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title: "College of Science – University of Baghdad"
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The College of Science is one of the Colleges of the University of Baghdad in Baghdad, Iraq. It was the first scientific college established in Iraq. The main academic activities held in this college vary between pure and applied science. Beside its eight departments, the college also holds two research units.
Being one of the earliest academic institutes formed in the Republic of Iraq, the College of Science establishment date marks the Day of Science in Iraq.
The college was established on March 27, 1949, with the name of (The College of Arts and Science).
The college was established with five scientific departments, namely: (Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Pathology and Anatomy). The Pathology and Anatomy departments were later joined together to form the (Department of Biology). Beside these, another four departments were added during the next fifty years, these are: Department of Geology (1953), Department of Computer Science (1983), Department of Astronomy (1998) and Department of Biotechnology (1999). The eight departments cover a wide range of branches of pure and applied sciences, which attracts many students as well as scientific researchers each year. Therefore, this college is considered as the largest scientific academic institute in the Republic of Iraq.
== Departments ==
Department of Mathematics (1949)
Department of Physics (1949)
Department of Chemistry (1949)
Department of Biology (1949)
Department of Geology (1953)
Department of Computer Science (1983)
Department of Astronomy (1998)
Department of Biotechnology (1999)
Department of Remote Sensing and GIS (2015)
== Scientific units ==
Remote Sensing Unit (1999)
Tropical Disease Research Unit (2001)
== Other subdivisions ==
Media and IT Unit
CISCO Networking Academy
Scientific Consulting Bureau
Division of Quality Assurance and Performance Assessment
== Scientific publications ==
The College of Science publishes three journals of pure and applied science, mainly attributed to the improvement of its faculty members as well as recent and noted researches from others. Being a nationally marked scientific college, the journals published in this college maintain an important degree of importance in Iraq. Since there is a wide range of topics covered by the departments of the college, its published journals also cover many general and specific research fields. The journals published at the College of Science-University of Baghdad are:
=== The Iraqi Journal of Science ===
Specialization: Pure and Applied Sciences
Objective: Publishing original scientific researches, dealing with the following branches of science:
-Physics and Astronomy
-Mathematics
-Geology
-Biology
-Computer Science and Remote Sensing
-Chemistry
Language: English
Starting date of publication: Since 1956
Publish 12 issues per year
website: http://ijs.scbaghdad.edu.iq
=== The Iraqi Journal of Physics ===
Specialization: Applied and pure physics science
Language: Arabic and English
Starting date of publication: Since 2002
Parts published per a year: 4
website: https://web.archive.org/web/20140106195232/http://iraqjop.com/
=== The Iraqi Journal of Tropical Disease ===
Specialization: Tropical disease
Language: Arabic and English
Starting date of publication: Since 2004
Parts published per a year: 4
== Deans of The College of Science ==
Prof. Dr. Abdul Aziz Al-Douri (1949–1958)
Prof. Dr. Salah Awny (1958–1960)
Prof. Dr. Fadhil Al-Tai (1960–1964)
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Zahir (1964–1969)
Prof. Dr. Hassan Al-Rubaie (1969–1970)
Prof. Dr. Majid Qaisi (1970–1972)
Prof. Dr. Yusuf Abbas (1972–1974)
Prof. Dr. Abdul Rahim (1974–1976)
Prof. Dr. Jalal Mohammed Saleh (1976–1982)
Prof. Dr. Edward Naim (1982–1984)
Prof. Dr. Atta Hashemi Basil (1984–1985)
Prof. Dr. Abbas Ali Hussein (1985)
Prof. Dr. Muthanna Abdul-Jabbar Shanshal (1985–1988)
Prof. Dr. Atta Hashemi Basil (1988–1989)
Prof. Dr. Khalid Majid Hamid (1989–1990)
Prof. Dr. Farouk Al-Ani (1990–1992)
Prof. Dr. Awni Farouk Abdel-Salam (1993–1995)
Prof. Dr. Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash (1995–1997)
Prof. Tareq Safa Al-Deen (1997–1998)
Prof. Dr. Salwan Kamal Jameel (1998–2001)
Prof. Dr. Nafi Abdul-Latif Tilfah (2001)
Prof. Dr. Mona Al-Jubouri (2001–2003)
Prof. Dr. Abdul-Mahdi Talib Rahmatala (2003–2006)
Prof. Dr. Khalid Shihab Ahmed (2007–2010)
Prof. Dr. May Flaih Issa (2010)
Prof. Dr. Baha Toma Chiad (2011)
Prof. Dr. Saleh Mahdi Ali (2011-2014)
Prof. Dr. Mohammad Al-Saraj (2014)
Assist. Prof. Dr. Fadil Abed (2014-2017)
Prof. Dr. Gaith Nima (2017-2018)
Prof. Dr. Raid Kamil Naji (2018–2019)
Prof. Dr. Kholoud Abed Saleh (2019-2020)
Prof. Dr. Abdul-Kareem Al-Kazaz (2020–present)
== Conferences ==
The college organizes a major scientific conference every two years in which scientific researches are presented discussed. Such conferences do not focus on one specific branch of science, but on a wide range of science fields, specially those fields falling within the college eight departments' specialty.
The most recent general scientific conference held was on March 6, 2009, in a celebration of the 60th anniversary of the college.
Occasionally, a symposium or group meeting is held in an individual department when needed, to present and discuss an explicit scientific application or phenomena.
The most recent conferences and symposiums held by the college were:
The Third Scientific Conference of the College of Science, March 2009.
The First Petroleum Geology of Iraq Symposium, April 2010.
The Iraqi National Scientific Conference for Physics, September 2010.
Symposium on Mining Geology of Iraq MGIS, October 2010.
Geo Archeo SGSA, March 2011.
Symposium Seismology on Earthquake - Universal Truths of Interest to The World, April 2011.
Conference on Oil Studies - Geo Bio Chem Technologies, ICOS, December 2011.
The First Scientific Biology Conference, March 2012.
== See also ==
University of Baghdad.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website of the College of Science Ar.
Comprehensive Guide of the College of Science
Introduction Guide of the College of Science
Official Site of The University of Baghdad

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---
A concept inventory is a criterion-referenced test designed to help determine whether a student has an accurate working knowledge of a specific set of concepts. Historically, concept inventories have been in the form of multiple-choice tests in order to aid interpretability and facilitate administration in large classes. Unlike a typical, teacher-authored multiple-choice test, questions and response choices on concept inventories are the subject of extensive research. The aims of the research include ascertaining (a) the range of what individuals think a particular question is asking and (b) the most common responses to the questions. Concept inventories are evaluated to ensure test reliability and validity. In its final form, each question includes one correct answer and several distractors.
Ideally, a score on a criterion-referenced test reflects the degrees of proficiency of the test taker with one or more KSAs (knowledge, skills and/abilities), and may report results with one unidimensional score and/or multiple sub-scores. Criterion-referenced tests differ from norm-referenced tests in that (in theory) the former report level of proficiency relative pre-determined level and the latter reports relative standing to other test takers. Criterion-referenced tests may be used to determine whether a student reached predetermined levels of proficiency (i.e., scoring above some cutoff score) and therefore move on to the next unit or level of study.
The distractors are incorrect or irrelevant answers that are usually (but not always) based on students' commonly held misconceptions. Test developers often research student misconceptions by examining students' responses to open-ended essay questions and conducting "think-aloud" interviews with students. The distractors chosen by students help researchers understand student thinking and give instructors insights into students' prior knowledge (and, sometimes, firmly held beliefs). This foundation in research underlies instrument construction and design, and plays a role in helping educators obtain clues about students' ideas, scientific misconceptions, and didaskalogenic ("teacher-induced" or "teaching-induced") confusions and conceptual lacunae that interfere with learning.
== Concept inventories in use ==
Concept inventories are education-related diagnostic tests. In 1985 Halloun and Hestenes introduced a "multiple-choice mechanics diagnostic test" to examine students' concepts about motion. It evaluates student understanding of basic concepts in classical (macroscopic) mechanics. A little later, the Force Concept Inventory (FCI), another concept inventory, was developed. The FCI was designed to assess student understanding of the Newtonian concepts of force. Hestenes (1998) found that while "nearly 80% of the [students completing introductory college physics courses] could state Newton's Third Law at the beginning of the course, FCI data showed that less than 15% of them fully understood it at the end". These results have been replicated in a number of studies involving students at a range of institutions (see sources section below). That said, there remain questions as what exactly the FCI measures. Results using the FCI have led to greater recognition in the science education community of the importance of students' "interactive engagement" with the materials to be mastered.
Since the development of the FCI, other physics instruments have been developed. These include the Force and Motion Conceptual Evaluation concept and the Brief Electricity and Magnetism Assessment. For a discussion of how a number of concept inventories were developed see Beichner.
In addition to physics, concept inventories have been developed in statistics, chemistry, astronomy, basic biology, natural selection, genetics, engineering, geoscience. and computer science.
In many areas, foundational scientific concepts transcend disciplinary boundaries. An example of an inventory that assesses knowledge of such concepts is an instrument developed by Odom and Barrow (1995) to evaluate understanding of diffusion and osmosis. In addition, there are non-multiple choice conceptual instruments, such as the essay-based approach and the essay and oral exams concept to measure student understanding of Lewis structures in chemistry.
== Caveats associated with concept inventory use ==
Some concept inventories are problematic. The concepts tested may not be fundamental or important in a particular discipline, the concepts involved may not be explicitly taught in a class or curriculum, or answering a question correctly may require only a superficial understanding of a topic. It is therefore possible to either over-estimate or under-estimate student content mastery. While concept inventories designed to identify trends in student thinking may not be useful in monitoring learning gains as a result of pedagogical interventions, disciplinary mastery may not be the variable measured by a particular instrument. Users should be careful to ensure that concept inventories are actually testing conceptual understanding, rather than test-taking ability, language skills, or other abilities that can influence test performance.
The use of multiple-choice exams as concept inventories is not without controversy. The very structure of multiple-choice type concept inventories raises questions involving the extent to which complex, and often nuanced situations and ideas must be simplified or clarified to produce unambiguous responses. For example, a multiple-choice exam designed to assess knowledge of key concepts in natural selection does not meet a number of standards of quality control. One problem with the exam is that the two members of each of several pairs of parallel items, with each pair designed to measure exactly one key concept in natural selection, sometimes have very different levels of difficulty. Another problem is that the multiple-choice exam overestimates knowledge of natural selection as reflected in student performance on a diagnostic essay exam and a diagnostic oral exam, two instruments with reasonably good construct validity. Although scoring concept inventories in the form of essay or oral exams is labor-intensive, costly, and difficult to implement with large numbers of students, such exams can offer a more realistic appraisal of the actual levels of students' conceptual mastery as well as their misconceptions. Recently, however, computer technology has been developed that can score essay responses on concept inventories in biology and other domains, promising to facilitate the scoring of concept inventories organized as (transcribed) oral exams as well as essays.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Astronomy
Biology Concept Inventory
Bio-Diagnostic Question Clusters
Classroom Concepts and Diagnostic Tests
Chemistry
Diagnostic Question Clusters in Biology
Engineering
Evolution Assessment
Force Concept Inventory
Genetics
Geosciences
Molecular Life Sciences Concept Inventory
Physics
Statistics
Thinking Like a Biologist

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title: "Conceptual question"
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Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas.
Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below:
During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperature
increases
decreases
stays the same
Impossible to tell/need more information
The use of conceptual questions in physics was popularized by Eric Mazur, particularly in the form of multiple-choice tests that he called ConcepTests. In recent years, multiple websites that maintain lists of conceptual questions have been created by instructors for various disciplines. Some books on physics provide many examples of conceptual questions as well.
Multiple conceptual questions can be assembled into a concept inventory to test the working knowledge of students at the beginning of a course or to track the improvement in conceptual understanding throughout the course.
== References ==

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Constructivism has been considered as a dominant paradigm, or research programme, in the field of science education since the 1980s. The term constructivism is widely used in many fields, and not always with quite the same intention. This entry offers an account of how constructivism is most commonly understood in science education.
== Description ==
Science education is now an established field within education, and worldwide has its own journals, conferences, university departments and so forth. Although a diverse field, a major influence on its development was research considered to be undertaken from a constructivist perspective on learning, and supporting approaches to teaching that themselves became labelled constructivist. Thus, this constructivism was largely of a psychological flavour, often drawing on the work of Jean Piaget, David Ausubel, Robert M. Gagné and Jerome Bruner. One influential group of science education researchers were also heavily influenced by George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory. The work of Lev Vygotsky (since being championed in the West by Jerome Bruner) has also been increasingly influential.
These workers from psychology informed the first generation of science education researchers. Active research groups developed in centres like the University of Waikato (New Zealand), University of Leeds (UK) and University of Surrey (UK), with a strong interest in students' ideas in science (formed before, or during instruction) as these were recognised as being highly influential on future learning, and so whether canonical scientific would be learnt. This work, sometimes labelled the 'alternative conceptions movement' was motivated by a series of influential publications on children's ideas in science and their implications for learning (and so for how teaching should be planned to take them into account). Whilst a range of influential papers could be cited it has been suggested that a number of seminar contributions in effect set out the commitments, or 'hard core' of a constructivist research programme into the learning and teaching of science. The perspective was also the focus of a number of books aimed at the science education community - researchers and teachers.
These papers presented learning as process of personal sense making, and an iterative matter such that what is learnt was channelled by existing knowledge and understanding (whether canonical or alternative), and teaching as needing to take learners' existing ideas into account in teaching. The research programme soon amounted to thousands of studies on aspects of students' (of different ages and educational levels, from different countries) thinking and learning in science topics.
== Criticisms ==
There have been a wide range of criticisms of constructivist work in science, including strong criticism from philosophical perspectives. Such criticisms have done little to stem the influence of the perspective, perhaps because they tend not to refer to the core tenets of constructivism as an approach based on learning theory and research from cognitive science.
== Alternative conceptions and conceptual frameworks in science education ==
Learners' ideas in science have been variously labelled as alternative conceptions, alternative conceptual frameworks, preconceptions, scientific misconceptions, naive theories etc. Although some scholars have attempted to distinguish between these terms, there is no consensual usage and often these terms are in effect synonymous. It has been found that some alternative conceptions are very common, although others appear quite idiosyncratic. Some seem to be readily overcome in teaching, but others have proved to be tenacious and to offer a challenge to effective instruction. Sometimes it is considered important to distinguish fully developed conceptions (i.e., explicit ways of understanding aspects of the natural work that are readily verbalised) from more 'primitive' features of cognition acting at a tacit level, such as the so-called phenomenology primitives. The 'knowledge-in-pieces' perspective suggests the latter act as resources for new learning which have potential to support the development of either alternative or canonical knowledge according to how teachers proceed, whereas alternative conceptions (or misconceptions) tend to be seen as learning impediments to be overcome. What research has shown is the prevalence among learners at all levels of alternative ways to thinking about just about all science topics, and a key feature of guidance to teachers is to elicit students' ideas as part of the teaching process. The success of constructivism is that this is now largely taken-for-granted in science teaching and has become part of standard teaching guidance in many contexts. Previously there was a strong focus on the abstract nature of concepts to be learnt, but little awareness that often the teacher was not seeking to replace ignorance with knowledge, but rather to modify and develop learners existing thinking which was often at odds with the target knowledge set out in the curriculum.
=== Constructivist science teaching ===
Constructivism is seen as an educational theory, and a key perspective to inform pedagogy. There are many books informing teachers and others about constructivist research findings and ideas, and giving guidance on how to teach science from a constructivist perspective.
== See also ==
Constructivist teaching methods
== References ==

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Contexts: Understanding People in their Social Worlds is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal and an official publication of the American Sociological Association. It is designed to be a more accessible source of sociological ideas and research and has been inspired by the movement towards public sociology.
== Sections of the Journal ==
Backpage
Books
Culture
Feature
From the Editors
In brief
Q&A
Teaching and Learning
Trends
Viewpoints
== History ==
The journal was established in 2002 by Claude Fischer and is published by SAGE Publications; until 2011, it was published by the University of California Press. Fischer was succeeded by Jeff Goodwin and James M. Jasper, who edited the journal from 2005 to 2007, injecting a certain amount of controversial humor such as New Yorker cartoons and a column written by "Harry Green" (actually Jasper) called "The Fool." The current editors are Seth Abrutyn (University of British Columbia) and Amin Ghaziani (University of British Columbia).
== Former Editors ==
2002: Claude Fischer
2003: Fischer
2004: Fischer
2005: Jeff Goodwin, James M. Jasper
2006: Goodwin, Jasper
2007: Goodwin, Jasper
2008: Doug Hartmann, Chris Uggen
2009: Hartmann, Uggen
2010: Hartmann, Uggen
2011: Hartmann, Uggen
2012: Jodi O'Brien, Arlene Stein
2013: O'Brien, Stein
2014: O'Brien, Stein
2015: Philip N. Cohen, Syed Ali
2016: Cohen, Ali
2017: Cohen, Ali
2018: Fabio Rojas, Rashawn Ray
2019: Rojas, Ray
2020: Rojas, Ray
2021: Rojas, Ray
2022: Rojas, Ray
2023: Seth Abrutyn, Amin Ghaziani (UBC)
2024: Abrutyn, Ghaziani
== Characteristics ==
The journal differs from a typical academic journal as it is targeted more toward students and the general public. It is used widely in courses,, and a selection of its premier articles is available in book format through The Contexts Reader, published by W. W. Norton & Company, now in its second edition.
The new editors have introduced a blog feature on the magazines website, Contexts.org.
New print issues are published quarterly in February (Winter), May (Spring), August (Summer) and November (Fall).
== Awards ==
Contexts won the Best Journal Award in the Social Sciences (2003) by Professional and Scholarly Publishing Division of the Association of American Publishers.
== Notable Articles and Interviews ==
One of the most notable articles in Contexts is Ann Morning's interview with Rachel Doležal. The interview has aired on many TV news networks, such as Fox News, BBC, and USA Today, over the possibility of a trans-racial identity.
The academic journal ranges in topics from social mobility, immigration, race, Donald Trump's potential border wall, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer.
One of the board members for Contexts, Tressie McMillan Cottom, appeared on The Daily Show with Trevor Noah to discuss the impact of for-profit higher education in the United States on disadvantaged students.
== Abstracting and indexing ==
Contexts is abstracted and indexed in SocINDEX and Sociological Abstracts.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website

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Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is a perspective within early childhood education whereby a teacher or child caregiver nurtures a child's social/emotional, physical, and cognitive development. It is also described as a philosophy in child education that is based on child development knowledge where professionals base their instruction and care on research, standards, and recognized theory.
== Concept ==
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) emphasizes what is known about children and what can be done about individual children as a basis of decision-making when it comes to instruction and care. It recognizes that children's needs and abilities change over time and depend on universal laws governing these to determine the propriety of practice. DAP also holds that children have a natural disposition towards learning; hence, they are capable of constructing their own knowledge through exploration and interaction with others, learning materials, and their environment. For these reasons, early childhood programs look and function differently.
The DAP has three core components: knowledge about development and learning; knowledge about individual children; and, knowledge about the social and cultural contexts where children grow and learn. Particularly, the teacher or provider of care bases all practices and decisions on (1) theories of child development, (2) individually identified strengths and needs of each child uncovered through authentic assessment, and (3) the child's cultural background as defined by his community, family history, and family structure.
DAP is centered around the instructors "intentionality" of their instruction so that students are able to accomplish goals that are "both challenging and achievable for children". In DAP, knowledge of child development is valued because it "permits general predictions" to be made by instructors to influence what instruction should be used to best benefit student learning based on their developmental stage. It influences teacher decisions on which "environment, materials, interaction and activities" should be used in the classroom based on "broad predictions" of children in particular age groups. Knowledge of the individual child is another core consideration of DAP because, through observation, teachers may learn "implications for how to best adapt" instruction based on the specific needs of an individual student. The last core consideration for DAP, is that instructors should also learn more about the social and cultural contexts children grow up in their homes. This is valued so students learn and grow through instruction that is "meaningful, relevant, and respectful for each child and family".
== Learning standard ==
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) has adopted DAP as part of its attempt to establish standards for best practice in the area of the education of children (from birth to 8 years of age). This was established in a position statement, which some scholars view has contributed to the thinking and discourse about practices in early childhood programs. The statement described DAP as an "empirically based principles of child development and learning".
=== Updates in 2020 position statement ===
In the updated 2020 position statement, NAEYC admitted that previous position statements painted social and cultural differences "as deficits and gaps" instead of viewing them as "assets or strengths to be built upon". The revisions made were in hopes to highlight the updated core considerations:
(1) There are "greater variations" within the stages of development, which the previous versions failed to realize the "critical role" social and cultural differences have on student learning and development.
(2) While children need to learn and understand different social and cultural contexts, educators also need to recognize their own "biases—both implicit and explicit" to ensure their teaching does not negatively impact student learning.
Studies have revealed that the use of DAP has led to an increase in children's receptive language, particularly in DAP programs that include higher-literacy environment and developmentally appropriate activities.
=== Implications for instruction ===
There are different suggestions for teachers to engage in developmentally appropriate practice depending on students' stage of development.
Infants
Set an environment that prompts exploration and make sure it is safe and stimulating
Meet physical needs of the infant by providing clean and quiet areas
Support infants' families by providing culturally sensitive care
Early childhood
Provide assurance to children who may have difficulties separating from their guardian
Allow children to explore classroom environment
Foster joy for literature in children
Middle childhood
Encourage families and caregivers to be actively involved in activities
Make sure students acquire basic academic skills, such as letter identification and sound correspondence
Allow students to form positive relationships with peers with guidance
Early adolescence
Design a curriculum that will challenge students to incorporate knowledge and skills across multiple content areas
Assign an adult to check the welfare of each student
== Critics ==
DAP is one of a number of practices associated with outcome-based education and other progressive education reform movements. Some critics have argued that some reforms which fully support "developmentally appropriate practices", such as NCTM mathematics and whole language, introduce students to materials and concepts which may be too advanced for young children, or above their reading levels. On the opposite side, some critics claim that DAP approaches use content and concepts considerably below traditional grade levels. Educators in many states implement DAP approaches to meet learning standards that were established by specialized professional associations, including in the content areas of language arts, math, social studies and science. The National Science Education Standards proposes to teach elementary school students how to construct their own experiments, whereas traditionally high school students and even college students were typically taught how to perform pre-designed experiments, but not to construct their own experiments. In the DAP environment, through intentional teaching techniques, as well as by capitalizing on teachable moments, children are engaged in authentic, meaningful learning experiences. Educators do not just teach to the whole group, but use a variety of grouping strategies, including small groups, pairs and 1:1. Individualization becomes a key component in making sure the needs and interests of each child are focused on in a DAP environment. The developmentally appropriate practice is based upon the idea that children learn best from doing. Children learn best when they are actively involved in their environment and build knowledge based on their experiences rather than through passively receiving information. Active learning environments promote hands-on learning experiences and allow children to interact with objects in their environment, as well as their peers and teachers.
== References ==

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Doctor rerum naturalium (Latin for 'Doctor of Natural Sciences', lit. 'Doctor of the Things of Nature'), abbreviated Dr. rer. nat., is a doctoral degree in science awarded by universities in several European countries (e.g., Germany, Austria, and the Czech Republic) to graduates in fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, geosciences, computer science, pharmacy, psychology, and other natural sciences. Universities might also award different titles for these fields, depending on the topic of a doctoral thesis and which titles a university can award. In German-speaking Switzerland the equivalent of Dr. rer. nat. is Dr. phil. nat. The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology for example might award a Dr. rer. nat. or a Dr.-Ing. for computer science graduates, differentiating between degrees in theoretical and practical topics.
These doctoral degrees are equivalent to the PhD awarded in English-speaking countries. German universities often translate a Dr. rer. nat. to doctorate of natural sciences or Doctor of Science.
To start a PhD in Germany, students must typically possess a master's degree in the related field. PhD programs in the natural sciences are often designed to allow graduation in three to five years, with an average graduation time of 4.3 years. The exact requirements for graduation differ by university but usually include the requirement of a substantial contribution to the field of study.
In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, a similarly designated degree, abbreviated RNDr., is awarded. It should not be confused with Dr. rer. nat., as the former is nowadays an extension of a master-like degree, but it used to be equivalent to PhD.
== See also ==
Doctor of science
Doctorate § Germany
Academic degree § Czech Republic
Doctor of Philosophy
== References ==

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Earth & Sky was a daily radio series that presented information about science and nature. It began broadcasting in 1991 and ceased operations in 2013. EarthSky is the ongoing website, serving 21 million users in 2019, according to Google Analytics.
== History ==
Earth & Sky was the creation of producers Deborah Byrd and Joel Block, who were also the hosts. Byrd had previously created the radio program Star Date that began broadcasting in the US in 1978, and Block was Star Date's original host.
Several producers researched topics, interviewed scientists and wrote radio scripts for the program through the years, including Jorge Salazar and Marc Airhart.
The final episode of Earth & Sky was broadcast on June 2, 2013. President and co-founder Deborah Byrd said that although funding options existed to continue the radio program, a decision was made to stop producing the radio show in order to concentrate on the EarthSky.org website and social media.
== Content ==
Earth & Sky presented 60- and 90-second radio spots (called "modules") on a wide variety of scientific topics, communicating through terrestrial radio as well as satellite radio and internet radio. Earth & Sky was aired one or more times daily on more than 1,000 commercial, NPR, and other public radio stations, 80 affiliate stations for the sight-impaired, and across 35 channels on both XM and Sirius satellite radio in the United States. Abroad, the programming iwas heard on American Forces Radio, Voice of America Radio, World Radio Network, and others.
The information on Earth & Sky came directly from scientists. The journalists who produced the Earth & Sky radio program spoke to several scientists each day, dozens each week and hundreds each year. More than 500 scientists had joined Earth & Sky as volunteer advisers. Earth & Sky science advisers suggested content, gave feedback, recommended other experts, and reviewed scripts for accuracy before they were recorded for broadcast.
Earth & Sky featured many fields of science. In 2006, it focused on nanotechnology, women in science, observing the Earth, astrophysics and space, and the human world.
== Further reading ==
Flagg, B. N., Can 90 seconds of science make a difference. Informal Learning Review, The, No. 75, November - December 2005 pp. 2, 22
Multimedia Research. "Earth & Sky Summative Evaluation, Study 2." August 2005.
Act 1 Systems. "Earth & Sky, Inc.: Arbitron DMA Area." Spring 2003.
Multimedia Research. "Earth & Sky Summative Evaluation, Study 1." June 2002.
"With dreams beyond 'Earth & Sky,' show's future is bright." Austin American Statesman. 10 January 2002.
"'Earth & Sky' is rising star among radio science shows." Austin American Statesman. 9 November 1992.
"AGU Supports New Earth Science Radio Program." Earth in Space 4 (2): p. 15 (1991).
"Staff disintegrates at stellar radio program." Current: The Public Telecommunications Newspaper, Vol. X (13): (1991).
== References ==
== External links ==
Earth & Sky website

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Ecology and evolutionary biology is an interdisciplinary field of study concerning interactions between organisms and their ever-changing environment, including perspectives from both evolutionary biology and ecology. This field of study includes topics such as the way organisms respond and evolve, as well as the relationships among animals, plants, and micro-organisms, when their habitats change. Ecology and evolutionary biology is a broad field of study that covers various ranges of ages and scales, which can also help us to comprehend human impacts on the global ecosystem and find measures to achieve more sustainable development.
== Examples of current research topics ==
=== Birdsong ===
There is a number of acoustic research about birds. Birds learn to sing in specific patterns because birdsong conveys information to select partners, which is a result of evolution. However, this evolution is also affected by ecological factors. Research with recorded birdsong of male white-crowned sparrows from different regions found that the birdsongs from the same location have the same traits, while birdsongs from different locations are more likely to have different song types. Birdsongs from areas with dense vegetation tend to only have slow trilling sounds and low frequencies, while birdsongs from more open areas have fast trilling sounds and higher frequencies. This is probably due to differences in the propagation of sound through vegetation. Low frequencies can be heard from further away when going through dense vegetation than high frequencies. For that reason it would be an advantage for birds who live in dense vegetation to sing at lower frequencies. That way, their songs can still be heard by competitors and potential mates far away.
Something similar was found in birds living on a mountain. The birds who lived higher up were singing at higher frequencies. This was probably due to the higher parts of the mountain being colder and therefore fewer other species living there. Other animals also make sounds with which the birds would have to compete, so when there are less species, there are less high frequency sounds to compete with.
=== Snail colour ===
The colour and ornamentation of the snails' shells are almost entirely determined by their genes. One kind of land snail, Cepaea nemoralis, which is very common in Europe, has been studied and found to have a few different colours and a different amount of dark bands on their shells. In a large citizen science project 'the Evolution Mega-Lab', citizens of many different countries throughout Europe collected snails and counted how many snails of a certain colour/band pattern were present in a certain habitat.
Some colours can be seen better by birds, which is one way in which the best camouflaged snails are selected for. This also depends on the habitat in which the snails live. For instance yellow snails living in the dunes are better camouflaged than brown snails. Another reason that one colour of shell might be better in a certain habitat is because of the temperature. It was found that darker shells absorb more heat, which can be a risk for overheating of the snail in certain habitats like dunes. In those places lighter coloured snails were found more often.

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== Urban evolution ==
With fast growing cities and high rates of urbanization a whole new kind of environment has emerged. The urban ecosystem is a place of extremities and makes for fast evolution. Higher rates of phenotypic change have been observed in urban areas compared to natural and nonurban anthropogenic systems. A field of study has emerged regarding urban evolution in which the adaptations of animals and plants to urban environments are studied.
In tropical regions a certain species of lizards, Anolis cristatellus, lives in both urban and natural areas. These lizards climb on tree trunks, fences and the walls of buildings. In urban areas more slippery and smooth surfaces are found than in natural areas. This creates a higher risk of falling and dying. The lizards in cities were found to have adapted to these slippery surfaces, by developing longer limbs and more lamellae under their feet that help them to run safely on these smooth surfaces.
One of the differences between urban areas and natural areas is anthropogenic noise, such as traffic noise. The frequencies of these sounds overlap partly with the frequencies of bird songs. In cities, birds started to sing at higher frequencies than they do in natural areas, in order to still be heard by their conspecifics. Their songs were also found to be shorter. This is a way in which the birds adapt to the new urban environment.
An example of urban evolution in plants was found in Crepis sancta. This plant makes seeds with pappus that can travel with the wind, for seed dispersal. In urban environments green patches are very rare and are also often very small and far apart. Due to this, the chances of the seeds landing on asphalt or stone and not being able to sprout are way higher than in open fields. Crepis sancta makes both light seeds with pappus as well as heavier seeds without pappus. In the city the plants were found to make more heavy seeds in comparison to the plants in nonurban areas. This makes sense from an evolutionary perspective since heavy seeds fall very close to the mother-plant, probably in the same green patch, and therefore have a higher chance of sprouting.
Another characteristic of urban areas is light pollution. One of the well known consequences of light pollution is the attraction of insects. Before the presence of human light, the only source of light at night was the moon. Insects fly with a fixed angle to the moon to be able to fly in a straight line. Our light sources, however, are very close by. So if an insect flies with a fixed angle compared to a street light for instance, he starts flying in circles and eventually ends up circling the street light, which reduces his chances of finding food and a mating partner. Urban moths were found to have a reduced attraction to light sources, which directly impacts their chances for survival and mating by not wasting time close to a light source.
== Degrees in North America ==
Some North American universities are home to degree programs titled Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, offering integrated studies in the disciplines of ecology and evolutionary biology. The wording is intended as representing the alternative approach from the frequently used pairing of Cell and Molecular Biology, while being more inclusive than the terminology of Botany or Zoology. Recently, due to advances in the fields of genetics and molecular biology, research and education in ecology and evolutionary biology has integrated many molecular techniques.
A program that focuses on the relationships and interactions that range across levels of biological organization based on a scientific study is Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. The origins and history of ecosystems, species, genes and genomes, and organisms, and how these have changed over time is all part of the studies of how biodiversity has evolved and how it takes place. Ecology and Evolutionary biology in North America is based on research impact determined by the top 10% of ecology programs. The interactive web of organisms and environment are all part of what the field of Ecology explores. There have been studies in evolution that have worked to prove that "modern organisms have developed from ancestral ones." The reason that evolutionary biology is so interesting to learn about is because of the evolutionary processes that is the reason we have such a diversity of life on Earth.There are many processes that make up evolutionary biology that give great insight to how we came to be, some of which include natural selection, speciation, and common descent.
Among the best-known Ph.D.-granting departments that use this name are
Columbia University
Cornell University
Princeton University
Rice University
University of Arizona
University of California at Los Angeles
University of Colorado
University of Michigan
University of Toronto
Yale University
== See also ==
Evolutionary biology
Evolution
Ecology
== References ==