Scrape wikipedia-science: 217 new, 3 updated, 235 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles-0.md

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+---
+title: "Index of quality engineering articles"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:10.214417+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to quality engineering. For a broad overview of engineering, please see List of engineering topics. For biographies please see List of engineers.
+
+
+== A ==
+American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI)
+active listening
+affinity diagram
+Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG)
+American Society for Quality (ASQ)
+Audit
+Appraisal
+
+
+== B ==
+Bar chart
+Benchmarking
+
+
+== C ==
+change management
+Code of Ethics
+Continuous quality improvement
+Cost of Poor Execution (COPE)
+Cost of quality (CoQ)
+Cost of poor quality (COPQ)
+Customer satisfaction research
+
+
+== D ==
+Define, measure, analyze, improve and control (DMAIC)
+
+
+== E ==
+European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM)
+
+
+== F ==
+Five whys
+
+
+== G ==
+Groupthink
+Gantt chart
+
+
+== H ==
+House of Quality
+Human reliability assessment (HRA)
+
+
+== I ==
+Incrementalism
+
+
+== J ==
+Joseph M. Juran
+
+
+== K ==
+Kaizen
+
+
+== L ==
+Lean manufacturing
+
+
+== M ==
+Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
+Monitoring and evaluation
+Muda (Japanese term)
+
+
+== N ==
+National Council on Physical Distribution Management (NCPDM)
+Next operation as customer(NOAC)
+Nine windows
+Nominal group technique
+
+
+== O ==
+Organizational culture
+Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE)
+
+
+== P ==
+Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA)
+Poka-yoke
+Process decision program chart (PDPC)
+Process improvement
+
+
+== Q ==
+Quality assurance (QA)
+Quality by design (QbD)
+Quality function deployment (QFD)
+Quality improvement (QI)
+Quality management (QM)
+Quality storyboard
+
+
+== R ==
+Risk management
+Root cause analysis
+
+
+== S ==
+Suppliers, inputs, process, outputs and customers (SIPOC)
+Six Sigma
+Standardize-Do-Check-Act (SDCA)
+
+
+== T ==
+Tactical planning
+Trade-off table
+
+
+== U ==
+Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE)
+
+
+== V ==
+Voice of the customer
+
+
+== W ==
+Warranty
+Waste
+
+
+== X ==
+
+
+== Y ==
+
+
+== Z ==
+Zero Defects
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of polyurethane applications"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:03.083716+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Polyurethane products have many uses. Over three quarters of the global consumption of polyurethane products is in the form of foams, with flexible and rigid types being roughly equal in market size. In both cases, the foam is usually behind other materials: flexible foams are behind upholstery fabrics in commercial and domestic furniture; rigid foams are between metal, or plastic walls/sheets of most refrigerators and freezers, or other surface materials in the case of thermal insulation panels in the construction sector.  Its use in garments is growing:  for example, in lining the cups of brassieres. Polyurethane is also used for moldings which include door frames, columns, balusters, window headers, pediments, medallions and rosettes.
+Polyurethane formulations cover an extremely wide range of stiffness, hardness, and densities. These materials include:
+
+Low-density flexible foam used in upholstery, bedding, automotive and truck seating, and novel inorganic plant substrates for roof or wall gardens
+Low density elastomers used in footwear
+Hard solid plastics used as electronic instrument bezels and structural parts
+Flexible plastics used as straps and bands
+Cast and injection molded components for various markets – i.e., agriculture, military, automotive, industrial, etc.
+Polyurethane foam is widely used in high resiliency flexible foam seating, rigid foam insulation panels, microcellular foam seals and gaskets, durable elastomeric wheels and tires, automotive suspension bushings, electrical potting compounds, seals, gaskets, carpet underlay, and hard plastic parts (such as for electronic instruments).
+
+== Usage per application ==
+The following table shows an example how polyurethanes were used in one country over a dozen years ago (US data from 2004):
+
+== Cleaning products ==
+
+Open-cell flexible polyurethane foam is used to make many kitchen and bathroom sponges. The combination of low cost, high flexibility and high abrasion and tear resistance make polyurethanes excellent materials for scrubbing applications. 
+Polyurethane sponges have been shown to reduce the risk of spreading certain bacteria.  
+
+== Industrial Insulation ==
+
+Rigid polyurethane foam is used in various industries to provide thermal insulation to installations and pipes. In particular, the piping for district heating systems in Europe is primarily insulated using a pre-insulated pipes sandwich assembly composed of a steel heat service pipe, an insulating layer (polyurethane foam) and a polyethylene (PE) casing, which are bonded by the insulating material. One of the main advantages of rigid polyurethane foam is that it offers a very low thermal conductivity (with values as low as 23mW/m⋅K) while offering enough structural strength to withstand the loads that buried pipe systems are subjected to.
+Due to the closed-cell nature of rigid polyurethane foams, PUR insulation has minimal water absorption, which coupled with an appropriate cover, makes it a  particularly suitable in applications where bacterial growth is a concern. Polyurethane insulation is suitable for insulating pipes with surface temperatures ranging from -196°C to 148°C.
+
+== Furniture ==
+
+Open cell flexible polyurethane foam (FPF) is made by mixing polyols, diisocyanates, catalysts, auxiliary blowing agents and other additives and allowing the resulting foam to rise freely. Most FPF is manufactured using continuous processing technology and also can be produced in batches where relatively small blocks of foam are made in open-topped molds, boxes, or other suitable enclosurers. The foam is then cut to the desired shape and size for use in a variety of furniture and furnishings applications.
+Applications for flexible polyurethane foam include upholstered furniture cushions, automotive seat cushions and interior trim, carpet cushion, and mattress padding and solid-core mattress cores.
+Flexible polyurethane foam is a recyclable product.
+
+== Automobile seats ==
+Flexible and semi-flexible polyurethane foams are used extensively for interior components of automobiles, in seats, headrests, armrests, roof liners, dashboards and instrument panels.
+
+Polyurethanes are also used to make automobile seats. The seat manufacturer has a mold for each seat model. The mold is a closeable "clamshell" sort of structure that will allow quick casting of the seat cushion, so-called molded flexible foam, which is then upholstered after removal from the mold.
+It is possible to combine these two steps, so-called in-situ, foam-in-fabric or direct moulding. A complete, fully assembled seat cover is placed in the mold and held in place by vacuum drawn through small holes in the mold. Sometimes a thin pliable plastic film backing on the fabric is used to help the vacuum work more effectively. The metal seat frame is placed into the mold and the mold closed. At this point the mold contains what could be visualized as a "hollow seat", a seat fabric held in the correct position by the vacuum and containing a space with the metal frame in place.
+Polyurethane chemicals are injected by a mixing head into the mold cavity. Then the mold is held at a preset reaction temperature until the chemical mixture has foamed, filled the mold, and formed a stable soft foam. The time required is two to three minutes, depending on the size of the seat and the precise formulation and operating conditions. Then the mold is usually opened slightly for a minute or two for an additional cure time, before the fully upholstered seat is removed.
+
+== Houses, sculptures, and decorations ==
+The walls and ceiling (not just the insulation) of the futuristic Xanadu House in Florida, USA, were built out of polyurethane foam. Domed ceilings and other odd shapes are easier to make with foam than with wood. Foam was used to build oddly shaped buildings, statues, and decorations in the Seuss Landing section of the Islands of Adventure (USA) theme park. Rigid foam manufacturers sell foam that replace wood in carved sign and 3D-topography industries. PU foam is also used as a thermal insulator in many houses.
+Polyurethane resin is used as an aesthetic flooring material. Being seamless and water resistant, it is gaining interest for use in (modern) interiors, especially in Western Europe. Polyurethane is also used in some domestic and commercial capacities to waterproof areas that have leaks, such as shower leaks and balcony leaks.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-1.md

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+---
+title: "List of polyurethane applications"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:03.083716+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Filling of spaces and cavities ==
+Two binary liquids, one of which is a polyurethane (either T6 or 16), when mixed and aerated, expand into a hard, space-filling aerosolid.
+
+=== Construction sealants and firestopping ===
+
+Approved polyurethane sealants (which is different from foam) are available in one, two and three part systems, and in cartridges, buckets or drums. Polyurethane sealants are used to fill gaps thereby preventing air and water leakage. They are also used in conjunction with inorganic insulation, such as rockwool or ceramic fibres, for firestopping. Firestops can thwart smoke and hose-stream passage. The Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant used flammable polyurethane foam as a firestop, which was accidentally ignited and caused a major fire.
+
+== Water vessels ==
+Polyurethane foam is widely used in the marine world in many applications:
+
+=== Inflatable boats ===
+Some raft manufacturers use urethane for the construction of inflatable boats. AIRE uses urethane membrane material as an air-retentive bladder inside a PVC shell, whereas SOTAR uses urethane membrane materials as a coating on some boats. Maravia uses a liquid urethane material which is spray-coated over PVC to enhance air retention and increase abrasion resistance.
+
+=== Surfboards ===
+Some surfboards are made with a rigid polyurethane core. A rigid foam blank is molded, shaped to specification, then covered with fiberglass cloth and polyester resin.
+
+=== Rigid-hulled boats ===
+Some boat hulls have a rigid polyurethane foam core sandwiched between fiberglass skins.  The foam provides strength, buoyancy, and sound deadening.
+
+=== Boat decks and outdoor marine surface areas ===
+Some boat decks including U.S Navy and Pakistani fishing vessels use specialized polyurethane sealants to protect from constant moisture and harsh oceanic elements.  As an example, Durabak-M26 uses a custom single-part polyurethane to prevent water seepage to unwanted areas. 
+
+=== Water tanks ===
+Some water tanks are insulated with polyurethane chemicals (polyol and isocyanates) to maintain water temperature for long periods of time.
+
+== Flexible plastics ==
+
+=== Tennis grips ===
+Polyurethane has been used to make several Tennis Overgrips such as Yonex Super Grap, Wilson Pro Overgrip and many other grips. These grips are highly stretchable to ensure the grip wraps neatly around the racquet's handle.
+
+=== Watch-band wrapping ===
+
+Polyurethane is used as a black wrapping for timepiece bracelets over the main material which is generally stainless steel. It is used for comfort, style, and durability.
+
+=== Textiles ===
+
+A thin film of polyurethane finish is added to a polyester weave to create polyurethane laminate (PUL), which is used for its waterproof and windproof properties in outerwear, diapers, shower curtains, and so forth. PU is used in some cutting-edge swimsuits to provide buoyancy for competitive swimmers. There are restrictions as the buoyancy enhances swimming performance.
+A still more popular use of polyurethane in textiles is in the form of spandex, also known as elastane or by DuPont's brand name Lycra. Polyurethane fibers in the form of spandex can stretch up to 600% and still return to their original shape. Spandex is spun with other fibers, such as cotton, nylon, or polyester, to create stretchable fibers essential for clothing for both sports and fashion.
+
+== Shoes ==
+Polyurethane can be used for shoes, such as slippers and flip-flops.
+
+== Varnish ==
+
+Polyurethane materials are commonly formulated as paints and varnishes for finishing coats to protect or seal wood. This use results in a hard, abrasion-resistant, and durable coating that is popular for hardwood floors, but considered by some to be difficult or unsuitable for finishing furniture or other detailed pieces. Relative to oil or shellac varnishes, polyurethane varnish forms a harder film which tends to de-laminate if subjected to heat or shock, fracturing the film and leaving white patches. This tendency increases when it is applied over softer woods like pine. This is also in part due to polyurethane's lesser penetration into the wood. Various priming techniques are employed to overcome this problem, including the use of certain oil varnishes, specified "dewaxed" shellac, clear penetrating epoxy, or "oil-modified" polyurethane designed for the purpose. Polyurethane varnish may also lack the "hand-rubbed" lustre of drying oils such as linseed or tung oil; in contrast, however, it is capable of a much faster and higher "build" of film, accomplishing in two coats what may require many applications of oil. Polyurethane may also be applied over a straight oil finish, but because of the relatively slow curing time of oils, the presence of volatile byproducts of curing, and the need for extended exposure of the oil to oxygen, care must be taken that the oils are sufficiently cured to accept the polyurethane.
+Unlike drying oils and alkyds which cure, after evaporation of the solvent, upon reaction with oxygen from the air, polyurethane coatings cure after evaporation of the solvent by a variety of reactions of chemicals within the original mix, or by reaction with moisture from the air. Certain products are "hybrids" and combine different aspects of their parent components. "Oil-modified" polyurethanes, whether water-borne or solvent-borne, are currently the most widely used wood floor finishes.
+Exterior use of polyurethane varnish may be problematic due to its susceptibility to deterioration through ultra-violet (UV) light exposure. All clear or translucent varnishes, and indeed all film-polymer coatings (i.e., paint, stain, epoxy, synthetic plastic, etc.) are susceptible to this damage in varying degrees. Pigments in paints and stains protect against UV damage, while UV-absorbers are added to polyurethane and other varnishes (in particular "spar" varnish) to work against UV damage. Polyurethanes are typically the most resistant to water exposure, high humidity, temperature extremes, and fungus or mildew, which also adversely affect varnish and paint performance.
+
+== Wheels ==

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+---
+title: "List of polyurethane applications"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:03.083716+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Polyurethane is also used in making solid tires and wheels. Industrial applications include forklift drive and load wheels, grocery and industrial carts, and roller coaster wheels. Modern roller blading and skateboarding became economical only with the introduction of tough, abrasion-resistant polyurethane parts, helping to usher in the popularity of what had once been an obscure 1960s craze.  The durability of polyurethane wheels allowed the range of tricks and stunts performed on skateboards to expand considerably. Polyurethane is also used to make small equipment tires in the lawn and garden industry for wheelbarrows, hand trucks, lawn mowers, carts, etc. They provide the bounce and feel of an air-filled tire with the benefit of no punctures. They weigh about the same as air-filled tires as well, even though they are solid polyurethane all the way through. Other constructions have been developed for pneumatic tires, and microcellular foam variants are widely used in tires on wheelchairs, bicycles and other uses. These latter foam types are also widely encountered in car steering wheels and other interior and exterior automotive parts, including bumpers and fenders.
+
+== Automotive parts ==
+Polyurethane usage has increased over the past twenty years in the automotive industry.  It is being used to replace traditional rubber bushings which are known to fail or wear out on road surfaces prone to large amounts of salt and chemical debris.
+Using polyurethane bushings can have many benefits like maintaining the right alignment of caster, camber and toe and thereby increasing the overall control and handling. It also increases the lifespan, provides more resistance to wear out and is less pervious to oil and similar road contaminants.
+Polyurethane (PU) is popularized in the manufacturing of some of the highest quality aerodynamic components /body kits (body kits) for varying automobiles (car, truck, and SUV) on the market. These components include bumpers, side skirts, roll pans, and wiper cowls.  Polyurethane allows production of durable components unlike the conventional fiberglass (FRP) that can easily break upon impact. Polyurethane is highly flexible therefore more resistant to damage. Including durability, these body kits when produced by a reputable manufacturer, exhibits less imperfections, are easy to install and maintain, and are affordable.
+When fiberglass body kits begin to show cracks, chips from usual wear and tear, a well manufactured polyurethane components have similar durability to a factory installed bumper. As mentioned above, when produced by a reputable manufacturer, tend to have less pinholes and casting imperfections.  Flexibility of polyurethane makes them easy to work with. Installation can be completed individually as a "do-it-yourself" project. Maintenance is extremely simple. Concerning pricing, it may vary depending on the manufacturer but are kept between an affordable range. As good as it sounds, polyurethane body kits too have its downfalls. Fiberglass or carbon fiber components are lighter in weight than most polyurethane kits. Polyurethane, again is flexible but more material and thickness is most often needed to keep adequate stiffness for road use. For drivers seeking speed for their higher performance vehicle, this can become a problem. Also, unlike fiberglass, polyurethane cannot be patched or repaired. Though it is much harder to damage, if damage did occur, the entire component must be removed and replaced.  There are varying options when purchasing polyurethane kits.
+
+== Electronic components ==
+Often electronic circuit components and wires are protected from environmental influence and mechanical shock by enclosing them in polyurethane. Typically polyurethanes are selected for the excellent abrasion resistances, good electrical properties, excellent adhesion, impact strength, and low-temperature flexibility. The disadvantage of polyurethanes is the limited upper service temperature (typically 250 °F (121 °C)).
+The production the electronic circuit-board manufacture would use a two-part urethane (resin and catalyst) that would be mixed and poured onto the circuit assembly (see resin dispensing). In most cases, after the urethane cures, the completed circuit board would not be repairable. Because of its physical properties and low cost, polyurethane encapsulation (potting) is a popular option in the automotive manufacturing sector for automotive circuits and sensors.
+
+== Adhesives ==
+Polyurethane can be used as an adhesive, especially as a woodworking glue. Its main advantage over more traditional wood glues is its water resistance. It was introduced to the general North American market in the 1990s as Gorilla Glue and Excel, but had been available in Europe much earlier. Polyurethane is the basis for some construction adhesives in a caulking tube format.
+On the way to a new and better glue for bookbinders, a new adhesive system was introduced for the first time in 1985. The base for this system is polyether or polyester, whereas polyurethane (PUR) is used as prepolymer. Its special features are coagulation at room temperature and resistance to moisture.
+First generation (1988)
+
+Low starting solidity
+High viscosity
+Cure time >3 days
+Second generation (1996)
+
+Low starting solidity
+High viscosity
+Cure time <3 days
+Third generation (2000)
+
+Good starting solidity
+Low viscosity
+Cure time between 6 and 16 hours
+Fourth generation (present)
+
+Good starting solidity
+Very low viscosity
+Cure reached within a few seconds due to dual-core systems
+Advantages of polyurethane glue in the bookbinding industry:
+
+PUR is better than hotmelt or cold glue for most applications. Because of the lack of moisture in the glue, paper with contrary grain direction can be glued without problems. Even printed and supercalendered paper can be bound without problems. It is the most economical glue, with a theoretical application thickness of 0.01 mm. However, in actual use, it is not practical to apply less than 0.03 mm.
+PUR glue is weather-proof, and stable at temperatures from −40 °C (−40 °F) to 100 °C (212 °F).
+
+== Abrasion resistance ==
+Thermoset polyurethanes are also used as a protective coating against abrasion. Cast polyurethane over materials such as steel will absorb particle impact more efficiently. Polyurethanes have been proven to last in excess of 25 years in abrasive environments where non-coated steel would erode in less than 8 years. Polyurethanes are used in industries such as:

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+---
+title: "List of polyurethane applications"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:03.083716+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mining and mineral processing
+Aggregate
+Transportation
+Concrete
+Paper processing
+Power
+Inflatable boat manufacture
+Polyurethane is also used in the concrete construction industry to create formliners. Polyurethane formliners serves as a mold for concrete, creating a variety of textures and art.
+
+== Solid-fuel rockets ==
+Polyurethane is used together with Ammonium perchlorate as solid fuel in the submarine launched Polaris missiles.
+
+== Body armor ==
+Polyurethane urea elastomers have been investigated by researchers from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for potential material for helmets, face shields, and ballistic vests for soldiers.
+
+== Inorganic plant substrates ==
+Sheet and flaked semi-open cell hydrophilic polyurethane foams have found application in roof gardens and vertical green walls with commercial products now emerging on the market. Semi-open cell polyurethane foams substrates have much lower density and far greater water holding capacities than soil substrates. The semi-open cell structure facilitate the required plant root attachment for vertical wall gardens. Reductions in weight reduce building/wall supporting structure requirements, whilst increased water holding capacity reduces plant watering requirements.
+
+== Concrete raising ==
+
+Closed cell polymers have been used to raise and support concrete roadways and bridge approaches since 1989. Originally developed in Europe and patented by Uretek, this method of concrete leveling is now widely used in residential, commercial and municipal applications. Common applications include repairing settled sidewalks, driveways, patios and garage floors. In the US it is sometimes known as slabjacking.
+
+== Concrete substitute ==
+
+Closed cell polyurethane foam can be used as backfill in applications where the high density and compression strength of concrete are not necessary. In addition to being considerably lighter than concrete, the closed cell nature of the material prevents the transfer of moisture to the structure being supported which can reduce the risk or rot or corrosion.
+
+== Seawall Repair ==
+Environmental variables, natural wear and tear, and weather conditions, can all cause damage to concrete seawalls. These problems can erode the structure over time, rendering it more susceptible to further harm. Traditionally repair has required an in depth process using concrete, however geofoam is a lightweight and long-lasting substance that has become increasingly popular to repair damaged seawalls.
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of popular science mass media outlets"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:04.243558+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of popular science mass media outlets.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+List of science magazines
+List of science books
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of prolific inventors"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:07.776913+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The 100 known most prolific inventors based on worldwide utility patents are shown in the following table. While in many cases this is the number of utility patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, it may include utility patents granted by other countries, as noted by the source references for an inventor.
+
+
+== Prolific Inventors ==
+
+This table is usually updated every Tuesday, and is current as of April 28, 2026.
+The columns are defined as follows:
+
+Inventor: The name of the inventor.
+Pats: The number of utility patents that have been issued. Only utility patents (or the international equivalent) are listed, as a utility patent is a patent for an invention. Not all patents are for inventions. Other patent types include: design patents for the ornamental design of an object; plant patents for plant varieties; and reissue patents, where a correction is made to an already granted patent. This list does not include patent applications (patents pending) as there is no guarantee that a patent application actually describes a novel invention until the patent is granted.
+Fams: The number of patent families, which in USPTO data includes an original or continuation-in-part patent by itself or with one or more continuation or divisional patents based on the original or continuation-in-part patent. This is different than global patent families that represent a patent filed in more than one jurisdiction. "NA" signifies the inventor was active prior to digital records.
+Fam %: The percentage of original and continuation-in-part patents that are in the inventor's patent portfolio [Fams column divided by Pats column, rounded to first decimal as a percentage]. "NA" signifies the inventor was active prior to digital records.
+Pat Yrs: The first and last year in which an inventor received a patent issuance.
+Yrs: The number of years from first issuance to most recent issuance, rounded to first decimal based on dates.
+Pats /Yr: The average number of patents received per year [Pats column divided by Yrs column, rounded].
+Inv / Pat: The average number of inventors listed on the inventor's most recent 50 patents as of September 7, 2021 or on the date the inventor was added to the table if later. "NA" signifies the inventor was active prior to digital records.
+Pat Residence: The country of inventor's residence listed in their most recent patent issuance.
+Majority Assignment: The entity that has the most patents assigned from an inventor's portfolio. This is current and not original assignment. It is usually, but not always an indication of which company the inventor worked at for the majority of their patent activity.
+
+
+== Significance of inventions ==
+This table is a sortable list of the most prolific inventors as measured by utility patents granted. It does not include other types of invention, such as inventions that were never applied for nor granted, for which there is no known source. Nor does the table attempt to measure the significance of an inventor and their inventions. The significance of inventions is often not apparent until many decades after the invention has been made. For recent inventors, it is not yet possible to determine their place in history.
+
+
+== Various published lists ==
+Rankings of prolific inventors have been published at various times. However, until the patent records were digitized, these lists were very tedious to prepare, as many thousands of patent records had to be checked manually. Even after digitization, it is still not a simple process. While the USPTO keeps statistics for annual rankings of inventions assigned to companies, it no longer publishes rankings of individual inventors. The last such list was published by the USPTO in 1998. Also, patents predating 1976 have not yet been digitized in the USPTO records. This means that patents before 1976 will not be included in a USPTO search by inventor name, and the number of patents granted before 1976 must be added to current searches.
+A more extensive list of prolific inventors with additional information and ability to filter on country, gender, time period, patent type, and Nobel laureate title can be found at idiyas.com/top/inventors. There are some discrepancies with this article due to different inventor queries that attempt to account for data issues such as typos and multiple inventors with the same name.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Timeline of historic inventions
+List of inventors
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== References of Inventors' Patents ==

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+---
+title: "List of rectores magnifici of Delft University of Technology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:11.284269+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of Delft University of Technology or its predecessor, Technische Hogeschool Delft:
+
+
+== References ==
+Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1959 en 1972" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 8. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
+Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1905 en 1959" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 162–163. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of rectores magnifici of the Eindhoven University of Technology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:12.455382+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Eindhoven University of Technology or its predecessor, the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven (THE):

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of rectores magnifici of the Erasmus University Rotterdam"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:13.683548+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Erasmus University Rotterdam:
+
+
+== External links ==
+Website Erasmus University Rotterdam

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of science and technology awards for women"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:05.512649+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This list of science and technology awards for women is an index to articles about notable awards made to women for work in science and the STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields generally. It includes awards for astronomy, space and atmospheric science; biology and medicine; chemistry; engineering; mathematics; neuroscience; physics; technology; and general or multiple fields.
+
+
+== Astronomy, space, atmospheric science ==
+Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy – annual award for outstanding contributions to astronomy by a woman within five years of earning a doctorate degree
+Peter B. Wagner Memorial Award for Women in Atmospheric Sciences – awarded annually since 1998, based on paper completion, to a woman studying for a Masters or PhD in atmospheric science at a university in the United States
+
+
+== Biology and medicine ==
+Elizabeth Blackwell Medal, given by the American Medical Women's Association to a woman physician "who has made the most outstanding contributions to the cause of women in the field of medicine"
+Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Excellence in Science Award
+Group on Women in Medicine and Science Leadership Awards, Association of American Medical Colleges
+Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award from the Biophysical Society, Rockville, Maryland – given to a woman who "has achieved prominence for 'substantial contributions to science'" and showing high promise in the early part of her career
+Pearl Meister Greengard Prize – established 2004
+WICB Junior and Senior Awards from Women in Cell Biology (WICB)
+
+
+== Chemistry ==
+ACS Award for Encouraging Women into Careers in the Chemical Sciences, sponsored by the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation
+Garvan–Olin Medal – annual award that recognizes distinguished service to chemistry by women chemists
+Awards by the Iota Sigma Pi honorary society for women in chemistry:
+Agnes Fay Morgan Research Award
+Anna Louise Hoffman Award for Outstanding Achievement in Graduate Research
+Centennial Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching
+Gladys Anderson Emerson Undergraduate Scholarship
+Members-at-Large Re-entry Award
+National Honorary Member
+Outstanding Young Women in Chemistry award.
+Undergraduate Excellence in Chemistry
+Violet Diller Professional Excellence Award
+
+
+== Engineering ==
+Sharon Keillor Award for Women in Engineering Education
+Achievement Award of the Society of Women Engineers
+Young Woman Engineer of the Year Award
+
+
+== Mathematics ==
+Awards by the Association for Women in Mathematics:
+Alice T. Schafer Prize – established 1991
+Biographies of Contemporary Women in Mathematics Essay Contest – established in 2001 for biographical essays
+Emmy Noether Lectures – an honorary lecture award
+M. Gweneth Humphreys Award
+Louise Hay Award for Contributions to Mathematics Education – established 1991
+Ruth I. Michler Memorial Prize
+Ruth Lyttle Satter Prize in Mathematics – established 1990
+additional awards by the AWM
+Awards sponsored by the Kovalevskaia Fund in Mexico, Peru, and southern Africa
+Krieger–Nelson Prize for Distinguished Research by Women in Mathematics – established 1995 by the Canadian Mathematical Society
+
+
+== Neuroscience ==
+Awards by the Society for Neuroscience:
+Bernice Grafstein Award for Outstanding Accomplishments in Mentoring – for dedication to mentoring women neuroscientists
+Louise Hanson Marshall Special Recognition Award – honors an individual who has significantly promoted the professional development of women in neuroscience through teaching, organizational leadership, public advocacy, or other efforts that are not necessarily related to research
+Mika Salpeter Lifetime Achievement Award – presented for outstanding career achievements in neuroscience who has also significantly promoted the professional advancement of women in neuroscience
+Patricia Goldman-Rakic Hall of Honor – posthumously recognizes a neuroscientist who has pursued career excellence and exhibited dedication and advancement of women in neuroscience
+
+
+== Physics ==
+Jocelyn Bell Burnell Medal and Prize, Institute of Physics
+Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award,	American Physical Society
+
+
+== Technology ==
+BlackBerry Women and Technology Awards
+WITI@UC Athena Awards – Awards recognize those who embody, encourage, and promote the inclusion of women in technology. Awardees are leaders who inspire others to pursue and persist in technical careers.
+Lori Bunch "Recognized for Innovation in Cerner Millennium Implementation." She started with Cerner as an installation director then was promoted to senior project architect in 1997. She continues to be an innovator in the information technology industry.
+
+
+== General or multiple fields ==
+Awards by the Association for Women in Science:
+Leadership Award
+Kirsten R. Lorentzen Award – for undergraduates in science
+Next Generation Award
+Pinnacle Award
+Amelia Earhart Fellowship
+Athena SWAN – a recognition scheme for UK universities working to advance and promote careers of women in science, engineering, and technology
+Scholarships for women in science by Brookhaven Women in Science:
+Renate W. Chasman Scholarship – awarded to a graduate student performing research at Brookhaven National Laboratory
+Gertrude S. Goldhaber Prize – awarded to a graduate student at Stony Brook University and/or performing thesis research at Brookhaven National Laboratory
+Edison Awards – Honoring excellence in innovation
+Edith D. Hendley Award – for a woman pursuing graduate studies at the University of Vermont
+Elizabeth Blackwell Award – given by Hobart and William Smith Colleges, established in 1958
+Faculty for the Future Fellowships – awarded by the Schlumberger Foundation to women from developing and emerging economies who are preparing for PhD or post-doctoral study in the physical sciences and engineering
+Inspiring Women in Science Awards - awarded by Nature in partnership with The Estée Lauder Companies to recognise exceptional early career women researchers and initiatives that support girls or young women to engage with, enjoy and study STEM subjects or to increase the retention of women in STEM careers
+Katharine F. Erskine Award for Medicine and Science
+Kovalevskaia prizes sponsored by the Kovalevskaia Fund in Vietnam and Cuba
+L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science, aka the Helena Rubinstein Women in Science Awards
+L’Oréal Korea-UNESCO for Women in Science Award, a national variant of the L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science
+Margaret W. Rossiter History of Women in Science Prize – established in 1987 by the History of Science Society
+Maria Mitchell Women in Science Award – from the Maria Mitchell Association "to recognize an individual whose efforts have encouraged the advancement of girls and women in the natural and physical sciences, mathematics, engineering, computer science and technology"
+Mariafranca Morselli Award – for a woman pursuing undergraduate studies in science at the University of Vermont
+Outstanding Women in Science Award – established 2002 by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation
+OWSD-Elsevier Foundation Awards for Early-Career Women Scientists in the Developing World
+Rachel Carson Prize – Norwegian prize for women environmentalists
+Robin Copeland Memorial Fellowship – fellowship from CRDF Global for women leaders in emerging countries
+Saruhashi Prize – an award for Japanese women researchers in the natural sciences
+South African Awards for Women in Science (SAWiSA)
+Tagea Brandt Rejselegat – Danish award for women who have made significant contributions in science, literature, or art
+Taiwan Outstanding Women in Science Awards – for Taiwanese female STEM field researchers
+Weizmann Women & Science Award
+Women in Technology International (WITI) Hall of Fame
+Women of Discovery Award by WINGS WorldQuest
+Woman Scientist/Engineer of the Year Award – for South Korean female STEM field researchers
+VinFuture Prize by Vingroup
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of organizations for women in science
+Lists of science and technology awards
+Lists of awards
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+AAAS Women's International Science Collaboration

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+---
+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 1/18
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of topics that have, either currently or in the past, been characterized as pseudoscience by academics or researchers. Detailed discussion of these topics may be found on their main pages.
+Criticism of pseudoscience, generally by the scientific community or skeptical organizations, involves critiques of the logical, methodological, or rhetorical bases of the topic in question. Though some of the listed topics continue to be investigated scientifically like psychoanalysis, others were only subject to scientific research in the past and today are considered refuted, but resurrected in a pseudoscientific fashion. Other ideas presented here are entirely non-scientific, but have in one way or another impinged on scientific domains or practices.
+Many adherents or practitioners of the topics listed here dispute their characterization as pseudoscience. Each section here summarizes the alleged pseudoscientific aspects of that topic.
+
+== Physical sciences ==
+
+=== Astronomy and space sciences ===
+2012 phenomenon – a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012. This date was regarded as the end-date of a 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and as such, festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December 2012 in countries where the Maya civilization had formerly flourished (Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador), with main events at Chichén Itzá in Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala. Professional Mayanist scholars stated that no extant classic Maya accounts forecast impending doom and that the idea that the Long Count calendar ends in 2012 misrepresented Maya history and culture, while astronomers rejected the various proposed doomsday scenarios easily refuted by elementary astronomical observations.
+Ancient astronauts – a concept based on the belief that intelligent extraterrestrial beings visited Earth and made contact with humans in antiquity and prehistoric times. Proponents suggest that this contact influenced the development of modern cultures, technologies and religions. A common claim is that deities from most, if not all, religions are actually extraterrestrial in origin and that advanced technologies brought to Earth by ancient astronauts were interpreted as evidence of divine status by early humans. The idea that ancient astronauts existed is not taken seriously by academics and has received no credible attention in peer-reviewed studies.
+Anunnaki from Nibiru (Sitchin) (variant) – proposed by Zecharia Sitchin in his series The Earth Chronicles, beginning with The 12th Planet (1976), it revolves around Sitchin's unique interpretation of ancient Sumerian and Middle Eastern texts, megalithic sites, and artifacts from around the world. He hypothesizes that the gods of old Mesopotamia were actually astronauts from the planet "Nibiru", which Sitchin claims the Sumerians believed was a remote "12th planet" (counting the Sun, Moon and Pluto as planets) associated with the god Marduk.  According to Sitchin, Nibiru continues to orbit the Sun on a 3,600-year elongated orbit.
+Ancient astronauts from the Sirius star-system (Temple) (variant) – Robert K. G. Temple's proposal in his book The Sirius Mystery (1976) argues that the Dogon people of northwestern Mali preserved an account of extraterrestrial visitation from around 5,000 years ago. He quotes various lines of evidence, including supposed advanced astronomical knowledge inherited by the tribe, descriptions, and comparative belief systems with ancient civilizations such as ancient Egypt and Sumer.
+Astrology (see also Astrology and science) – consists of a number of belief systems that hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events or descriptions of personality in the human world. Several systems of divination are based on the relative positions and movement of various real and construed celestial bodies. Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted and no evidence has been found to support the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions. Where astrology has made falsifiable predictions, it has been falsified.
+Creationist cosmologies are explanations of the origins and form of the universe in terms of the Genesis creation narrative (Genesis 1), according to which the God of the Bible created the cosmos in eight creative acts over the six days of the "creation week".
+Evidence for life on Mars
+The Face on Mars is a rock formation in Cydonia Mensae on Mars asserted to be evidence of intelligent, native life on the planet. High-resolution images taken recently show it to appear less face-like. It features prominently in the works of Richard C. Hoagland and Tom Van Flandern. This effect can also be explained by the psychological phenomenon pareidolia, whereby one assigns meaning (such as facial perception) to an otherwise ambiguous or meaningless stimulus.
+Lunar effect – the belief that the full Moon influences human and animal behavior.
+Modern flat Earth beliefs propose that Earth is a flat, disc-shaped planet that accelerates upward, producing the illusion of gravity. Proposers of a flat Earth, such as the Flat Earth Research Society, do not accept compelling evidence, such as photos of Earth from space.
+Modern geocentrism – In astronomy, the geocentric model (also known as geocentrism or the Ptolemaic system) is a superseded description of the universe with Earth at the center. Under the geocentric model, the Sun, Moon, stars and planets all circled Earth. The geocentric model served as the predominant description of the cosmos in many ancient civilizations, such as those of Aristotle and Ptolemy.
+Moon landing conspiracy theories – claim that some or all elements of the Apollo program and the associated Moon landings were hoaxes staged by NASA with the aid of other organizations. The most notable claim is that the six crewed landings (1969–72) were faked and that 12 Apollo astronauts did not actually walk on the Moon. Various groups and individuals have made claims since the mid-1970s that NASA and others knowingly misled the public into believing the landings happened by manufacturing, tampering with or destroying evidence, including photos, telemetry tapes, radio and TV transmissions and Moon rock samples, and even killing some key witnesses.
+Nibiru cataclysm – a prediction first made by contactee Nancy Lieder that a mythological planet Nibiru would collide with Earth. After having adjusted her prediction many times, she later claimed the year of the occurrence to be 2012. In 2017, a conspiracy theorist known as David Meade claimed 2017 was the year Nibiru would hit.
+Vaimānika Shāstra – claim that airplanes were invented in ancient India during the Vedic period. A 1974 study by researchers at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore found that the heavier-than-air aircraft that the Vaimānika Shāstra described were aerodynamically unfeasible. The authors remarked that the discussion of the principles of flight in the text were largely perfunctory and incorrect, in some cases violating Newton's laws of motion.
+Worlds in Collision – writer Immanuel Velikovsky proposed in his book Worlds in Collision that ancient texts and geographic evidence show mankind was witness to catastrophic interactions of other planets in our Solar System.

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+---
+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 2/18
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Earth sciences ===
+
+Megalithic geometry or 366 geometry – posits the existence of an Earth-based geometry dating back to at least 3500 BCE and the possibility that such a system is still in use in modern Freemasonry. According to proponents, megalithic civilizations in Britain and Brittany had advanced knowledge of geometry and the size of Earth. The megalithic yard is correlated to the polar circumference of Earth using a circle divided into 366 degrees.
+The Bermuda Triangle – a region of the Atlantic Ocean that lies between Bermuda, Puerto Rico and (in its most popular version) Florida. Ship and aircraft disasters and disappearances perceived as frequent in this area have led to the circulation of stories of unusual natural phenomena, paranormal encounters and interactions with extraterrestrials.
+Climate change denial –  involves denial, dismissal, unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which depart from the scientific consensus on climate change, including the extent to which it is caused by humans, its impacts on nature and human society, or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions.
+Flood geology – creationist form of geology that advocates most of the geologic features on Earth are explainable by a global flood.
+The Hollow Earth – a proposal that Earth is either entirely hollow or consists of hollow sections beneath the crust. Certain folklore and conspiracy theories hold this idea and suggest the existence of subterranean life.
+Welteislehre, a.k.a. the World Ice Theory or Glacial Cosmogony – ice is proposed to be the basic substance of all cosmic processes and ice moons, ice planets and the "global ether" (also made of ice) had determined the entire development of the universe.
+The Expanding Earth or growing Earth was a hypothesis attempting to explain the position and relative movement of continents by increase in the volume of Earth. With the recognition of plate tectonics in 20th century, the idea has been abandoned and considered a pseudoscience.
+
+=== Physics ===
+Autodynamics – a physics theory proposed in the 1940s that claims the equations of the Lorentz transformation are incorrectly formulated to describe relativistic effects, which would invalidate Einstein's theories of special relativity and general relativity, and Maxwell's equations. The theory is discounted by the mainstream physics community.
+E-Cat – a claimed cold fusion reactor.
+Einstein–Cartan–Evans theory – a unified theory of physics proposed by Myron Wyn Evans which claims to unify general relativity, quantum mechanics and electromagnetism. The hypothesis was largely published in the journal Foundations of Physics Letters between 2003 and 2005; in 2008, the editor published an editorial note effectively retracting the journal's support for the hypothesis due to incorrect mathematical claims.
+Electrogravitics – claimed to be an unconventional type of effect or anti-gravity propulsion created by an electric field's effect on a mass. The name was coined in the 1920s by Thomas Townsend Brown, who first described the effect and spent most of his life trying to develop it and sell it as a propulsion system. Follow-ups on the claims (R. L. Talley in a 1990 U.S. Air Force study, NASA scientist Jonathan Campbell in a 2003 experiment and Martin Tajmar in a 2004 paper) have found that no thrust could be observed in a vacuum, consistent with the phenomenon of ion wind.
+Free energy – a class of perpetual motion that purports to create energy (violating the first law of thermodynamics) or extract useful work from equilibrium systems (violating the second law of thermodynamics).
+Water-fueled cars – an instance of perpetual motion machines. Such devices are claimed to use water as fuel or produce fuel from water on board with no other energy input. Many such claims are part of investment frauds.
+Gasoline pill or gasoline powder, which was claimed to turn water into gasoline.
+Hongcheng Magic Liquid – a scam in China in which Wang Hongcheng (Chinese: 王洪成; pinyin: Wáng Hóngchéng), a bus driver from Harbin with no scientific education, claimed in 1983 that he could turn regular water into a fuel as flammable as petrol by simply dissolving a few drops of his liquid in it.
+Hydrinos (Randell L. Mills/Brilliant Light Power Inc.) – a supposed state of the hydrogen atom that, according to Mills, is of lower energy than ground state and has extremely high efficiency as a fuel. Critics say it lacks corroborating scientific evidence and is a relic of cold fusion. Critical analysis of the claims have been published in the peer-reviewed journals Physics Letters A, New Journal of Physics, Journal of Applied Physics, and Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics stating that the proposed hydrino states are unphysical and incompatible with key equations of quantum mechanics.
+Orgone – a pseudoscientific concept described as an esoteric energy or hypothetical universal life force, originally proposed in the 1930s.
+
+== Applied sciences ==

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+---
+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 11/18
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including hypertension, pain and cancer, and with respect to quality of life. Most research concerning health benefits of qigong has been of poor quality, such that it would be unwise to draw firm conclusions at this stage. Zang-fu – concept of organs as functional yin and yang entities for the storage and manipulation of qi. These organs are not based in anatomy. Tomatis Method A type of auditory integration training devised by Alfred A. Tomatis and promoted, without supporting evidence, as being of benefit to people with autism. Urine therapy – drinking either one's own undiluted urine or homeopathic potions of urine for treatment of a wide variety of diseases is based on pseudoscience. Promotion of a link between autism and vaccines, in which the vaccines are accused of causing autism-spectrum conditions, triggering them, or aggravating them, has been characterized as pseudoscience. Many epidemiological studies have reported no association between either the MMR vaccine and autism, or thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism. Consequently, the Institute of Medicine has concluded that there is no causal link between either of these varieties of vaccines and autism. Similarly, "vaccine overload", a non-medical term describing the notion that giving many vaccines at once may overwhelm or weaken a child's immature immune system and lead to adverse effects is strongly contradicted by scientific evidence. Vitalism – doctrine that the processes of life are not explicable by the laws of physics and chemistry alone and that life is, in some part, self-determining. The book Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience stated "today, vitalism is one of the ideas that form the basis for many pseudoscientific health systems that claim that illnesses are caused by a disturbance or imbalance of the body's vital force." "Vitalists claim to be scientific, but in fact they reject the scientific method with its basic postulates of cause and effect and of provability. They often regard subjective experience to be more valid than objective material reality."
+Water memory – a homeopathic theory based on the purported ability of water to retain a memory of substances previously dissolved in it. Wilson's syndrome (not to be confused with Wilson's disease) is an alternative medicine concept, not recognized as a legitimate diagnosis in evidence-based medicine. Its supporters describe Wilson's syndrome as a mix of common and non-specific symptoms which they attribute to low body temperature and impaired conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), despite normal thyroid function tests. The American Thyroid Association (ATA) says Wilson's syndrome is at odds with established knowledge of thyroid function, has vague diagnostic criteria and lacks supporting scientific evidence. The ATA further raised concern that the proposed treatments were potentially harmful. Wind turbine syndrome and wind farm syndrome are terms for adverse health effects that have been ascribed to the proximity of wind turbines. Proponents have claimed that these effects include death, cancer and congenital abnormality. The distribution of recorded events, however, correlates with media coverage of wind farm syndrome itself and not with the presence or absence of wind farms. Reviews of the scientific literature have consistently found no reason to believe that wind turbines are harmful to health.

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+---
+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 12/18
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Technology ===
+5G conspiracies and 5G causes coronavirus theories – theory proposing that 5G causes health issues, including COVID-19.
+
+== Social sciences ==
+
+=== History ===
+
+Christ myth theory – A fringe theory that proposes that the historical Jesus did not exist in any capacity whatsoever. While the divinity of Jesus is a matter of religious and philosophical rather than historical debate, Christian and non-Christian scholars of antiquity universally agree that Jesus of Nazareth was a Galilean Jew who lived in the first century, was baptized, and later crucified by Roman authorities. This is based on sources written by historians, scholars, and politicians who lived during the time of Christ.
+Holocaust denial – Historical revisionist movements associated with Holocaust denial have employed pseudoscientific evidence and conspiracy theories published in intradiegetic pseudo-academic journals and presented at fringe conferences (e.g. misconstruing cyanide residue studies, claiming despite all evidence to the contrary that gas chambers were built after the war).
+Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry –  A fringe theory that postulates that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and central Caucasus and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Genetic studies on Jews have found no substantive evidence of a Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews, with evidence suggesting the Ashkenazi have mixed Near Eastern and Southern European/Mediterranean origins.
+New chronology (Fomenko) – pseudohistorical conspiracy theory which argues that events of antiquity generally attributed to the civilizations of the Roman Empire, Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt, actually occurred during the Middle Ages, more than a thousand years later.
+
+=== Linguistics ===
+Japhetic theory – claim that the Afroasiatic, Basque, and Kartvelian language families share a common origin.
+Sun Language Theory – the belief that all languages had their origins in the Turkish language.

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+---
+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 15/18
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Racial theories ===
+
+Scientific racism – claim that scientific evidence shows the inferiority or superiority of certain races.
+Aryanism – the claim that there is a distinct "Aryan race" that is superior to other putative races was an important tenet of Nazism and "the basis of the German government policy of exterminating Jews, Gypsies, and other 'non-Aryans.'"
+Drapetomania was a conjectural mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. It has since been debunked as pseudoscience and part of the edifice of scientific racism.
+Melanin theory – belief founded in the distortion of known physical properties of melanin, a natural polymer, that posits the inherent superiority of dark-skinned people and the essential inhumanity and inferiority of light-skinned people.
+Turkish History Thesis – the belief that Turks from Central Asia migrated and brought civilization to China, India, the Middle East, and Europe.
+Eugenics – As a movement, eugenics was associated with pseudoscience including pseudoscientific journals and professional societies. This is to be contrasted with the common and scientifically accepted practice of selective breeding.
+
+=== Sociology ===
+Alpha and beta male – pseudoscientific terms for men derived from alpha and beta animals in ethology. Often used by members of the "manosphere," these terms have been criticized by scientists and are often considered sexist.
+Strauss–Howe generational theory – claims that history moves through four 20-year "turnings" that repeat sequentially in a fixed pattern approximately every 80 years.
+Unilineal evolution – Before Darwin's work On the Origin of Species, some models incorporated Enlightenment ideas of social progress, and thus, according to philosopher of science Michael Ruse, were pseudoscientific by current standards, and may have been viewed as such during the 18th century, as well as into the start of the 19th century (though the word pseudoscience may not have been used in reference to these early proposals). This pseudoscientific, and often political, incorporation of social progress with evolutionary thought continued for some 100 years following the publication of Origin of Species.
+
+== Paranormal and ufology ==
+Paranormal subjects have been critiqued from a wide range of sources including the following claims of paranormal significance:

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+---
+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Animal mutilations – cases of animals, primarily domestic livestock, with seemingly inexplicable wounds. These wounds have been said to be caused by extraterrestrials, cults, covert government organizations, or cryptids such as el chupacabra, when in fact most such cases were found to be caused by natural predation.
+An aura or human energy field is, according to New Age beliefs, a colored emanation said to enclose a human body or any animal or object. In some esoteric positions, the aura is described as a subtle body. Psychics and holistic medicine practitioners often claim to have the ability to see the size, color and type of vibration of an aura. In New Age alternative medicine, the human aura is seen as a hidden anatomy that affects the health of a client, and is often understood to be composed of centers of vital force called chakra. Such claims are not supported by scientific evidence and are pseudoscience. When tested under controlled experiments, the ability to see auras has not been shown to exist.
+Channeling – communication of information to or through a person allegedly from a spirit or other paranormal entity.
+Crop circles – geometric designs of crushed or knocked-over crops created in a field. Aside from skilled farmers or pranksters working through the night, explanations for their formation include UFOs and anomalous, tornado-like air currents. The study of crop circles has become known as "cerealogy".
+Cryptozoology – search for creatures that are considered not to exist by most biologists. Well-known examples of creatures of interest to cryptozoologists include Bigfoot, the Yeren, the Yeti, and the Loch Ness Monster. According to leading skeptical authors Michael Shermer and Pat Linse, "Cryptozoology ranges from pseudoscientific to useful and interesting, depending on how it is practiced."
+Dowsing refers to practices said to enable one to detect hidden water, metals, gemstones or other objects.
+Electronic voice phenomenon – purported communication by spirits through tape recorders and other electronic devices.
+Extra-sensory perception – paranormal ability (independent of the five main senses or deduction from previous experience) to acquire information by means such as telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, psychometry, psychic abilities, and remote viewing.
+Ghost hunting is the process of investigating locations that are reported to be haunted by ghosts. Typically, a ghost-hunting team will attempt to collect evidence supporting the existence of paranormal activity. Ghost hunters use a variety of electronic devices, including EMF meters, digital thermometers, both handheld and static digital video cameras, including thermographic and night vision cameras, as well as digital audio recorders. Other more traditional techniques are also used, such as conducting interviews and researching the history of allegedly haunted sites. Ghost hunters may also refer to themselves as "paranormal investigators." Ghost hunting has been heavily criticized for its dismissal of the scientific method. No scientific study has ever been able to confirm the existence of ghosts. The practice is considered a pseudoscience by the vast majority of educators, academics, science writers, and skeptics. Science historian Brian Regal described ghost hunting as "an unorganized exercise in futility".
+Lizard people – The idea of a reptilian reconquest was popularized by David Icke, a conspiracy theorist who claims shape-shifting reptilian aliens control Earth by taking on human form and gaining political power to manipulate human societies. Icke has stated on multiple occasions that many world leaders are, or are possessed by, so-called reptilians.
+Levitation – act of rising up from the ground without any physical aids, usually by the power of thought.
+Palmistry – the belief that the future can be foretold through palm reading. Predictions are based on the shape, line, and mounts of the hands. Palmists use cold reading in order to appear psychic.
+Parapsychology  – (see Psychology section above)
+Pseudoarchaeology – investigation of the ancient past using alleged paranormal or other means which have not been validated by mainstream science.
+Psychic surgery – a type of medical fraud, popular in Brazil and the Philippines. Practitioners use sleight of hand to make it appear as though they are reaching into a patient's body and extracting "tumors". Psychic surgery is usually explicit deception; i.e., the "practitioners" are aware that they are practicing fraud or "quackery".
+Psychokinesis – paranormal ability of the mind to influence matter or energy at a distance.
+Séances – ritualized attempts to communicate with the dead.
+The Tunguska event was an actual large explosion, possibly caused by a meteoroid or comet, in what is now Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia in June 1908. Night skies as far away as London were markedly brighter for several evenings. Unsupported theories regarding the event include the impact of a miniature black hole or large body of antimatter, ball lightning, a test by Nikola Tesla of the apparatus at Wardenclyffe Tower, and a UFO crash. Another theory, not in itself pseudoscientific, is that the explosion was caused by a piece of Biela's Comet from 1883.
+Ufology – the study of unidentified flying objects (UFOs) that sometimes includes the belief that UFOs are evidence of extraterrestrial visitors.
+
+== Numerology ==
+Numerology (including the numerology practices of Kabbalah) – a set of beliefs in a divine, mystical, or other special relationship between a number and coinciding events. Numerology is regarded as pseudomathematics or pseudoscience by modern scientists. It is often associated with the paranormal, alongside astrology and similar divinatory arts.
+Scriptural codes – the belief that a book or fragment of holy scripture contains encoded messages that impart esoteric knowledge. One such decoding method involves identifying "equidistant letter sequences" that spell out such messages.
+
+== Religious and spiritual beliefs ==
+Spiritual and religious practices and beliefs, according to astronomer Carl Sagan, are normally not classified as pseudoscience. However, religion can sometimes nurture pseudoscience, and "at the extremes it is difficult to distinguish pseudoscience from rigid, doctrinaire religion", and some religions might be confused with pseudoscience, such as traditional meditation. The following religious/spiritual items have been related to or classified as pseudoscience in some way:

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+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 17/18
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
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+---
+
+Affirmative prayer is a form of prayer or a metaphysical technique that is focused on a positive outcome, rather than a negative situation. For instance, a person who is experiencing some form of illness would focus the prayer on the desired state of perfect health and affirm this desired intention "as if already happened" rather than identifying the illness and then asking God for help to eliminate it. William James described affirmative prayer as an element of the American metaphysical healing movement that he called the "mind-cure"; he described it as the United States' "only decidedly original contribution to the systemic philosophy of life." What sets affirmative prayer apart from secular affirmations of the autosuggestion type taught by the 19th century self-help author Émile Coué (whose most famous affirmation was "Every day in every way, I am getting better and better") is that affirmative prayer addresses the practitioner to God, the Divine, the Creative Mind, emphasizing the seemingly practical aspects of religious belief.
+Christian Science is generally considered a Christian new religious movement; however, some have called it "pseudoscience"  because its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, used "science" in its name, and because of its former stance against medical science.  Also, "Eddy used the term Metaphysical science to distinguish her system both from materialistic science and from occult science." The church now accepts the use of medical science. Vaccinations were banned, but in 1901, Eddy, at the age of 80, advised her followers to submit to them.
+Energy is used by writers and practitioners of various esoteric forms of spirituality and alternative medicine to refer to a variety of claimed experiences and phenomena that defy measurement and thus can be distinguished from the scientific form of energy. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of such energy. Therapies that purport to use, modify, or manipulate unknown energies are thus among the most contentious of all complementary and alternative medicines. Claims related to energy therapies are most often anecdotal (from single stories), rather than being based on repeatable empirical evidence.
+Exorcism (from Greek ἐξορκισμός, exorkismós "binding by oath") is the religious or spiritual practice of evicting demons or other spiritual entities from a person, or an area, that is believed to be possessed. Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist, this may be done by causing the entity to swear an oath, performing an elaborate ritual, or simply by commanding it to depart in the name of a higher power. The practice is ancient and part of the belief system of many cultures and religions.  Requested and performed exorcism began to decline in the United States by the 18th century and occurred rarely until the latter half of the 20th century, when the public saw a sharp rise due to the media attention exorcisms were getting. There was "a 50% increase in the number of exorcisms performed between the early 1960s and the mid-1970s".
+Koranic scientific foreknowledge (or Qur'anic science or Hadeeth science) asserts that foundational Islamic religious texts made accurate statements about the world that science verified hundreds of years later. This belief is a common theme in Bucailleism. According to Turkish American physicist Taner Edis, many Muslims appreciate technology and respect the role that science plays in its creation. As a result, he says there is a great deal of Islamic pseudoscience attempting to reconcile science with their religious beliefs. Edis maintains that the motivation to read modern scientific truths into holy books is also stronger for Muslims than Christians. This is because, according to Edis, true criticism of the Quran is almost non-existent in the Muslim world, causing Muslims to believe that scientific truths simply must appear in the Quran.
+
+=== Creation science ===
+Creation science or scientific creationism is a branch of creationism that claims to provide scientific support for the Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis and disprove or reexplain the scientific facts, theories and scientific paradigms about geology, cosmology, biological evolution, archaeology, history and linguistics.
+
+Baraminology – taxonomic system that classifies animals into groups called "created kinds" or "baramins" according to the account of creation in the book of Genesis and other parts of the Bible.
+Creation biology – subset of creation science that tries to explain biology without macroevolution.
+Creationist cosmologies – cosmologies which, among other things, allow for a universe that is only thousands of years old.
+Flood geology – creationist form of geology that advocates most of the geologic features on Earth are explainable by a global flood.
+Searches for Noah's Ark – attempts to find the burial site of Noah's Ark which, according to the Genesis flood narrative, is located somewhere in the alleged "Mountains of Ararat". There have been numerous expeditions with several false claims of success; the practice is widely regarded as pseudoscience, more specifically pseudoarchaeology.
+Intelligent design – attempt to cast creationism in the language of science, invoking concepts such as:
+Irreducible complexity – claim that some biological systems are too complex to have evolved from simpler systems. It is used by proponents of intelligent design to argue that evolution by natural selection alone is incomplete or flawed, and that some additional mechanism (an "Intelligent Designer") is required to explain the origins of life.
+Specified complexity – claim that when something is simultaneously complex and specified, one can infer that it was produced by an intelligent cause (i.e., that it was designed) rather than being the result of natural processes.

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+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 18/18
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Scientology ===
+Dianetics, a therapeutic technique promoted by Scientology, purports to treat a hypothetical reactive mind. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of an actual reactive mind, apart from the stimulus response mechanisms documented in behaviorist psychology.
+Narconon and Purification Rundown are Scientology programs that purport to clean the human body of toxins and drugs respectively. Their method consists of very long saunas over many days, extremely large (possibly toxic) doses of vitamins including niacin, and Scientology 'training routines', sometimes including attempts at telekinesis. The programs have been described as "medically unsafe", "quackery" and "medical fraud", while academic and medical experts have dismissed Narconon's educational programme as containing "factual errors in basic concepts such as physical and mental effects, addiction and even spelling". In turn, Narconon has claimed that mainstream medicine is "biased" against it, and that "people who endorse so-called controlled drug use cannot be trusted to review a program advocating totally drug-free living." Narconon has said that criticism of its programmes is "bigoted", and that its critics are "in favor of drug abuse [...] they are either using drugs or selling drugs".
+
+=== Other ===
+Quantum mysticism – builds on a superficial similarity between certain New Age concepts and such seemingly counter-intuitive quantum mechanical concepts as the uncertainty principle, entanglement, and wave–particle duality, while generally ignoring the limitations imposed by quantum decoherence. One of the most abused ideas is Bell's theorem, which proves the nonexistence of local hidden variables in quantum mechanics. Despite this, Bell himself rejected mystical interpretations of the theory.
+Transcendental Meditation (TM) refers to a specific form of silent mantra meditation and less commonly to the organizations that constitute the Transcendental Meditation movement. The Maharishi Mahesh Yogi created and introduced the TM technique and TM movement in India in the mid-1950s. It is not possible to say whether meditation has any effect on health, as the research is of poor quality, and is marred by a high risk for bias due to the connection of researchers to the TM organization and by the selection of subjects with a favorable opinion of TM.
+
+== Idiosyncratic ideas ==
+The following concepts have only a very small number of proponents, yet have become notable:
+
+Aquatic ape hypothesis – the idea that certain ancestors of modern humans were more aquatic than other great apes and even many modern humans and, as such, were habitual waders, swimmers and divers.
+Lawsonomy – proposed philosophy and system of claims about physics made by baseball player and aviator Alfred William Lawson.
+Morphic resonance – The idea put forth by Rupert Sheldrake that "natural systems, such as termite colonies, or pigeons, or orchid plants, or insulin molecules, inherit a collective memory from all previous things of their kind". It is also claimed to be responsible for "mysterious telepathy-type interconnections between organisms".
+N rays – A hypothesized form of radiation described by Prosper-René Blondlot in 1903 that briefly inspired significant scientific interest, but were subsequently found to have been a result of confirmation bias.
+Penta Water – the claimed acoustically-induced structural reorganization of liquid water into long-lived small clusters of five molecules each. Neither these clusters nor their asserted benefits to humans have been shown to exist.
+Polywater – hypothetical polymerized form of water proposed in the 1960s with a higher boiling point, lower freezing point, and much higher viscosity than ordinary water. It was later found not to exist, with the anomalous measurements being explained by biological contamination. Chains of molecules of varying length (depending on the temperature) tend to form in normal liquid water without changing the freezing or boiling point.
+Time Cube – a website created by Gene Ray, in 1997, where he sets out his personal model of reality, which he calls Time Cube. He suggests that all of modern physics is wrong, and his Time Cube model proposes that each day is really four separate days occurring simultaneously.
+Timewave zero – numerological formula that was invented by psychonaut Terence McKenna with the help of the hallucinogenic drug dimethyltryptamine. After experiencing 2012 doomsday predictions, he redesigned his formula to have a "zero-point" at the same date as the Mayan longcount calendar.
+Torsion field – hypothetical physical field responsible for extra-sensory perception, homeopathic cures, levitation, telepathy, clairvoyance, telekinesis, and other paranormal phenomena. Despite the several obvious contradictions with established physics along with associated statements by believers criticized as being "nonsensical" by reputable scientists, torsion fields have been embraced as an explanation for claims of such paranormal phenomena. The harnessing of torsion fields has been claimed to make everything possible from miracle cure devices (including devices that cure alcohol addiction) to working perpetual motion machines, stargates, UFO propulsion analogs, and weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). Some such devices, in particular the miracle cure boxes, have been patented, manufactured and sold.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+'The Reading room' by The Skeptics Society
+Stories by Michael Shermer published in Scientific American Magazine.
+Michael Shermer: Baloney Detection Kit on YouTube – a set of questions to distinguish truth from bogus claims.

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+title: "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Agriculture ===
+Lysenkoism, or Lysenko-Michurinism – was a political campaign against genetics and science-based agriculture conducted by Trofim Lysenko, his followers and Soviet authorities. Lysenko served as the director of the Soviet Union's Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Lysenkoism began in the late 1920s and formally ended in 1964. The pseudoscientific ideas of Lysenkoism built on Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's concepts of the heritability of acquired characteristics. Lysenko's theory rejected Gregor Mendel's theory of inheritance and the concept of the "gene"; it departed from Darwinian evolutionary theory by rejecting natural selection, viewing that concept as being incompatible with Marxist ideology.
+Biodynamic agriculture – method of organic farming that treats farms as unified and individual organisms.  Biodynamics uses a calendar which has been characterized as astrological. The substances and composts used by biodynamicists have been described as unconventional and homeopathic.  For example, field mice are countered by deploying ashes prepared from field mice skin when Venus is in the Scorpius constellation. No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture lacks strong scientific evidence for its efficacy and has been labeled a pseudoscience because of its overreliance upon esoteric knowledge and mystical beliefs.
+GMO skepticism – The belief that genetically modified foods are inherently unsafe. This contradicts the scientific consensus.
+
+=== Architecture ===
+Feng shui – ancient Chinese system of mysticism and aesthetics based on astronomy, geography and the putative flow of qi. Evidence for its effectiveness is based on anecdote and there is a lack of a plausible method of action; this leads to conflicting advice from different practitioners of feng shui. Feng shui practitioners use this as evidence of variations or different schools; critical analysts have described it thus: "Feng shui has always been based upon mere guesswork." Modern criticism differentiates between feng shui as a traditional proto-religion and the modern practice: "A naturalistic belief, it was originally used to find an auspicious dwelling place for a shrine or a tomb. However, over the centuries it...has become distorted and degraded into a gross superstition."
+Ley lines – proposed intentional alignment of ancient monuments and landscape features was later explained by a statistical analysis of lines that concluded: "the density of archaeological sites in the British landscape is so great that a line drawn through virtually anywhere will 'clip' a number of sites." Additional New Age and feng shui concepts have been proposed building on the original concept and pseudoscientific claims about energy flowing through the lines have been made.
+Vastu shastra is the ancient Hindu system of architecture, which lays down a series of rules for building houses in relation to ambiance. Vastu Shastra is considered pseudoscience by rationalists like Narendra Nayak of the Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations and astronomer Jayant Narlikar, who writes that Vastu does not have any "logical connection" to the environment.
+
+=== Finance ===
+Technical analysis is a security analysis methodology for forecasting the direction of prices through the study of past market data, primarily price and volume. Behavioral economics and quantitative analysis use many of the same tools of technical analysis, which, being an aspect of active management, stands in contradiction to much of modern portfolio theory. The efficacy of both technical and fundamental analysis is disputed by the efficient-market hypothesis, which states that stock market prices are essentially unpredictable. It is still considered by many academics to be pseudoscience. Academics such as Eugene Fama say the evidence for technical analysis is sparse and is inconsistent with the weak form of the efficient-market hypothesis.
+
+=== Health and medicine ===
+
+Pseudoscientific medical practices are often known as quackery. In contrast, modern medicine is (or seeks to be) evidence-based.

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+
+There is disputed evidence that it may be effective in combating postoperative nausea and vomiting. Auriculotherapy (also auricular therapy, ear acupuncture, and auriculoacupuncture) is a form of alternative medicine based on the idea that the ear is a micro-system which reflects the entire body, represented on the auricle, the outer portion of the ear. Conditions affecting the physical, mental or emotional health of the patient are assumed to be treatable by stimulation of the surface of the ear exclusively. Similar mappings are used in many areas of the body, including the practices of reflexology and iridology. These mappings are not based on or supported by any medical or scientific evidence and are therefore considered to be pseudoscience. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed by discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield when he suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's now-retracted and fraudulent report used inadequate controls and suppressed negative findings and multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful. Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between autism and bowel disease. Ayurveda – traditional Ayurveda is a 5,000-year-old alternative medical practice with roots in ancient India based on a mind-body set of beliefs. Imbalance or stress in an individual's consciousness is believed to be the cause of diseases. Patients are classified by body types (three doshas, which are considered to control mind-body harmony, determine an individual's "body type") and treatment is aimed at restoring balance to the mind-body system. It has long been the main traditional system of health care in India and it has become institutionalized in India's colleges and schools, although unlicensed practitioners are common. As with other traditional knowledge, much of it was lost; in the West, current practice is in part based on the teachings of the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in the 1980s, who mixed it with Transcendental Meditation; other forms of Ayurveda exist as well. The most notable advocate of Ayurveda in America is Deepak Chopra, who claims that the Maharishi's Ayurveda is based on quantum mysticism. Balneotherapy (Latin: balneum "bath") is the presumed benefit from disease by bathing, a traditional medicine technique usually practiced at spas. Balneotherapy may involve hot or cold water, massage through moving water, relaxation, or stimulation. Many mineral waters at spas are rich in particular minerals such as silica, sulfur, selenium and radium. Scientific studies into the effectiveness of balneotherapy do not show that balneotherapy is effective for treating rheumatoid arthritis. There is also no evidence indicating a more effective type of bath, or to indicate that bathing is more effective than physical exercise, relaxation therapy, or mudpacks. Most of the studies on balneotherapy have methodological flaws and are not reliable. A 2009 review of all published clinical evidence concluded that existing research is not sufficiently strong to draw firm conclusions about the efficacy of balneotherapy. Bates method – an alternative therapy aimed at improving eyesight. Eye-care physician William Horatio Bates (1860–1931) attributed nearly all sight problems to habitual "strain" of the eyes and thus felt that relieving such "strain" would cure the problems. In 1952, optometry professor Elwin Marg wrote of Bates, "Most of his claims and almost all of his theories have been considered false by practically all visual scientists."
+Biological terrain assessment – a set of computerized tests used to measure the pH, resistivity and redox potentials of a person's urine, blood and saliva, with the intention of recommending a customized program of health supplements and remedies (such as vitamins, homeopathic supplements, or herbal medicines) based on the results. Proponents suggest that BTA allows for a correction of biological imbalances before they become pathological, while opponents claim that the tests are imprecise and result in incorrect diagnoses. Biorhythm theory – an attempt to predict various aspects of a person's life through simple mathematical cycles. The theory was developed by Wilhelm Fliess in the late 19th century and was popularized in the United States in the late 1970s. It was described as pseudoscience. Body memory (BM) is a hypothesis that the body itself is capable of storing memories, as opposed to only the brain. While experiments have demonstrated the possibility of cellular memory there are currently no known means by which tissues other than the brain would be capable of storing memories. Modern usage of BM tends to frame it exclusively in the context of traumatic memory and ways in which the body responds to recall of a memory. In this regard, it has become relevant in treatment for PTSD. Brain Gym is an organization promoting a series of exercises claimed to improve academic performance. Twenty-six Brain Gym activities are claimed to improve eye teaming (binocular vision), spatial and listening skills, hand–eye coordination and whole-body flexibility and by doing this manipulate the brain, improving learning and recall of information. The Brain Gym program calls for children to repeat certain simple movements such as crawling, yawning, making symbols in the air and drinking water; these are intended to "integrate", "repattern", and increase blood flow to the brain. Though the organization claims the methods are grounded in good neuroscience, the underlying ideas are pseudoscience. Candida hypersensitivity – It has been spuriously claimed that chronic yeast infections are responsible for many common disorders and non-specific symptoms, including fatigue, weight gain, constipation, dizziness, muscle and joint pain, asthma and others. The notion has been strongly challenged by the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology. Carnivore diet – a fad diet in which nothing is eaten but meat. As well as being unhealthy the diet has a damaging environmental impact. Chelation therapy is claimed by some practitioners of alternative medicine to treat a variety of ailments, including heart disease and autism. While chelation is a valid form of medical treatment, used as a means to treat conditions such as acute heavy metal toxicity, the use of chelation therapy by alternative medicine practitioners for behavioral and other disorders is considered pseudoscientific; there is no proof that it is effective. In addition to being ineffective, chelation therapy prior to heavy metal testing can artificially raise urinary heavy metal concentrations ("provoked" urine testing) and lead to inappropriate and unnecessary treatment. The American College of Medical Toxicology and the American Academy of Clinical Toxicology warn the public that chelating agents used in chelation therapy may have serious side effects, including liver and kidney damage, blood pressure changes, allergies and, in some cases, even death of the patient. Chiropractic is a form of alternative medicine mostly concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially the spine. Some proponents, especially those in the field's early history, have claimed that such disorders affect general health via the nervous system, through vertebral subluxation, claims which are not based on scientific evidence. The main chiropractic treatment technique involves manual therapy, especially spinal manipulation therapy (SMT), manipulations of other joints and soft tissues. Its foundation is at odds with mainstream medicine and chiropractic is sustained by pseudoscientific ideas, such as vertebral subluxation and "innate intelligence" that reject science.

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+
+The field has been compared to pseudoscience due to irreproducible or contradictory findings, exaggerated claims of usefulness and lack of high quality research protocols. Ear candling, also called ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine practice claimed to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the other end in the ear canal. Medical research has shown that the practice is both dangerous and ineffective and does not functionally remove earwax or toxicants, despite product design contributing to that impression.

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+title: "Lists of problems"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems"
+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:06.671577+00:00"
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+---
+
+The following articles contain lists of problems. This includes unsolved problems, which may refer to several notable conjectures or open problems in various academic fields:
+
+
+== Natural sciences, engineering and medicine ==
+List of unsolved problems in astronomy
+List of unsolved problems in biology
+List of unsolved problems in chemistry
+List of unsolved problems in geoscience
+Unsolved problems in medicine
+List of unsolved problems in neuroscience
+List of unsolved problems in physics
+
+
+== Mathematics ==
+List of unsolved problems in mathematics
+List of undecidable problems
+List of NP-complete problems
+List of PSPACE-complete problems
+List of problems in loop theory and quasigroup theory
+
+
+== Social sciences, statistics, and information sciences ==
+List of unsolved problems in economics
+List of unsolved problems in fair division
+List of unsolved problems in statistics
+List of unsolved problems in computer science
+List of unsolved problems in information theory
+
+
+== Other ==
+List of philosophical problems
+List of unsolved deaths
+
+
+== See also ==
+Cold case
+List of ciphertexts
+List of hypothetical technologies
+List of paradoxes
+Unknowability