Dilbagi (16) from India won the Voter's Choice Award for creating an augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) device that converts breath into words, enabling mute people to speak. Local Award winners included Shannon Tan (18), who won the award in Singapore for his research on using treated materials from crustacean shells to purify wastewater from heavy industries.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-1.md

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+---
+title: "Google Science Fair"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:53.515832+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== 2015 Winners ==
+The 2015 Google Science Fair closed for entries on May 18, 2015, with regional finalists announced in London on July 7, 2015. These included Lauren McKenzie (14) who built an automatic soil watering system, Shadab Karnachi (14) who designed a low-cost gaming device for people with visual impairments, Nishanth Kumar (16) who designed a low-cost 'hands-free' mouse for use by people with developmental disabilities, and Peter He (14) who developed an innovative wireless virtual reality system.
+The global finalists representing 10 countries were announced on August 4, 2015, and were as follows:
+Bosnia-Herzegovina
+Anela Arifi and Ilda Ismaili – A system for alternative fuel production and storage using chicken feathers
+Canada
+Isabella O'Brien – Trouble in Paradise: Recycling shell waste to reduce ocean acidification
+Calvin Rieder – Extracting clean water from air: solar-powered solution for providing potable water
+France
+Eliott Sarrey – Bot2Karot: gardening through a smartphone-activated robot
+India
+Lalita Prasida Sripada Srisai – Absorbing water pollutants with corn cobs
+Lithuania
+Laura Steponavičiūtė – Detecting the environmental dangers of nanomaterials
+Russia
+Alexey Tarasov - Using ternary logic on current electronics
+Singapore
+Girish Kumar – RevUp: improving learning through auto-generated study questions
+Zhilin Wang – Zinc air batteries for affordable, renewable energy storage
+Taiwan
+Wei-Tung Chen – Calculating the 3D position of an object from a single source
+Yo Hsu and Jing-Tong Wang – Knock on fuel: detecting impurities in gasoline with sound pattern analysis
+United Kingdom
+Krtin Nithiyanandam – Improving diagnosis and treatment for Alzheimer's with new molecular "Trojan Horse"
+Matthew Reid – The ArduOrbiter: a lightweight, open source satellite
+United States
+Anika Cheerla – Automated and accurate early-diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease
+Anurudh Ganesan – VAXXWAGON: a reliable way to store and transport vaccines
+Olivia Hallisey [WINNER] – Temperature-independent, inexpensive and rapid detection of Ebola
+Deepika Kurup – Solar powered silver combating bacteria in drinking water
+Pranav Sivakumar – Automated search for gravitationally lensed quasars
+Adriel Sumathipala – Creating a simple diagnostic tool for earlier detection of cardiac disease
+Tanay Tandon – Delivering rapid, portable and automated blood morphology tests
+The winners were announced on September 21, 2015. The Grand Prize was won by Olivia Hallisey (16) with her project ‘Temperature-Independent, Portable, and Rapid Field Detection of Ebola via a Silk-Derived Lateral-Flow System’.  The Google Technologist Award was won by Girish Kumar (17) for his project ‘Revup: Automatically Generating Questions from Educational Texts’ and the Incubator Award was won by Elliott Sarrey (14) with his project ‘Bot2karot: Manage Your Vegetable Garden via Your Smartphone’. The Lego Education Builder Award won by Anurudh Ganesan (15), the Virgin Galactic Pioneer Award won by Pranav Sivakumar (15), the Scientific American Innovator Award won by Krtin Nithiyanandam (15), the National Geographic Explorer Award won by Deepika Kurup (17) and the Community Impact Award won by Lalita Prasida.
+
+== 2016 Winners ==
+The 2016 Google Science Fair closed its entries on May 17, 2016, the Global 16 Finalist were announced on August 11, 2016. The final event took place during 24 to 27 September 2016 at Mountain View, California. Sixteen finalists competed for top five awards. The first two rounds had two age groups 13–15 and 16–18. However, unlike previous years, top awards during the finalist event did not distinguish between the two age groups of the previous rounds, thus making it particularly challenging event for the contestant compared to all previous years.
+The Grand Prize was won by Kiara Nirghin (16) of South Africa for her project 'Fighting Drought with Fruit'. The Lego Education Builder award was won by Anushka Naiknaware (13) of United States, the youngest contestant to win a top award ever, for 'Smart Wound Care for the Future'. The National Geographic Explorer award was won by Mphatso Simbao (18) of Zambia.  The Scientific Innovator Award was won by a team of three for 'Fighting Foam Waste with Recycled Filters' from the United States [Ashton Cofer (14), Luke Clay (14) and Julie Bray (14)]. The Virgin Galactic Pioneer award was won by Charlie Fenske (16) for 'Making Rockets more Efficient', also from the United States.
+
+== 2017 Winners ==
+The competition did not begin as usual in May, 2017. Starting from the late summer, the official website stated that "We're conducting some experiments" and "Coming Fall 2017". The submissions of competition in 2018 began on 13 September 2018.
+
+== 2018 Winners ==
+The Google Science Fair returned with 179 different prizes available for 2018–19. It opened for entries on September 13, 2018, and closed its entries on December 12, 2018. State award winners were announced in March 2019, regional award winners in April 2019, and global finalists in May 2019. On July 29, 2019, the top five awards were issued for students and one for an inspiring educator. The Google Grand Prize, featuring an award of a $50,000 educational scholarship, went to Fionn Ferreira, of Ireland. His project was titled "An investigation into the removal of microplastics from water using ferrofluids." The National Geographic Explorer award was won by A U Nachiketh Kumar and Aman K A, of India, for finding an eco-friendly way to coagulate rubber. The Lego Education Award was won by Daniel Kazantsev of the Russian Federation, who wanted to find a better way to help those who are hearing impaired to communicate with the world around them. The Scientific American Award was won by Tuan Dolmen of Turkey, who found a way to harness energy from tree vibrations. The Galactic Pioneer Award was won by Celestine Wenardy of Indonesia, for creating a low-cost and non-invasive glucose meter.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Science fair
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Previous Winners

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic-0.md

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+---
+title: "GridRepublic"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:56.172958+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+GridRepublic is a BOINC Account Manager. It focuses on creating a clean and simple way to join and interact with BOINC. GridRepublic was started with a mission to raise public awareness and participation in volunteer computing with BOINC. GridRepublic was formed in 2004 by Matthew Blumberg as a mechanism to control the multiple projects from one place. The code for the BOINC software had to be redesigned to allow for the Account Manager system to be implemented.
+GridRepublic's website has won numerous awards including being named finalist at the 2007 SXSW Interactive Festival and the 2008 Stockholm Challenge.  GridRepublic has also been the recipients of a Google Grant allowing for advertising through Google.
+
+
+== Projects ==
+GridRepublic supports a wide range of the BOINC projects. The list of supported projects and the development status of projects are periodically updated.
+Some of its popular projects include:
+
+Climateprediction.net
+Climate change modeling on personal computers
+Einstein@home
+Pulsar stars from LIGO and GEO data
+Rosetta@home
+Protein folding research
+SETI@home
+Searching radio and light data for signs of intelligent life
+
+
+== Software ==
+GridRepublic is a non-profit organisation, an online application, and software.  The software is open source and a customized version of BOINC.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash-0.md

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+---
+title: "HashClash"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:57.521061+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+HashClash was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform to find collisions in the MD5 hash algorithm. It was based at Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at the Eindhoven University of Technology, and Marc Stevens initiated the project as part of his master's degree thesis.
+The project ended after Stevens defended his M.Sc. thesis in June 2007.  However, SHA1 was added later, and the code repository was ported to git in 2017.
+The project was used to create a rogue certificate authority certificate in 2009.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC)
+List of volunteer computing projects
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+HashClash
+HashClash at Stevens' home page
+Create your own MD5 collisions on AWS, Nat McHugh's blog

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer-0.md

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+---
+title: "Help Conquer Cancer"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:58.763823+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Help Conquer Cancer is a volunteer computing project that runs on the BOINC platform. It is a joint project of the Ontario Cancer Institute and the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute. It is also the first project under World Community Grid to run with a GPU counterpart.
+
+
+== Project Purpose ==
+The goal is to enhance the efficiency of protein X-ray crystallography, which will enable researchers to determine the structure of many cancer-related proteins faster.  This will lead to improving the understanding of the function of these proteins, and accelerate the development of new pharmaceutical drugs.
+
+
+== See also ==
+BOINC
+List of volunteer computing projects
+World Community Grid
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Help Conquer Cancer Archived 2010-01-17 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy-0.md

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+---
+title: "Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:59.938654+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy is a volunteer computing project that runs on the BOINC platform. 
+It is a joint effort of the French muscular dystrophy charity, L'Association française contre les myopathies; and L'Institut de biologie moléculaire et cellulaire (Molecular and Cellular Biology Institute).
+
+
+== Project purpose ==
+Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy studies the function of various proteins that are produced by the two hundred genes known to be involved in the production of neuromuscular proteins by modelling the protein-protein interactions of the forty thousand relevant proteins that are listed in the Protein Data Bank.  More specifically, it models how a protein would be affected when another protein or a ligand docks with it. 
+
+
+== Scientific publications ==
+Decrypting protein surfaces by combining evolution, geometry, and molecular docking. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2019).
+Hidden partners: Using cross-docking calculations to predict binding sites for proteins with multiple interactions. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2018).
+Protein social behavior makes a stronger signal for partner identification than surface geometry. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2017).
+Great interactions: How binding incorrect partners can teach us about protein recognition and function. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2016).
+Protein-Protein Interactions in a Crowded Environment: An Analysis via Cross-Docking Simulations and Evolutionary Information. PLOS Computational Biology (2013).
+From Dedicated Grid to Volunteer Grid: Large Scale Execution of a Bioinformatics Application. Journal of Grid Computing (2009).
+Joint Evolutionary Trees: A Large-Scale Method To Predict Protein Interfaces Based on Sequence Sampling. PLOS Computational Biology (2009).
+Identification of Protein Interaction Partners and Protein–Protein Interaction Sites. Journal of Molecular Biology (2008).
+
+
+== See also ==
+BOINC
+List of volunteer computing projects
+Muscular dystrophy
+World Community Grid
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge-0.md

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+---
+title: "Helsinki Challenge"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:01.097369+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Helsinki Challenge is a science-based competition and idea accelerator which brings together the academic community and society at large to solve the world's grand challenges in cooperation. The competition goal is not only to create new scientific information, but to influence society.
+Multidisciplinary teams consisting of experts from the academic and artistic communities, the business world, the public and third sectors, media and other actors of the society are welcome to take part in the competition. Participating teams are evaluated by the jury using the following criteria: originality, creativity, impact, focus on solutions and use of science-based methods. The competition prize is 375,000 euros and it is meant for the implementation of the solution.
+Helsinki Challenge was held for the first time in 2015. In 2017, the competition is organised by the University of Helsinki in collaboration with Aalto University, Hanken School of Economics, University of Eastern Finland, University of Jyväskylä, University of Oulu, University of the Arts Helsinki, University of Turku, University of Vaasa and Åbo Akademi University.
+
+
+== Helsinki Challenge 2014–2015 ==
+The first ever Helsinki Challenge was organised by the University of Helsinki and celebrated the University's 375th anniversary in 2015. The first Helsinki Challenge competition themes were: environmental change, health and wellbeing, future learning, global Helsinki and new world view.
+
+
+=== Semifinal 2014–2015 ===
+Out of 80 proposals, a list of 20 semifinalists were announced in December 2014. Teams’ competition ideas ranged from developing tools to analyze big data on the Finnish discussion forum Suomi24 to studying our expectations of robot morality.
+
+
+==== Semifinalist teams ====
+Future Organization, team leader Veikko Eranti
+
+Climate Whirl, team leader Eija Juurola
+
+Sustainability tracker, team leader Kaisa Korhonen-Kurki
+
+Play Learn Heal, team leader Kristiina Kumpulainen
+
+Moralities of Intelligent Machines, team leader Michael Laakasuo
+
+The Citizen Mindscapes, team leader Krista Lagus
+
+Ground and Growth, team leader Kristina Lindström
+
+Engaging Future Workplace, team leader Kirsti Lonka
+
+Lab Impact Africa, team leader Christina Lyra
+
+Higher Education Unbounded, team leader Katalin Miklossy
+
+Urban Academy, team leader Jari Niemelä
+
+Tell Us, team leader Maria Niemi
+
+Biodiversity Now, team leader Markku Ollikainen
+
+Helsinki Sleep Factory, team leader Anu-Katriina
+
+Viewfinder, team leader Paavo Pylkkänen
+
+SafePreg – Health into Next Generation, team leader Katri Räikkönen
+
+NEMO - Natural Emotionality in Digital Interaction, team leader Katri Saarikivi
+
+Generation Green, team leader Tiina Sikanen
+
+The Happiness Project, team leader Laura Visapää
+
+Genetic Correction of Inherited Hemoglobin Disease, team leader Kirmo Wartiovaara
+
+
+=== Final 2014–2015 ===
+In October 2015, the five finalist teams were chosen:  Moralities of Intelligent Machines, Biodiversity Now, Helsinki Sleep Factory, SafePreg – Health into Next Generation and NEMO - Natural Emotionality in Digital Interaction.  The jury for the final included Chancellor Thomas Wilhelmsson (chair), Pro-Vice Chancellor of Education Sally Mapstone from the University of Oxford, Professor of Practice Pasi Sahlberg from Harvard University’s Harvard Graduate School of Education, Director Ulrich Weinberg from the Hasso Plattner Institute School of Design Thinking and President Mikko Kosonen of the Finnish Innovation Fund SITRA.
+
+
+==== Winner teams ====
+The €375,000 prize for the science-based idea competition Helsinki Challenge was divided between two teams. The winner was NEMO – Natural Emotionality in Digital Interaction, which received €250,000, while the runner-up, Biodiversity Now, received €125,000. The prize money is intended for realising the team's idea.
+NEMO is developing new ways to digitise and transmit emotion online. The team is planning small add-ons for digital interaction platforms that would consider emotions. This way participants in online discussions could see or even experience the emotions of others in a new way that would be equivalent to natural interaction. The team wants to create an open protocol for emotion transmission for any coder to use for building new empathy-enabling applications.
+Biodiversity Now team wants to establish a Finnish habitat bank so that, for example, companies reducing biodiversity through a construction project could offset this by increasing biodiversity elsewhere.
+
+
+== Helsinki Challenge 2016–2017 ==
+The second Helsinki Challenge was kicked off in August 2016. The winner will be announced in conjunction with the centennial of Finland's independence in 2017. The new Helsinki Challenge themes: Sustainable Plant, Urban Future and People in Change are linked to the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The intention is to create solutions for future wellbeing through cooperation with a range of different institutions.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Helsinki Challenge's official website Archived 2015-06-27 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md

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+---
+title: "Homogeneity and heterogeneity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:56.217762+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one that is heterogeneous is distinctly nonuniform in at least one of these qualities.
+
+
+== Etymology and spelling ==
+
+The words homogeneous and heterogeneous come from Medieval Latin homogeneus and heterogeneus, from Ancient Greek ὁμογενής (homogenēs) and  ἑτερογενής (heterogenēs), from ὁμός (homos, "same") and ἕτερος (heteros, "other, another, different") respectively, followed by γένος (genos, "kind"); -ous is an adjectival suffix.
+Alternate spellings omitting the last -e- (and the associated pronunciations) are common, but mistaken: homogenous is strictly a biological/pathological term which has largely been replaced by homologous.  But use of homogenous to mean homogeneous has seen a rise since 2000, enough for it to now be considered an "established variant". Similarly, heterogenous is a spelling traditionally reserved to biology and pathology, referring to the property of an object in the body having its origin outside the body.
+
+
+== Scaling ==
+The concepts are the same to every level of complexity.  From atoms to galaxies, plants, animals, humans, and other living organisms all share both a common or unique set of complexities. 
+Hence, an element may be homogeneous on a larger scale, compared to being heterogeneous on a smaller scale. This is known as an effective medium approximation.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Various disciplines understand heterogeneity, or being heterogeneous,  in different ways.
+
+
+=== Biology ===
+
+
+==== Environmental heterogeneity ====
+
+Environmental heterogeneity is a hypernym for different environmental factors that contribute to the diversity of species, like climate, topography, and land cover. Biodiversity is correlated with geodiversity on a global scale. Heterogeneity in geodiversity features and environmental variables are indicators of environmental heterogeneity. They drive biodiversity at local and regional scales. 
+Scientific literature in ecology contains a big number of different terms for environmental heterogeneity, often undefined or conflicting in their meaning. Habitat diversity and habitat heterogeneity are a synonyms of environmental heterogeneity.
+
+
+=== Chemistry ===
+
+
+==== Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures ====
+
+In chemistry, a heterogeneous mixture consists of either or both of 1) multiple states of matter or 2) hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances in one mixture; an example of the latter would be a mixture of water, octane, and silicone grease. Heterogeneous solids, liquids, and gases may be made homogeneous by melting, stirring, or by allowing time to pass for diffusion to distribute the molecules evenly. For example, adding dye to water will create a heterogeneous solution at first, but will become homogeneous over time. Entropy allows for heterogeneous substances to become homogeneous over time.
+A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture of two or more compounds. Examples are: mixtures of sand and water or sand and iron filings, a conglomerate rock, water and oil, a salad, trail mix, and concrete (not cement). A mixture can be determined to be homogeneous when everything is settled and equal, and the liquid, gas, the object is one color or the same form. Various models have been proposed to model the concentrations in different phases. The phenomena to be considered are mass rates and reaction.
+
+
+==== Homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions ====
+Homogeneous reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants and products are in the same phase, while heterogeneous reactions have reactants in two or more phases. Reactions that take place on the surface of a catalyst of a different phase are also heterogeneous. A reaction between two gases or two miscible liquids is homogeneous. A reaction between a gas and a liquid, a gas and a solid or a liquid and a solid is heterogeneous.
+
+
+=== Geology ===
+Earth is a heterogeneous substance in many aspects; for instance, rocks (geology) are inherently heterogeneous, usually occurring at the micro-scale and mini-scale.
+
+
+=== Linguistics ===
+
+In formal semantics, homogeneity is the phenomenon in which plural expressions imply "all" when asserted but "none" when negated. For example, the English sentence "Robin read the books" means that Robin read all the books, while "Robin didn't read the books" means that she read none of them. Neither sentence can be asserted if Robin read exactly half of the books. This is a puzzle because the negative sentence does not appear to be the classical negation of the sentence. A variety of explanations have been proposed including that natural language operates on a trivalent logic.
+
+
+=== Information technology ===
+With information technology, heterogeneous computing occurs in a network comprising different types of computers, potentially with vastly differing memory sizes, processing power and even basic underlying architecture.
+
+
+=== Mathematics and statistics ===
+
+In algebra, homogeneous polynomials have the same number of factors of a given kind.
+In the study of binary relations, a homogeneous relation R is on a single set (R ⊆ X × X) while a heterogeneous relation concerns possibly distinct sets (R ⊆ X × Y,  X = Y or X ≠ Y).
+In statistical meta-analysis, study heterogeneity is when multiple studies on an effect are measuring somewhat different effects due to differences in subject population, intervention, choice of analysis, experimental design, etc.; this can cause problems in attempts to summarize the meaning of the studies.
+
+
+=== Medicine ===
+
+In medicine and genetics, a genetic or allelic heterogeneous condition is one where the same disease or condition can be caused, or contributed to, by several factors, or in genetic terms, by varying or different genes or alleles.
+In cancer research, cancer cell heterogeneity is thought to be one of the underlying reasons that make treatment of cancer difficult.
+
+
+=== Physics ===
+
+In physics, "heterogeneous" is understood to mean "having physical properties that vary within the medium".
+
+
+=== Sociology ===
+In sociology, "heterogeneous" may refer to a society or group that includes individuals of differing ethnicities, cultural backgrounds, sexes, or ages.  Diverse is the more common synonym in the context.
+
+
+=== Ecology ===
+In landscape ecology, heterogeneity refers to the different elements of a system. Heterogeneous systems support higher biodiversity and is a target for many landscape restoration efforts.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Complete spatial randomness
+Heterologous
+Epidemiology
+Spatial analysis
+Statistical hypothesis testing
+Homogeneity blockmodeling
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+The following cited pages in this book cover the meaning of "homogeneity" across disciplines: Morris, Christopher G. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Gulf Professional Publishing. pp. 1039, 1040. ISBN 0-12-200400-0. Homogeneity in physics.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md

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+---
+title: "Houston, we have a problem"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:36.579202+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Houston, we have a problem" is a popular misquote of a phrase spoken during Apollo 13, a NASA mission in the Apollo space program and the third mission intended to land on the Moon. After an explosion occurred on board the spacecraft en route to the Moon around 56 hours into the mission, Jack Swigert, the command module pilot, reported to Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas: "Okay, Houston ... we've had a problem here." After Swigert was prompted to repeat his words by Jack R. Lousma, the capsule communicator at Mission Control, Jim Lovell, the mission commander, responded: "Ah, Houston, we've had a problem."
+The 1995 film Apollo 13 used the slight misquotation "Houston, we have a problem" in its dramatization of the mission, since it had become the popularly expected phrase. The phrase has been informally used to describe the emergence of an unforeseen problem, often with a sense of ironic understatement.
+
+
+== Background ==
+
+The Apollo 13 Flight Journal lists the timestamps and dialogue between the astronauts and Mission Control.
+
+055:55:19 Swigert: Okay, Houston ...
+055:55:19 Lovell: ... Houston...
+055:55:20 Swigert: ... we've had a problem here. [Pause.]
+055:55:28 Lousma: This is Houston. Say again, please.
+055:55:35 Lovell: [Garble.] Ah, Houston, we've had a problem. We've had a Main B Bus Undervolt.
+
+In Chapter 13 of Apollo Expeditions to the Moon (1975), Jim Lovell recalls the event: "Jack Swigert saw a warning light that accompanied the bang, and said, 'Houston, we've had a problem here.' I came on and told the ground that it was a main B bus undervolt. The time was 21:08 hours on April 13."
+
+
+== In media ==
+
+In the 1995 film Apollo 13, the actual quote was shortened to "Houston, we have a problem". Screenwriter William Broyles Jr. explained that the verb tense actually used "wasn't as dramatic". Broyles and linguist Naomi S. Baron noted that the actual line spoken would not work well in a suspense movie. Movie viewers already knew what had happened, while Mission Control did not at the time. The quote ranked at No. 50 on AFI's 100 Greatest Movie Quotes in June 2005.
+
+
+== See also ==
+"One small step" (quote)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+"¿Cuándo se pronunció la famosa frase "Houston, tenemos un problema"?" [When was the famous phrase "Houston, we have a problem" uttered?] (in Spanish). April 13, 2010. Archived from the original on August 22, 2016. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
+"Spacelog Apollo 13". Archived from the original on June 6, 2016. Retrieved July 5, 2016.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3-0.md

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+---
+title: "Hyperaccumulators table – 3"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:07.339773+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This list covers hyperaccumulators, plant species which accumulate, or are tolerant of, radionuclides (Cd, Cs-137, Co, Pu-238, Ra, Sr, U-234, 235, 238), hydrocarbons and organic solvents (Benzene, BTEX, DDT, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, Fluoranthene, MTBE, PCB, PCNB, TCE and by-products), and inorganic compounds (Potassium ferrocyanide).
+See also:
+
+Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Ag, Al, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Se, Zn
+Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel
+
+
+== Notes ==
+Uranium: The symbol for Uranium is sometimes given as Ur instead of U. According to Ulrich Schmidt and others, plants' concentration of uranium is considerably increased by an application of citric acid, which solubilizes the uranium (and other metals).
+Radionuclides: Cs-137 and Sr-90 are not removed from the top 0.4 meters of soil even under high rainfall, and migration rate from the top few centimeters of soil is slow.
+Radionuclides: Plants with mycorrhizal associations are often more effective than non-mycorrhizal plants at the uptake of radionuclides.
+Radionuclides: In general, soils containing higher amounts of organic matter will allow plants to accumulate higher amounts of radionuclides. See also note on Lolium multiflorum in Paasikallio 1984. Plant uptake is also increased with a higher cation exchange capacity for Sr-90 availability, and a lower base saturation for uptake of both Sr-90 and Cs-137.
+Radionuclides: Fertilizing the soil with nitrogen if needed will indirectly increase the take-up of radionuclides by generally boosting the plant's overall growth and more specifically roots' growth. But some fertilizers such as K or Ca compete with the radionuclides for cation exchange sites, and will not increase the take-up of radionuclides.
+Radionuclides: Zhu and Smolders, lab test: Cs uptake is mostly influenced by K supply. The uptake of radiocaesium depends mainly on two transport pathways on plant root cell membranes: the K+ transporter and the K+ channel pathway. Cs is likely transported by the K+ transport system. When external concentration of K is limited to low levels, le K+ transporter shows little discrimination against Cs+; if K supply is high, the K+ channel is dominant and shows high discrimination against Cs+. Caesium is very mobile within the plant, but the ratio Cs/K is not uniform within the plant. Phytoremediation as a possible option for the decontamination of caesium-contaminated soils is limited mainly by that it takes tens of years and creates large volumes of waste.
+Alpine pennycress or Alpine Pennygrass is found as Alpine Pennycrest in (some books).
+The references are so far mostly from academic trial papers, experiments and generally of exploration of that field.
+Radionuclides: Broadley and Willey find that across 30 taxa studied, Gramineae and Chenopodiaceae show the strongest correlation between Rb (K) and Cs concentration. The fast-growing Chenopodiaceae discriminate approx. 9 times less between Rb and Cs than the slow-growingGramineae, and this correlate with highest and lowest concentrations achieved respectively.
+Caesium: In Chernobyl-derived radioactivity, the amount of contamination is dependent on the roughness of bark, absolute bark surface and the existence of leaves during the deposition. The major contamination of the shoots is from direct deposition on the trees.
+
+
+== Annotated References ==
+
+
+== Links to the other sections ==
+Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Al, Ag, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Mn, Hg, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Pt, Se, Zn
+Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3-0.md

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+---
+title: "IARC group 3"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:08.474086+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+IARC group 3 substances, chemical mixtures and exposure circumstances are those that can not be classified in regard to their carcinogenicity to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the level of evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans, but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category.
+The IARC Monographs on which this list is based assess the hazard linked to the agents, they do not assess the cancer risk of the agents. The list is up-to-date as of January 2024.
+
+
+== Agents and groups of agents ==
+
+
+=== A ===
+
+
+=== B ===
+
+
+=== C ===
+
+
+=== D ===
+
+
+=== E–G ===
+
+
+=== H–L ===
+
+
+=== M ===
+
+
+=== N–O ===
+
+
+=== P ===
+
+
+=== Q–R ===
+
+
+=== S ===
+
+
+=== T ===
+
+
+=== U–Z ===
+
+
+== Mixtures ==
+
+
+== Exposure circumstances ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+IARC group 1
+IARC group 2A
+IARC group 2B
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Description of the list of classifications Archived 2013-07-28 at the Wayback Machine, IARC
+List of Classifications (latest version)
+List of classifications by cancer site Archived 2012-09-20 at the Wayback Machine (last updated on 5 November 2015)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ibercivis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:02.340025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ibercivis was a volunteer computing platform which allows internet users to participate in scientific research by donating unused computer cycles to run scientific simulations and other tasks. The original project, which became operational in 2008, was a scientific collaboration between the Portuguese and Spanish governments, but it is open to the general public and scientific community, both within and beyond the Iberian Peninsula. The project's name is a portmanteau of Iberia and the Latin word civis, meaning 'citizen'.
+In April 2020, the volunteer computing platform was restarted by the Ibercivis Foundation and the Spanish National Research Council in order to screen existing drugs for antiviral activity against Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic.
+
+== History ==
+Ibercivis was developed in Spain with the cooperation of the Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems at the University of Zaragoza, CIEMAT, CETA-CIEMAT, the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and RedIris. The project tasks are issued by different scientific and technological centers in Spain with the aim of creating a functional platform for volunteer-based scientific computing. The project is a European counterpart to the successful United States-based SETI@home and Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) volunteer computing projects.
+Ibercivis' predecessor, the University of Zaragoza-based volunteer computing project Zivis, began operation in 2007, and Ibercivis itself started operating in June 2008. The Zivis project was a local volunteer computing application funded by the ayuntamiento (city council) of the city of Zaragoza. The larger-scale Ibercivis infrastructure has been used for a variety of calculating applications, including nuclear fusion research, protein folding and materials simulations. In July 2009, the Ibercivis platform was extended to Portugal following an agreement signed by the governments of both countries during the Luso-Spanish Summit held in Zamora, Spain, in January 2009. Several Portuguese institutions subsequently affiliated themselves with Ibercivis, including the Ministry of Science, the Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology at the University of Coimbra, and the LIP experimental high-energy physics laboratory.
+In April 2020, a new Ibercivis project was launched to support researchers efforts to fight Coronavirus disease 2019.
+
+=== Number of participants ===
+At its inception in June 2008, Ibercivis had 3,000 registered users hosting its various projects. By December 2012, this figure had risen to over 19,800, distributed across 124 countries. There were around 55,000 individual hosting devices registered with the project, of which over 3,600 were active on a weekly basis.
+As of April 2020, there were 917 active users and 2375 active hosts in the new inception of Ibercivis.
+
+== Projects ==
+Ibercivis was intended to run indefinitely, and is designed to run several simultaneous applications belonging to different scientific disciplines in a manner similar to World Community Grid. Users can select which projects they wish to contribute to via the project's website. As of May 2020, Ibercivis encompassed eight different active projects:
+
+=== Active Projects ===
+COVID-Phym:  Screen existing drugs for antiviral activity against Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic.
+
+=== Completed projects ===
+Ibercivis projects that have been completed or discontinued as of May 2020 include:

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-1.md

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+---
+title: "Ibercivis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:02.340025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fusion: a star on your screen: this application helped scientists at the Research Center for Energy Environment and Technology (CIEMAT) and at the Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI) perform simulations of the plasmas that will be produced in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The ITER project, which will begin operation in 2018, seeks to make nuclear fusion power a reality, replicating on Earth conditions typically found inside stars.
+Docking: looking for anti-cancer drugs: the Docking application assisted the search for new medicines through the simulation of protein docking. The Bioinformatics Unit of the Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM) developed a platform to allow the automatic simulation of interactions of proteins and small molecules. Its purpose was to find effective drugs to treat serious illnesses, such as cancer.
+Materials: simulation of magnetic systems: the Materials application aided physicists from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Universidad de Extremadura and the Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems in discovering how non-magnetic impurities in magnetic materials modify the properties of their transition from a magnetic state to a non-magnetic one. The knowledge of these transitions is important not only from a theoretical point of view but also may help develop many fields of technology, such as magnetic hard disks and superconducting materials.
+Nanoluz: light at a nanoscale: knowing how light reacts at a nanometer scale is a scientific challenge with important implications for the construction of new materials, development of new computing and communication systems and the improvement of technologies such as solar panels. Using the Nanoluz application, scientists at the Institute of Optics Daza Valdés CSIC investigated the behavior of light in metal nanoparticles, seeking to develop systems that could simplify medical and biological analysis.
+IberNet: let's research inside Ibercivis: with this project, researchers sought to study and represent the structure of Ibercivis as a social network and try to export their conclusions to other social networks, to help with the study and prediction of the dynamics of a mass social environment.
+Amiloide: searching for drugs against neurodegenerative amyloid diseases: the AMILOIDE project aims to search digital libraries of millions of compounds for potential drugs to interfere with the formation of aggregates and amyloid fibers, which can lead to neurodegenerative diseases. Currently, the main target diseases being studied are familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP) and Alzheimer's disease. This project is the responsibility of scientists of the Structural and Computational Biology Group at the Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC) of the University of Coimbra.
+Neurosim: an immersion in the molecular structure of memory: scientists at the Institute of Matter Structure, CSIC use the results of the Neurosim application to analyze the structural properties of amino acids and small peptides (sequences of a few tens of amino acids) that act in the human brain and nervous system. By simulating the so-called energy landscape for each amino acid, key steps can be made in reconstructing the three-dimensional structure of proteins from the amino acid sequence, advancing the study of the structure and function of the human brain.
+Adsorption: behaviour of confined fluids in limited spaces: the Adsorption application helps researchers from the Instituto de Química-Física Rocasolano from CSIC study the adsorption properties of the pillared clays that are widely used as industrial catalysers, materials for gas storage, and industrial separation agents. This kind of clay is used in industrial processes such as the production of biofuels from vegetable oils, the storage of natural gas at room temperature and the storage of greenhouse gases produced by industry.
+Cuanticables: quantic wires simulations: scientists of the University of Buenos Aires use this application to study the degree to which the faults in the material of quantum wires has on their electric current. For this purpose, they develop a theoretical model which simulates the quantum wire, the impurities and the electrodes to which the quantum wire connects, and study the behaviour of the current that is generated across the wire when an external voltage is applied to it.
+Sanidad: improved diagnostics: ionizing radiation is used in health applications ranging from basic diagnostic tests in a modern hospital (in radiology, nuclear medicine and laboratory tests) to the treatment of cancer by radiotherapy. For these purposes, both actual radioactive materials (in the form of seeds or injectable material) and complex equipment that generates photon beams and electrons can be utilised. Physicists from Andalucía use the Sanidad simulations to improve knowledge of the safe use of radiation  in healthcare, and to explore potential new applications.
+Criticalidad: electron transport in disordered systems with fractal properties: the Criticalidad project helps Mexican investigators understand the properties and effects of fractality in the transport of electrons through disordered systems in the Anderson transition.
+Soluvel: researching solubility of toxic and pharmaceutical compounds: the aim of the Soluvel project is to calculate the solvation energies of certain soluble compounds, so as to identify through computation which compounds may prove toxic to humans, and which may serve as effective medical drugs. The project is being conducted by researchers from the Laboratory of Molecular Simulation of Separation and Reaction Engineering (LSRE), a division of the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto.
+Primalidad: search for Wilson primes: a "citizen science" project open to all mathematicians, the Primalidad application searches for the next Wilson prime – the first three having been 5, 13 and 563. It is conjectured that the fourth Wilson prime must be larger than 5 × 108.
+
+== See also ==
+Crowdsourcing
+List of volunteer computing projects
+Science and technology in Portugal
+Supercomputing in Europe
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ideonomy"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:03.594959+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ideonomy is a combinatorial "science of ideas" developed by American independent scholar Patrick M. Gunkel (1947–2017). Specifically, Ideonomy is concerned with the systematic organization of ideas and the discovery of the rules behind how ideas combine, diverge, and transform. Gunkel defined ideonomy as "the science of the laws of ideas and of the application of such laws to the generation of all possible ideas in connection with any subject, idea, or thing."  In his 1992 book A History of Knowledge, Charles Van Doren compared ideonomy to a "mining operation" that excavates meanings and thought to discover treasures hidden deep within language.
+Sources from the 1980s and 1990s demonstrate that ideonomy was useful to academic researchers in fields including biology, toxicology, and nursing/patient care. Beginning in the 2010s, academics in a wide range of fields including machine learning, marketing, computational modeling, and cybersecurity have relied on materials generated for ideonomy to provide methodological support for their research.
+
+== Etymology and definition ==
+The word "ideonomy" combines the Greek roots ideo- (from idea, meaning pattern or form) and -nomy (from nomos, meaning law or custom). The suffix -nomy suggests the laws concerning or the totality of knowledge about a given subject, as in astronomy or taxonomy.
+In a note posted on the MIT ideonomy website, Gunkel states that the word was supposedly first coined by the French Encyclopedists to refer to a science of ideas. No evidence is provided for this statement, however. The concept bears some relationship to Antoine Destutt de Tracy's "ideology" (1796), which originally meant a systematic science of ideas before acquiring its modern political connotations.
+Gunkel provided several metaphorical descriptions of ideonomy:
+
+An "idea bank": a computer network enabling systematic exploration of infinite possible ideas
+A "kaleidoscope" that can exhibit all possible combinations and transformations of ideas
+A "prism" capable of diffracting any idea into its cognitive components
+A "gigantic microscope for magnifying the ideocosm"
+
+== History and development ==
+In 1984, Gunkel received a five-year unsolicited grant from the Richard Lounsbery Foundation of New York to develop ideonomy. A June 1, 1987 article on the front page of The Wall Street Journal brought Gunkel and ideonomy to wider public attention. Some academics were interested in using ideonomy's techniques, including biologist Betsey Dyer, who published several contemporaneous peer-reviewed studies citing ideonomy. Academic researchers in the field of toxicology and nursing/patient care also used ideonomy. 
+However, ideonomy's broadest contribution to date came beginning in the 2010s, as a list of personality traits generated for combinatorial matching was used by researchers in artificial intelligence to code human emotions for machine-learning tasks, develop computational models related to personality, develop a measurement framework for influencer-brand recommender systems, and aid information awareness/cybersecurity assessment. 
+
+== Methodology ==
+The foundational empirical method of ideonomy involves the systematic creation of extensive lists. Gunkel's apartment reportedly contained thousands of lists on every conceivable topic.
+Gunkel termed each list an "organon," which he described as expanding through "combination, permutation, transformation, generalization, specialization, intersection, interaction, reapplication, recursive use, etc. of existing organons."
+The ideonomic process follows a progressive structure. The ideonomist begins with a simple list of examples of a particular idea, concept, or thing. The list need not be exhaustive. By studying this list, the ideonomist isolates and identifies types. This categorical analysis then reveals missing items, allowing the primary list to be improved and refined.
+Gunkel emphasized that list items must not only cover genuine categories of nature but also be formulated in ways that yield the largest possible number of syntactically coherent possibilities when combined.
+The core technique of ideonomy is "ideocombinatorics"—the systematic intersection and combination of items from different lists to generate novel composite concepts. Gunkel developed computer programs to automate this process.
+For example, combining a list of 230 Universal Elementary Shapes (pits, pyramids, trenches, hemispheres, needles) with a list of 74 Types of Order (recurrence, identity, likeness of parts) yields 17,020 possible "shapes of order." These combinations, when phrased as questions ("Can there be pits of recurrence?"), could suggest new categories of phenomena worthy of investigation. 
+The computer-generated output is typically repetitive and often meaningless. However, with sufficient frequency, the combinations yield results that are unexpectedly interesting and fruitful.
+In one documented case, Gunkel's programs generated 45,540 questions about toxins for microbiologist David Bermudes. One question—"Can hierarchies of cell process be used as a basis for classifying toxic action?"—prompted Bermudes to develop a novel approach to classifying biological toxins by the type of molecule they attack, rather than by chemical structure or physiological system affected.
+According to one contemporaneous account of ideonomy, "Gunkel takes for his field all fields and all ideas about anything. He uses a computer to generate lists of words and phrases and by juxtaposition reviews the resultant patterns for novel ideas. The computer is ideal for this task because the mind would rebel at the formidable processing task ideonomy involves. What we have here is computer generated originality." 
+
+== Applications ==
+Gunkel and his supporters identified several practical applications for ideonomic methods:
+Scientific research: Biologist Betsey Dyer of Wheaton College published research crediting ideonomy for helping to generate ideas.
+Medical science: When Austin pathologist Michael T. O'Brien was presented with the ideonomically-generated question "Can arteries have rashes?", he initially dismissed it as nonsense. Upon reflection, he realized that large arteries are supplied with blood by tiny vessels that might become inflamed and dilated, analogous to skin vessels in a rash—a phenomenon potentially worth researching.
+Analogical thinking: Harvard law professor Robert Clark used ideonomic analogies to write a research paper comparing plant structure with human hierarchies.
+Artificial intelligence: Douglas Lenat, a researcher at Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC) in Austin, suggested that Gunkel's lists enumerating types of human mistakes could help design AI systems capable of recognizing and correcting their own errors.
+
+== Reception and criticism ==
+Ideonomy received mixed reactions from the academic and scientific communities. Prominent supporters included:

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-1.md

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+---
+title: "Ideonomy"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:03.594959+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Edward Fredkin, former director of MIT's computer science laboratory, who praised Gunkel's "provocative ideas on artificial intelligence."
+Marvin Minsky, AI scientist and MIT professor, who described ideonomy as "perhaps the most extensive study of ways to generate ideas."
+Frederick Seitz, president emeritus of Rockefeller University, who noted Gunkel's "encyclopedic scope"
+Robert C. Clark, Harvard law professor, who called Gunkel "the most intelligent person I ever met" 
+However, skeptics questioned whether ideonomy constituted a genuine science. Fredkin himself noted that Gunkel "pours out about 60 ideas a minute, and 59 of them are bad," though he added that "even with one good idea out of 60, it's still an amazing accomplishment." Douglas Lenat observed that brainstorming with Gunkel was "a bit like being hit over the head by the muse with a sledgehammer" and that "he puts people off."
+Gunkel himself acknowledged that ideonomy was in its infancy and might seem "absurdly utopian."  His planned magnum opus on ideonomy remained incomplete, and was posted on an MIT website thanks to faculty advisor Whitman Richards. Gunkel wrote: "Pioneering in a completely new field, yes in a new science, is almost unreal. It is heartbreaking, it is pitiable, it is almost inhuman. Honestly, it is a hell. There is nothing heroic about it." 
+
+== Related concepts ==
+Gunkel identified several historical precedents for ideonomic thinking:
+
+Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716): The philosopher's work on a universal characteristic (characteristica universalis) and calculus of reasoning
+Peter Mark Roget (1779–1869): Creator of Roget's Thesaurus, which organized concepts into a systematic taxonomy
+Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907): Developer of the periodic table, demonstrating how combining lists of element families could reveal previously unseen connections
+Fritz Zwicky (1898–1974): The Caltech astrophysicist whom Gunkel called the "grandfather of ideonomy" for his development of "morphological research"—systematic exploration of all possible solutions to problems
+Ideonomy is also related to but distinct from "ideology" in its original sense. When Antoine Destutt de Tracy coined "ideology" in 1796, he intended it as a rigorous science dealing with the systematic analysis of ideas and their origins. This original meaning was later supplanted by the modern political connotation.
+Notably, the combinatorial discovery process Gunkel identified as central to ideonomy is in use today by inventors who task AI with running through cross-domain permutations until a novel combination (e.g., between shapes and device types) is discovered with potential applied value. These scientists appear to think of novel matches surfaced by the AI as "hallucinations."
+Other academic work in computational creativity has recognized the applied value of combinatorial methods without identifying ideonomy by name. For example, a 2023 paper in Leonardo presents the results of a deep learning neural network experiment that identified optimized configurations based on user preferences. The authors state: "This methodology is projected to have many applications in fashion, architecture, music, storytelling, cooking, or any other design or art field that can be represented as a set of permutations." This is precisely the way Gunkel saw a science of ideas working, as the methodology for ideonomy is not applicable to a single discipline, but treats any discipline that uses parameter spaces as discovery mechanisms. For example, a May 2022 workshop at Akademie Schloss Solitude called "Modifying Food Texture," presented by Agnes Cameron and Gary Zhexi Zhang, used ideonomy to explore novel industrial food texture modification techniques.
+
+== Legacy ==
+Gunkel died in 2017, leaving ideonomy without its primary developer. Although citations and use cases for ideonomy continue to appear in literature, the field has not yet achieved the institutional recognition or widespread adoption that Gunkel originally envisioned.
+When questioned about the utility of ideonomy, Gunkel invoked Benjamin Franklin's response when asked about the usefulness of electricity immediately after its invention: "What use is a newborn baby?" Gunkel suggested that ideonomy, like other nascent sciences, required time to demonstrate its potential.
+
+== See also ==
+Artificial Intelligence
+Combinatorics
+Computational creativity
+Epistemology
+Idea
+Ideology
+Morphological analysis
+Systems theory
+TRIZ
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+MIT's Ideonomy website - Original website created for ideonomy (static since 2006)
+The Gunkel Global Renaissance Project - 501(c)(3) created to advance Gunkel's legacy and ideas

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles-0.md

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+---
+title: "Index of Earth science articles"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:11.992084+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth science. There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earth system.
+Articles related to Earth science include:
+
+
+== A ==
+Antarctic Convergence
+Atmospheric chemistry
+Atmospheric physics
+Atmospheric sciences
+
+
+== B ==
+Biosphere
+Biogeography
+
+
+== C ==
+Cartography
+Chemical oceanography
+Climatology
+Crust
+Cryosphere
+Crystallography (mineralogy)
+
+
+== D ==
+Dynamo theory
+
+
+== E ==
+Earth's core
+Earth's magnetic field
+Earth's mantle
+Economic geology
+Edaphology (soil science)
+Engineering geology
+Environmental geology
+Environmental science
+Erosion
+Exosphere (Atmospheric sciences)
+
+
+== G ==
+Gaia hypothesis
+Gemology (mineralogy)
+Geochemistry
+Geochronology (Geophysics)
+Geodesy (see Surveying)
+Geodynamics (Geophysics and Tectonics)
+Geographical Information System
+Geography
+Geoinformatics (GIS)
+Geology
+Geomagnetics (Geophysics)
+Geomicrobiology
+Geomorphology
+Geophysics
+Geosphere
+Geostatistics
+Glaciology (Geology and Hydrology)
+Gravimetry (Geophysics)
+
+
+== H ==
+Historical geology
+Human geography
+Hydrogeology
+Hydrology
+Hydrometeorology
+Hydrosphere
+
+
+== I ==
+Intertropical Convergence Zone
+
+
+== L ==
+Limnology (Hydrology)
+Lithosphere (Geology)
+
+
+== M ==
+Magma (Volcanology)
+Magnetosphere
+Marine biology (Oceanography)
+Marine geology (Oceanography)
+Meridional flow
+Mesosphere (Atmospheric sciences)
+Meteorology
+Micropaleontology
+Mineralogy
+
+
+== O ==
+Oceanography
+
+
+== P ==
+Paleoceanography
+Paleoclimatology
+Pedology (Soil science)
+Pedosphere (Soil science)
+Petrology (Geology)
+Physical geography
+Physical oceanography
+Planetary geology
+Plate tectonics
+
+
+== Q ==
+Quaternary geology
+
+
+== R ==
+Remote Sensing and GIS
+
+
+== S ==
+Sedimentology (Geology)
+Seismology (Geophysics)
+Soil science
+Stratigraphy (Geology)
+Stratosphere (Atmospheric sciences)
+Structural geology
+Surveying (see Geodesy)
+
+
+== T ==
+Thermosphere (Atmospheric sciences)
+Tropopause
+Troposphere (Atmospheric sciences)
+Tornadoes
+
+
+== V ==
+Volcanology
+
+
+== Z ==
+Zonal flow
+
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 1/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science: Links to articles and redirects to sections of articles which provide information on each topic are listed with a short description of the topic. When there is more than one article with information on a topic, the most relevant is usually listed, and it may be cross-linked to further information from the linked page or section.
+Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
+The branches of science, also referred to as scientific fields, scientific disciplines, or just sciences, can be arbitrarily divided into three major groups:
+
+The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences), which study nature in the broadest sense;
+The social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics, history) which study people and societies; and
+The formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts.
+Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences.
+
+== A ==
+Abiology – Life arising from non-living matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of inanimate, inorganic, or lifeless things.
+Abiophysiology – The study of non-organic biological processes
+Acanthochronology – Study of cactus spines and the chronology of their growth
+Acanthology – study of spined things, in particular sea urchins, and the resultant impact on taxonomy
+Acarology – Study of mites and ticks
+Aceology – The study of therapies – science of remedies, or of therapeutics; iamatology.
+Acology – Science of medical remedies, or of therapeutics.
+Acoustics – Branch of physics involving mechanical waves – the branch of physics studying the properties of sound.
+Actinobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living things – synonymous with radiobiology.
+Adenology – Branch of medicine dealing the endocrine system
+Aerobiology – Study of airborne organisms
+Aerodonetics – Science or study of gliding flight.
+Aerodynamics – Branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air
+Aerolithology – Science of meteorites – study of aerolites; meteorites.
+Aerology – Synonym for atmospheric science
+Aeronautics – Science of air flight-capable machines
+Aeropalynology – Study of pollen and spores in Earths atmosphere – study of pollens and spores in atmosphere.
+Aerospace engineering – Branch of engineering
+Aerostatics – Study of gases that are not in motion
+Agnoiology – Study of ignorance
+Agonistics – Chemical which binds to and activates a biochemical receptorPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Agricultural chemistry – Agricultural sub-discipline of applied chemistry – study of influence in chemical processes in plants.
+Agriology – comparative study of primitive peoples.
+Agrobiology – Interdisciplinary studies of the interactions between plants and soil
+Agroecology – Study of ecological processes in agriculture
+Agrogeology – Study of origins and applications of minerals important to farming
+Agrology – Soil science, study of soils, especially agricultural soils.
+Agronomics – Branch of economics about distribution, management, and productivity of land.
+Agronomy – Science of producing and using plants
+Agrostology – Scientific study of the grasses
+Algebra – Branch of mathematics
+Algedonics – Branch of psychology that deals with pleasant and unpleasant states of consciousness
+Algology – Branch of biology concerned with the study of algae (botany)
+Algology – Medical treatment of pain as practiced in Greece and Turkey
+Allergology – Study of the causes and treatment of allergies - study of causes and treatment of allergies
+Anaesthesiology – Medical specialty concerned with anesthesia and perioperative care
+Anatomy – Study of the structure of organisms
+Andragogy – Methods and principles in adult education
+Andrology – Medical specialty – study of men's physiology.
+Anemology – Study of winds – study of wind.
+Angiology – Branch of internal medicine, which deals with vascular disease
+Anthropobiology – Biological study of the human species – study of human biology.
+Anthropology – Scientific study of humans, human behavior, and societies – study of human cultures.
+Anthrozoology – Subset of ethnobiology – study of human-animal interaction.
+Apiology – Scientific study of bees
+Aquatic ecology – The study of interactions between organisms and the environment in water
+Arachnology – Scientific study of arachnides such as spiders, ticks and mites
+Archaeology – Study of human activity based on materials left behind
+Archelogy – study of first principles.
+Archival science – Science of storage, registration and preservation of historical data
+Archology – science of the origins of government.
+Areology – Scientific study of the surface, crust, and interior of the planet Mars
+Aristology – science or art of dining.
+Aromachology – Study of the influence of odors on human behavior
+Arthrology – Scientific study of joints and articulations
+Arthropodology – Study of arthropods
+Astacology – Scientific study of crayfish
+Asteroseismology – Study of oscillations in stars
+Astheniology – Physical symptomPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of diseases of weakening and aging.
+Astrobotany – Study of plants grown in spacecraft
+Astrobiology – Science concerned with life in the universe
+Astrodynamics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraftPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Astrogeology – Geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects
+Astronautics – Theory and practice of space travel
+Astronomy – Scientific study of celestial objects
+Astrophysics – Subfield of astronomy – study of behaviour of interstellar matter.
+Atmology – the science of aqueous vapor.
+Audiology – Branch of science that studies hearing, balance, and related disorders
+Autecology – Study of interactions of individual organisms with the environment
+Autology – Word that expresses a property it also possessesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – scientific study of oneself.
+Automata theory – Study of abstract machines and automata
+Auxology – Study of all aspects of human physical growth

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+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 2/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== B ==
+Bacteriology – Subdiscipline of microbiology that studies bacteria
+Ballistics – Science of the motion of projectiles
+Balneology – Method of treating diseases by bathingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the therapeutic use of baths.
+Barodynamics – science of the support and mechanics of heavy structures
+Barology – study of gravitational force.
+Bathymetry – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors
+Batology – Study of brambles
+Batrachology – Branch of herpetology that studies amphibians
+Behavioural genetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour
+Behavioral neuroscience – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour
+Bibliology – Organized listing of books and the systematic description of them as objects
+Bibliotics – study of documents to determine authenticity.
+Bioecology – Study of interrelations of plants and animals with their environment
+Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth related to biological activity
+Biology – Scientific study of life
+Biochemistry – Study of chemical processes of living organisms
+Biomechanics – Study of the mechanics of biological systems
+Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics
+Bionomics – Term with different meanings in ecology or economics – study of organisms interacting in their environments.
+Biophysics – Interdisciplinary science – study of physics of biological phenomena.
+Biopsychology – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviourPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – application of the science of biology to the study of psychology.
+Biotribology – Study of friction, wear and lubrication in biological systems – study of friction, wear and lubrication of biological systems.
+Botany – Study of plant life
+Bromatology – Applied science devoted to the study of foodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of food.
+Bryology – Branch of botany concerned with the study of bryophytes – study of mosses and liverworts.
+
+== C ==
+Cacogenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof
+Caliology – Place where a bird broods its eggsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of bird's nests.
+Calorifics – study of heat – relating to the production of heat 
+Cambistry – science of international exchange.
+Campanology – Scientific and musical study of bells
+Carcinology – Study of crustaceans
+Cardiology – Branch of medicine dealing with the heart
+Caricology – Study of sedges
+Carpology – Study of seeds and fruit
+Cartography – Study and practice of making maps – science of making maps and globes.
+Castrametation – Roman term for a fortified military basePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of designing a camp.
+Catacoustics – science of echoes or reflected sounds.
+Catallactics – Theory about the free market system in economies – science of commercial exchange.
+Catechectics – art of teaching by question and answer.
+Celestial mechanics – Branch of astronomy – study of motion of objects in outer space.
+Cell biology – Branch of biology that studies cells – study of the different structures and functions of both eukaryote and prokaryote cells.
+Cetology – Study of whales, dolphins, porpoises, and other cetaceans – study of whales and dolphins.
+Chaology – Field of mathematics and science based on non-linear systems and initial conditions
+Chaos theory – Field of mathematics and science based on non-linear systems and initial conditions
+Characterology – Academic study of character – study of development of character.
+Chemistry – Scientific study of matter's behavior and properties – study of properties and behaviours of substances.
+Chirography – Study of penmanship and handwriting in all of its aspects – study of handwriting or penmanship.
+Chiropody – Medicine branch focusing on the human lower extremities
+Chorology – Study of geographic causal relationships – science of the geographic description of anything.
+Chrematistics – Economics theory studying money – study of wealth; political economy.
+Chromatics – Technique to quantify and describe physically the human color perception –  study of color.
+Chronobiology – Study of rhythms in biological processes of living organisms – study of biological rhythms.
+Chrysology – study of precious metals.
+Classical mechanics – Description of large objects' physics – study of motion of macroscopic objects.
+Climatology – Scientific study of climate – study of climate.
+Clinology – study of aging or individual decline after maturity.
+Codicology – Study of codices or manuscript books
+Cognitive science – Interdisciplinary scientific study of cognitive processes
+Coleopterology – Branch of entomology studying beetles
+Cometology – study of comets.
+Computer science – Study of computation – study of processes that interact with data.
+Conchology – Study of mollusc shells
+Coniology – Study of atmospheric dust and its effects
+Connectomics – Study of mapping wiring diagrams
+Contact mechanics – Study of the deformation of solids that touch each other
+Coprology – Study of faeces
+Cosmetology – Study and application of beauty treatment – study of cosmetics.
+Cosmochemistry – Study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe
+Cosmology – Scientific study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe
+Craniology – Pseudoscientific study of human skull shapePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the skull.
+Criminology – Field of studies related to crimes
+Cryobiology – Study of effects of extreme low temperatures on life
+Cryptography – Practice and study of secure communication techniques
+Cryptology – Practice and study of secure communication techniquesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of codes.
+Ctetology – study of the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
+Cybernetics – Study of circular causal processes
+Cyclonology – study of tropical cyclones, e.g. hurricanes.
+Cynology – Study of canines or domestic dogs
+Cytology – Study of cells in terms of structure, function and chemistry

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+---
+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 3/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== D ==
+Dactyliology – study of finger rings.
+Dactylography – Scientific study of fingerprints
+Dactylology – Form of communication using one or both handsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sign language.
+Data science – Field of study to extract knowledge from data – study of analyzing, processing, interpreting and extracting data.
+Demography – Study of human populations and their structures
+Demology – study of human populations and behaviour.
+Dendrochronology – Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings
+Dendrology – Science and study of woody plants
+Dermatoglyphics – Scientific study of finger- and toeprints
+Dermatology – Field of medicine dealing with the hair, nails, skin, and its diseases
+Desmology – Study of ligaments
+Dialectology – Scientific study of linguistic dialect
+Dietetics – Study of diet and nutrition in relation to health and disease
+Dioptrics – Science of light and lenses
+Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents – science of deciphering ancient writings and texts.
+Dosiology – study of dosage of drugs.
+Dynamics – Study of forces and their effect on motion
+Dysgenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof.
+
+== E ==
+Eccrinology – Sweat gland distributed almost all over the human bodyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of excretion.
+Ecology – Study of organisms and their environment
+Economics – Social science studying goods and services – study of material wealth (production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services).
+Edaphology – Science concerned with the influence of soils on living beings
+Egyptology – Scientific study of ancient Egypt – study of ancient Egypt.
+Eidology – study of mental imagery.
+Ekistics – Conceptual framework
+Electrochemistry – Branch of physical chemistry – study of relations between electricity and chemicals.
+Electrodynamics – Fundamental interaction between charged particlesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the effects arising from the interactions of electric currents with magnets, with other currents, or with themselves.
+Electrohydrodynamics – Study of electrically conducting fluids in the presence of electric fields – the study of dynamics of electrically charged fluids.
+Electrology – Method of hair removal – study of electricity.
+Electrostatics – Study of still or slow electric charges – study of static electricity.
+Electromagnetism – Fundamental interaction between charged particles – study of electromagnetic force.
+Embryology – Branch of biology, studying prenatal biology
+Emetology – Involuntary, forceful expulsion of stomach contents, typically via the mouthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of vomiting.
+Emmenology – study of menstruation.
+Endemiology – study of local diseases.
+Endocrinology – Branch of medicine pertaining to the endocrine system
+Energetics – study of energy under transformation within various fields.
+Engineering studies – Academic field – study of engineering.
+Enigmatology – Problem or enigma that testsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of enigmas (puzzles).
+Entomology – Scientific study of insects
+Entozoology – study of parasites that live inside larger organisms.
+Enzymology – Large biological molecule that acts as a catalystPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of enzymes.
+Ephebiatrics – Medical subspecialty for adolescentsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – branch of medicine dealing with adolescence.
+Epidemiology – Study of health and disease within a population
+Epileptology – Physician specializing in epileptologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of epilepsy.
+Eremology – study of deserts.
+Ergology – study of effects of work on humans.
+Ergonomics – Designing systems to suit their users – study of people at work.
+Escapology – Practice of escaping from restraints – study of freeing oneself from constraints.
+Ethnobiology – Study of how living things are used by human cultures – study of dynamic relationships between peoples.
+Ethnobotany – Study of traditional plant use – study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a local culture and people.
+Ethnogeny – study of origins of races or ethnic groups.
+Ethnochoreology – Field of dance study – study of dances and its implication in culture.
+Ethnomusicology – Study of the cultural aspects of music – study of comparative musical systems.
+Ethnology – Branch of anthropology – study of cultures.
+Ethnomethodology – Study of how social order is produced – study of everyday communication and social interaction.
+Ethology – Study of animal behaviour – study of natural or biological character.
+Ethonomics – Personal value, basis for ethical actionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of economic and ethical principles of a society.
+Etiology – Study of causation, or origination
+Etymology – Study of the origin and evolution of words – study of origins of words.
+Euthenics – Study of improving living conditions to increase well-being – science concerned with improving living conditions.
+Exobiology – Science concerned with life in the universePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of extraterrestrial life.
+Exoplanetology – study of exoplanets.
+
+== F ==
+Felinology – Study of cats – study of felines.
+Finance – Academic discipline studying businesses and investments – science or study of money management.
+Fluid dynamics – Aspects of fluid mechanics involving fluid flow
+Fluid mechanics – Branch of physics – study of fluids behaviour at rest and in motion.
+Fluid statics – Branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at restPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of fluids behaviour at rest.
+Fluviology – study of watercourses.
+Folkloristics – Branch of anthropologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of folklore and fables.
+Forestry – Science and craft of managing woodlands – study of the creation, management, use, conservation, and repair of forests and associated resources.
+Fracture mechanics – Study of propagation of cracks in materials
+Futurology – Study of postulating possible, probable, and preferable futures
+Forensic science – Application of science to law and investigation – the use of scientific methods or expertise to investigate crimes or examine evidence that might be presented in a court of law

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+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 4/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== G ==
+Garbology – Study of modern refuse
+Gastroenterology – Branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders
+Gastronomy – Study of the relationship between food and culture
+Gemmology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of gems and jewels
+Gender studies – Interdisciplinary field of study – study of gender
+Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline – study of descent of families
+Genesiology – study of reproduction and heredity 
+Genetics – Science of genes, heredity and variation
+Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems – study of chemistry of the Earth's crust
+Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils – study of measuring geological time
+Geography – Study of Earth's spatial information – study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants
+Geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition – study of the rocks of a planet
+Geometry – Branch of mathematics – study the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and dimensions of things.
+Geomorphogeny – study of the characteristics, origins, and development of land forms
+Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms – study of landforms and landform evolution
+Geoponics – Science of cultivating the earth – study of agriculture
+Geotechnics – Scientific study of earth materials in engineering problemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of increasing habitability of the Earth
+Geratology – Study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of agingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of decadence and decay
+Gerocomy – study of old age
+Gerontology – Study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of aging
+Gigantology – study of giants
+Glaciology – Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice
+Glossology – Scientific study of languagePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of language; study of the tongue
+Gnomonics – Study of sundials – the art of measuring time using sundials
+Gnotobiology – Organism with fully-known microorganismsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of life in germ-free conditions
+Googology – Numbers significantly larger than those used regularlyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of large numbers
+Graminology – Scientific study of the grassesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Grammatology – Study of graphemes and writing systemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of systems of writing
+Graphemics – Study of graphemes and writing systemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of systems of representing speech in writing
+Graphology – Pseudoscientific analysis of handwriting – study of handwriting 
+Gromatics – Ancient Roman land surveyorsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of surveying
+Gynaecology – Medical area for women's reproductive health – study of women's physiology
+Gyrostatics – study of rotating bodies
+
+== H ==
+Haemataulics – study of movement of blood through blood vessels
+Halieutics – study of fishing
+Harmonics – Science of musical sounds
+Helcology – study of ulcers
+Heliology – Scientific study of the sun
+Helioseismology – Study of the structure and dynamics of the Sun through its oscillation
+Helminthology – Study of parasitic worms (helminths)
+Hematology – Study of blood and blood diseases
+Hemodynamics – Dynamics of blood flow – study of the dynamics behind blood circulation
+Hepatology – Medical specialty – study of liver, gallbladder, biliary tree, and pancreas
+Hermeology – study of Mercury
+Herpetology – Study of amphibians and reptiles
+Hippiatrics – study of diseases of horses
+Hippology – Study of horses
+Histology – Study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals
+Histopathology – Microscopic examination of tissue in order to study and diagnose disease – study of changes in tissue due to disease
+Historiography – Study of the methods used by historians
+Historiology – The study of history.
+Home economics – Study of household management
+Hoplology – Study of human combative behavior and performance
+Horography – art of constructing sundials or clocks 
+Horology – Art or science of measuring time – science of time measurement 
+Horticulture – Small-scale cultivation of plants – study of gardening 
+Hydraulics – Applied engineering involving liquids – study of application of engineering, chemistry and other fields of science involving the use of liquids 
+Hydrobiology – Science of life and life processes in water – study of aquatic organisms
+Hydrodynamics – Study of liquids in motion
+Hydrogeology – Study of groundwater's movement and distribution
+Hydrography – Measurement of bodies of water
+Hydrokinetics – study of motion of fluids
+Hydrology – Science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth – study of water resources
+Hydrometeorology – Branch of meteorology and hydrology – study of atmospheric moisture 
+Hydrostatics – Branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest
+Hyetology – science of rainfall
+Hygiastics – science of health and hygiene 
+Hygienics – Practices performed to preserve healthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sanitation; health 
+Hygiology – hygienics; study of cleanliness 
+Hygroscopy – Phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules – study of humidity
+Hygrometry – Study of gas-vapor mixturesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of humidity
+Hypnology – Study of sleep and hypnotic phenomena – study of sleep; study of hypnosis.
+Hypsography – Geographical measurementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of measuring heights

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+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 5/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== I ==
+Iamatology – Obsolete synonym for the study of therapies.
+Iatrology – treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine 
+Ichnography – Architectural drawing showing interior layout of a buildingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan
+Ichnology – Study of trace fossils
+Ichthyology – Scientific study of fish
+Iconography – Branch of art history – study of drawing symbols 
+Iconology – Method of interpretation in cultural history – study of icons; symbols 
+Ideogeny – study of origins of ideas 
+Ideology – Set of beliefs or values – science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour 
+Idiomology – study of idiom, jargon or dialect 
+Idiopsychology – study of the psychology of one's own mind 
+Immunochemistry – Study of the chemistry of the immune system
+Immunogenetics – Branch of medical genetics – study of genetic characteristics of immunity
+Immunology – Branch of medicine studying the immune system
+Immunopathology – Branch of medicine that deals with immune responses associated with disease
+Information science – Academic field concerned with collection and analysis of information
+Information technology (IT) – Computer-based technology
+Insectology – Scientific study ofi insects, or relationships between insects and humans
+Irenology – Social science study of peace – study of peace 
+
+== J ==
+Japanology – Area studies focused on JapanPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – The study of Japan, its language, culture and history
+
+== K ==
+Kalology – study of beauty 
+Karstology – Scientific study of the various aspects of karst regions
+Karyology – Photographic display of total chromosome complement in a cellPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of cell nuclei
+Kinematics – Branch of physics describing the motion of objects without considering forces – study of motion
+Kinesics – Interpretation of body motion communication – study of gestural communication
+Kinesiology – Study of human body movement – study of human movement and posture
+Kinetics – Subfield of physics – study of forces producing or changing motion
+Koniology – Study of atmospheric dust and its effects – study of atmospheric pollutants and dust
+Ktenology – Scientific study of killing
+Kymatology – Branch of physicsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of wave motion
+
+== L ==
+Larithmics – study of population statistics 
+Laryngology – Medical specialty that deals with the larynx
+Lepidopterology – Branch of entomology that studies moths and butterflies
+Leprology – The study of leprosy and its treatment
+Lexicology – Linguistic discipline studying words – study of words and their meanings
+Lexigraphy – Grapheme which represents a word or a morphemePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of definition of words 
+Library science – Branch of academic disciplines – study of collection of information 
+Lichenology – Branch of mycology that studies lichens
+Library and information science – Branch of academic disciplines – study of organization, access, collection, and protection/regulation of information, whether in physical or digital forms.
+Limacology – Study of slugs
+Limnobiology – study of freshwater ecosystems 
+Limnology – Science of inland aquatic ecosystems
+Linguistics – Scientific study of language
+Loimology – study of plagues and epidemics 
+Logics – Study of correct reasoning
+Loxodromy – study of sailing along rhumb-lines
+Ludology – Study of games and the act of playing them

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+---
+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 6/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== M ==
+Macroeconomics – Study of an economy as a whole – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy
+Magnetics – Class of physical phenomenaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of magnetism
+Magnetohydrodynamics – Model of electrically conducting fluids – study of electrically conducting fluids
+Magnetostatics – Branch of physics about magnetism in systems with steady electric currents – study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady
+Malacology – Study of molluscs
+Malariology – Study of the mosquito borne disease, malaria
+Mammalogy – Study of mammals
+Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life – study of the ocean's ecosystem
+Mastology – Study of mammals – study of mammals 
+Mathematics – Field of study – study of magnitude, number, and forms
+Mazology – mammalogy; study of mammals 
+Mechanics – Science concerned with physical bodies subjected to forces or displacements
+Meconology – study of or treatise concerning opium 
+Media studies – Field of study that deals with media
+Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness
+Melissopalynology – Study of pollen contained in honey
+Melittology – Scientific study of bees
+Melology – Scholarly study of musicPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of music; musicology 
+Mereology – Study of parts and the wholes they form – study of part-whole relationships
+Mesology – Study of organisms and their environmentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – ecology 
+Metallogeny – Study of the genesis and geographic distribution of mineral deposits – study of the origin and distribution of metal deposits
+Metallography – Study of metals using microscopy – study of the structure and constitution of metals
+Metallurgy – Field of science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals
+Metaphysics – Study of fundamental reality – study of principles of nature and thought 
+Metapolitics – Political discourse about politics itself – study of politics in theory or abstract
+Metapsychology – Psychological aspect – study of nature of the mind 
+Metascience – Scientific study of science
+Meteoritics – Scientific study of meteors, meteorites and meteoroids
+Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting
+Methodology – Study of research methods
+Methyology – study of alcohol 
+Metrology – Science of measurement and its application
+Microanatomy – Study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues
+Microbial ecology – Study of the relationship of microorganisms with their environment
+Microbiology – Study of microscopic organisms (microbes)
+Microclimatology – Local set of atmospheric conditions that differ significantly from the surrounding areaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of local climates 
+Microeconomics – Behavior of individuals and firms – branch of economics that studies the behavior of individual households and firms in making decisions on the allocation of limited resources 
+Micrology – study or discussion of trivialities 
+Micropalaeontology – Branch of paleontology that studies microfossils
+Microphytology – study of very small plant life 
+Military science – Theory, method, and practice of producing military capability
+Mineralogy – Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts
+Molecular biology – Branch of biology that studies biological systems at the molecular level
+Molinology – Study of devices which use energy for mechanical purposes
+Momilogy – study of mummies 
+Morphology – study of forms and the development of structures 
+Morphometrics – Quantitative study of size and shape – study of size and shape
+Muscology – Branch of botany concerned with the study of bryophytesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of mosses
+Museology – Study of museums
+Musicology – Scholarly study of music – study of music 
+Mycology – Study of fungi
+Myology – Study of the muscular system – study of muscles
+Myrmecology – Study of ants
+Mythology – Type of traditional narrativePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of myths; fables; tales
+
+== N ==
+Naology – study of church or temple architecture 
+Nautics – study and art of navigation
+Navigation – Process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle – study of controlling a movement of a vehicle from one place to another
+Necroplanetology – Study of the process of planetary destruction – study of the destruction of planets
+Nematology – Scientific study of roundworms
+Neonatology – Medical care of newborns, especially the ill or premature
+Neossology – study of nestling birds 
+Nephology – Scientific study of clouds
+Nephrology – Medical study concerned with the kidneys
+Neurobiology – Scientific study of the nervous system
+Neuroeconomics – Interdisciplinary field – study of human decision making and the ability to process multiple alternatives and to choose an optimal course of action
+Neurology – Medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system
+Neuropsychology – Study of the brain related to specific psychological processes and behaviors
+Neuroscience – Scientific study of the nervous system – study of development, work and structure of nervous system
+Neurypnology – study of hypnotism 
+Neutrosophy – study of the origin and nature of philosophical neutralities 
+Nomology – Science of laws in philosophy
+Noology – Spanish philosopher (1898–1983)Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the intellect 
+Nosology – Branch of medicine that deals with classification of diseases
+Nostology – study of senility 
+Notaphily – Study and collection of paper currency – study and collecting of bank-notes and cheques 
+Numismatics – Study of currencies, coins and paper money
+Nymphology – study of nymphs
+Nanotechnology – Technology with features near one nanometer

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md

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+---
+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 7/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== O ==
+Obstetrics – Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth
+Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean
+Oceanology – Scientific study of the ocean
+Odontology – Scientific study of teeth
+Odonatology – Study of dragonflies and damselflies
+Oenology – Study of wine and winemaking
+Oikology – science of housekeeping 
+Olfactology – study of the sense of smell
+Ombrology – study of rain
+Oncology – Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer
+Oneirology – Scientific study of dreams
+Onomasiology – Branch of linguistics concerned with how to express a given concept – study of nomenclature 
+Onomastics – Study of proper names
+Ontology – Philosophical study of being – science of pure being; the nature of things 
+Oology – Branch of ornithology studying bird eggs, nests and breeding behavior
+Ophiology, also known as ophidiology – Branch of herpetology that studies snakes
+Ophthalmology – Field of medicine treating eye disorders
+Optics – Branch of physics that studies light
+Optology – study of sight 
+Optometry – Field of medicine treating eye disorders – science of examining the eyes
+Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft
+Orchidology – Scientific study of orchids
+Ornithology – Scientific study of birds
+Organology – Collection of tissues with similar functionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (biology) – study of form, structure, development, and functions of plant or animal organs
+Organology – Science of musical instruments and their classifications (musicology) – study of musical instruments in relation to history, culture, construction, acoustic properties and classification
+Orology, also known as Mountain research – Study of mountain environments
+Orthoepy – Correct pronunciation of a language 
+Orthography – Set of conventions for written language 
+Orthopterology – Study of grasshoppers and related insects
+Oryctology – mineralogy or paleontology
+Osmics – scientific study of smells
+Osmology – study of smells and olfactory processes 
+Osphresiology – study of the sense of smell
+Osteology – Scientific study of bones
+Otology – Branch of medicine for the ear
+Otorhinolaryngology – Medical specialty of the head and neck

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md

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+---
+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 8/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== P ==
+Paedology – Study of children's behavior and development
+Paidonosology – study of children's diseases; pediatrics
+Palaeoanthropology – Study of ancient humans
+Palaeobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils
+Palaeoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate
+Palaeoichthyology – study of ancient fish
+Palaeolimnology – Scientific study of ancient lakes and streams
+Palaeontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch
+Palaeopedology – Discipline studying soils of the past eras
+Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils
+Paleo-osteology – study of ancient bones 
+Paleoseismology – Study of earthquakes that happened in the past
+Palynology – Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material
+Papyrology – Scientific study of ancient manuscripts
+Paradoxology – Logically self-contradictory statementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of paradoxes 
+Parapsychology – Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena 
+Parasitology – Study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them
+Paroemiology – study of proverbs
+Parthenology – study of virgins 
+Particle physics – Study of subatomic particles and forces
+Pathology – Study of disease
+Pedagogics – Theory and practice of educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets 
+Pedology – Study of soils in their natural environment
+Pelology – study of mud
+Penology – Subfield of criminology – study of crime and punishment 
+Periodontology, also known as Periodontics – Field of dentistry
+Pestology – Scientific study of insectsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of pests 
+Petrology – Study of rocks in geology
+Pharmacognosy – Study of drugs obtained from natural sources
+Pharmacology – Science of drugs and medications and their effects
+Pharology – Scientific study of lighthouses and signal lights
+Pharyngology – study of the throat
+Phenology – Study of periodic events in biological life cycles
+Phenomenology – Philosophical method and schools of philosophy – study of phenomena 
+Philology – Study of language in historical sources
+Philosophy – Study of general and fundamental questions – science of knowledge or wisdom 
+Phoniatrics – Sudy and treatment of organs involved in speech production
+Phonetics – Study of how humans produce and perceive sounds
+Phonology – Study of sound organization in languages
+Photobiology – Scientific study of light's effect on living organisms
+Photonics – Technical applications of optics – study of photons
+Phraseology – Linguistic study of phrases
+Phycology – Branch of biology concerned with the study of algae
+Phylogenetics, also known as Phylogeny – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
+Physics – Scientific field of study
+Physiology – Science regarding functions in organisms or living systems
+Phytology, also known as Botany – Study of plant life
+Piscatology – study of fishes
+Pisteology – science or study of faith 
+Planetary science, also known as Planetology – Science of planets and planetary systems
+Plumology – Study of feathers
+Plutology – political economy; study of wealth 
+Pneumatics – Use of pressurised gas in mechanical systems – study of mechanics of gases 
+Pneumonology – Study of respiratory diseases
+Podiatry, also known as Podology – Medicine branch focusing on the human lower extremities
+Political science – Scientific study of politics and social science
+Polemology – Multidisciplinary study of war
+Pomology – Study of fruits and their cultivation
+Pogonology – Hair on the chin, lower face and neckPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of beards
+Posology – Study of dosage of medicines
+Potamology – Study of rivers
+Pragmatics – Branch of linguistics and semiotics relating context to meaning
+Praxeology – Theory of human action
+Primatology – Scientific study of primates
+Proctology – Study of the structure and diseases of the anus, rectum, and sigmoid colon
+Protistology – Scientific discipline devoted to the study of protists – study of protists
+Proxemics – Study of human use of space and the effects that population density has on behavior
+Psephology – Quantitative scientific analysis of elections and balloting (within political science) – study of election results and voting trends
+Pseudology – art or science of lying 
+Pseudoptics – study of optical illusions
+Psychobiology – Neuroscience of behaviour
+Psychogenetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour – study of internal or mental states
+Psychognosy – study of mentality, personality or character
+Psycholinguistics – Study of relations between psychology and language
+Psychology – Study of mental functions and behaviors
+Psychopathology – Scientific study of mental disorders
+Psychophysics – Branch of knowledge relating physical stimuli and psychological perception
+Pteridology – Class of vascular plantsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of ferns
+Pterylology – study of distribution of feathers on birds
+Punnology – study of puns
+Pyretology – study of fevers
+Pyrgology – study of towers
+Pyroballogy – study of artillery
+Pyrography – Art or decoration made from burn marks – study of woodburning
+Pyrotechnics – Science of creating combustibles and explosives for entertainment – study of combustion through fire or explosions
+
+== Q ==
+Quantum computing – Computer hardware technology that uses quantum mechanics – the exploitation of collective properties of quantum states, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform computation.
+Quantum mechanics – Description of physical properties at the atomic and subatomic scale – a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles
+Quantum physics – Description of physical properties at the atomic and subatomic scale – the study of matter and energy at the most fundamental level
+Queer theory – Field of critical theory – study of issues related to sexual orientation and gender identity
+Quinology – study of quinine.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md

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+---
+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 9/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== R ==
+Radiobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living tissues – study of the scientific principles, mechanisms, and effects of the interaction of ionizing radiation with living matter
+Radiochemistry – Chemistry of radioactive materials – study of ordinary chemical reactions under radioactive circumstances
+Radiology – Medical specialty for imaging procedures
+Rheology – Study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid state
+Rheumatology – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases
+Rhinology – Study of the nose and sinuses
+Rhochrematics – science of inventory management and the movement of products
+Robotics – Design, construction, use, and application of robots
+Rodentology – Study of rodents
+Runology – Study of Runic alphabets
+
+== S ==
+Sarcology – study of fleshy parts of the body 
+Scatology – Study of faeces – study of excrement or obscene literature 
+Schematonics – art of using gesture to express tones 
+Sciagraphy – Study of perspective shadow projection – art of shading
+Scientific modelling – Scientific activity  that produces models – study of application of models to understand a particular problem 
+Scientific programming – Language for controlling a computer – study of programming 
+Scripophily – Study and collection of stock and bond certificates
+Sedimentology – Study of natural sediments and their formation processes
+Seismology – Scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planet
+Selenodesy – Study of the surface and shape of the Moon
+Selenology – Structure and composition of the Moon – study of the Moon 
+Semantics – Study of meaning in language
+Semantology – science of meanings of words 
+Semasiology – Subfield of linguistic semanticsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Semiology – Study of signsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of signs and signals 
+Semiotics – Study of signs
+Serology – Scientific study of serum and other bodily fluids
+Sexology – Scientific study of human sexuality
+Siderology – study of iron and its alloys, including steel  
+Significs – Linguistic and philosophical term – science of meaning 
+Silvics – Practice of controlling forests for timber productionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of tree's life
+Sindonology – Scientific analysis of the Shroud.of Turin
+Sinology – Area studies focused on China
+Sitology – Expert in nutrition and malnutritionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – dietetics 
+Sociobiology – Subdiscipline of biology regarding social behavior – study of biological basis of human behaviour 
+Socioeconomics – Branch of sociologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the relationship between economy and society 
+Sociolinguistics – Study of how society affects language
+Sociology – Scientific study of human society and relationships
+Solid mechanics – Branch of mechanics concerned with solid materials and their behaviors
+Somatology – Branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human speciesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of substances 
+Snow hydrology – Field of snow science concerning its composition and dispersion
+Spectrology – Study involving matter and electromagnetic radiationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Spectroscopy – Study involving matter and electromagnetic radiation – study of spectra
+Speleology – Science of cave and karst systems
+Spermology – Reproductive structure in plants – study of seeds
+Sphagnology – study of peat moss
+Sphygmology – Study of the pulse
+Splanchnology – Study of the visceral organs
+Spongology – study of sponges 
+Stasiology – study of political parties 
+Statics – Branch of mechanics concerned with balance of forces in nonmoving systems
+Stellar astronomy – Study of stars and stellar evolution
+Stemmatics, also known as Stemmatology – Identification of textual variantsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of relationships between text
+Stereochemistry – Subdiscipline of chemistry – study of chemistry of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. 
+Stoichiology – science of elements of animal tissues 
+Stomatology – Study of oral medicine – study of the mouth
+Storiology – study of folk tales 
+Stratigraphy – Study of rock layers and their formation
+Stratography – art of leading an army 
+Stylometry – Study of writing style – studying literature by means of statistical analysis 
+Suicidology – Scientific study of suicide and self-destructive behaviors
+Supramolecular chemistry – Branch of chemistry – study of the chemistry of assembled molecular sub-units
+Symbology – Something that represents an idea, process, or physical entityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of symbols
+Symptomatology – Indications of a specific illness, including psychiatricPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of symptoms of illness
+Synecology – Associated populations of species in a given areaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of ecological communities
+Synectics – Thought process for making the strange familiar and the familiar strange – study of processes of invention
+Syntax – System responsible for combining morphemes into complex structures – study of sentence structure
+Syphilology – Sexually transmitted infectionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of syphilis
+Systematics – Branch of biology – study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present
+Systems science – Study of the nature of systems – study of systems

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md

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+---
+title: "Index of branches of science"
+chunk: 10/10
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== T ==
+Taxidermy – Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display – art of curing and stuffing animals 
+Taxonomy – Science of classifying organisms
+Tectonics – Process of evolution of Earth's crust
+Teleology – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose – study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose
+Telmatology – Branch of physical geography concerned with the study of wetlands
+Tempestology – The study of cyclones, hurricanes and similar extreme weather events
+Teratology – Study of developmental anomalies
+Terrestrial ecology – Study of terrestrial ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic things that occupy them.
+Teuthology – Study of cephalopods
+Textology – Identification of textual variants – study of the production of texts 
+Thalassography – science of the seas and gulfs 
+Thanatology – Scientific study of death and its aspects
+Thaumatology – The study of miracles – study of miracles
+Theology – Study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs - study of religion
+Theoretical computer science – Subfield of computer science and mathematics
+Theriogenology – Veterinary specialty concerning reproduction
+Thermodynamics – Physics of heat, work, and temperature
+Thermokinematics – study of motion of heat 
+Thermology – study of heat 
+Therology – Study of mammals
+Thremmatology – science of breeding domestic animals and plants
+Threpsology – science of nutrition 
+Tidology – study of tides
+Timbrology – study of postage stamps 
+Tocology – Medical specialty encompassing two subspecialtiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – obstetrics; midwifery
+Tokology – Medical specialty encompassing two subspecialtiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of childbirth
+Tonetics – Use of pitch to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaningPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Topography – Study of the forms of land surfaces in earth
+Topology – Branch of mathematics – study of places and their natural features
+Toponymy, also known as Toponymics – Study of place names
+Toxicology – Study of substances harmful to living organisms
+Traumatology – Medicine branch – study of wounds and their effects 
+Tribology – Science of rubbing surfaces
+Trichology – Study of the hair and scalp
+Trophology – Science of nutrition
+Tsiganology – study of gypsies
+Turbology – study of tornadoes 
+Typhlology – study of blindness and the blind 
+Typography – Art of arranging type – art and technique of arranging type
+Typology – System of classification – study of types of things
+
+== U ==
+Uranography – Part of astronomy concerned with mapping of stars
+Uranology – Science of the heavens (historical)
+Urbanology – Study dealing with specialized problems of cities
+Urenology – study of rust molds
+Urogynecology – Sub-specialty of urology and gynecology
+Urology – Medical specialty on the urinary and reproductive systems
+
+== V ==
+Vaccinology – Science of vaccine development and production
+Valeology – study of healthy living
+Venereology – Branch of medicine dealing with the study and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases
+Venology – The study of veins.
+Veterinary medicine – Branch of medicine for non-human animals
+Vexillography – Art and practice of designing flags – the art and practice of designing flags
+Vexillology – Study of flags
+Victimology – Study of victimization
+Vinology – Study of wine and winemakingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – scientific study of vines and winemaking 
+Virology – Study of viruses
+Vitaminology – The study of vitamins.
+Vitrics – study, art and technology of glassy materials; glassware 
+Volcanology – Study of volcanoes
+
+== W ==
+Webology – Academic journal on the World Wide Web – The study of the World Wide Web.
+
+== X ==
+Xenobiology – Science of synthetic life forms – study of biological systems which do not exist in nature
+Xylography – Broad term for woodblock printing techniques
+Xylology – Science of wood
+
+== Y ==
+Youth Studies – Interdisciplinary academic fieldPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – the study of the development, history, culture, psychology, and politics of youth
+
+== Z ==
+Zenography – The study of the planet Jupiter
+Zooarchaeology – Analysis of animal remains found in archaeological sites
+Zoochemistry – study of chemistry of animals
+Zoogeography – Science of the geographic distribution of animal species
+Zoogeology – study of fossil animal remains 
+Zoology – Scientific study of animals
+Zoonomy – study of animal physiology
+Zoonosology – study of animal diseases 
+Zoopathology – Study and diagnosis of disease in animals
+Zoophysics – Study of physics relating to structure and function of animal organs and bodies.
+Zoophysiology – study of physiology of animals 
+Zoophytology – study of plant-like animals 
+Zoosemiotics – Study of the use of signs among animals – study of animal communication 
+Zootaxy – Scientific classification of animals.
+Zootechnics – Science of managing domestic or captive animals
+Zygology – science of joining and fastening 
+Zymology – Study of fermentation and its uses
+Zymurgy – Applied chemistry of fermentation processes
+Zythology – Study of beer and beer-brewing.
+
+== See also ==
+List of words ending in ology
+List of sciences
+Science
+Outline of academic disciplines
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md

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+---
+title: "Index of computing articles"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:33.910929+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science).
+See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures.
+Topics on computing include:
+
+== 0–9 ==
+1.TR.6 –
+100BaseVG –
+100VG-AnyLAN –
+10BASE-2 –
+10BASE-5 –
+10BASE-T –
+120 reset –
+1-bit computing –
+16-bit computing –
+16550 UART –
+1NF –
+1TBS –
+20-GATE –
+20-GATE –
+2B1D –
+2B1Q –
+2D –
+2NF –
+3-tier (computing) –
+32-bit application –
+32-bit computing –
+320xx microprocessor –
+386BSD –
+3Com Corporation –
+3DO –
+3D computer graphics –
+3GL –
+3NF –
+3Station –
+4.2BSD –
+4-bit computing –
+404 error –
+431A –
+473L system –
+486SX –
+4GL –
+4NF –
+51-FORTH –
+56 kbit/s line –
+5ESS switch –
+5NF –
+5th Glove –
+6.001 –
+64-bit computing –
+680x0 –
+6x86 –
+8-bit clean –
+8-bit computing –
+8.3 filename –
+80x86 –
+82430FX –
+82430HX –
+82430MX –
+82430VX –
+8514 (display standard) –
+8514-A –
+88open –
+8N1 –
+8x86 –
+90–90 rule –
+9PAC
+
+== A ==
+ABC ALGOL –
+ABLE –
+ABSET –
+ABSYS –
+Accent –
+Acceptance, Test Or Launch Language –
+Accessible Computing –
+Ada –
+Addressing mode –
+AIM alliance –
+AirPort –
+AIX –
+Algocracy –
+ALGOL –
+Algorithm –
+AltiVec –
+Amazon Web Services –
+Amdahl's law –
+America Online –
+Amiga –
+AmigaE –
+Analysis of algorithms –
+AOL –
+APL –
+Apple Computer, Inc. –
+Apple II –
+AppleScript –
+Array programming –
+Arithmetic and logical unit –
+ASCII –
+Active Server Pages –
+ASP.NET –
+Assembly language –
+Atari –
+Atlas Autocode –
+AutoLISP –
+Automaton –
+AWK –
+Microsoft Azure
+
+== B ==
+B (programming language) –
+Backus–Naur form –
+Basic Rate Interface (2B+D) –
+BASIC –
+Batch job –
+BCPL –
+Befunge –
+BeOS –
+Berkeley Software Distribution –
+BETA –
+Big O notation –
+Binary symmetric channel –
+Binary Synchronous Transmission –
+Binary numeral system –
+Bit –
+BLISS –
+Blu-ray –
+Blue screen of death –
+Bourne shell (sh)
+Bourne-Again shell (bash) –
+Better Portable Graphics (BPG) –
+Brainfuck –
+Btrieve –
+Burrows–Abadi–Needham logic –
+Business computing
+
+== C ==
+C++ –
+C# –
+C –
+Cache –
+Canonical LR parser –
+Cat (Unix) –
+CD-ROM –
+Central processing unit –
+Chimera –
+Chomsky normal form –
+CIH virus –
+Classic Mac OS –
+Cloud Computing –
+COBOL –
+Cocoa (software) –
+Code and fix –
+Code Red worm –
+ColdFusion –
+Colouring algorithm –
+COMAL –
+Comm (Unix) –
+Command line interface –
+Command line interpreter –
+COMMAND.COM –
+Commercial at (computing) –
+Commodore 1541 –
+Commodore 1581 –
+Commodore 64 –
+Common logarithm –
+Common Unix Printing System –
+Compact disc –
+Compiler –
+Computability theory –
+Computational complexity theory –
+Computation –
+Computer-aided design –
+Computer-aided manufacturing –
+Computer architecture –
+Computer cluster –
+Computer hardware –
+Computer monitor –
+Computer network –
+Computer numbering format –
+Computer programming –
+Computer science –
+Computer security –
+Computer software –
+Computer system –
+Computer –
+Computing –
+Context-free grammar –
+Context-sensitive grammar –
+Context-sensitive language –
+Control flow –
+Control store –
+Control unit –
+CORAL66 –
+CP/M –
+CPL –
+Cracking (software) –
+Cracking (passwords) –
+Cryptanalysis –
+Cryptography –
+Cybersquatting –
+CYK algorithm –
+Cyrix 6x86
+
+== D ==
+D –
+Data compression –
+Database normalization –
+Decidable set –
+Deep Blue –
+Desktop environment –
+Desktop publishing –
+Deterministic finite automaton –
+Dialer –
+DIBOL –
+Diff –
+Digital camera –
+DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) –
+Digital signal processing –
+Digital visual interface –
+Direct manipulation interface –
+Disk storage –
+Distance transform –
+Distance map –
+Distance field –
+Docblock –
+DVD –
+DVI (TeX) –
+Dvorak keyboard layout –
+Dylan
+
+== E ==
+Earth Simulator –
+EBCDIC –
+ECMAScript (a.k.a. JavaScript) –
+Electronic data processing (EDP) –
+Enhanced Versatile Disc (EVD) –
+ENIAC –
+Enterprise Java Beans (EJB) – 
+Entscheidungsproblem –
+Equality (relational operator) –
+Erlang –
+Enterprise resource planning (ERP) –
+ES EVM –
+Ethernet –
+Euclidean algorithm –
+Euphoria –
+Exploit (computer security)
+
+== F ==
+Fast Ethernet –
+Federated Naming Service –
+Field specification –
+Final Cut Pro –
+Finite-state automaton –
+FireWire –
+First-generation language –
+Floating-point unit –
+Floppy disk –
+Formal language –
+Forth –
+Fortran –
+Fourth-generation language –
+Fragmentation –
+Free On-line Dictionary of Computing –
+Free Software Foundation –
+Free software movement –
+Free software –
+Freescale 68HC11 –
+Freeware –
+Function-level programming –
+Functional programming
+
+== G ==
+G5 –
+GEM –
+General Algebraic Modeling System –
+Genie –
+GNU –
+GNU Bison –
+Gnutella –
+Graphical user interface –
+Graphics Device Interface –
+Greibach normal form –
+G.hn
+
+== H ==
+hack (technology slang) –
+Hacker (computer security) –
+Hacker (hobbyist) –
+Hacker (programmer subculture) –
+Hacker (term) –
+Halting problem –
+Hard Drive –
+Haskell –
+HD DVD –
+History of computing –
+History of computing hardware –
+History of Microsoft Windows –
+History of operating systems –
+History of the graphical user interface –
+Hitachi 6309 –
+Home computer –
+Human–computer interaction

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md

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+---
+title: "Index of computing articles"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:33.910929+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== I ==
+IA-32 –
+IA-64 –
+IBM PC –
+Interactive computation –
+IBM –
+iBook –
+iCab –
+iCal –
+Icon –
+iDVD –
+IEEE 802.2 –
+IEEE 802.3 –
+IEEE floating-point standard –
+iMac –
+Image processing –
+iMovie –
+Indentation style
+Inform –
+Instruction register –
+Intel 8008 –
+Intel 80186 –
+Intel 80188 –
+Intel 80386 –
+Intel 80486SX –
+Intel 80486 –
+Intel 8048 –
+Intel 8051 –
+Intel 8080 –
+Intel 8086 –
+Intel 80x86 –
+Intel –
+INTERCAL –
+International Electrotechnical Commission –
+Internet Explorer –
+Internet –
+iPhoto –
+iPod –
+iResQ –
+Irreversible circuit –
+iSync –
+iTunes
+
+== J ==
+J (programming language) –
+Java Platform, Enterprise Edition –
+Java Platform, Micro Edition –
+Java Platform, Standard Edition –
+Java API –
+Java –
+Java virtual machine (JVM) –
+JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) –
+JPEG
+
+== K ==
+K&R –
+KDE –
+Kilobyte –
+KL-ONE –
+Kleene star –
+Klez –
+Kotlin
+
+== L ==
+LALR parser –
+Lambda calculus –
+Lasso –
+LaTeX –
+Leet –
+Legal aspects of computing –
+Lex –
+LibreOffice –
+Limbo –
+Linked list –
+Linux –
+Lisp –
+List of IBM products –
+List of Intel processors –
+List of programming languages –
+List of operating systems –
+List of Soviet computer systems –
+LL parser –
+Logic programming –
+Logo –
+Lotus 1-2-3 –
+LR parser –
+Lua –
+Lynx language –
+Lynx browser
+
+== M ==
+m4 –
+macOS Server –
+macOS –
+Mac –
+MAD –
+Mainframe computer –
+Malware –
+Mary –
+Mealy machine –
+Megabyte –
+Melissa worm –
+Mercury –
+Mesa –
+Microcode –
+Microprocessor –
+Microprogram –
+Microsequencer –
+Microsoft Windows –
+Microsoft –
+MIPS architecture -
+Miranda –
+ML –
+MMC –
+MMU –
+MMX –
+Mobile Trin –
+Modula –
+MOO –
+Moore's Law –
+Moore machine –
+Morris worm –
+MOS Technology 6502 –
+MOS Technology 650x –
+MOS Technology 6510 –
+Motorola 68000 –
+Motorola 6800 –
+Motorola 68020 –
+Motorola 68030 –
+Motorola 68040 –
+Motorola 68060 –
+Motorola 6809 –
+Motorola 680x0 –
+Motorola 68LC040 –
+Motorola 88000 –
+Mozilla –
+MPEG –
+MS-DOS –
+Multics –
+Multiprocessing –
+MUMPS
+
+== N ==
+.NET –
+NetBSD –
+Netlib –
+Netscape Navigator –
+NeXT, Inc. –
+Nial –
+Nybble –
+Ninety–ninety rule –
+Non-uniform memory access –
+Nondeterministic finite automaton
+
+== O ==
+Oberon –
+Objective-C –
+object –
+OCaml –
+occam –
+OmniWeb –
+One True Brace Style –
+OpenBSD –
+Open source –
+Open Source Initiative –
+OpenVMS -
+Opera (web browser) –
+Operating system advocacy –
+Operating system
+
+== P ==
+PA-RISC –
+Page description language –
+Pancake sorting –
+Parallax Propeller –
+Parallel computing –
+Parser (language) –
+Parsing (technique) –
+Partial function –
+Pascal –
+PDP –
+Peer-to-peer network –
+Perl –
+Personal computer –
+PHP –
+PILOT –
+PL/I –
+Pointer –
+Poplog –
+Portable Document Format (PDF) –
+Poser –
+PostScript –
+PowerBook –
+PowerPC –
+PowerPC G4 –
+Prefix grammar –
+Preprocessor –
+Primitive recursive function –
+Programming language –
+Prolog –
+PSPACE-complete –
+Pulse-code modulation (PCM) –
+Pushdown automaton –
+Python
+
+== Q ==
+QuarkXPress –
+QuickTime –
+QWERTY
+
+== R ==
+R (programming language) –
+RAM (random-access memory) –
+RAM drive –
+Random access –
+RascalMPL –
+Ratfor –
+RCA 1802 –
+Read-only memory (ROM) –
+REBOL –
+Recovery-oriented computing –
+Recursive descent parser –
+Recursion (computer science) –
+Recursive set –
+Recursively enumerable language –
+Recursively enumerable set –
+Reference (computer science) –
+Referential transparency –
+Register –
+Regular expression –
+Regular grammar –
+Regular language –
+RPG –
+Retrocomputing –
+REXX –
+RFC –
+RISC –
+RS/6000 –
+Ruby
+
+== S ==
+S –
+S-Lang –
+Safari (web browser) –
+SAIL –
+Script kiddie –
+Scripting language –
+SCSI –
+Second-generation programming language –
+Secure Sockets Layer –
+sed –
+Self (or SELF) –
+Semaphore (programming) –
+Sequential access –
+Serverless computing –
+SETL –
+Shareware –
+Shell script –
+Shellcode –
+SIMD –
+Simula –
+Sircam –
+Slide rule –
+SLIP –
+SLR parser –
+Smalltalk –
+Server Message Block –
+SMBus –
+SMIL (computer) –
+Smiley –
+SNOBOL –
+Software engineering –
+SONET –
+Space-cadet keyboard –
+SPARC International –
+Specialist (computer) –
+SPITBOL –
+SQL –
+SQL slammer worm –
+Squeak –
+SR –
+SSL –
+Service-oriented architecture –
+S/SL –
+Stale pointer bug –
+Standard ML (or SML) –
+Stateless server –
+Stepping level -
+Structured programming –
+Subject-oriented programming –
+Subnetwork –
+Supercomputer –
+Swap space –
+Symbolic mathematics –
+Symlink –
+Symmetric multiprocessing –
+Syntactic sugar –
+SyQuest Technology –
+SYSKEY –
+System board –
+System programming language –
+System R (IBM) –
+System X (supercomputer)
+
+== T ==
+TADS –
+Tcl –
+TECO (text editor) –
+Text editor –
+TeX –
+Third-generation language –
+Timeline of computing –
+Timeline of computing 1950–1979 –
+Timeline of computing 1980–1989 –
+Timeline of computing 1990–1999 –
+Timeline of computing hardware before 1950 (2400 BC–1949) –
+Tk –
+TPU –
+Trac –
+Transparency (computing) –
+Trin II –
+Trin VX –
+Turing machine –
+Turing –
+2B1Q
+
+== U ==
+UAT –
+Unicode –
+Unicon –
+Unix –
+Unix shell –
+UNIX System V –
+Unlambda –
+USB –
+Unreachable memory
+
+== V ==
+Var'aq –
+VAX –
+VBScript –
+Vector processor –
+Ventura Publisher –
+Very-large-scale integration –
+Video editing –
+Virtual memory –
+Visual Basic (classic) –
+Visual Basic .NET –
+Visual FoxPro –
+Von Neumann architecture
+
+== W ==
+WD16 –
+Web 2.0 –
+Web browser –
+Western Design Center –
+The WELL -
+Western Design Center 65C02 –
+Western Design Center 65816 –
+Whitespace –
+Wiki –
+Window manager –
+Windows 1.0 –
+Windows 2000 –
+Windows 95 –
+Windows Me –
+Windows NT –
+Windows XP –
+Windows 7 –
+Word processor –
+World Wide Web –
+WYSIWYG
+
+== X ==
+X Window System –
+X86 –
+Xmouse
+
+== Y ==
+Yacc –
+YaST –
+Yet another –
+Yorick
+
+== Z ==
+Z notation –
+Z shell –
+Zilog Z80 –
+Zooming User Interface –
+ZX80 –
+ZX81 –
+ZX Spectrum

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Industry funding of academic research"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:03.481091+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Industry funding of academic research in the United States is one of the two major sources of research funding in academia along with government support. Currently, private funding of research accounts for the majority of all research and development funding in the United States as of 2007 overall. Overall, Federal and Industrial sources contribute similar amounts to research, while industry funds the vast majority of development work. 
+While the majority of industry research is performed in-house, a major portion of this private research funding is directed to research in non-profit academic centers. As of 1999, industrial sources accounted for an estimated $2.2 billion of academic research funding in the US. However, there is little governmental oversight or tracking of industry funding on academic science and figures of the scale of industry research are often estimated by self-reporting and surveys which can be somewhat unreliable.
+Much of this industry funding of academic research is directed toward applied research. However, by some accounts, industry may even fund up to 40% of basic research in the United States, with Federal funding of basic research falling below 50%, although this figure does not consider where this research is conducted. The role for funding of academic research from industrial sources has received much attention both in a historical and contemporary perspective. The practice has received both extensive political praise and scholarly criticism.
+
+== History ==
+Research in the US prior to World War II, heavily relied on funding from private sources without major organized federal research programs or either the scientists’ or associates’ personal funds. During WWII, governmental investment in research was widely regarded as a major contributor to military success and support for research was politically favorable. Following WW2, federal research funding in both Europe and the US increased in terms of relative percent of funding for research and absolute amount. Overall, the growth of industrial research funding has greatly outpaced public research funding growth, with US governmental research funding increasing by an average of 3.4% annually, while industrial research funding increased by an average of 5.4% annually from 1950 to 2004. 
+Since WW2, industry funding of science has consistently represented the second largest source of funding for academic science. Industry funding of academic science did expand during the 1980s and 1990s following the passing of the Bayh–Dole Act and a variety of both State and Federal proposals to increase funding for joint industry academic partnerships. In the 2000s there has been a small retraction of industry funding for academic science while overall industry R&D funding has expanded. ). However, industry funding may be broadening its scope as industry funding of basic science increasing dramatically over that same period, but much of this funding remains in-house.
+Culturally, attitudes towards the industrial funding of academic research have changed over time. Within universities, commercial activities and industry funding were often spurned in the 19th century. More recently, commercializing scientific activity is viewed more favorably with extensive political and university support of translating scientific discovery into economic output. However, within the research community and the public, industrial funding of research remains controversial. The universality of this tangled industry, academic, and governmental exchange of funding and research adventures has led researchers to term this model of R&D the Triple Helix.
+
+== Types of industrially funded academic research ==
+University-industry partnerships can take on a variety of forms. On the smallest scale, individual research labs or researchers can partner with industry sources for funding. The details of such partnerships can differ substantially with any number of motives ranging from the academic lab testing of previously developed products, to performing early stage basic research related to industry research objectives, or even to individual researchers supporting their salary by consulting on related research problems in industry. While many such partnerships exist, due to their informal nature and resulting lack of record, it is difficult to track how extensive and impactful such relationships are, with most relying on surveys and other self-reporting measures. By closest approximation, according to the Research Value Mapping Survey, 17% of academics at major US research universities report receive grants from industry sources supporting their research.
+Far more extensively, in many fields and countries, a narrow majority of academic scientists report having some soft industry relationships, primarily through consulting. Such informal industry academic relationships have a long-standing tradition as they served as a major source of funding for individual labs prior to WW2. In many cases, it was expected that researchers would pursue such relationships as this was expected to be a major source of funding for researcher’s salaries. Despite greatly expanded post-WW2 federal support for research, so called soft money salary support from industry remains a large and growing aspect of academic research salaries.