From f81159cf177a8173eb3985536d49efd2eb5074b9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: turtle89431 <turtle89431@gmail.com>
Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 20:12:15 -0700
Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 578 new, 12 updated, 611 total
 (kb-cron)

---
 _index.db                                     | Bin 3973120 -> 3997696 bytes
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihi_itch-0.md     |  26 +++
 .../wiki/Natural_history-0.md                 |  32 ++++
 .../wiki/Natural_history-1.md                 |  33 ++++
 .../wiki/Natural_history-2.md                 |  43 +++++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_magic-0.md |  32 ++++
 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_magic-1.md |  29 ++++
 .../wiki/Natural_philosophy-0.md              |  30 ++++
 .../wiki/Natural_philosophy-1.md              |  30 ++++
 .../wiki/Natural_philosophy-2.md              |  22 +++
 .../wiki/Natural_philosophy-3.md              |  22 +++
 .../wiki/Natural_philosophy-4.md              |  45 +++++
 .../wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories-0.md    |  38 +++++
 .../wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories-1.md    |  39 +++++
 .../wiki/Oral_History_of_British_Science-0.md |  72 ++++++++
 .../wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-0.md          |  41 +++++
 .../wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-1.md          |  30 ++++
 .../wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-2.md          |  25 +++
 .../wiki/Patterns_in_nature-0.md              |  22 +++
 .../wiki/Patterns_in_nature-1.md              |  34 ++++
 .../wiki/Patterns_in_nature-2.md              |  24 +++
 .../wiki/Patterns_in_nature-3.md              |  26 +++
 .../wiki/Patterns_in_nature-4.md              |  60 +++++++
 .../wiki/Physica_speculatio-0.md              |  41 +++++
 .../wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-0.md             |  27 +++
 .../wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-1.md             |  31 ++++
 .../wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-2.md             | 156 ++++++++++++++++++
 .../wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-3.md             |  37 +++++
 28 files changed, 1047 insertions(+)
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihi_itch-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-1.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-2.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_magic-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_magic-1.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy-1.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy-2.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy-3.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy-4.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories-1.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_History_of_British_Science-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-1.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish-2.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-1.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-2.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-3.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature-4.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-0.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-1.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-2.md
 create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)-3.md

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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihi_itch-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihi_itch-0.md
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+---
+title: "Mihi itch"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihi_itch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:04.995529+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mihi itch or Mihisucht is the ambition to describe new species (or other taxa: subspecies, hybrids, genera, etc.) as a means to immortalize one's name. Mihi is the dative form of the Latin word ego, thus "mihi itch" means to satisfy one's egotistical  impulses. The expression appeared in print as early as 1884.
+A consequence of the Mihi itch may be the unwarranted description of new taxa, differing only slightly from already established taxa, leading to taxonomic inflation. A more extreme case may be termed taxonomic vandalism when a large number of species are described with limited scientific evidence.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+La "nouvelle école" in malacology, led by Jules René Bourguignat, was responsible for the description of hundreds of new species of molluscs in Europe at the end of the nineteen century.
+Harold St. John published 440 names in the genus Pandanus, which encompasses c. 600 accepted species, and 283 names in the genus Cyrtandra, which encompasses c. 700 accepted species.
+Between 2000 and 2011, Raymond Hoser published 582 species names, and 340 generic names of animals (mostly reptiles).
+
+
+== See also ==
+Taxonomic vandalism
+Taxonomic inflation
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-0.md
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+---
+title: "Natural history"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:06.102599+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a naturalist or natural historian.
+Natural history encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it. It involves the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms, so while it dates from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the medieval Arab world, through to European Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a cross-discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g., geobiology has a strong multidisciplinary nature.
+
+== Definitions ==
+
+=== Before 1900 ===
+
+The meaning of the English term "natural history" (a calque of the Latin historia naturalis) has narrowed progressively with time, while, by contrast, the meaning of the related term "nature" has widened (see also History below).
+In antiquity, "natural history" covered essentially anything connected with nature, or  used materials drawn from nature, such as Pliny the Elder's encyclopedia of this title, published c. 77 to 79 AD, which covers astronomy, geography, humans and their technology, medicine, and superstition, as well as animals and plants.
+Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two main divisions: the humanities (primarily what is now known as classics) and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. The study of nature revived in the Renaissance, and quickly became a third branch of academic knowledge, itself divided into descriptive natural history and  natural philosophy, the analytical study of nature. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, while natural history included the biological and geological sciences. The two were strongly associated. During the heyday of the gentleman scientists, many people contributed to both fields, and early papers in both were commonly read at professional science society meetings such as the Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences—both founded during the 17th century.
+Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus' aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits.
+
+=== Since 1900 ===
+
+Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources, and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field, creating a multiplicity of definitions with a number of common themes among them. For example, while natural history is most often defined as a type of observation and a subject of study, it can also be defined as a body of knowledge, and as a craft or a practice, in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed. The multiplicity of definitions for the field has been recognized as both a weakness and a strength, and a broad range of definitions has recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history.
+Definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment, as seen in this definition by Marston Bates: "Natural history is the study of animals and plants—of organisms. ... I like to think, then, of natural history as the study of life at the level of the individual—of what plants and animals do, how they react to each other and their environment, how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities" and this more recent definition by D.S. Wilcove and T. Eisner: "The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior, and their relationships with other species".
+This focus on organisms in their environment is also echoed by H.W. Greene and J.B. Losos: "Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment, including interactions with other organisms. It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do".
+Some definitions go further, focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environments, both past and present, such as this one by G.A. Bartholomew: "A student of natural history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants and animals directly. Because organisms are functionally inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function cannot be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history, the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment".
+A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a descriptive component, as seen in a recent definition by H.W. Greene: "Descriptive ecology and ethology". Several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history, including S. Herman, who defines the field as "the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the ecosystem, and stresses identification, life history, distribution, abundance, and inter-relationships. It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component", and T. Fleischner, who defines the field even more broadly, as "A practice of intentional, focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy". These definitions explicitly include the arts in the field of natural history, and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez, who defines the field as the "patient interrogation of a landscape" while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo (Inuit).
+A slightly different framework for natural history, covering a similar range of themes, is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading natural history museums, which often include elements of anthropology, geology, paleontology, and astronomy along with botany and zoology, or include both cultural and natural components of the world.
+
+== History ==
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Natural history"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:06.102599+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Prehistory ===
+Prior to the advent of Western science, humans were engaged and highly competent in indigenous ways of understanding the more-than-human world that are now referred to as traditional ecological knowledge. 21st century definitions of natural history are inclusive of this understanding, such as this by Thomas Fleischner of the Natural History Institute (Prescott, Arizona):
+Natural history – a practice of intentional focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy – is the oldest continuous human endeavor. In the evolutionary past of our species, the practice of natural history was essential for our survival, imparting critical information on habits and chronologies of plants and animals that we could eat or that could eat us. Natural history continues to be critical to human survival and thriving. It contributes to our fundamental understanding of how the world works by providing the empirical foundation of natural sciences, and it contributes directly and indirectly to human emotional and physical health, thereby fostering healthier human communities. It also serves as the basis for all conservation efforts, with natural history both informing the science and inspiring the values that drive these.
+
+=== Ancient ===
+
+As a precursor to Western science, natural history began with Aristotle and other ancient philosophers who analyzed the diversity of the natural world. Natural history was understood by Pliny the Elder to cover anything that could be found in the world, including living things, geology, astronomy, technology, art, and humanity.
+De Materia Medica was written between 50 and 70 AD by Pedanius Dioscorides, a Roman physician of Greek origin. It was widely read for more than 1,500 years until supplanted in the Renaissance, making it one of the longest-lasting of all natural history books.
+From the ancient Greeks until the work of Carl Linnaeus and other 18th-century naturalists, a major concept of natural history was the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being, an arrangement of minerals, vegetables, more primitive forms of animals, and more complex life forms on a linear scale of supposedly increasing perfection, culminating in our species.
+
+=== Medieval ===
+Natural history was basically static through the Middle Ages in Europe—although in the Arabic and Oriental world, it proceeded at a much brisker pace. From the 13th century, the work of Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into Christian philosophy, particularly by Thomas Aquinas, forming the basis for natural theology. During the Renaissance, scholars (herbalists and humanists, particularly) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history, and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual monsters. Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with Otto Brunfels and Hieronymus Bock. Other important contributors to the field were Valerius Cordus, Konrad Gesner (Historiae animalium), Frederik Ruysch, and Gaspard Bauhin. The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into taxonomic groups, culminating in the system of the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus.
+The British historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham calls Li Shizhen "the 'uncrowned king' of Chinese naturalists", and his Bencao gangmu "undoubtedly the greatest scientific achievement of the Ming". His works translated to many languages direct or influence many scholars and researchers.
+
+=== Modern ===
+
+A significant contribution to English natural history was made by parson-naturalists such as Gilbert White, William Kirby, John George Wood, and John Ray, who wrote about plants, animals, and other aspects of nature. Many of these men wrote about nature to make the natural theology argument for the existence or goodness of God. Since early modern times, however, a great number of women made contributions to natural history, particularly in the field of botany, be it as authors, collectors, or illustrators.
+In modern Europe, professional disciplines such as botany, geology, mycology, palaeontology, physiology, and zoology were formed. Natural history, formerly the main subject taught by college science professors, was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an "amateur" activity, rather than a part of science proper. In Victorian Scotland,  the study of natural history was believed to contribute to good mental health. Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the study of birds, butterflies, seashells (malacology/conchology), beetles, and wildflowers; meanwhile, scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology (though with only partial success, at least until the modern evolutionary synthesis). Still, the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology, especially ecology (the study of natural systems involving living organisms and the inorganic components of the Earth's biosphere that support them), ethology (the scientific study of animal behavior), and evolutionary biology (the study of the relationships between life forms over very long periods of time), and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology.
+Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the world's large natural history collections, such as the Natural History Museum, London, and the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC.
+Three of the greatest English naturalists of the 19th century, Henry Walter Bates, Charles Darwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace—who knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years, collected thousands of specimens, many of them new to science, and by their writings both advanced knowledge of "remote" parts of the world—the Amazon basin, the Galápagos Islands, and the Indonesian Archipelago, among others—and in so doing helped to transform biology from a descriptive to a theory-based science.
+The understanding of "nature" as "an organism and not as a mechanism" can be traced to the writings of Alexander von Humboldt (Prussia, 1769–1859). Humboldt's copious writings and research were seminal influences for Charles Darwin, Simón Bolívar, Henry David Thoreau, Ernst Haeckel, and John Muir.
+
+== Museums ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history-2.md
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+---
+title: "Natural history"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:06.102599+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Natural history museums, which evolved from cabinets of curiosities, played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own morphological research.
+
+== Societies ==
+
+The term "natural history" alone, or sometimes together with archaeology, forms the name of many national, regional, and local natural history societies that maintain records for animals—including birds (ornithology), insects (entomology) and mammals (mammalogy)—fungi (mycology), plants (botany), and other organisms. They may also have geological and microscopical sections.
+Examples of these societies in Britain include the Natural History Society of Northumbria founded in 1829, London Natural History Society (1858), Birmingham Natural History Society (1859), British Entomological and Natural History Society founded in 1872, Glasgow Natural History Society, Manchester Microscopical and Natural History Society established in 1880, Whitby Naturalists' Club founded in 1913, Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society, Sheffield, founded in 1918. The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many civil servants took an interest in their new surroundings, sending specimens back to museums in the Britain. (See also: Indian natural history)
+Societies in other countries include the American Society of Naturalists and Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists. The Ecological Society of America launched its "Natural History Section" in 2010, using the tagline "the heart and soul of ecology."
+Professional societies have recognized the importance of natural history and have initiated new sections in their journals specifically for natural history observations to support the discipline. These include "Natural History Field Notes" of Biotropica, "The Scientific Naturalist" of Ecology, "From the Field" of Waterbirds, and the "Natural History Miscellany section" of the American Naturalist.
+
+== Benefits of natural history ==
+Natural history observations have contributed to scientific questioning and theory formation. Such observations contribute to how conservation priorities are determined. For individuals, mental health benefits can result from regular and active observation of chosen components of nature, and these reach beyond the benefits derived from passively walking through natural areas.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Evolutionary history of life
+History of evolutionary thought
+Natural history group – Untreated subjects in a drug trial
+Natural history of disease – Progression of a person's medical condition
+Natural science – Branch of science about the natural world
+Naturalism (philosophy) – Belief that only natural laws and forces operate in the universe
+Nature documentary – Documentary genre
+Nature study – Education movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
+Nature writing – Nonfiction or fiction prose or poetry about the natural environment,  literary genre
+Russian naturalists
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+A History of the Ecological Sciences by Frank N. Egerton
+The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 07 (of 10), London: Macmillan and Co., 1904
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_magic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_magic-0.md
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+---
+title: "Natural magic"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_magic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:07.371711+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Natural magic is a tradition concerning the manipulation and development of the occult, or hidden, mechanisms within nature. Unlike ceremonial magic, it does not rely on a relationship with summoning spirits. Natural magic sometimes makes use of physical substances from the natural world such as stones or herbs. In the Medieval era, many theologians utilized the term natural magic when referring to the properties of the natural world that would operate within the realm of divinity. Natural magic worked to expose underlying mechanisms occurring in nature that cannot be explained through rational knowledge. The lack of concrete evidence results in these mechanisms being referred to as "occult properties".
+Natural magic so defined includes astrology, alchemy, and certain disciplines that would today be considered fields of natural science, such as astronomy and chemistry (divergently evolved from astrology and alchemy, respectively) or botany (from herbology). Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher wrote that "there are as many types of natural magic as there are subjects of applied sciences".
+Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa discusses natural magic in his Three Books of Occult Philosophy (1533), where he calls it "nothing else but the highest power of natural sciences". The Italian Renaissance philosopher Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who founded the tradition of Christian Kabbalah, argued that natural magic was "the practical part of natural science" and was lawful rather than heretical. The concept of natural magic dates back to ancient philosophical traditions that proposed the existence of hidden properties within nature and their relationship to the world. These ideas were spread to Western Europe through the translation of Greco-Arabic texts into Latin and became especially influential in the medieval and Renaissance periods.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Ancient origins ===
+The idea that nature had occult, or hidden, properties and the desire to understand and make use of them was an idea prevalent in many ancient cultures. In ancient Greece, early philosophers sought to uncover the fundamental principles of the world and the causes of change within it. Many thinkers believed there were immaterial forces that brought structure to the universe. Empedocles, for example, proposed that attractive and repulsive forces were what drove nature, while Anaxagoras believed it was the mind, and Pythagoreans believed it was number.
+Both ancient Chinese and Egyptian traditions utilized astrology to interpret patterns in nature and predict future events. For example, ancient Egyptians would record observations of the sky and interpret their meanings, believing that their gods would send warnings through celestial signs. In ancient China, yin and yang in divination, and the relationship between the five phases and astrology, were occult concepts used to interpret events in the natural world and predict future ones. Through these ancient traditions, specifically Greco-Arabic, beliefs and ideas were spread to Western Europe through Latin translations. These early attempts to explain the hidden forces of nature would later contribute to the traditions of natural magic, which similarly sought to understand and utilize the unseen principles governing the natural world.
+
+=== Medieval period ===
+
+In the Medieval period, specifically in Western Europe, the concept of learned magic had gained traction and high prestige. This was due to authority figures typically being represented as beings from preternatural origins. During this time, the term “natural magic” was only used by William of Auvergne when referring to underlying properties in the natural world. During the later half of the Medieval period, authors began to speculate that nature gained these occult properties through power of the stars. 
+The more general concept of occult properties originated in the medicinal field through Galen, and was interpreted by Avicenna. Avicenna is the author of a medical text titled Canon medicinae, which highlighted the formulation of these properties. In this text, Avicenna states that natural properties come from “a tota substantia”, or a whole substance, meaning that the powers are derived from a complete entity and cannot be broken into hot, dry, wet, and cold. 
+These occult properties were used to explain many phenomena in the Middle Ages, such as the attractive forces between magnets and the health properties of herbs and stones. Each of these could not be explained by primary qualities, which placed them into the realm of natural magic.
+
+=== Renaissance period ===
+
+Transitioning into the Renaissance period from the Middle Ages, there were still many figures practicing natural magic and working with occult sciences. One notably famous figure who had influence on natural magic during this time was John Dee, an English mathematician and astronomer.   He was part of expanding natural magic into broader applications, such as scientific inquiry and religious perceptions.  A substantial amount of his work focused on the use of alchemy to transition base metals into gold. Dee also utilized horoscopes to interpret celestial events that would guide his decision-making in science and politics. His involvement in this occult thinking led to several accusations that he was using these celestial events to manipulate unseen forces, which shows the power that natural magic had during the Renaissance period.  
+Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola were two individuals known for establishing the foundation for philosophical occultists during the Renaissance period. These philosophical thinkers described occult practices as stages that led to one being closer to the divine. Once an individual progresses toward spiritual enlightenment, they begin to understand the inner workings of the natural world, and they can manipulate names and symbols to influence natural forces. This idea became a central focus to philosophical occultists during the Renaissance Period. Paracelsus, a Swiss-German physician, alchemist, and astrologer, emphasized this idea and believed that alchemy was meant to purify aspects of nature that nature leaves imperfect. Natural magic in the Renaissance period, then, was not simply aiming to prove scientific inquiries like turning base metals into gold. It functioned as a spiritual system where philosophical occultists could progressively understand and ultimately perfect the workings of the natural world. 
+
+=== Scientific Revolution ===
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+title: "Natural magic"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_magic"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:07.371711+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+During the Scientific Revolution in the seventeenth century, the way science was viewed started to drastically change. The role of natural magic began to shift, but it did not disappear. Specifically, the idea of “occult properties” had an important role in the developing scientific worldview. The invisible forces in nature, which were previously thought of as magical concepts, came to be known as more rational and mathematical ones. For example, phenomena such as gravity and light were once thought to be mysterious, unknown forces, but during the Scientific Revolution, scientists began to explain them as rays or forces acting across a space. 
+This transformation of thought is shown through figures like Isaac Newton, whose theory of gravity relied on a force at a distance, similar to earlier beliefs related to natural magic. While Newton and other scientists moved away from magical explanations, theories of natural magic helped to inspire their work. Despite beliefs and reasonings changing, “occult qualities” helped to establish ideas such as force interactions, which remain a central part of modern physics today.
+
+== See also ==
+Kitāb al-nawāmīs – Arabic book of magic
+Giambattista della Porta – Italian polymath (1535–1615)
+Magia Naturalis – Book by Giambattista della Porta
+Protoscience – Research field that may become a science
+Thomas Vaughan – Welsh philosopher (1621–1666)
+White magic – Magic used for selfless purposes
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Nauert, Charles G. (1957). "Magic and Skepticism in Agrippa's Thought". Journal of the History of Ideas: 176.
+Stark, Ryan J. (2009). Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.
+
+== External links ==
+ The dictionary definition of natural magic at Wiktionary.
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+title: "Natural philosophy"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:08.564857+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Natural philosophy, philosophy of nature (from Latin philosophia naturalis), or experimental philosophy, until the late modern period, was the systematic and research-based study of nature and the physical universe, while ignoring any supernatural influence. Used since at least Aristotle (classical antiquity) until the 19th century, the term natural philosophy referred to a branch of philosophy—a broader term then, meaning all rational fields of study and contemplation—that explored topics now considered to fall under the purview of science, such as physics, biology, chemistry, and astronomy. Thus, natural philosophy served as the precursor to, and has been mostly supplanted by, modern science. 
+The 19th century established the term science as distinct from philosophy in its rigorously empirical and experimental approach, along with its many modern sub-disciplines, plus the founding of various institutions and communities devoted to them. Isaac Newton's book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) (English: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) reflects the use of the term natural philosophy in the 17th century. Even in the 19th century, the work that helped define much of modern physics bore the title Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867), authored by Lord Kelvin and Tait.
+In the German tradition, Naturphilosophie (philosophy of nature) persisted into the 18th and 19th centuries as an attempt to achieve a speculative unity of nature and spirit, after rejecting the scholastic tradition and replacing Aristotelian metaphysics, along with those of the dogmatic churchmen, with Kantian rationalism. Some of the greatest names in German philosophy are associated with this movement, including Goethe, Hegel, and Schelling. Naturphilosophie was associated with Romanticism and a view that regarded the natural world as a kind of giant organism, as opposed to the philosophical approach of figures such as John Locke and others espousing a more mechanical philosophy of the world, regarding it as being like a machine.
+
+== Origin and evolution of the term ==
+The term natural philosophy preceded current usage of natural science (i.e. empirical science). Empirical science historically developed out of philosophy or, more specifically, natural philosophy. Natural philosophy was distinguished from the other precursor of modern science, natural history, in that natural philosophy involved reasoning and explanations about nature (and after Galileo, quantitative reasoning), whereas natural history was essentially qualitative and descriptive.
+Greek philosophers defined natural philosophy as the combination of beings living in the universe, ignoring things made by humans. The other definition refers to human nature.
+In the 14th and 15th centuries, natural philosophy was one of many branches of philosophy, but was not a specialized field of study. The first person appointed as a specialist in Natural Philosophy per se was Jacopo Zabarella, at the University of Padua in 1577.
+Modern meanings of the terms science and scientists date only to the 19th century. Before that, science was a synonym for knowledge or study, in keeping with its Latin origin. The term gained its modern meaning when experimental science and the scientific method became a specialized branch of study apart from natural philosophy, especially since William Whewell, a natural philosopher from the University of Cambridge, proposed the term "scientist" in 1834 to replace such terms as "cultivators of science" and "natural philosopher".
+From the mid-19th century, when it became increasingly unusual for scientists to contribute to both physics and chemistry, "natural philosophy" came to mean just physics, and the word is still used in that sense in degree titles at the University of Oxford and University of Aberdeen. In general, chairs of Natural Philosophy established long ago at the oldest universities are nowadays occupied mainly by physics professors. Isaac Newton's book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), whose title translates to "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", reflects the then-current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to "systematic study of nature". Even in the 19th century, a treatise by Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait, which helped define much of modern physics, was titled Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867).
+
+== Scope ==
+Plato's earliest known dialogue, Charmides, distinguishes between science or bodies of knowledge that produce a physical result, and those that do not. Natural philosophy has been categorized as a theoretical rather than a practical branch of philosophy (like ethics). Sciences that guide arts and draw on the philosophical knowledge of nature may produce practical results, but these subsidiary sciences (e.g., architecture or medicine) go beyond natural philosophy.
+The study of natural philosophy seeks to explore the cosmos by any means necessary to understand the universe. Some ideas presuppose that change is a reality. Although this may seem obvious, there have been some philosophers who have denied the concept of metamorphosis, such as Plato's predecessor Parmenides and later Greek philosopher Sextus Empiricus, and perhaps some Eastern philosophers. George Santayana, in his Scepticism and Animal Faith, attempted to show that the reality of change cannot be proven. If his reasoning is sound, it follows that to be a physicist, one must restrain one's skepticism enough to trust one's senses, or else rely on anti-realism.
+René Descartes' metaphysical system of mind–body dualism describes two kinds of substance: matter and mind. According to this system, everything that is "matter" is deterministic and natural—and so belongs to natural philosophy—and everything that is "mind" is volitional and non-natural, and falls outside the domain of philosophy of nature.
+
+== Branches and subject matter ==
+Major branches of natural philosophy include astronomy and cosmology, the study of nature on the grand scale; etiology, the study of (intrinsic and sometimes extrinsic) causes; the study of chance, probability and randomness; the study of elements; the study of the infinite and the unlimited (virtual or actual); the study of matter; mechanics, the study of translation of motion and change; the study of nature or the various sources of actions; the study of natural qualities; the study of physical quantities; the study of relations between physical entities; and the philosophy of space and time. (Adler, 1993)
+
+== History ==
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+title: "Natural philosophy"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:08.564857+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Humankind's mental engagement with nature certainly predates civilization and the record of history. Philosophical, and specifically non-religious, thought about the natural world goes back to ancient Greece. These lines of thought began before Socrates, who turned his philosophical studies from speculations about nature to a consideration of man, or in other words, political philosophy. The thought of early philosophers such as Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Democritus centered on the natural world. In addition, three Presocratic philosophers who lived in the Ionian town of Miletus (hence the Milesian School of philosophy), Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to creation myths involving the Greek gods. They were called the physikoi ("natural philosophers") or, as Aristotle referred to them, the physiologoi. Plato followed Socrates in concentrating on man. It was Plato's student, Aristotle, who, in basing his thought on the natural world, returned empiricism to its primary place, while leaving room in the world for man. Martin Heidegger observes that Aristotle was the originator of conception of nature that prevailed in the Middle Ages into the modern era:
+
+The Physics is a lecture in which he seeks to determine beings that arise on their own, τὰ φύσει ὄντα (ta physei onta), with regard to their being. Aristotelian "physics" is different from what we mean today by this word, not only to the extent that it belongs to antiquity whereas the modern physical sciences belong to modernity, rather above all it is different by virtue of the fact that Aristotle's "physics" is philosophy, whereas modern physics is a positive science that presupposes a philosophy.... This book determines the warp and weft of the whole of Western thinking, even at that place where it, as modern thinking, appears to think at odds with ancient thinking. But opposition is invariably comprised of a decisive, and often even perilous, dependence. Without Aristotle's Physics there would have been no Galileo.
+Aristotle surveyed the thought of his predecessors and conceived of nature in a way that charted a middle course between their excesses.
+
+Plato's world of eternal and unchanging Forms, imperfectly represented in matter by a divine Artisan, contrasts sharply with the various mechanistic Weltanschauungen, of which atomism was, by the fourth century at least, the most prominent... This debate was to persist throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism got a shot in the arm from Epicurus... while the Stoics adopted a divine teleology...  The choice seems simple: either show how a structured, regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or inject intelligence into the system. This was how Aristotle... when still a young acolyte of Plato, saw matters. Cicero... preserves Aristotle's own cave-image: if troglodytes were brought on a sudden into the upper world, they would immediately suppose it to have been intelligently arranged. But Aristotle grew to abandon this view; although he believes in a divine being, the Prime Mover is not the efficient cause of action in the Universe, and plays no part in constructing or arranging it... But, although he rejects the divine Artificer, Aristotle does not resort to a pure mechanism of random forces. Instead he seeks to find a middle way between the two positions, one which relies heavily on the notion of Nature, or phusis.
+"The world we inhabit is an orderly one, in which things generally behave in predictable ways, Aristotle argued, because every natural object has a "nature"—an attribute (associated primarily with form) that makes the object behave in its customary fashion..." Aristotle recommended four causes as appropriate for the business of the natural philosopher, or physicist, "and if he refers his problems back to all of them, he will assign the 'why' in the way proper to his science—the matter, the form, the mover, [and] 'that for the sake of which'". While the vagaries of the material cause are subject to circumstance, the formal, efficient and final cause often coincide because in natural kinds, the mature form and final cause are one and the same. The capacity to mature into a specimen of one's kind is directly acquired from "the primary source of motion", i.e., from one's father, whose seed (sperma) conveys the essential nature (common to the species), as a hypothetical ratio.
+
+Material cause
+An object's motion will behave in different ways depending on the [substance/essence] from which it is made. (Compare clay, steel, etc.)
+Formal cause
+An object's motion will behave in different ways depending on its material arrangement. (Compare a clay sphere, clay block, etc.)
+Efficient cause
+That which caused the object to come into being; an "agent of change" or an "agent of movement".
+Final cause
+The reason that caused the object to be brought into existence.
+From the late Middle Ages into the modern era, the tendency has been to narrow "science" to the consideration of efficient or agency-based causes of a particular kind:
+
+The action of an efficient cause may sometimes, but not always, be described in terms of quantitative force. The action of an artist on a block of clay, for instance, can be described in terms of how many pounds of pressure per square inch is exerted on it. The efficient causality of the teacher in directing the activity of the artist, however, cannot be so described…
+The final cause acts on the agent to influence or induce her to act. If the artist works "to make money," making money is in some way the cause of her action. But we cannot describe this influence in terms of quantitative force. The final cause acts, but it acts according to the mode of final causality, as an end or good that induces the efficient cause to act. The mode of causality proper to the final cause cannot itself be reduced to efficient causality, much less to the mode of efficient causality we call "force."
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+title: "Natural philosophy"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:08.564857+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== In ancient Greece ===
+Early Greek philosophers studied motion and the cosmos. Figures like Hesiod regarded the natural world as offspring of the gods, whereas others like Leucippus and Democritus regarded the world as lifeless atoms in a vortex. Anaximander deduced that eclipses happen because of apertures in rings of celestial fire. Heraclitus believed that the heavenly bodies were made of fire that were contained within bowls. He thought that eclipses happen when the bowl turned away from the earth. Anaximenes is believed to have stated that an underlying element was air, and by manipulating air someone could change its thickness to create fire, water, dirt, and stones. Empedocles identified the elements that make up the world, which he termed the roots of all things, as fire, air, earth, and water. Parmenides argued that all change is a logical impossibility. He gives the example that nothing can go from nonexistence to existence. Plato argues that the world is an imperfect replica of an idea that a divine craftsman once held. He also believed that the only way to truly know something was through reason and logic. Not the study of the object itself, but that changeable matter is a viable course of study.
+
+=== Aristotle's philosophy of nature ===
+
+"An acorn is potentially, but not actually, an oak tree. In becoming an oak tree, it becomes actually what it originally was only potentially. This change thus involves passage from potentiality to actuality — not from non-being to being but from one kind or degree to being another"
+Aristotle held many important beliefs that started a convergence of thought for natural philosophy. Aristotle believed that attributes of objects belong to the objects themselves, and share traits with other objects that fit them into a category. He uses the example of dogs to press this point. An individual dog may have very specific attributes (ex. one dog can be black and another brown) but also very general ones that classify it as a dog (ex. four-legged). This philosophy can be applied to many other objects as well. This idea is different from that of Plato, with whom Aristotle had a direct association. Aristotle argued that objects have properties "form" and something that is not part of its properties "matter" that defines the object. The form cannot be separated from the matter. Given the example that you can not separate properties and matter since this is impossible, you cannot collect properties in a pile and matter in another.
+Aristotle believed that change was a natural occurrence. He used his philosophy of form and matter to argue that when something changes you change its properties without changing its matter. This change occurs by replacing certain properties with other properties. Since this change is always an intentional alteration whether by forced means or by natural ones, change is a controllable order of qualities. He argues that this happens through three categories of being: non-being, potential being, and actual being. Through these three states the process of changing an object never truly destroys an object's forms during this transition state but rather just blurs the reality between the two states. An example of this could be changing an object from red to blue with a transitional purple phase.
+
+=== Medieval philosophy of motion ===
+Medieval thoughts on motion involved much of Aristotle's works Physics and Metaphysics. The issue that medieval philosophers had with motion was the inconsistency found between book 3 of Physics and book 5 of Metaphysics. Aristotle claimed in book 3 of Physics that motion can be categorized by substance, quantity, quality, and place. where in book 5 of Metaphysics he stated that motion is a magnitude of quantity. This disputation led to some important questions to natural philosophers: Which category/categories does motion fit into? Is motion the same thing as a terminus? Is motion separate from real things? These questions asked by medieval philosophers tried to classify motion.
+William of Ockham gives a good concept of motion for many people in the Middle Ages. There is an issue with the vocabulary behind motion that makes people think that there is a correlation between nouns and the qualities that make nouns. Ockham states that this distinction is what will allow people to understand motion, that motion is a property of mobiles, locations, and forms and that is all that is required to define what motion is. A famous example of this is Occam's razor, which simplifies vague statements by cutting them into more descriptive examples. "Every motion derives from an agent." becomes "each thing that is moved, is moved by an agent" this makes motion a more personal quality referring to individual objects that are moved.
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+title: "Natural philosophy"
+chunk: 4/5
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:08.564857+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Natural philosophy in the early modern period ===
+The scientific method has ancient precedents, and Galileo exemplifies a mathematical understanding of nature, which is a hallmark of modern natural scientists. Galileo proposed that objects falling regardless of their mass would fall at the same rate, as long as the medium they fall in is identical. The 19th-century distinction of a scientific enterprise apart from traditional natural philosophy has its roots in prior centuries. Proposals for a more "inquisitive" and practical approach to the study of nature are notable in Francis Bacon, whose ardent convictions did much to popularize his insightful Baconian method. The Baconian method is employed throughout Thomas Browne's encyclopaedia Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646–1672), which debunks a wide range of common fallacies through empirical investigation of nature. The late-17th-century natural philosopher Robert Boyle wrote a seminal work on the distinction between physics and metaphysics called, A Free Enquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature, as well as The Skeptical Chymist, after which the modern science of chemistry is named, (as distinct from proto-scientific studies of alchemy). These works of natural philosophy are representative of a departure from the medieval scholasticism taught in European universities, and anticipate in many ways, the developments that would lead to science as practiced in the modern sense. As Bacon would say, "vexing nature" to reveal "her" secrets (scientific experimentation), rather than a mere reliance on largely historical, even anecdotal, observations of empirical phenomena, would come to be regarded as a defining characteristic of modern science, if not the very key to its success. Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the scholastic sciences in theory, practice and doctrine. However, he meticulously recorded observational detail on practical research, and subsequently advocated not only this practice, but its publication, both for successful and unsuccessful experiments, so as to validate individual claims by replication.
+
+For sometimes we use the word nature for that Author of nature whom the schoolmen, harshly enough, call natura naturans, as when it is said that nature hath made man partly corporeal and partly immaterial. Sometimes we mean by the nature of a thing the essence, or that which the schoolmen scruple not to call the quiddity of a thing, namely, the attribute or attributes on whose score it is what it is, whether the thing be corporeal or not, as when we attempt to define the nature of an angel, or of a triangle, or of a fluid body, as such. Sometimes we take nature for an internal principle of motion, as when we say that a stone let fall in the air is by nature carried towards the centre of the earth, and, on the contrary, that fire or flame does naturally move upwards toward heaven. Sometimes we understand by nature the established course of things, as when we say that nature makes the night succeed the day, nature hath made respiration necessary to the life of men. Sometimes we take nature for an aggregate of powers belonging to a body, especially a living one, as when physicians say that nature is strong or weak or spent, or that in such or such diseases nature left to herself will do the cure. Sometimes we take nature for the universe, or system of the corporeal works of God, as when it is said of a phoenix, or a chimera, that there is no such thing in nature, i.e. in the world. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express by nature a semi-deity or other strange kind of being, such as this discourse examines the notion of.
+Natural philosophers of the late 17th or early 18th century were sometimes insultingly described as 'projectors'. A projector was an entrepreneur who invited people to invest in his invention but – as the caricature went – could not be trusted, usually because his device was impractical. Jonathan Swift satirized natural philosophers of the Royal Society as 'the academy of projectors' in his novel Gulliver's Travels. Historians of science have argued that natural philosophers and the so-called projectors sometimes overlapped in their methods and aims.
+
+== Current work in the philosophy of science and nature ==
+In the middle of the 20th century, Ernst Mayr's discussions on the teleology of nature (see Teleology in biology#Irreducible teleology) brought up issues that were dealt with previously by Aristotle (regarding final cause) and Kant (regarding reflective judgment).
+Especially since the mid-20th-century European crisis, some thinkers argued the importance of looking at nature from a broad philosophical perspective, rather than what they considered a narrowly positivist approach relying implicitly on a hidden, unexamined philosophy. One line of thought grows from the Aristotelian tradition, especially as developed by Thomas Aquinas. Another line springs from Edmund Husserl, especially as expressed in The Crisis of European Sciences. Students of his such as Jacob Klein and Hans Jonas more fully developed his themes. Last, but not least, there is the process philosophy inspired by Alfred North Whitehead's works.
+Among living scholars, Brian David Ellis, Nancy Cartwright, David Oderberg, and John Dupré are some of the more prominent thinkers who can arguably be classed as generally adopting a more open approach to the natural world. Ellis (2002) observes the rise of a "New Essentialism". David Oderberg (2007) takes issue with other philosophers, including Ellis to a degree, who claim to be essentialists. He revives and defends the Thomistic-Aristotelian tradition from modern attempts to flatten nature to the limp subject of the experimental method. In Praise of Natural Philosophy: A Revolution for Thought and Life (2017), Nicholas Maxwell argues that we need to reform philosophy and put science and philosophy back together again to create a modern version of natural philosophy.
+
+== See also ==
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+---
+title: "Natural philosophy"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:08.564857+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Environmental philosophy – Branch of philosophy
+Gentleman scientist – Financially independent scientistPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+History of science
+Natural environment – Living and non-living things on Earth
+Natural theology – Theology reliant on rational and empirical arguments
+Naturalism (philosophy) – Belief that only natural laws and forces operate in the universe
+Nature (philosophy) – Philosophical term
+Protoscience – Research field that may become a science
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Adler, Mortimer J. (1993). The Four Dimensions of Philosophy: Metaphysical, Moral, Objective, Categorical. Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-500574-X.
+E.A. Burtt, Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1954).
+Philip Kitcher, Science, Truth, and Democracy. Oxford Studies in Philosophy of Science. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. LCCN:2001036144 ISBN 0-19-514583-6
+Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1945) Simon & Schuster, 1972.
+Santayana, George (1923). Scepticism and Animal Faith. Dover Publications. pp. 27–41. ISBN 0-486-20236-4. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
+David Snoke, Natural Philosophy: A Survey of Physics and Western Thought. Access Research Network, 2003. ISBN 1-931796-25-4.Natural Philosophy: A Survey of Physics and Western Thought Welcome to The Old Schoolhouse® Magazine
+Nancy R. Pearcey and Charles B. Thaxton, The Soul of Science: Christian Faith and Natural Philosophy (Crossway Books, 1994, ISBN 0891077669).
+Alfred N. Whitehead, Process and Reality, The Macmillan Company, 1929.
+René Thom, Modèles mathématiques de la morphogenèse, Christian Bourgois, 1980.
+Claude Paul Bruter, Topologie et perception, Maloine, 3 vols. 1974/1976/1986.
+Jean Largeault, Principes classiques d'interprétation de la nature, Vrin, 1988.
+Moritz Schlick, Philosophy of Nature, Philosophical Library, New York, 1949.
+Andrew G. Van Melsen, The Philosophy of Nature, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh 1954.
+Miguel Espinoza, A Theory of Intelligibility. A Contribution to the Revival of the Philosophy of Nature, Thombooks Press, Toronto, ON, 2020.
+Miguel Espinoza, La matière éternelle et ses harmonies éphémères, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2017.
+Thagard, Paul (2019). Natural Philosophy: From Social Brains to Knowledge, Reality, Morality, and Beauty. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190686444.
+
+== External links ==
+
+"Aristotle's Natural Philosophy", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
+Institute for the Study of Nature
+"A Bigger Physics," a talk at MIT by Michael Augros
+Other articles
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+---
+title: "One-sex and two-sex theories"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:09.694090+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The one-sex and two-sex theories (also referred to as the one-sex and two-sex models) are historiographical concepts introduced by historian Thomas Laqueur in his 1990 book Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud. Laqueur proposed that Western medical and philosophical thought underwent a fundamental shift in the 18th century: from a "one-sex model," in which female anatomy was understood as an inverted, inferior version of male anatomy, to a "two-sex model" treating men and women as anatomically distinct and opposite.
+While Making Sex has been highly influential in gender studies, literary criticism, and cultural history, its thesis has attracted substantial criticism from historians of medicine and science. Critics including Helen King, Joan Cadden, Katharine Park, and Michael Stolberg have argued that Laqueur oversimplifies the historical record, misreads primary sources, and imposes an artificial chronological divide where one-sex and two-sex understandings in fact coexisted throughout Western history. The historian Monica H. Green has called on scholars to move beyond the framework entirely.
+
+== Laqueur's thesis ==
+
+=== The one-sex model ===
+According to Laqueur, Western medicine from antiquity through the early modern period operated under a "one-sex model" in which women were understood as imperfect or inverted versions of men rather than as a fundamentally different sex. In this framework, anatomists purportedly viewed female genitalia as a homologous but inferior version of male anatomy: the vagina as an internal penis, the uterus as scrotum, and the ovaries as testicles.
+Laqueur draws primarily on Galen, the 2nd-century Greek physician, who asked readers to imagine male genitalia "turned in and extending inward between the rectum and the bladder." Laqueur interprets such passages as evidence that ancient and medieval physicians literally believed female and male reproductive organs to be structurally identical, differing only in placement due to women's supposed lack of bodily heat. However, critics have challenged this interpretation, arguing that Galen and other writers were drawing analogies to aid understanding rather than asserting literal identity (see § Misreading of sources).
+Laqueur also argues that under the one-sex model, bodily fluids were considered interconvertible between the sexes, and that female orgasm was considered necessary for conception—a view he claims declined with the shift to the two-sex model.
+
+=== The two-sex model ===
+Laqueur argues that around the 18th century, European thought shifted to a "two-sex model" in which male and female bodies were reconceptualized as fundamentally different and opposite rather than as variations on a single type. In this new framework, anatomical differences between the sexes became the biological foundation for gender roles, rather than gender roles being primary and anatomy secondary.
+Laqueur attributes this shift primarily to political rather than scientific factors, particularly the upheavals surrounding the French Revolution and emerging debates about women's place in public life. He argues that the new emphasis on biological difference served to justify women's exclusion from the public sphere by grounding gender hierarchy in nature rather than custom. Stolberg and other critics have contested this political explanation, pointing to multiple contributing factors including the rise of empirical observation in the 16th and 17th centuries and the decline of humorism.
+
+== Scholarly criticism ==
+Laqueur's thesis has been subject to extensive criticism from historians of medicine and science. Critics have challenged his reading of primary sources, the accuracy of his chronology, and the usefulness of the one-sex/two-sex binary as a historiographical framework.
+
+=== Coexistence of multiple models ===
+Multiple scholars have argued that one-sex and two-sex understandings of the body coexisted throughout Western history, rather than succeeding one another in distinct eras. Helen King's The One-Sex Body on Trial (2013) provides a detailed critique, arguing that both ways of thinking about the body have existed alongside one another since antiquity, and that authors chose which model to foreground depending on their rhetorical purposes.
+Joan Cadden's Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages (1993) demonstrates that medieval medical writers held diverse and often contradictory views about sex difference that cannot be reduced to a single "one-sex" framework. Medieval texts emphasized differences between the sexes in ways Laqueur's model does not accommodate, including differences in bodily flesh, humoral composition, and the uniquely female functions of menstruation and lactation.
+
+=== Earlier emergence of sexual dimorphism ===
+Michael Stolberg's 2003 article "A Woman Down to Her Bones" challenges Laqueur's chronology directly, providing evidence that explicit sexual dimorphism in anatomical thinking emerged by the early 17th century—at least 200 years before Laqueur claims. Stolberg demonstrates that leading physicians around 1600 insisted on the distinctive features of the female skeleton and female genital organs, and illustrated them visually, contradicting the notion of a dominant one-sex model persisting until the Enlightenment.
+Stolberg also contests Laqueur's claim that sexual dimorphism arose primarily as a political response to Enlightenment ideals of equality, citing multiple contributing factors including renewed emphasis on empirical observation during the 16th and 17th centuries and the declining influence of humorism.
+
+=== Misreading of sources ===
+Katharine Park and Robert Nye's early review of Making Sex argued that Laqueur misinterprets ancient and Renaissance anatomists' comparisons between male and female genitalia. When Galen and other writers compared the vagina to a penis or the uterus to a scrotum, they were drawing analogies to aid understanding, not asserting literal identity. Park and Nye suggest that reading such passages as claims of structural sameness is anachronistic.
+King further demonstrates that Laqueur selectively quoted and decontextualized his sources. For example, his interpretation of anatomical illustrations by Andreas Vesalius as evidence for the one-sex model ignores the illustrations' accompanying captions and labels, which identify specifically female structures. King also notes that Laqueur relied heavily on Galen's On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body while ignoring Hippocratic texts that emphasized fundamental differences between male and female flesh and physiology.
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+---
+title: "One-sex and two-sex theories"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:09.694090+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Calls to move beyond the framework ===
+Critics have noted that Making Sex achieved widespread influence partly because its binary framework offered a conveniently simple narrative for scholars across disciplines. As historiographical surveys have observed, the neatness of Laqueur's story—one era, one model, replaced by another era, another model—made it highly exportable, even as specialists in the history of medicine increasingly found it inadequate.
+Monica H. Green's 2018 article in Eugesta titled "Let Go of Laqueur" called for scholars to move beyond the one-sex/two-sex framework entirely and develop more nuanced histories of how bodies have been understood as sexed across different times and cultures.
+
+=== Laqueur's response ===
+In a 2003 response to Stolberg, Laqueur argued that isolated pieces of evidence for sexual dimorphism in Renaissance anatomy do not undermine his thesis, since individual observations do not discredit prevailing worldviews. He maintained that the fundamental epistemological shift he described—from sex as reflecting metaphysical truths to sex as biological foundation for gender—remained valid regardless of when specific anatomical differences were first noted.
+
+== Influence and legacy ==
+Despite the scholarly criticisms described above, Making Sex has remained widely cited, particularly in gender studies, literary criticism, and cultural history. The book helped establish the broader argument that sex, like gender, has a history shaped by cultural and political contexts rather than being a timeless biological given. This broader insight has proven productive for scholars even when they reject Laqueur's specific historical claims.
+The ongoing debate over Making Sex also illustrates broader methodological questions in the history of science: how to interpret historical texts without imposing modern categories, how to balance sweeping narratives against the complexity of historical evidence, and how disciplinary popularity can sustain a thesis despite sustained criticism from specialists.
+
+== See also ==
+History of biology
+History of medicine
+History of sexuality
+Sex and gender distinction
+Social construction of gender
+Thomas Laqueur
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Citations ===
+
+=== Works cited ===
+
+== Further reading ==
+Fletcher, Anthony (1995). Gender, Sex and Subordination in England 1500–1800. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06531-2.
+Harvey, Karen (2002). "The Century of Sex? Gender, Bodies, and Sexuality in the Long Eighteenth Century". The Historical Journal. 45 (4): 899–916. doi:10.1017/S0018246X02002728.
+Schiebinger, Londa (1993). Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0813535319.
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+---
+title: "Oral History of British Science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_History_of_British_Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:10.816601+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An Oral History of British Science is an oral history project conducted by National Life Stories at the British Library.  The project began in 2009 with funding from the Arcadia Fund, the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 and a number of other private donors and focuses on audio interviews with British science and engineering figures.
+
+
+== Project background ==
+The project focused on 200 video interviews lasting 8–15 hours, with four themes: Made in Britain, A Changing Planet, Cosmologies and Biomedicine.   The project Advisory Committee included Jon Agar, Alec Broers, Tilly Blyth, Georgina Ferry, Dame Julia Higgins, Maja Kominko, Sir Harry Kroto, John Lynch, Chris Rapley and Simone Turchetti.
+An Oral History of British Science was conducted by National Life Stories (NLS) at the British Library, and formed part of a wider institutional initiative to better document contemporary history of science and technology through the addition of audio visual sources as well as written sources.
+
+
+== Methodology ==
+The oral history of British science follows the biographical, or life story, oral history approach with each audio interview averaging 8 to 15 hours in length. The interviews cover the individual’s career history, education, background and family.
+
+
+== Access to interviews ==
+All interviews are catalogued on the Sound and Moving Image Catalogue.  Interviews which are complete and open are accessible onsite at the Library in St Pancras, London and in Boston Spa, Yorkshire via the Library’s Listening & Viewing Service.   Interviews which are open are also made accessible via the Archival Sound Recordings website under the ‘Oral history of British science’ content package.
+
+
+== People interviewed ==
+Interviewed for ‘A Changing Planet’:
+
+Barbara Bowen (Geophysics technician/ research assistant)
+Joe Farman (Geophysicist)
+John Glen (Glaciologist)
+A.T. (Dick) Grove (Geographer/ geomorphologist)
+David Jenkinson (Soil Scientist)
+Desmond King-Hele (Physicist)
+John Kington (Meteorologist and climatologist)
+James Lovelock (Geochemist)
+Melvyn Mason (Technician in seismic refraction)
+Dan McKenzie (geophysicist)
+Stephen Moorbath (Geologist and Geochronologist)
+John Nye (scientist) (Physicist, Theoretical glaciologist)
+Charles Swithinbank (Glaciologist)
+Janet Thomson (Geologist)
+Sue Vine (Geophysicist technician/ research assistant)
+Richard West (Botanist and Quaternary Geologist)
+Interviewed for ‘Made in Britain’:
+
+Raymond Bird (Computer Engineer)
+Tony Brooker (Computer Scientist)
+Mary Coombs (Computer Programmer)
+Sir Alan Cottrell (Metallurgist and Physicist)
+Dai Edwards (Computer Engineer);
+Roy Gibson (Aerospace Engineer)
+Andy Hopper (Computer Engineer)
+Frank Land (Computer Scientist)
+Bob Parkinson (Aerospace Engineer)
+Dame Stephanie Shirley (Computer Scientist)
+Geoff Tootill (Computer Engineer)
+Maurice Wilkes (Computer Engineer)
+Interviewed under ‘Biomedicine’:
+
+Sammy Lee (scientist) (Clinical embryologist)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Oral History of British Science interviews available online
+Oral History of British Science Archived 2020-11-06 at the Wayback Machine
+The Arcadia Fund
+The 1851 Royal Commission
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+---
+title: "Parable of the Sunfish"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:11.997351+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"The Parable of the Sunfish" is an anecdote with which Ezra Pound opens ABC of Reading, a 1934 work of literary criticism. Pound uses this anecdote to emphasize an empirical approach for learning about art, in contrast to relying on commentary rooted in abstraction. While the parable is based on students' recollections of Louis Agassiz's teaching style, Pound's retelling diverges from these sources in several respects. The parable has been used to illustrate the benefits of scientific thinking, but more recent literary criticism has split on whether the parable accurately reflects the scientific process and calls into question Pound's empirical approach to literature.
+
+== The Parable ==
+
+The text of the parable below is excerpted from Pound's ABC of Reading.
+
+== Context ==
+
+=== ABC of Reading ===
+Pound opens ABC of Reading with the following pronouncement:
+
+The proper METHOD for studying poetry and good letters is the method of contemporary biologists, that is careful first-hand examination of the matter, and continual COMPARISON of one 'slide' or specimen with another. No man is equipped for modern thinking until he has understood the anecdote of Agassiz and the sunfish.
+
+In the parable, a graduate student is sent to noted biologist Louis Agassiz to complete his education, and Agassiz asks the student three times to describe a sunfish specimen. The student replies with, in turn, the common name of the fish, a brief summary of the species, and a four-page essay on the species. Agassiz finally tells the student to "look at the fish" and "[a]t the end of three weeks the fish was in an advanced state of decomposition, but the student knew something about it." The text of the parable itself spans 131 words over sixteen lines and is often reproduced in full when cited.
+Pound contrasts this empiricism against knowledge gained through increasingly abstract definitions. As an example, Pound relates what might happen if a European is asked to define "red". After the initial response that red is a color, Pound imagines asking for a definition of color and having it described in terms of vibration, with vibration then defined in terms of energy, and that successive abstractions eventually reach a level where language has lost its power. Returning to empiricism, Pound reminds the reader that the progress of science increased rapidly once "Bacon had suggested the direct examination of phenomena, and after Galileo and others had stopped discussing things so much, and had begun really to look at them". Pound provides several other examples of the same contrasting ideas throughout the first chapter, ranging over topics as diverse as chemistry, Chinese writing, and Stravinsky. At the end of the chapter he summarizes his argument by claiming abstraction does not expand knowledge.
+
+=== Literary essays ===
+Pound subsequently refers to the parable in two essays: "The Teacher's Mission" and "Mr Housman at Little Bethel". Both were republished in The Literary Essays of Ezra Pound and reference Agassiz without including details of the parable. "The Teacher's Mission" in particular provides a straightforward explanation of how Pound wished the parable to be interpreted.
+
+==== "Mr Housman at Little Bethel" ====
+In January 1934, Pound published a critique of A. E. Housman's The Name and Nature of Poetry in the Criterion. As part of the critique, Pound offers an emendation to Housman's claim that "the intelligence" of the eighteenth century involved "some repressing and silencing of poetry". Pound replies that the root cause was the tendency towards abstract statements, which came about in part because eighteenth century authors "hadn't heard about Professor Agassiz's fish."
+
+==== "The Teacher's Mission" ====
+Also in 1934, Pound published an essay critiquing existing methods for teaching literature in general and university-level instruction methods in particular.  He identifies the root of the problem as abstraction and uses the word "liberty" as an example of a term where a specific, concrete meaning has been lost. Pound finds this situation "inexcusable AFTER the era of 'Agassiz and the fish'" and demands an approach to general education that "parallels ... biological study based on EXAMINATION and COMPARISON of particular specimens."
+
+== Sources ==
+Louis Agassiz was a Swiss-born scientist at Harvard University who, by 1896, had established a reputation for "lock[ing] a student up in a room full of turtle-shells, or lobster-shells, or oyster-shells, without a book or a word to help him, and not let[ting] him out till he had discovered all the truths which the objects contained." Several students of Agassiz who went on to prominence recorded this rite of passage, including Henry Blake, David Starr Jordan, Addison Emery Verrill, and Burt Green Wilder. American literary critic Robert Scholes traces the parable's source to two narratives in particular: those of former students Nathaniel Southgate Shaler and Samuel Hubbard Scudder. Their anecdotes were reprinted in Lane Cooper's Louis Agassiz as a Teacher: Illustrative Extracts on his Method of Instruction. Their separate accounts differ markedly from Pound's: both students provide oral reports with a wealth of detail after being initially forbidden from consulting outside sources.
+
+=== Shaler's Autobiography ===
+
+Nathaniel Shaler left his humanist studies and joined Agassiz's lab at Harvard University, having already read Agassiz's introductory essay on classification. His autobiography details his initial interactions with Agassiz. With regard to his first assignment, Shaler recorded that Agassiz brought him a small fish to study with the stipulation that Shaler not discuss it with anyone or read anything on the topic until Agassiz had given him permission. When Shaler asked Agassiz for more explicit instructions, Agassiz replied that he could not be more explicit than saying "[f]ind out what you can without damaging the specimen". After the first hours, Shaler thought he had "compassed that fish," but despite Agassiz always being "within call" he was not asked to present his conclusions. During the course of the following week, Shaler recorded the details of "how the scales went in series, their shape, the form and placement of the teeth, etc."
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+---
+title: "Parable of the Sunfish"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:11.997351+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+At length on the seventh day, came the question "Well?" and my disgorge of learning to him as he sat on the edge of my table puffing his cigar. At the end of the hour's telling, he swung off and away, saying "That is not right."
+
+Shaler concluded Agassiz was testing him to see if he was capable of "doing hard, continuous work without the support of a teacher" and redoubled his efforts, starting from scratch and, over the course of seven ten-hour days, managed to describe the specimen to Agassiz's satisfaction.
+
+=== Scudder's "Look at your fish!" ===
+
+Samuel Hubbard Scudder recorded a similar experience, first published in 1874 as "Look at Your Fish" in Every Saturday magazine. Agassiz again starts his new student off with a fish preserved in alcohol and instructs the student to "look at it", and promises "by and by I will ask what you have seen". As opposed to Pound's decomposing sunfish, Scudder's account emphasizes the care taken to keep the specimen in good condition:
+
+I was to keep the fish before me in a tin tray, and occasionally moisten the surface with alcohol from the jar ... In ten minutes I had seen all that could be seen in that fish, and started in search of the Professor – who had, however, left the Museum; and when I returned, after lingering over some of the odd animals stored in the upper apartment, my specimen was dry all over. I dashed the fluid over the fish as if to resuscitate the beast from a fainting fit, and looked with anxiety for a return of the normal sloppy appearance. This little excitement over, nothing was done but to return to a steadfast gaze at my mute companion.
+
+Scudder provides the additional detail that "instruments of all kinds were interdicted", including any magnifying glass. After several hours Agassiz asks for a report and Scudder describes "the fringed gill-arches and moveable operculum; the pores of the head, fleshy lips and lidless eyes; the lateral line, the spinous fins and forked tail; the compressed and arched body". Disappointed, Agassiz informs his student that he has failed to observe "the most conspicuous features of the animal" and commands him to "look again, look again!" The mortified Scudder is eventually asked to consider overnight what he has seen, and is able to report to Agassiz the following morning that "the fish has symmetrical sides with paired organs", which was the observation Agassiz was looking for. However, when Scudder then asked what he should do next, Agassiz replied, "Oh, look at your fish!" which Scudder did for another two full days.
+
+=== Cooper's Louis Agassiz as a Teacher ===
+In 1917, English professor Lane Cooper from Cornell University published a collection of reminiscences of Agassiz. The book included notes from several notable contributors, including Scudder and Cooper, William James, Professor Addison Emery Verrill ("[Agassiz's] plan was to make young students depend on natural objects rather than on statements in books"), and Professor Edward S. Morse, who wrote that Agassiz's method was "simply to let the student study intimately one object at a time." Cooper prefigures Pound's interest by remarking on the "close, though not obvious, relation between investigation in biology or zoology and the observation and comparison of these organic forms which we call form of literature and works of art", concluding that "We study a poem, the work of man's art, in the same way that Agassiz made Shaler study a fish." Critic Robert Scholes concludes that Pound had access to this book and used the material within it as the source for the parable that opens ABC of Reading.
+
+== Interpretation and criticism ==
+
+=== Agassiz ===
+Science historian Mary P. Winsor provides extensive commentary on Agassiz's initial assignments for his students.  The solution to the "riddle", as she calls it, lies in a similar anecdote given by Agassiz in his Essay on Classification:Suppose that the innumerable articulated animals, which are counted by tens of thousands, nay, perhaps by hundreds of thousands, had never made their appearance upon the surface of the globe, with one single exception:  that, for instance, our Lobster (Homarus americanus) were the only representative of that extraordinarily diversified type,—how should we introduce that species of animals in our systems?
+Agassiz provides several potential solutions:  the species of lobster could have a single genus "by the side of all the other classes with their orders, families, etc.", or a family with one genus and one species, or a class with one order and one genus, etc.  Agassiz concludes a single species is sufficient to derive the entirety of the hierarchy:  at the time, this would have been "a distinct genus, a distinct family, a distinct class, a distinct branch."  The point of the sunfish is not observing characteristics that distinguish individuals, species and genus, but rather characteristics that are held in common higher up the taxonomic hierarchy.  Scudder's observation that finally satisfies Agassiz is that the sunfish has bilateral, paired organs; a characteristic that Winsor notes is common to all vertebrates.
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+---
+title: "Parable of the Sunfish"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_of_the_Sunfish"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:11.997351+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Pound ===
+Pound, echoing Cooper, opens ABC of Reading by stating that the correct method for the study of poetry is "the method of contemporary biologists" and that "No man is equipped for modern thinking until he has understood the anecdote of Agassiz and the fish." Commentators have summarized Pound's position with the term empiricism, but have divided over whether the parable endorses or indicts the idea.
+The simplest interpretations in scientific writing, history of science, and literary criticism take the parable at face value, accepting empiricism and observation as legitimate techniques. For example, when writing about stellar atmospheres, Dimitri Mihalas states that "it is specimens, not facts, that are the ultimate empirical currency that we must use if we wish to purchase a valid theory" before beginning a discussion of Pound's sunfish.
+Moving from acceptance of empiricism to an understanding of its limitations, Christopher Tilley emphasizes in his comments on "scientific archeology" that Pound's student "was not simply learning about 'reality', the sunfish, but a way of approaching that reality – a discourse bound up in a particular thought tradition (empiricism)". Robert Scholes reaches a similar conclusion, noting that the student "seems to be reporting about a real and solid world in a perfectly transparent language, but actually he is learning how to produce a specific kind of discourse, controlled by a particular scientific paradigm".
+Author Bob Perelman takes the suspicion of empiricism one step further in his 1994 The Trouble With Genius: Reading Pound, Joyce, Stein, and Zukofsky. Perelman discusses the parable as one of two anecdotes in ABC of Reading that frame Pound's discussion of Chinese ideograms. The former describes attendance at two hypothetical concerts: one of Debussy and another of Ravel. Pound states that a person who attended both concerts knows more about the composers than someone who has only read "ALL of the criticisms that have ever been written of both". Perelman considers the contradiction between "everyone" and "knowledge" to be the key to Pound's thinking: only a gifted or lucky few are able to apprehend the truth (whether by attending the concert or observing the specimen); the rest can only make do with "a fog of clichés, received ideas, second-hand and second-rate opinions, written darkness." With regard to the parable, Perelman observes the lack of "scientific institutions, pedagogic procedures, or communicable terminologies" where any mediating written descriptions ("sunfish", "diplodokus") only serve to obscure knowledge. Knowledge ultimately resides within Agassiz rather than the world, and "[w]hat looks initially like a commitment to empiricism has led instead to an authoritarian idealism."
+Two critics have also commented on the parable's implications in describing the nature of knowledge in terms of the decay of Pound's fish. Celeste Goodridge notes that Marianne Moore's 1934 review of Pound's Cantos uses a detailed metaphor of a grasshopper wing to describe the conversations therein. In Goodridge's opinion, Moore's "microscopic examination" both undercuts the work as well as "pays homage, in its precision, to Pound's reverence for 'the applicability of scientific method to literary criticism.'" Goodridge then reproduces the parable in full and comments, "Agassiz teaches Pound that all knowledge is necessarily fragmented and does not constitute a whole." Knowledge of the fish cannot begin until decay has commenced, reducing the specimen to its constituent parts.
+Peter Nicholas Baker reaches a fundamentally different conclusion. He begins the discussion of the parable by first quoting Pound on the topic of genius:
+
+The genius can pay in nugget and in lump gold; it is not necessary that he bring up his knowledge into the mint of consciousness, stamp it either into the coin of conscientiously analyzed form-detail knowledge or into the paper money of words before he transmit it.
+
+Baker finds the most striking feature of the parable to be the absence of description of the fish. Baker asks: "Do readers of this anecdote learn about the fish, or rather about a certain kind of authoritarian teaching practice?" Baker claims that Pound's images of coining metal are just as unrealistic as his ideas regarding science and the scientific method. The reader, following Pound's student, reaches knowledge through intuition alone; the decomposing fish, so far as epistemology is concerned, has become "transparent".
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Patterns in nature"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:13.121366+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled mathematically. Natural patterns include symmetries, trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes. Early Greek philosophers studied pattern, with Plato, Pythagoras and Empedocles attempting to explain order in nature. The modern understanding of visible patterns developed gradually over time.
+In the 19th century, the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau examined soap films, leading him to formulate the concept of a minimal surface. The German biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted hundreds of marine organisms to emphasise their symmetry. Scottish biologist D'Arcy Thompson pioneered the study of growth patterns in both plants and animals, showing that simple equations could explain spiral growth. In the 20th century, the English mathematician Alan Turing predicted mechanisms of morphogenesis which give rise to patterns of spots and stripes. The Hungarian biologist Aristid Lindenmayer and the French American mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot showed how the mathematics of fractals could create plant growth patterns.
+Mathematics, physics and chemistry can explain patterns in nature at different levels and scales. Patterns in living things are explained by the biological processes of natural selection and sexual selection. Studies of pattern formation make use of computer models to simulate a wide range of patterns.
+
+== History ==
+Early Greek philosophers attempted to explain order in nature, anticipating modern concepts. Pythagoras (c. 570–c. 495 BC) explained patterns in nature like the harmonies of music as arising from number, which he took to be the basic constituent of existence. Empedocles (c. 494–c. 434 BC) to an extent anticipated Darwin's evolutionary explanation for the structures of organisms. Plato (c. 427–c. 347 BC) argued for the existence of natural universals. He considered these to consist of ideal forms (εἶδος eidos: "form") of which physical objects are never more than imperfect copies. Thus, a flower may be roughly circular, but it is never a perfect circle. Theophrastus (c. 372–c. 287 BC) noted that plants "that have flat leaves have them in a regular series"; Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) noted their patterned circular arrangement. Centuries later, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) noted the spiral arrangement of leaf patterns, that tree trunks gain successive rings as they age, and proposed a rule purportedly satisfied by the cross-sectional areas of tree-branches.
+In 1202, Leonardo Fibonacci introduced the Fibonacci sequence to the western world with his book Liber Abaci. Fibonacci presented a thought experiment on the growth of an idealized rabbit population. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) pointed out the presence of the Fibonacci sequence in nature, using it to explain the pentagonal form of some flowers. In 1658, the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne discussed "how Nature Geometrizeth" in The Garden of Cyrus, citing Pythagorean numerology involving the number 5, and the Platonic form of the quincunx pattern. The discourse's central chapter features examples and observations of the quincunx in botany. In 1754, Charles Bonnet observed that the spiral phyllotaxis of plants were frequently expressed in both clockwise and counter-clockwise golden ratio series. Mathematical observations of phyllotaxis followed with Karl Friedrich Schimper and his friend Alexander Braun's 1830 and 1830 work, respectively; Auguste Bravais and his brother Louis connected phyllotaxis ratios to the Fibonacci sequence in 1837, also noting its appearance in pinecones and pineapples. In his 1854 book, German psychologist Adolf Zeising explored the golden ratio expressed in the arrangement of plant parts, the skeletons of animals and the branching patterns of their veins and nerves, as well as in crystals.
+In the 19th century, the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau (1801–1883) formulated the mathematical problem of the existence of a minimal surface with a given boundary, which is named after him. He studied soap films intensively, formulating Plateau's laws which describe the structures formed by films in foams. Lord Kelvin identified the problem of the most efficient way to pack cells of equal volume as a foam in 1887; his solution uses just one solid, the bitruncated cubic honeycomb with very slightly curved faces to meet Plateau's laws. No better solution was found until 1993 when Denis Weaire and Robert Phelan proposed the Weaire–Phelan structure; the Beijing National Aquatics Center adapted the structure for their outer wall in the 2008 Summer Olympics. Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) painted beautiful illustrations of marine organisms, in particular Radiolaria, emphasising their symmetry to support his faux-Darwinian theories of evolution. The American photographer Wilson Bentley took the first micrograph of a snowflake in 1885.
+In the 20th century, A. H. Church studied the patterns of phyllotaxis in his 1904 book. In 1917, D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson published On Growth and Form; his description of phyllotaxis and the Fibonacci sequence, the mathematical relationships in the spiral growth patterns of plants showed that simple equations could describe the spiral growth patterns of animal horns and mollusc shells. In 1952, the computer scientist Alan Turing (1912–1954) wrote The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis, an analysis of the mechanisms that would be needed to create patterns in living organisms, in the process called morphogenesis. He predicted oscillating chemical reactions, in particular the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction. These activator-inhibitor mechanisms can, Turing suggested, generate patterns (dubbed "Turing patterns") of stripes and spots in animals, and contribute to the spiral patterns seen in plant phyllotaxis.
+In 1968, the Hungarian theoretical biologist Aristid Lindenmayer (1925–1989) developed the L-system, a formal grammar which can be used to model plant growth patterns in the style of fractals. L-systems have an alphabet of symbols that can be combined using production rules to build larger strings of symbols, and a mechanism for translating the generated strings into geometric structures. In 1975, after centuries of slow development of the mathematics of patterns by Gottfried Leibniz, Georg Cantor, Helge von Koch, Wacław Sierpiński and others, Benoît Mandelbrot wrote a famous paper, How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension, crystallising mathematical thought into the concept of the fractal.
+
+== Causes ==
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+title: "Patterns in nature"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:13.121366+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Living things like orchids, hummingbirds, and the peacock's tail have abstract designs with a beauty of form, pattern and colour that artists struggle to match. The beauty that people perceive in nature has causes at different levels, notably in the mathematics that governs what patterns can physically form, and among living things in the effects of natural selection, that govern how patterns evolve.
+Mathematics seeks to discover and explain abstract patterns or regularities of all kinds.
+Visual patterns in nature find explanations in chaos theory, fractals, logarithmic spirals, topology and other mathematical patterns. For example, L-systems form convincing models of different patterns of tree growth.
+The laws of physics apply the abstractions of mathematics to the real world, often as if it were perfect. For example, a crystal is perfect when it has no structural defects such as dislocations and is fully symmetric. Exact mathematical perfection can only approximate real objects. Visible patterns in nature are governed by physical laws; for example, meanders can be explained using fluid dynamics.
+In biology, natural selection can cause the development of patterns in living things for several reasons, including camouflage, sexual selection, and different kinds of signalling, including mimicry and cleaning symbiosis. In plants, the shapes, colours, and patterns of insect-pollinated flowers like the lily have evolved to attract insects such as bees. Radial patterns of colours and stripes, some visible only in ultraviolet light serve as nectar guides that can be seen at a distance.
+
+== Types of pattern ==
+
+=== Symmetry ===
+
+Symmetry is pervasive in living things. Animals mainly have bilateral or mirror symmetry, as do the leaves of plants and some flowers such as orchids. Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as do many flowers and some groups of animals such as sea anemones. Fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, the group that includes starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies.
+Among non-living things, snowflakes have striking sixfold symmetry; each flake's structure forms a record of the varying conditions during its crystallization, with nearly the same pattern of growth on each of its six arms. Crystals in general have a variety of symmetries and crystal habits; they can be cubic or octahedral, but true crystals cannot have fivefold symmetry (unlike quasicrystals). Rotational symmetry is found at different scales among non-living things, including the crown-shaped splash pattern formed when a drop falls into a pond, and both the spheroidal shape and rings of a planet like Saturn.
+Symmetry has a variety of causes. Radial symmetry suits organisms like sea anemones whose adults do not move: food and threats may arrive from any direction. But animals that move in one direction necessarily have upper and lower sides, head and tail ends, and therefore a left and a right. The head becomes specialised with a mouth and sense organs (cephalisation), and the body becomes bilaterally symmetric (though internal organs need not be). More puzzling is the reason for the fivefold (pentaradiate) symmetry of the echinoderms. Early echinoderms were bilaterally symmetrical, as their larvae still are. Sumrall and Wray argue that the loss of the old symmetry had both developmental and ecological causes. In the case of ice eggs, the gentle churn of water, blown by a suitably stiff breeze makes concentric layers of ice form on a seed particle that then grows into a floating ball as it rolls through the freezing currents.
+
+=== Trees, fractals ===
+
+The branching pattern of trees was described in the Italian Renaissance by Leonardo da Vinci. In A Treatise on Painting he stated that:
+
+All the branches of a tree at every stage of its height when put together are equal in thickness to the trunk [below them].
+A more general version states that when a parent branch splits into two or more child branches, the surface areas of the child branches add up to that of the parent branch. An equivalent formulation is that if a parent branch splits into two child branches, then the cross-sectional diameters of the parent and the two child branches form a right-angled triangle. One explanation is that this allows trees to better withstand high winds. Simulations of biomechanical models agree with the rule.
+Fractals are infinitely self-similar, iterated mathematical constructs having fractal dimension. Infinite iteration is not possible in nature so all "fractal" patterns are only approximate. For example, the leaves of ferns and umbellifers (Apiaceae) are only self-similar (pinnate) to 2, 3 or 4 levels. Fern-like growth patterns occur in plants and in animals including bryozoa, corals, hydrozoa like the air fern, Sertularia argentea, and in non-living things, notably electrical discharges. Lindenmayer system fractals can model different patterns of tree growth by varying a small number of parameters including branching angle, distance between nodes or branch points (internode length), and number of branches per branch point.
+Fractal-like patterns occur widely in nature, in phenomena as diverse as clouds, river networks, geologic fault lines, mountains, coastlines, animal coloration, snow flakes, crystals, blood vessel branching, Purkinje cells, actin cytoskeletons, and ocean waves.
+
+=== Spirals ===
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+title: "Patterns in nature"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:13.121366+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Spirals are common in plants and in some animals, notably molluscs. For example, in the nautilus, a cephalopod mollusc, each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral. Given a modern understanding of fractals, a growth spiral can be seen as a special case of self-similarity.
+Plant spirals can be seen in phyllotaxis, the arrangement of leaves on a stem, and in the arrangement (parastichy) of other parts as in composite flower heads and seed heads like the sunflower or fruit structures like the pineapple and snake fruit, as well as in the pattern of scales in pine cones, where multiple spirals run both clockwise and anticlockwise. These arrangements have explanations at different levels – mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology – each individually correct, but all necessary together. Phyllotaxis spirals can be generated from Fibonacci ratios: the Fibonacci sequence runs 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13... (each subsequent number being the sum of the two preceding ones). For example, when leaves alternate up a stem, one rotation of the spiral touches two leaves, so the pattern or ratio is 1/2. In hazel the ratio is 1/3; in apricot it is 2/5; in pear it is 3/8; in almond it is 5/13.  Animal behaviour can yield spirals; for example, acorn worms leave spiral fecal trails on the sea floor. 
+In disc phyllotaxis as in the sunflower and daisy, the florets are arranged along Fermat's spiral, but this is disguised because successive florets are spaced far apart, by the golden angle, 137.508° (dividing the circle in the golden ratio); when the flowerhead is mature so all the elements are the same size, this spacing creates a Fibonacci number of more obvious spirals.
+From the point of view of physics, spirals are lowest-energy configurations which emerge spontaneously through self-organizing processes in dynamic systems. From the point of view of chemistry, a spiral can be generated by a reaction-diffusion process, involving both activation and inhibition. Phyllotaxis is controlled by proteins that manipulate the concentration of the plant hormone auxin, which activates meristem growth, alongside other mechanisms to control the relative angle of buds around the stem. From a biological perspective, arranging leaves as far apart as possible in any given space is favoured by natural selection as it maximises access to resources, especially sunlight for photosynthesis.
+
+=== Chaos, flow, meanders ===
+In mathematics, a dynamical system is chaotic if it is (highly) sensitive to initial conditions (the so-called "butterfly effect"), which requires the mathematical properties of topological mixing and dense periodic orbits.
+Alongside fractals, chaos theory ranks as an essentially universal influence on patterns in nature. There is a relationship between chaos and fractals—the strange attractors in chaotic systems have a fractal dimension. Some cellular automata, simple sets of mathematical rules that generate patterns, have chaotic behaviour, notably Stephen Wolfram's Rule 30.
+Vortex streets are zigzagging patterns of whirling vortices created by the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid, most often air or water, over obstructing objects. Smooth (laminar) flow starts to break up when the size of the obstruction or the velocity of the flow become large enough compared to the viscosity of the fluid.
+Meanders are sinuous bends in rivers or other channels, which form as a fluid, most often water, flows around bends. As soon as the path is slightly curved, the size and curvature of each loop increases as helical flow drags material like sand and gravel across the river to the inside of the bend. The outside of the loop is left clean and unprotected, so erosion accelerates, further increasing the meandering in a powerful positive feedback loop.
+
+=== Waves, dunes ===
+Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by. Wind waves are sea surface waves that create the characteristic chaotic pattern of any large body of water, though their statistical behaviour can be predicted with wind wave models. As waves in water or wind pass over sand, they create patterns of ripples. When winds blow over large bodies of sand, they create dunes, sometimes in extensive dune fields as in the Taklamakan desert. Dunes may form a range of patterns including crescents, very long straight lines, stars, domes, parabolas, and longitudinal or seif ("sword") shapes.
+Barchans or crescent dunes are produced by wind acting on desert sand; the two horns of the crescent and the slip face point downwind. Sand blows over the upwind face, which stands at about 15 degrees from the horizontal, and falls onto the slip face, where it accumulates up to the angle of repose of the sand, which is about 35 degrees. When the slip face exceeds the angle of repose, the sand avalanches, which is a nonlinear behaviour: the addition of many small amounts of sand causes nothing much to happen, but then the addition of a further small amount suddenly causes a large amount to avalanche. Apart from this nonlinearity, barchans behave rather like solitary waves.
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+title: "Patterns in nature"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:13.121366+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Bubbles, foam ===
+A soap bubble forms a sphere, a surface with minimal area (minimal surface) — the smallest possible surface area for the volume enclosed. Two bubbles together form a more complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the larger one.
+A foam is a mass of bubbles; foams of different materials occur in nature. Foams composed of soap films obey Plateau's laws, which require three soap films to meet at each edge at 120° and four soap edges to meet at each vertex at the tetrahedral angle of about 109.5°. Plateau's laws further require films to be smooth and continuous, and to have a constant average curvature at every point. For example, a film may remain nearly flat on average by being curved up in one direction (say, left to right) while being curved downwards in another direction (say, front to back). Structures with minimal surfaces can be used as tents.
+At the scale of living cells, foam patterns are common; radiolarians, sponge spicules, silicoflagellate exoskeletons and the calcite skeleton of a sea urchin, Cidaris rugosa, all resemble mineral casts of Plateau foam boundaries. The skeleton of the Radiolarian, Aulonia hexagona, a beautiful marine form drawn by Ernst Haeckel, looks as if it is a sphere composed wholly of hexagons, but this is mathematically impossible. The Euler characteristic states that for any convex polyhedron, the number of faces plus the number of vertices (corners) equals the number of edges plus two. A result of this formula is that any closed polyhedron of hexagons has to include exactly 12 pentagons, like a soccer ball, Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome, or fullerene molecule. This can be visualised by noting that a mesh of hexagons is flat like a sheet of chicken wire, but each pentagon that is added forces the mesh to bend (there are fewer corners, so the mesh is pulled in).
+
+=== Tessellations ===
+
+Tessellations are patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat surface. There are 17 wallpaper groups of tilings. While common in art and design, exactly repeating tilings are less easy to find in living things. The cells in the paper nests of social wasps, and the wax cells in honeycomb built by honey bees are well-known examples. Among animals, bony fish, reptiles or the pangolin, or fruits like the salak are protected by overlapping scales or osteoderms, these form more-or-less exactly repeating units, though often the scales in fact vary continuously in size. Among flowers, the snake's head fritillary, Fritillaria meleagris, have a tessellated chequerboard pattern on their petals. The structures of minerals provide good examples of regularly repeating three-dimensional arrays. Despite the hundreds of thousands of known minerals, there are rather few possible types of arrangement of atoms in a crystal, defined by crystal structure, crystal system, and point group; for example, there are exactly 14 Bravais lattices for the 7 lattice systems in three-dimensional space.
+
+=== Cracks ===
+Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. When an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly, it eventually reaches its breaking strength and then fails suddenly in all directions, creating cracks with 120 degree joints, so three cracks meet at a node. Conversely, when an inelastic material fails, straight cracks form to relieve the stress. Further stress in the same direction would then simply open the existing cracks; stress at right angles can create new cracks, at 90 degrees to the old ones. Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not. In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark, cracks form to relieve stress as usual, but they do not grow long as their growth is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic fibres. Since each species of tree has its own structure at the levels of cell and of molecules, each has its own pattern of splitting in its bark.
+
+=== Spots, stripes ===
+Leopards and ladybirds are spotted; angelfish and zebras are striped. These patterns have an evolutionary explanation: they have functions which increase the chances that the offspring of the patterned animal will survive to reproduce. One function of animal patterns is camouflage; for instance, a leopard that is harder to see catches more prey. Another function is signalling — for instance, a ladybird is less likely to be attacked by predatory birds that hunt by sight, if it has bold warning colours, and is also distastefully bitter or poisonous, or mimics other distasteful insects. A young bird may see a warning patterned insect like a ladybird and try to eat it, but it will only do this once; very soon it will spit out the bitter insect; the other ladybirds in the area will remain undisturbed. The young leopards and ladybirds, inheriting genes that somehow create spottedness, survive. But while these evolutionary and functional arguments explain why these animals need their patterns, they do not explain how the patterns are formed.
+
+== Pattern formation ==
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+title: "Patterns in nature"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:13.121366+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alan Turing, and later the mathematical biologist James Murray, described a mechanism that spontaneously creates spotted or striped patterns: a reaction–diffusion system. The cells of a young organism have genes that can be switched on by a chemical signal, a morphogen, resulting in the growth of a certain type of structure, say a darkly pigmented patch of skin. If the morphogen is present everywhere, the result is an even pigmentation, as in a black leopard. But if it is unevenly distributed, spots or stripes can result. Turing suggested that there could be feedback control of the production of the morphogen itself. This could cause continuous fluctuations in the amount of morphogen as it diffused around the body. A second mechanism is needed to create standing wave patterns (to result in spots or stripes): an inhibitor chemical that switches off production of the morphogen, and that itself diffuses through the body more quickly than the morphogen, resulting in an activator-inhibitor scheme. The Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction is a non-biological example of this kind of scheme, a chemical oscillator.
+Later research has managed to create convincing models of patterns as diverse as zebra stripes, giraffe blotches, jaguar spots (medium-dark patches surrounded by dark broken rings) and ladybird shell patterns (different geometrical layouts of spots and stripes, see illustrations). Richard Prum's activation-inhibition models, developed from Turing's work, use six variables to account for the observed range of nine basic within-feather pigmentation patterns, from the simplest, a central pigment patch, via concentric patches, bars, chevrons, eye spot, pair of central spots, rows of paired spots and an array of dots. More elaborate models simulate complex feather patterns in the guineafowl Numida meleagris in which the individual feathers feature transitions from bars at the base to an array of dots at the far (distal) end. These require an oscillation created by two inhibiting signals, with interactions in both space and time.
+Patterns can form for other reasons in the vegetated landscape of tiger bush and fir waves. Tiger bush stripes occur on arid slopes where plant growth is limited by rainfall. Each roughly horizontal stripe of vegetation effectively collects the rainwater from the bare zone immediately above it. Fir waves occur in forests on mountain slopes after wind disturbance, during regeneration. When trees fall, the trees that they had sheltered become exposed and are in turn more likely to be damaged, so gaps tend to expand downwind. Meanwhile, on the windward side, young trees grow, protected by the wind shadow of the remaining tall trees. Natural patterns are sometimes formed by animals, as in the Mima mounds of the Northwestern United States and some other areas, which appear to be created over many years by the burrowing activities of pocket gophers, while the so-called fairy circles of Namibia appear to be created by the interaction of competing groups of sand termites, along with competition for water among the desert plants.
+In permafrost soils with an active upper layer subject to annual freeze and thaw, patterned ground can form, creating circles, nets, ice wedge polygons, steps, and stripes. Thermal contraction causes shrinkage cracks to form; in a thaw, water fills the cracks, expanding to form ice when next frozen, and widening the cracks into wedges. These cracks may join up to form polygons and other shapes.
+The fissured pattern that develops on vertebrate brains is caused by a physical process of constrained expansion dependent on two geometric parameters: relative tangential cortical expansion and relative thickness of the cortex. Similar patterns of gyri (peaks) and sulci (troughs) have been demonstrated in models of the brain starting from smooth, layered gels, with the patterns caused by compressive mechanical forces resulting from the expansion of the outer layer (representing the cortex) after the addition of a solvent. Numerical models in computer simulations support natural and experimental observations that the surface folding patterns increase in larger brains.
+
+== See also ==
+Developmental biology
+Emergence
+Evolutionary history of plants
+Mathematics and art
+Morphogenesis
+Pattern formation
+Widmanstätten pattern
+
+== References ==
+Footnotes
+
+Citations
+
+=== Bibliography ===
+Pioneering authors
+
+Fibonacci, Leonardo. Liber Abaci, 1202.
+———— translated by Sigler, Laurence E. Fibonacci's Liber Abaci. Springer, 2002.
+Haeckel, Ernst. Kunstformen der Natur (Art Forms in Nature), 1899–1904.
+Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth. On Growth and Form. Cambridge, 1917.
+General books
+
+Adam, John A. Mathematics in Nature: Modeling Patterns in the Natural World. Princeton University Press, 2006.
+Ball, Philip (2009a). Nature's Patterns: a tapestry in three parts. 1: Shapes. Oxford University Press.
+Ball, Philip (2009b). Nature's Patterns: a tapestry in three parts. 2: Flow. Oxford University Press.
+Ball, Philip (2009c). Nature's Patterns: a tapestry in three parts. 3. Branches. Oxford University Press.
+Ball, Philip (2016). Patterns in Nature: why the natural world looks the way it does. University of Chicago Press.
+Murphy, Pat and Neill, William. By Nature's Design. Chronicle Books, 1993.
+Rothenberg, David (2011). Survival of the Beautiful: Art, Science and Evolution. Bloomsbury Press.
+Gielis, Johan (2017). The Geometrical Beauty of Plants. Atlantis Press.
+Stevens, Peter S. (1974). Patterns in Nature. Little, Brown & Co.
+Stewart, Ian (2001). What Shape is a Snowflake? Magical Numbers in Nature. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
+Patterns from nature (as art)
+
+Edmaier, Bernard. Patterns of the Earth. Phaidon Press, 2007.
+Macnab, Maggie. Design by Nature: Using Universal Forms and Principles in Design. New Riders, 2012.
+Nakamura, Shigeki. Pattern Sourcebook: 250 Patterns Inspired by Nature.. Books 1 and 2. Rockport, 2009.
+O'Neill, Polly. Surfaces and Textures: A Visual Sourcebook. Black, 2008.
+Porter, Eliot, and Gleick, James. Nature's Chaos. Viking Penguin, 1990.
+
+== External links ==
+Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Section
+Phyllotaxis: an Interactive Site for the Mathematical Study of Plant Pattern Formation
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+---
+title: "Physica speculatio"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:14.303872+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Physica speculatio is a text of scientific character written by Alonso de la Vera Cruz in 1557 in the capital of New Spain. It was the first published work in the American continent that specifically addressed the study of physics, and was written to teach the students of the Real University of Mexico.
+It introduced the main theoretical concepts of geocentric astronomy and references the heliocentric model.
+Fray Alonso de la Vera Cruz published in the capital of New Spain a Course of Arts, constituted in three volumes in Latin. The first form in 1553 under the title of Recognitio Summularum, that had like purpose help to the students of the Real University of Mexico to understand the philosophy by means of the understanding of the formal logic. A year afterwards appeared the second called Dialectica Resolutio, that was a continuation of the previous. The last was Physica speculatio.
+They did  four editions, the last 3 of which were for use of the salmantino students and were abbreviated versions of the Mexican one.
+
+
+== Subjects ==
+The Physica speculatio has by object the study or "investigation" -speculatio- and the exhibition, in general, of subjects of physics  on the nature -Physica-, treated by fray Alonso de la Vera Cruz basically from the philosophical perspective, characteristic of Aristotle and traditional in the Half Age.
+It talks about, in what can be considered like the first part, the subjects treated by Aristotle in the Eight books of physics, as they are the essence of the physical or natural being, the movement and the infinite, the extension, the continuous, the space, the time, the first engine, etc. The second part treats of the subjects of the generation and the corruption of the living beings, of the mixed and composed being, of the primary qualities and of the elements and their properties. In the third part it exposes the doctrines on the meteors, it talks about the stars and their influence on humans, of the three regions of the air or atmosphere, of the comets, of the tides, of the ray and of a lot of other atmospheric phenomena. The fourth part devotes fray Alonso to comment the books De Anima by Aristotle. To end the Physica speculatio, there are some reflections on the treatise De Caelo by Aristotle.
+
+
+== Formal characteristics ==
+It consists of 400 pages in paper, in which there are two columns that form 900 sheets in current transcription and nearly 1200 in translation to the Spanish.
+It contains the following writings:
+
+Eight books of physics;
+On Generation and Corruption;
+On the meteors;
+On the soul;
+On the sky.
+Titled exactly like the Aristotelian works.
+It contains added as appendix the Tractatus de Sphera written by the Italian mathematician and astronomer Campanus of Novara in the 13th century, and printed for the first time in 1518.
+
+
+== Structure and form ==
+The main divisions in Books are in general the ones of the corresponding works of Aristotle.
+Each book is divided in Speculations (particular studies), that can be understood as chapters.
+The writing is presented according to the scholastic method, proposing first the opinions or negative affirmations, contrary to the thesis that it will sustain, and afterwards the positive, with foundations and explanations.
+
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "Physics (Aristotle)"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:15.422292+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Physics (Ancient Greek: Φυσικής ἀκρόασις, romanized: Physikḗs akróasis, or: Φυσικής ακροάσεως, Physikḗs akroáseōs; Latin: Physica or Naturales Auscultationes, possibly meaning "Lectures on nature") is a named text, written in ancient Greek, collated from a collection of surviving manuscripts known as the Corpus Aristotelicum, attributed to the 4th-century BC philosopher Aristotle.
+
+== The meaning of physics in Aristotle ==
+It is a collection of treatises or lessons that deals with the most general (philosophical) principles of natural or moving things, both living and non-living, rather than physical theories (in the modern sense) or investigations of the particular contents of the universe. The chief purpose of the work is to discover the principles and causes of (and not merely to describe) change, or movement, or motion (κίνησις kinesis), especially that of natural wholes (mostly living things, but also inanimate wholes like the cosmos). In the conventional Andronicean ordering of Aristotle's works, it stands at the head of, as well as being foundational to, the long series of physical, cosmological and biological treatises, whose ancient Greek title, τὰ φυσικά, means "the [writings] on nature" or "natural philosophy".
+
+== Description of the content ==
+The Physics is composed of eight books, which are further divided into chapters. This system is of ancient origin, now obscure. In modern languages, books are referenced with Roman numerals, standing for ancient Greek capital letters (the Greeks represented numbers with letters, e.g. A for 1). Chapters are identified by Arabic numerals, but the use of the English word "chapter" is strictly conventional. Ancient "chapters" (capita) are generally very short, often less than a page. Additionally, the Bekker numbers give the page and column (a or b) used in the Prussian Academy of Sciences' edition of Aristotle's works, instigated and managed by Bekker himself. These are evident in the 1831 2-volume edition. Bekker's line numbers may be given. These are often given, but unless the edition is the Academy's, they do match any line counts.
+
+=== Book I (Α; 184a–192b) ===
+Book I introduces Aristotle's approach to nature, which is to be based on principles, causes, and elements. Before offering his particular views, he engages previous theories, such as those offered by Melissus and Parmenides.  Aristotle's own view comes out in Ch. 7 where he identifies three principles: substances, opposites, and privation.
+Chapters 3 and 4 are among the most difficult in all of Aristotle's works and involve subtle refutations of the thought of Parmenides, Melissus and Anaxagoras.
+In chapter 5, he continues his review of his predecessors, particularly how many first principles there are. Chapter 6 narrows down the number of principles to two or three.  He presents his own account of the subject in chapter 7, where he first introduces the word matter (Greek: hyle) to designate fundamental essence (ousia). He defines matter in chapter 9: "For my definition of matter is just this—the primary substratum of each thing, from which it comes to be without qualification, and which persists in the result."
+Matter in Aristotle's thought is, however, defined in terms of sensible reality; for example, a horse eats grass: the horse changes the grass into itself; the grass as such does not persist in the horse, but some aspect of it – its matter – does. Matter is not specifically described, but consists of whatever is apart from quality or quantity and that of which something may be predicated. Matter in this understanding does not exist independently (i.e. as a substance), but exists interdependently (i.e. as a "principle") with form and only insofar as it underlies change. Matter and form are analogical terms.
+
+=== Book II (Β; 192b–200b) ===
+Book II identifies "nature" (physis) as "a source or cause of being moved and of being at rest in that to which it belongs primarily" (1.192b21). Thus, those entities are natural which are capable of starting to move, e.g. growing, acquiring qualities, displacing themselves, and finally being born and dying. Aristotle contrasts natural things with the artificial: artificial things can move also, but they move according to what they are made of, not according to what they are. For example, if a wooden bed were buried and somehow sprouted as a tree, it would be according to what it is made of, not what it is. Aristotle contrasts two senses of nature: nature as matter and nature as form or definition.
+By "nature", Aristotle means the natures of particular things and would perhaps be better translated "a nature." In Book II, however, his appeal to "nature" as a source of activities is more typically to the genera of natural kinds (the secondary substance). But, contra Plato, Aristotle attempts to resolve a philosophical quandary that was well understood in the fourth century. The Eudoxian planetary model sufficed for the wandering stars, but no deduction of terrestrial substance would be forthcoming based solely on the mechanical principles of necessity, (ascribed by Aristotle to material causation in chapter 9). In the Enlightenment, centuries before modern science made good on atomist intuitions, a nominal allegiance to mechanistic materialism gained popularity despite harboring Newton's action at distance, and comprising the native habitat of teleological arguments: Machines or artifacts composed of parts lacking any intrinsic relationship to each other with their order imposed from without. Thus, the source of an apparent thing's activities is not the whole itself, but its parts. While Aristotle asserts that the matter (and parts) are a necessary cause of things – the material cause – he says that nature is primarily the essence or formal cause (1.193b6), that is, the information, the whole species itself.
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+---
+title: "Physics (Aristotle)"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:15.422292+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ The necessary in nature, then, is plainly what we call by the name of matter, and the changes in it. Both causes must be stated by the physicist, but especially the end; for that is the cause of the matter, not vice versa; and the end is 'that for the sake of which', and the beginning starts from the definition or essence…
+ 
+In chapter 3, Aristotle presents his theory of the four causes (material, efficient, formal, and final). Material cause explains what something is made of (for example, the wood of a house), formal cause explains the form which a thing follows to become that thing (the plans of an architect to build a house), efficient cause is the actual source of the change (the physical building of the house), and final cause is the intended purpose of the change (the final product of the house and its purpose as a shelter and home).
+Of particular importance is the final cause or purpose (telos).  It is a common mistake to conceive of the four causes as additive or alternative forces pushing or pulling; in reality, all four are needed to explain (7.198a22-25). What we typically mean by cause in the modern scientific idiom is only a narrow part of what Aristotle means by efficient cause.
+He contrasts purpose with the way in which "nature" does not work, chance (or luck), discussed in chapters 4, 5, and 6. (Chance working in the actions of humans is tuche and in unreasoning agents automaton.) Something happens by chance when all the lines of causality converge without that convergence being purposefully chosen, and produce a result similar to the teleologically caused one.
+In chapters 7 through 9, Aristotle returns to the discussion of nature. With the enrichment of the preceding four chapters, he concludes that nature acts for an end, and he discusses the way that necessity is present in natural things. For Aristotle, the motion of natural things is determined from within them, while in the modern empirical sciences, motion is determined from without (more properly speaking: there is nothing to have an inside).
+
+=== Book III (Γ; 200b–208a) ===
+In order to understand "nature" as defined in the previous book, one must understand the terms of the definition. To understand motion, book III begins with the definition of change based on Aristotle's notions of potentiality and actuality. Change, he says, is the actualization of a thing's ability insofar as it is able.
+The rest of the book (chapters 4-8) discusses the infinite (apeiron, the unlimited). He distinguishes between the infinite by addition and the infinite by division, and between the actually infinite and potentially infinite.  He argues against the actually infinite in any form, including infinite bodies, substances, and voids.  Aristotle here says the only type of infinity that exists is the potentially infinite.  Aristotle characterizes this as that which serves as "the matter for the completion of a magnitude and is potentially (but not actually) the completed whole" (207a22-23).  The infinite, lacking any form, is thereby unknowable.  Aristotle writes, "it is not what has nothing outside it that is infinite, but what always has something outside it" (6.206b33-207a1-2).
+
+=== Book IV (Δ; 208a–223b) ===
+Book IV discusses the preconditions of motion: place (topos, chapters 1-5), void (kenon, chapters 6-9), and time (khronos, chapters 10-14).  The book starts by distinguishing the various ways a thing can "be in" another. He likens place to an immobile container or vessel: "the innermost motionless boundary of what contains" is the primary place of a body (4.212a20). Unlike space, which is a volume co-existent with a body, place is a boundary or surface.
+He teaches that, contrary to the Atomists and others, a void is not only unnecessary, but leads to contradictions, e.g., making locomotion impossible.
+Time is a constant attribute of movements and, Aristotle thinks, does not exist on its own but is relative to the motions of things. Tony Roark describes Aristotle's view of time as follows:
+
+Aristotle defines time as "a  number of motion with respect to the before and after" (Phys. 219b1–2), by which he intends to denote motion's susceptibility to division into undetached parts of arbitrary length, a property that it possesses both by virtue of its intrinsic nature and also by virtue of the capacities and activities of percipient souls. Motion is intrinsically indeterminate, but  perceptually determinable, with respect to its length. Acts of perception function as determiners; the result is determinate units of kinetic length, which is precisely what a temporal unit is.
+
+=== Books V and VI (Ε: 224a–231a; Ζ: 231a–241b) ===
+Books V and VI deal with how motion occurs. Book V classifies four species of movement, depending on where the opposites are located.  Movement categories include quantity (e.g. a change in dimensions, from great to small), quality (as for colors: from pale to dark), place (local movements generally go from up downwards and vice versa), or, more controversially, substance. In fact, substances do not have opposites, so it is inappropriate to say that something properly becomes, from not-man, man: generation and corruption are not kinesis in the full sense.
+Book VI discusses how a changing thing can reach the opposite state, if it has to pass through infinite intermediate stages. It investigates by rational and logical arguments the notions of continuity and division, establishing that change—and, consequently, time and place—are not divisible into indivisible parts; they are not mathematically discrete but continuous, that is, infinitely divisible (in other words, that you cannot build up a continuum out of discrete or indivisible points or moments). Among other things, this implies that there can be no definite (indivisible) moment when a motion begins. This discussion, together with that of speed and the different behavior of the four different species of motion, eventually helps Aristotle answer the famous paradoxes of Zeno, which purport to show the absurdity of motion's existence.
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+---
+title: "Physics (Aristotle)"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:15.422292+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Book VII (Η; 241a25–250b7) ===
+Book VII briefly deals with the relationship of the moved to his mover, which Aristotle describes in substantial divergence with Plato's theory of the soul as capable of setting itself in motion (Laws book X, Phaedrus, Phaedo).  Everything which moves is moved by another. He then tries to correlate the species of motion and their speeds, with the local change (locomotion, phorà) as the most fundamental to which the others can be reduced.
+Book VII.1-3 also exist in an alternative version, not included in the Bekker edition.
+
+=== Book VIII (Θ; 250a14–267b26) ===
+Book VIII (which occupies almost a fourth of the entire Physics, and probably constituted originally an independent course of lessons) discusses two main topics, though with a wide deployment of arguments: the time limits of the universe, and the existence of a Prime Mover — eternal, indivisible, without parts and without magnitude. Isn't the universe eternal, has it had a beginning, will it ever end? Aristotle's response, as a Greek, could hardly be affirmative, never having been told of a creatio ex nihilo, but he also has philosophical reasons for denying that motion had not always existed, on the grounds of the theory presented in the earlier books of the Physics. Eternity of motion is also confirmed by the existence of a substance which is different from all the others in lacking matter; being pure form, it is also in an eternal actuality, not being imperfect in any respect; hence needing not to move. This is demonstrated by describing the celestial bodies thus: the first things to be moved must undergo an infinite, single and continuous movement, that is, circular. This is not caused by any contact but (integrating the view contained in the Metaphysics, bk. XII) by love and aspiration.
+
+== Significance to philosophy and science in the modern world ==
+The works of Aristotle are typically influential to the development of Western science and philosophy. The citations below are not given as any sort of final modern judgement on the interpretation and significance of Aristotle, but are only the notable views of some moderns.
+
+=== Heidegger ===
+Martin Heidegger writes:
+
+ The Physics is a lecture in which he seeks to determine beings that arise on their own, τὰ φύσει ὄντα, with regard to their being. Aristotelian "physics" is different from what we mean today by this word, not only to the extent that it belongs to antiquity whereas the modern physical sciences belong to modernity, rather above all it is different by virtue of the fact that Aristotle's "physics" is philosophy, whereas modern physics is a positive science that presupposes a philosophy.... This book determines the warp and woof of the whole of Western thinking, even at that place where it, as modern thinking, appears to think at odds with ancient thinking. But opposition is invariably comprised of a decisive, and often even perilous, dependence. Without Aristotle's Physics there would have been no Galileo.
+
+=== Russell ===
+Bertrand Russell says of Physics and On the Heavens (which he believed was a continuation of Physics) that they were:
+
+ ...extremely influential, and dominated science until the time of Galileo ... The historian of philosophy, accordingly, must study them, in spite of the fact that hardly a sentence in either can be accepted in the light of modern science.
+
+=== Rovelli ===
+Italian theoretical physicist Carlo Rovelli considers Aristotle's physics as a correct and non-intuitive special case of Newtonian physics for the motion of matter in fluid after it has reached terminal velocity (steady state). His theory disregards the initial phase of acceleration, which is too short to be observed by the naked eye. Galileo's inclined plane experiment bypasses the issue, as it slows down acceleration enough to allow observing the initial phase of acceleration by the naked eye.
+The five elements explain forms of observed motions. Ether explains circular motion in the sky, earth and water explains downward motion, and fire and air explains upward motion. To explain downward motion, instead of postulating one element, he proposed two, because wood moves up in water but down in air, while earth moves down in both water and air. The complex interaction between the 4 elements could explain most of the rising and falling motions of objects with different densities.
+The velocity of falling objects is equal to 
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                W
+                ρ
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C\left({\frac {W}{\rho }}\right)^{n}}
+  
+, where 
+  
+    
+      
+        W
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle W}
+  
+ is the weight of the object, 
+  
+    
+      
+        ρ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \rho }
+  
+ is the density of the surrounding fluid (such as air, fire, or water), 
+  
+    
+      
+        n
+        >
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle n>0}
+  
+ is a constant, and 
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C}
+  
+ is a constant depending on the shape of the object. This is correct for the terminal velocity of falling objects in fluid in a constant gravitational field, in the case where most of the fluid resistance is drag force, 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∝
+        ρ
+        
+          v
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \propto \rho v^{2}}
+  
+. In this case, the terminal velocity is 
+  
+    
+      
+        C
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              
+                W
+                ρ
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+          
+            1
+            
+              /
+            
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle C\left({\frac {W}{\rho }}\right)^{1/2}}
+  
+
+== See also ==
+History of physics
+Horror vacui
+Euclid's Elements
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+=== Recensions of Physics in the ancient Greek ===
+A recension is a selection of a specific text for publication. The manuscripts on a given work attributed to Aristotle offer textual variants. One recension makes a selection of one continuous text, but typically gives notes stating the alternative sections of text. Determining which text is to be presented as "original" is a detailed scholarly investigation. The recension is often known by its scholarly editor's name.
+
+=== English translations of the Physics ===
+In reverse chronological order:
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+---
+title: "Physics (Aristotle)"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:12:15.422292+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Classical and medieval commentaries on the Physics ===
+A commentary differs from a note in being a distinct work analyzing the language and subsumed concepts of some other work classically notable. A note appears within the annotated work on the same page or in a separate list. Commentaries are typically arranged by lemmas, or quotes from the notable work, followed by an analysis of the author of the commentary.
+The commentaries on every work of Aristotle are a vast and mainly unpublished topic. They extend continuously from the death of the philosopher, representing the entire history of Graeco-Roman philosophy. There are thousands of commentators and commentaries known wholly or more typically in fragments of manuscripts. The latter especially occupy the vaults of institutions formerly responsible for copying them, such as monasteries. The process of publishing them is slow and ongoing.
+Below is a brief representative bibliography of published commentaries on Aristotle's Physics available on or through the Internet. Like the topic itself, they are perforce multi-cultural, but English has been favored, as well as the original languages, ancient Greek and Latin.
+
+=== Some modern commentaries, monographs and articles ===
+
+== Further reading ==
+Books
+Die Aristotelische Physik, W. Wieland, 1962, 2nd revised edition 1970.
+Articles
+Machamer, Peter K., "Aristotle on Natural Place and Motion," Isis 69:3 (Sept. 1978), 377–387.
+
+== External links ==
+
+=== Commentaries and comments ===
+HTML Greek, in parallel with English translation: Fr. Kenny's collection Archived 2011-10-02 at the Wayback Machine (with Aquinas's commentary)
+HTML Greek, in parallel with French translation: P. Remacle's collection
+Thomas Aquinas's Commentary
+A 'Bigger' Physics – lecture at MIT on how Aristotle's natural philosophy complements modern science and the need for a general science of nature
+
+=== Other ===
+Greek text of Physics, as edited by W.D. Ross
+Perseus edition of Physics in Greek
+Aristotle: Motion and its Place in Nature entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
+ Physics, English Translation by Thomas Taylor public domain audiobook at LibriVox
+Text of Physics, (in html, epub or mobi format) as translated by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye
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