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z@9SAL@F_b|1Gn3e8o17m)WGEhJ5&ohtzBwieYu7At%YjB{l^Ww|G0toA2;y+;|AV; z+`#*f8+iYJ*1#1%W#0%_6e=pdV28A@;&XN+qWN(<64CsK9nrvwPq>-o=&oBY99?$f z#?iD}IUJpIBgoOAcV6dzJeyqihdN?BI)BEF_*&v49SywB=lV)^lFzldBOb|pWOK)O r#1Gg}_(9|8-}C->!4D08Pu%o#554cC-U>bPy!Ho?_y55AtJMDsjAm<{ diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..36cdd7f93 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Abstract space" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:39.743891+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Abstract space, in geography, is a hypothetical space characterized by equal and consistent properties; a geographic space that is completely homogeneous. All movement and activity would be equally easy or difficult in all directions and all locations within this space. This concept is useful for modeling or analyzing spatial activity and behavior by limiting or eliminating extraneous variables, such as terrain. For example, if researchers want to study the relationship between culture and trade, they don't want their model to be overwhelmed or influenced by factors such as mountainous barriers and rivers because these would detract from the purpose of modeling how culture alone effects trade. + + +== See also == +Central Place Theory + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8983ce14c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Activity space" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:40.952263+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In social science, the activity space designates the "set of places individuals encounter as a result of their routine activities in everyday life." +The activity space can include all relevant locations that an individual routinely go to, such as the place of residence, the workplace (or the place of study), but also gyms, supermarkets, or cinemas. + + +== Definition == +Activity space research started in the field of geography and urban planning, where scholars investigated the effect of urban spatial structure on individual behavior. Horton and Reynolds define the activity space "as the subset of all urban locations with which the individual has direct contact as the result of day-to-day activities." They consider the activity space as a subset of one's "action space," which they define as "the collection of all urban locations about which the individual has information and the subjective utility or preference he associates with these locations". The "action space" is often use synonymously with the terms "awareness space," "mental map," and "cognitive map." +The emergence of the cognitive science has broadened the scope of activity space beyond the realm of physicality. Scientists like David Kirsh define activity space as the blend of several components. These components include: + +The goal a task is meant to accomplish or problem it is meant to resolve +The physical space the task is performed within +The actions an "agent" is capable of taking +The concepts, plans, and other abstract resources agents find in the environment or bring to the task in their minds + + +== See also == +Absolute space and time +Method of loci +Social space +Sociology of space +Spatial analysis +Spatial memory +Time geography + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7bdbab040 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Alfoz (territory)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:42.153703+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The geographical term alfoz (plural alfoces) was used in the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages to describe the rural territory, including subordinate hamlets, under the jurisdiction of a corresponding town (villa in Spanish). The villa and its alfoz, under the authority of the town's local council (concejo), sometimes underpinned what was called a Comunidad de Villa y Tierra, an autonomous political division. At the center of this community, the town (or sometimes a city) comprised an urban area and usually boasted of a castle and a fortified wall. +By the 12th century, the alfoces had fiscal, judicial and military functions. Furthermore, they lent themselves to the communal use of land for silvopastoral agriculture; however, in the year 1100, monarchs began to allocate portions of land to the Church and the nobility, an act that undermined the very purpose of the alfoz. +The alfoz and its villa formed what would later be known as a municipality. The word alfoz comes from the Arabic al-hawz, meaning "rural district". It is currently preserved in several placenames in Spain as well as is occasionally used as a modern-day common noun. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Martínez Sopena, Pascual (2005). Una historia de Valladolid: El Valladolid medieval (in Spanish). Ayuntamiento de Valladolid. ISBN 84-95389-80-0. +García Velasco, Miguel Ángel (2008). Moraleja de las Panaderas: Refugio entre pinares (in Spanish). Diputación de Valladolid. p. 32. ISBN 978-84-7852-097-8. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e1ce42c1f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Alluvial fan" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An alluvial fan is an accumulation of sediments that fans outwards from a concentrated source of sediments, such as a narrow canyon emerging from an escarpment. They are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but are also found in more humid environments subject to intense rainfall and in areas of modern glaciation. They range in area from less than 1 square kilometer (0.4 sq mi) to almost 20,000 square kilometers (7,700 sq mi). +Alluvial fans typically form where a flow of sediment or rocks emerge from a confined channel and are suddenly free to spread out in many directions. For example, many alluvial fans form when steep mountain valleys meet a flat plain. The transition from a narrow channel to a wide open area reduces the carrying capacity of flow and results in deposition of sediments. The flow can take the form of infrequent debris flows like in a landslide, or can be carried by an intermittent stream or creek. +The reduction of flow is key to the formation of alluvial fans. If a river exits a mountain valley without any reduction in flow, it is more common to see the formation of an alluvial plain. The steepness of an alluvial formation depends on how much flow decreases when entering flat ground as sediment will be deposited further away from its source if river flow is high. +Alluvial fans are most commonly found at the foot of desert mountains, such as in the Great Basin of western North America, in the New Red Sandstone of south Devon, or all across the major population centers of Xinjiang in the Taklamakan Desert and Junggar Basin. +Alluvial fans are not unique to Earth, as they are simply a result of gravity and geometry, and thus have also been found abundantly on Mars and Titan, showing that fluvial processes have occurred on other worlds. +Some of the largest alluvial fans are found along the Himalaya mountain front on the Indo-Gangetic Plain. A shift of the feeder channel (a nodal avulsion) can lead to catastrophic flooding, as occurred on the Kosi River fan in 2008. + +== Description == + +An alluvial fan is an accumulation of sediments that fans out from a concentrated source of sediments, such as a narrow canyon emerging from an escarpment. This accumulation is shaped like a section of a shallow cone, with its apex at the source of sediments. +Alluvial fans vary greatly in size, from only a few meters across at the base to as much as 150 kilometers across, with a slope of 1.5 to 25 degrees. Some giant alluvial fans have areas of almost 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi). The slope measured from the apex is generally concave, with the steepest slope near the apex (the proximal fan or fanhead) and becoming less steep further out (the medial fan or midfan) and shallowing at the edges of the fan (the distal fan or outer fan). Sieve deposits, which are lobes of coarse gravel, may be present on the proximal fan. The sediments in an alluvial fan are usually coarse and poorly sorted, with the coarsest sediments found on the proximal fan. + +When there is enough space in the alluvial plain for all of the sediment deposits to fan out without contacting other valley walls or rivers, an unconfined alluvial fan develops. Unconfined alluvial fans allow sediments to naturally fan out, and the shape of the fan is not influenced by other topological features. When the alluvial plain is more restricted, so that the fan comes into contact with topographic barriers, a confined fan is formed. +Wave or channel erosion of the edge of the fan (lateral erosion) sometimes produces a "toe-trimmed" fan, in which the edge of the fan is marked by a small escarpment. Toe-trimmed fans may record climate changes or tectonic processes, and the process of lateral erosion may enhance the aquifer or petroleum reservoir potential of the fan. Toe-trimmed fans on the planet Mars provide evidence of past river systems. +When numerous rivers and streams exit a mountain front onto a plain, the fans can combine to form a continuous apron. This is referred to as a bajada or piedmont alluvial plain. + +== Formation == +Alluvial fans usually form where a confined feeder channel exits a mountain front or a glacier margin. As the flow exits the feeder channel onto the fan surface, it is able to spread out into wide, shallow channels or to infiltrate the surface. This reduces the carrying power of the flow and results in deposition of sediments. + +Flow in the proximal fan, where the slope is steepest, is usually confined to a single channel (a fanhead trench), which may be up to 30 meters (100 ft) deep. This channel is subject to blockage by accumulated sediments or debris flows, which causes flow to periodically break out of its old channel (nodal avulsion) and shift to a part of the fan with a steeper gradient, where deposition resumes. As a result, normally only part of the fan is active at any particular time, and the bypassed areas may undergo soil formation or erosion. +Alluvial fans can be dominated by debris flows (debris flow fans) or stream flow (fluvial fans). Which kind of fan is formed is controlled by climate, tectonics, and the type of bedrock in the area feeding the flow onto the fan. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a8397e82e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Alluvial fan" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Debris flow === +Debris flow fans receive most of their sediments in the form of debris flows. Debris flows are slurry-like mixtures of water and particles of all sizes, from clay to boulders, that resemble wet concrete. They are characterized by having a yield strength, meaning that they are highly viscous at low flow velocities but become less viscous as the flow velocity increases. This means that a debris flow can come to a halt while still on moderately tilted ground. The flow then becomes consolidated under its own weight. +Debris flow fans occur in all climates but are more common where the source rock is mudstone or matrix-rich saprolite rather than coarser, more permeable regolith. The abundance of fine-grained sediments encourages the initial hillslope failure and subsequent cohesive flow of debris. Saturation of clay-rich colluvium by locally intense thunderstorms initiates slope failure. The resulting debris flow travels down the feeder channel and onto the surface of the fan. +Debris flow fans have a network of mostly inactive distributary channels in the upper fan that gives way to mid- to lower-level lobes. The channels tend to be filled by subsequent cohesive debris flows. Usually only one lobe is active at a time, and inactive lobes may develop desert varnish or develop a soil profile from eolian dust deposition, on time scales of 1,000 to 10,000 years. Because of their high viscosity, debris flows tend to be confined to the proximal and medial fan even in a debris-flow-dominated alluvial fan, and streamfloods dominate the distal fan. However, some debris-flow-dominated fans in arid climates consist almost entirely of debris flows and lag gravels from eolian winnowing of debris flows, with no evidence of sheetflood or sieve deposits. Debris-flow-dominated fans tend to be steep and poorly vegetated. + +=== Fluvial === +Fluvial fans (streamflow-dominated fans) receive most of their sediments in the form of stream flow rather than debris flows. They are less sharply distinguished from ordinary fluvial deposits than are debris flow fans. +Fluvial fans occur where there is perennial, seasonal, or ephemeral stream flow that feeds a system of distributary channels on the fan. In arid or semiarid climates, deposition is dominated by infrequent but intense rainfall that produces flash floods in the feeder channel. This results in sheetfloods on the alluvial fan, where sediment-laden water leaves its channel confines and spreads across the fan surface. These may include hyperconcentrated flows containing 20% to 45% sediments, which are intermediate between sheetfloods having 20% or less of sediments and debris flows with more than 45% sediments. As the flood recedes, it often leaves a lag of gravel deposits that have the appearance of a network of braided streams. +Where the flow is more continuous, as with spring snow melt, incised-channel flow in channels 1–4 meters (3–10 ft) high takes place in a network of braided streams. Such alluvial fans tend to have a shallower slope but can become enormous. The Kosi and other fans along the Himalaya mountain front in the Indo-Gangetic plain are examples of gigantic stream-flow-dominated alluvial fans, sometimes described as megafans. Here, continued movement on the Main Boundary Thrust over the last ten million years has focused the drainage of 750 kilometres (470 miles) of mountain frontage into just three enormous fans. + +== Geologic record == + +Alluvial fans are common in the geologic record, but may have been particularly important before the evolution of land plants in the mid-Paleozoic. They are characteristic of fault-bounded basins and can be 5,000 meters (16,000 ft) or thicker due to tectonic subsidence of the basin and uplift of the mountain front. Most are red from hematite produced by diagenetic alteration of iron-rich minerals in a shallow, oxidizing environment. Examples of paleofans include the Triassic basins of eastern North America and the New Red Sandstone of south Devon, the Devonian Hornelen Basin of Norway, and the Devonian-Carboniferous in the Gaspé Peninsula of Canada. Such fan deposit likely contain the largest accumulations of gravel in the geologic record. + +=== Depositional facies === +Several kinds of sediment deposits (facies) are found in alluvial fans. +Alluvial fans are characterized by coarse sedimentation, though the sediments making up the fan become less coarse further from the apex. Gravels show well-developed imbrication with the pebbles dipping towards the apex. Fan deposits typically show well-developed reverse grading caused by outbuilding of the fan: Finer sediments are deposited at the edge of the fan, but as the fan continues to grow, increasingly coarse sediments are deposited on top of the earlier, less coarse sediments. However, a few fans show normal grading indicating inactivity or even fan retreat, so that increasingly fine sediments are deposited on earlier coarser sediments. Normal or reverse grading sequences can be hundreds to thousands of meters in thickness. Depositional facies that have been reported for alluvial fans include debris flows, sheet floods and upper regime stream floods, sieve deposits, and braided stream flows, each leaving their own characteristic sediment deposits that can be identified by geologists. +Debris flow deposits are common in the proximal and medial fan. These deposits lack sedimentary structure, other than occasional reverse-graded bedding towards the base, and they are poorly sorted. The proximal fan may also include gravel lobes that have been interpreted as sieve deposits, where runoff rapidly infiltrates and leaves behind only the coarse material. However, the gravel lobes have also been interpreted as debris flow deposits. Conglomerate originating as debris flows on alluvial fans is described as fanglomerate. +Stream flow deposits tend to be sheetlike, better sorted than debris flow deposits, and sometimes show well-developed sedimentary structures such as cross-bedding. These are more prevalent in the medial and distal fan. In the distal fan, where channels are very shallow and braided, stream flow deposits consist of sandy interbeds with planar and trough slanted stratification. The medial fan of a streamflow-dominated alluvial fan shows nearly the same depositional facies as ordinary fluvial environments, so that identification of ancient alluvial fans must be based on radial paleomorphology in a piedmont setting. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42c5b268b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Alluvial fan" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Occurrences == +Alluvial fans are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but are also found in more humid environments subject to intense rainfall and in areas of modern glaciation. They have also been found on other bodies of the Solar System. + +=== Terrestrial === +Alluvial fans are built in response to erosion induced by tectonic uplift. The upwards coarsening of the beds making up the fan reflects cycles of erosion in the highlands that feed sediments to the fan. However, climate and changes in base level may be as important as tectonic uplift. For example, alluvial fans in the Himalayas show older fans entrenched and overlain by younger fans. The younger fans, in turn, are cut by deep incised valleys showing two terrace levels. Dating via optically stimulated luminescence suggests a hiatus of 70,000 to 80,000 years between the old and new fans, with evidence of tectonic tilting at 45,000 years ago and an end to fan deposition 20,000 years ago. Both the hiatus and the more recent end to fan deposition are thought to be connected to periods of enhanced southwest monsoon precipitation. Climate has also influenced fan formation in Death Valley, California, US, where dating of beds suggests that peaks of fan deposition during the last 25,000 years occurred during times of rapid climate change, both from wet to dry and from dry to wet. +Alluvial fans are often found in desert areas, which are subjected to periodic flash floods from nearby thunderstorms in local hills. The typical watercourse in an arid climate has a large, funnel-shaped basin at the top, leading to a narrow defile, which opens out into an alluvial fan at the bottom. Multiple braided streams are usually present and active during water flows. Phreatophytes (plants with long tap roots capable of reaching a deep water table) are sometimes found in sinuous lines radiating from arid climate fan toes. These fan-toe phreatophyte strips trace buried channels of coarse sediments from the fan that have interfingered with impermeable playa sediments. +Alluvial fans also develop in wetter climates when high-relief terrain is located adjacent to low-relief terrain. In Nepal, the Koshi River has built a megafan covering some 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) below its exit from Himalayan foothills onto the nearly level plains where the river traverses into India before joining the Ganges. +Along the upper Koshi tributaries, tectonic forces elevate the Himalayas several millimeters annually. Uplift is approximately in equilibrium with erosion, so the river annually carries some 100 million cubic meters (3.5×10^9 ft3) of sediment as it exits the mountains. Deposition of this magnitude over millions of years is more than sufficient to account for the megafan. +In North America, streams flowing into California's Central Valley have deposited smaller but still extensive alluvial fans, such as that of the Kings River flowing out of the Sierra Nevada. Like the Himalayan megafans, these are streamflow-dominated fans. + +=== Extraterrestrial === + +==== Mars ==== + +Alluvial fans are also found on Mars. Unlike alluvial fans on Earth, those on Mars are rarely associated with tectonic processes, but are much more common on crater rims. The crater rim alluvial fans appear to have been deposited by sheetflow rather than debris flows. +Three alluvial fans have been found in Saheki Crater. These fans confirmed past fluvial flow on the planet and further supported the theory that liquid water was once present in some form on the Martian surface. In addition, observations of fans in Gale crater made by satellites from orbit have now been confirmed by the discovery of fluvial sediments by the Curiosity rover. Alluvial fans in Holden crater have toe-trimmed profiles attributed to fluvial erosion. +The few alluvial fans associated with tectonic processes include those at Coprates Chasma and Juventae Chasma, which are part of the Valles Marineris canyon system. These provide evidence of the existence and nature of faulting in this region of Mars. + +==== Titan ==== +Alluvial fans have been observed by the Cassini-Huygens mission on Titan using the Cassini orbiter's synthetic aperture radar instrument. These fans are more common in the drier mid-latitudes at the end of methane/ethane rivers where it is thought that frequent wetting and drying occur due to precipitation, much like arid fans on Earth. Radar imaging suggests that fan material is most likely composed of round grains of water ice or solid organic compounds about two centimeters in diameter. + +== Impact on humans == +Alluvial fans are the most important groundwater reservoirs in many regions. Many urban, industrial, and agricultural areas are located on alluvial fans, including the conurbations of Los Angeles, California; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Denver, Colorado, in the western United States, and in many other parts of the world. However, flooding on alluvial fans poses unique problems for disaster prevention and preparation. + +=== Aquifers === + +The beds of coarse sediments associated with alluvial fans form aquifers that are the most important groundwater reservoirs in many regions. These include both arid regions, such as Egypt or Iraq, and humid regions, such as central Europe or Taiwan. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c12088b5d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Alluvial fan" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Flood hazards === +Alluvial fans are subject to infrequent but often very damaging flooding, whose unusual characteristics distinguish alluvial fan floods from ordinary riverbank flooding. These include great uncertainty in the likely flood path, the likelihood of abrupt deposition and erosion of sediments carried by the flood from upstream sources, and a combination of the availability of sediments and of the slope and topography of the fan that creates extraordinary hazards. These hazards cannot reliably be mitigated by elevation on fill (raising existing buildings up to a meter (three feet) and building new foundations beneath them). At a minimum, major structural flood control measures are required to mitigate risk, and in some cases, the only alternative is to restrict development on the fan surface. Such measures can be politically controversial, particularly since the hazard is not obvious to property owners. In the United States, areas at risk of alluvial fan flooding are marked as Zone AO on flood insurance rate maps. +Alluvial fan flooding commonly takes the form of short (several hours) but energetic flash floods that occur with little or no warning. They typically result from heavy and prolonged rainfall, and are characterized by high velocities and capacity for sediment transport. Flows cover the range from floods through hyperconcentrated flows to debris flows, depending on the volume of sediments in the flow. Debris flows resemble freshly poured concrete, consisting mostly of coarse debris. Hyperconcentrated flows are intermediate between floods and debris flows, with a water content between 40 and 80 weight percent. Floods may transition to hyperconcentrated flows as they entrain sediments, while debris flows may become hyperconcentrated flows if they are diluted by water. Because flooding on alluvial fans carries large quantities of sediment, channels can rapidly become blocked, creating great uncertainty about flow paths that magnifies the dangers. +Alluvial fan flooding in the Apennine Mountains of Italy have resulted in repeated loss of life. A flood on 1 October 1581 at Piedimonte Matese resulted in the loss of 400 lives. Loss of life from alluvial fan floods continued into the 19th century, and the hazard of alluvial fan flooding remains a concern in Italy. +On January 1, 1934, record rainfall in a recently burned area of the San Gabriel Mountains, California, caused severe flooding of the alluvial fan on which the towns of Montrose and Glendale were built. The floods caused significant loss of life and property. +The Koshi River in India has built up a megafan where it exits the Himalayas onto the Ganges plain. The river has a history of frequently and capriciously changing its course, so that it has been called the Sorrow of Bihar for contributing disproportionately to India's death tolls in flooding. These exceed those of all countries except Bangladesh. Over the last few hundred years, the river had generally shifted westward across its fan, and by 2008, the main river channel was located on the extreme western part of the megafan. In August 2008, high monsoon flows breached the embankment of the Koshi River. This diverted most of the river into an unprotected ancient channel and flooded the central part of the megafan. This was an area with a high population density that had been stable for over 200 years. Over a million people were rendered homeless, about a thousand lost their lives and thousands of hectares of crops were destroyed. + +=== Petroleum reservoirs === +Buried alluvial fans are sometimes found at the margins of petroleum basins. Debris flow fans make poor petroleum reservoirs, but fluvial fans are potentially significant reservoirs. Though fluvial fans are typically of poorer quality than reservoirs closer to the basin center, due to their complex structure, the episodic flooding channels of the fans are potentially lucrative targets for petroleum exploration. Alluvial fans that experience toe-trimming (lateral erosion) by an axial river (a river running the length of an escarpment-bounded basin) may have increased potential as reservoirs. The river deposits relatively porous, permeable axial river sediments that alternate with fan sediment beds. + +== See also == +Alluvium – Loose soil or sediment that is eroded and redeposited in a non-marine setting +Floodplain – Land adjacent to a water body which is flooded during periods of high water +Placer deposit – Accumulation of valuable minerals formed by gravity separation +River delta – Silt deposition landform at the mouth of a river +Subaqueous fan – Type of sediment deposit +Tectonic influences on alluvial fans + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e33c58390 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "Alluvial plain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:44.931749+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An alluvial plain is a plain (an essentially flat landform) created by the deposition of sediment over a long period by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A floodplain is part of the process, being the smaller area over which the rivers flood at a particular time. In contrast, the alluvial plain is the larger area representing the region over which the floodplains have shifted over geological time. +As the highlands erode due to weathering and water flow, the sediment from the hills is transported to the lower plain. Various creeks will carry the water further to a river, lake, bay, or ocean. As the sediments are deposited during flood conditions in the floodplain of a creek, the elevation of the floodplain will be raised. As this reduces the channel floodwater capacity, the creek will, over time, seek new, lower paths, forming a meander (a curved path). The leftover higher locations, typically natural levees at the margins of the flood channel, will be eroded by lateral stream erosion, local rainfall, and possibly wind transport if the climate is arid and does not support soil-holding grasses. These processes, over geologic time, will form the plain, a region with little relief (local changes in elevation) yet with a constant but slight slope. +The Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms, maintained by the United States National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS), defines an "alluvial plain" as "a large assemblage of fluvial landforms (braided streams, terraces, etc.) that form a low gradient, regional ramps along the flanks of mountains and extend great distances from their sources (e.g., High Plains of North America)". Use of "alluvial plain" as a general, informal term for a broad flood plain or a low-gradient delta is explicitly discouraged. The NCSS glossary instead suggests "flood plain". +Alluvial plains have similar traits to a river delta; however, the river delta will flow into a larger body of water. Alluvial plains generally don't have this. + + +== Alluvial plains by continent == + + +=== Africa === +Barotse Floodplain in Angola and Zambia +Kafue Flats in Zambia +Okavango Delta in Botswana + + +=== Asia === +Chianan Plain in Taiwan +Indo-Gangetic Plain in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan +Mekong Delta in Vietnam +Mesopotamia in Iraq +North China Plain in China +Punjab Plain in India and Pakistan + + +=== Europe === +Baetic Depression in Andalusia, Spain +Haute vallée de la Sarthe in France +Iskar Valleys in Bulgaria +Lower Danubian Plain, Bulgaria and Romania +Mesaoria in Cyprus +Multiple alluvial sites in Switzerland +Palakaria Valley in Bulgaria +Po Valley in Italy +Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt Delta in the Netherlands +Struma Valley in Bulgaria +Tundzha Valleys in Bulgaria +Upper Thracian Plain in Bulgaria + + +=== North America === +Laguna de Santa Rosa in the United States +Mississippi Alluvial Plain in the United States +Oxnard Plain in the United States +Santa Clara Valley in San Jose, California, United States +Tempisque River Plain in Costa Rica + + +=== Oceania === +Canterbury Plains in Canterbury, New Zealand +Cumberland Plain in Greater Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia +Darling Riverine Plains in South-eastern Australia +Lockyer Valley in South-eastern Queensland, Australia +Southland Plains in Southland, New Zealand +Waikato Plains in Waikato, New Zealand + + +=== South America === +Gran Chaco in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay +Llanos in Colombia and Venezuela +Llanos de Moxos in Bolivia +Middle Amazon in Brazil + + +== See also == +Alluvial fan +Alluvium +Coastal plain +Desert pavement +Floodplain +River delta + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b98561e9b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Americas (terminology)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:46.319434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Americas, also known as America, are lands of the Western Hemisphere, composed of numerous entities and regions variably defined by geography, politics, and culture. +The Americas are recognized in the English-speaking world to include two separate continents: North America and South America. In parts of Europe and Latin America, America is considered to be a single continent, within which North and South America are subcontinents. + +== Physical geography == +North America—the continent and associated islands of the Northern Hemisphere and (chiefly) Western Hemisphere. It lies northwest of South America and is bounded by the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific Oceans. +Middle America—the territory between the southern Rocky Mountains and the northern tip of the Andes. This isthmus marks the transition between North and South America. It may also include the Caribbean. +Central America—the narrow southern portion of mainland North America connecting with South America, extending from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Isthmus of Panama; alternatively, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt may delimit the region on the north. +Caribbean—the region between southeastern North America and northern South America, consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (most of which enclose the sea), and the surrounding coasts. The islands—composed of the Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, and Lucayan Archipelago—are also known as the West Indies (or, in some languages, the Antilles). +South America—the continent and associated islands of the Western Hemisphere. It is chiefly in the Southern Hemisphere and lies between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, southeast of North America. + +== Human geography == + +=== Geographical or geopolitical regions === +North America—when used to denote less than the entire North American continent, contains Canada, Mexico, and the United States, and the dependencies of Bermuda (U.K.), Greenland (Denmark), and Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France). Occasionally, this refers to just Canada and the United States together. +Middle America—Mexico and the nations of Central America; often also includes the West Indies. Occasionally, Colombia and Venezuela are also included in Middle America. +Central America—the southern region of the North American continent, comprising Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Sometimes, Central America may be defined to only include the five countries which gained independence as the United Provinces of Central America. This definition excludes Belize and Panama. +West Indies—the island territories of the Caribbean. +South America—contains the nations of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela, and the French overseas department of French Guiana. Also includes the insular territories of the Falkland Islands (U.K.), the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (U.K.), Fernando de Noronha (Brazil), Trindade and Martim Vaz (Brazil), the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador), and the Juan Fernández Islands (Chile). +Middle America (United States)—Middle America may also refer to the midwestern United States or the middle-class segment of the U.S. population. + +=== United Nations geoscheme === + +Northern America—the northern region of the North American continent, including Canada, the United States, Greenland, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, and Bermuda. +Latin America and the Caribbean-extending from The Bahamas and Mexico to Argentina and Chile. +Central America—the countries south of Mexico and north of Colombia. +The Caribbean. +South America—all the countries south of Panama. +Within this scheme, the continent of America includes Northern America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America. + +=== Political divisions === + +United States of America—a federal republic in North America founded in 1776 and comprising 50 states (one of which, Hawaii, is not considered to be located in North America) and one federal district (the District of Columbia), with several outlying territories of varying affiliation; commonly referred to as the U.S. or simply America. +Confederate States of America—a former confederation in North America from 1861 to 1865, comprising eleven southern states that attempted to secede from the United States of America: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Their rebellion precipitated the American Civil War; upon its conclusion, the Confederate States were readmitted to representation in the United States Congress. +British America—former designation for British possessions in the Americas. +British North America—former designation for territories in North America colonised by Great Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly after 1783 and in reference to Canada. At the start of the American Revolution in 1775, the British Empire in North America included twenty colonies north of Mexico. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolution and established boundaries between the United States and British North America; East Florida and West Florida were also ceded to Spain in the treaty, and then ceded by Spain to the US in 1819. From 1867 to 1873, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America confederated (through a series of eponymous acts) into the Dominion of Canada. Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949. +British West Indies—the islands and territories of the Caribbean under British colonial influence. +Federal Republic of Central America—formerly the United Provinces of Central America, a federal republic in Central America from 1823 to 1840 comprising the newly independent Spanish territories: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and (later) Los Altos. In 1838, the federation succumbed to civil war and dissolved. +Northern America (América Septentrional)-the first official name of Mexico. +Mexican America (América Mexicana)-a name chosen and drafted in the first Mexican constitution. +United Provinces of South America, denomination of Argentina during the early developments of the Argentine War of Independence, and official denomination of the country as per the 1819 Constitution (rejected 1820). +West Indies Federation—a federation of several Caribbean island colonies and territories of the United Kingdom (see also: British West Indies) from 1958 to 1962. This was followed by the West Indies Associated States, a smaller, looser polity, from 1967 to 1981. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a4c6b20a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Americas (terminology)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:46.319434+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Linguistic/cultural regions === +Anglo-America—the region of the Americas having significant historical, linguistic, and cultural links to England or the British Isles, i.e., Anglophone; often just Canada and the United States. +Latin America—the region of the Americas where Romance languages derived from Latin–namely Spanish, Portuguese, and variably French–are officially or primarily spoken. Though French is spoken in Quebec, it is typically not included due to Canada's links to Britain. +Ibero-America—the region of the Americas having significant historical, linguistic, and cultural links to Spain or Portugal (both on the Iberian Peninsula), i.e., Hispanophone and Lusophone. +Hispanic America (also Spanish America)—those countries inhabited by Spanish-speaking populations. +French America—the Francophone region. +Mesoamerica—a region of the Americas extending from central Mexico southeast to Nicaragua and Costa Rica; a term used especially in archaeology and ethnohistory for the region where an array of civilizations had flourished during the pre-Columbian era, and which shared a number of historical and cultural traditions. +Mesoamerican Linguistic Area—a sprachbund, or linguistic region, defined as the area inhabited by speakers of a set of indigenous languages which have developed certain similarities as a result of their historic and geographical connections; roughly co-terminate with the archaeological/ethnohistorical Mesoamerica. +Aridoamerica—an archaeological/ethnohistorical regional division, essentially comprising the arid/semi-arid northern portion of present-day Mexico, whose historical peoples are generally characterized by a nomadic existence and minimal reliance on agriculture. +Oasisamerica—an occasionally used archaeological/ethnohistorical term for a (pre-Columbian) cultural region of North America. + +== See also == +American (word) +Naming of the Americas +Columbia (name) +Supercontinent, subcontinent, microcontinent, and continental shelf +Region, subregion, and trade block +Geography +Physical geography +Political geography and geopolitics +Human geography and regional science + +== References == + +== Sources == +The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online. 2005. New York: Columbia University Press (proprietary; limited access). +Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. 2003. (ISBN 0-87779-809-5) New York: Merriam-Webster, Inc. +Oxford English Reference Dictionary, 2nd ed. (rev.) 2002. (ISBN 0-19-860652-4) Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. +What's the difference between North, Latin, Central, Middle, South, Spanish and Anglo America?. Archived 2016-04-10 at the Wayback Machine. Geography at about.com. +Map of North a Middle America \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8007f2f22 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Anatopism" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:47.579101+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An anatopism (from the Ancient Greek ἀνά, "against," and τόπος, "place") is something that is out of its proper place. +The concept of anatopism is less widely familiar than that of anachronism, perhaps because much that is anatopic is also anachronistic. Yet the distinction is a valid one; not all that is anatopic is necessarily also anachronistic. +The online Collins English Dictionary gives a synonym for "anatopism": anachorism (from Greek: ana- + khōros, "place"): "a geographical misplacement; something located in an incongruent position". + + +== Examples == +Catherine Hardwicke's 2006 film The Nativity Story shows a field of maize in a Nazareth farming scene. Maize is native to Mesoamerica, not to the Middle East, and in pre-Columbian times was grown only in the Americas. The use of maize in this film is an anatopism as well as an anachronism. +The same anatopism appears in the first part ("The Warrior Pharaohs") of a three-part 2002 PBS documentary series on "Egypt's Golden Empire" depicting the history of ancient Egypt's New Kingdom: ears of maize corn are shown in a scene recreating the battle and siege of Megiddo in the 15th century BC. +Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, set in 180 AD, features Roman soldiers riding horses using saddles with stirrups. While the Romans had had saddles since about 100 BC, and stirrups had existed in the world since about 700 BC, stirrups did not appear in Europe until about the 6th or 7th century AD, making them both anatopic and anachronistic. +The opening scene of Disney's 1994 film The Lion King features a variety of African animals venturing to Pride Rock. However, the ants that appear in the scene hold leaves in their mandibles, behavior that only leaf cutter ants in Latin America exhibit. +John Ford's much-lauded 1939 film Stagecoach was filmed in Monument Valley on the Arizona-Utah border, but textually set in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. The vegetation and topography of Monument Valley and the lower-altitude deserts are vastly different, rendering the film's actual location notably anatopic. +Scenes of the Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889 in the 1960 film Cimarron were shot near Tucson, Arizona. The arid subtropical Sonoran Desert landscape bears no resemblance to the fertile terrain of the central Oklahoma of the land rush, and in the background are sky island mountains typical of the desert Southwest but non-existent in Oklahoma. +The Polish writer Bolesław Prus, for the sake of making a point, introduces into chapter 63 of his historical novel Pharaoh, set in the ancient Egypt of 1087–1085 BC, a substance that behaves like gunpowder. This appears to be both an anachronism and an anatopism, since gunpowder is thought to have been invented, some time later, in China or in Arabia. Another apparent anatopism introduced by the author (in chapter 45) is an object that resembles a telescope, that may also be an anachronism. + + +== See also == +Anachronism + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, Warsaw, Polestar Publications, and New York, Hippocrene Books, 2001, ISBN 83-88177-01-X. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6bf58d712 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Anthropization" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:48.874145+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geography and ecology, anthropization is the conversion of open spaces, landscapes, and natural environments by human action. +Anthropic erosion is the process of human action degrading terrain and soil. +An area may be classified as anthropized even though it looks natural, such as grasslands that have been deforested by humans. It can be difficult to determine how much a site has been anthropized in the case of urbanization because one must be able to estimate the state of the landscape before significant human action. + + +== Origin == +The earliest known stages of anthropization can be found as early as the Neolithic era and the basic farmland created in that time. With the continually-growing population of humans, the land that the Earth provides has been appropriated over the years. The ecological footprint created by anthropization is continually growing despite efficiency and technique improvements made in anthropization.. +Whether anthropized or not, all land seldom a few locations has been claimed. Outside of the largely inhospitable Arctic and Antarctic circles and large portions of other uninhabitable landscapes, much of the globe has been used or altered in some direct way by humans. Land has been appropriated for many different reasons, but ultimately the outcome is typically a short-term benefit for humans. An area is anthropized is some way to make land available for housing, to harvest the resources, to create space for some anthropological reason, or many other possibilities. + + +== Processes and effects == + + +=== Agriculture === +The root of many early forms of civilization, agriculture has been a primary reason for anthropization. To cultivate food or breed animals, humans must alter land—till soil or build structures—to facilitate agriculture. This can lead to soil erosion and pollution (pesticides, greenhouse gas emissions, etc.), and subsequently habitat fragmentation and overall an increased ecological footprint. Agriculture and industry often overlap, and industry produces many of these effects too. + + +=== Urban development === +Especially with approximately 7.5 Billion humans inhabiting the Earth, this typically aligns with an increase in residences worldwide. Over the years, humans have built on land to meet their needs and wants. These actions range from small villages to massive factories, water parks, and apartments. Urbanization and development of human residences can significantly affect the environment. Not only does the physical space of buildings fragment habitats and possibly endanger species, but it fundamentally alters the habitat for any other living being. For some species, this effect can be inconsequential, but for many this can have a dramatic impact. The biosphere is very much interconnected, and this means that if one organism is affected, then as a result the other organisms within this ecosystem and food chain are also affected. + +As well, within the last century, any urbanized area requires roads for transportation. This transportation is a continued source of pollution, and the roads can be a source of soil erosion. + + +=== Industry and technology === +To support humans, industrial buildings and processes are apparently essential. Urban development and agriculture require that people produce, refined, or construct many things. Key to this is that factories require that people gather the materials they need to create a product. The wide range of products in this anthropological age use a plethora of substances that must be harvested or produced. Many of these materials are non-renewable (e.g., fossil fuel, metal ores, etc.) and the harvest of these results in relatively permanent anthropization. For resources that depend on in high quantity, this can also mean temporary depletion or damage to the source of the resource (e.g., depletion or pollution of fresh water reserves, improper or inefficient silviculture, etc.). Even sustainable or renewable industrial anthropization still affects the environment. While the resource in question may not be in jeopardy, the harvest and processing can still change and damage the environment. + + +==== Science ==== +Anthropization can also be a result of scientific endeavours. This can manifest as construction of structures to aid in scientific discovery and observation. This can range from structures such as observatories, or on the opposite scale the Large Hadron Collider. These and many other things are built and used to enhance knowledge of sciences. They do however require space and energy. + + +==== Energy ==== +To power the ever-growing human race, energy is needed. Power-harvesting structures are built to harness energy, such as dams, windmills, and nuclear reactors. These sources of energy ultimately fuel the rest of anthropological activity and are essential in this way. However many of these methods have consequences. With dams, construction aside, they can cause flooding, habitat fragmentation, and other effects. With nuclear reactors, they have a lasting effect in that typically a lifespan of one of these is around 50 years and afterwards the nuclear waste must be dealt with, and the structure itself must be shut down and cannot be used further. To safely dispose of this even low-level waste can take hundreds of years, ranging upwards with increased radioactivity. To produce and as a result of this production of energy, it requires a lot of anthropized land. + + +== Evolution of anthropization == + +Changes in population directly effect anthropological impact—but changes in technology and knowledge have greatly changed anthropization throughout the Holocene. The tools and methods that humans use to anthropize have changed drastically. For examples, the great pyramids in Egypt were not constructed by some large machine, but instead by thousands of humans. They were still able to build massive monuments, but the efficiency of their efforts and environmental damage was very different from what would be possible today. This shows that the environmental effect of modern anthropization is generally greater, not just because of the increase in population. Pollution and loss of biodiversity in Egypt was largely natural, not man-made, and anthropization existed on a much lower level. +As the human population of Earth increase, this anthropization will continue to evolve. + + +== See also == +Ecological footprint +Land development +Land use +Wilderness +Artificialization + + +== References == + + +== External links == + + Media related to Anthropization at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6e5823ada --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Backcountry" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:51.538300+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geography, a backcountry, back country or backwater is a geographical area that is remote, undeveloped, isolated, or difficult to access. These areas are typically rural or mountainous and sparsely populated. + + +== Terminology == + + +=== Backcountry and wilderness within United States national parks === +The National Park Service (NPS) generally uses the term "backcountry" to refer to "primitive, undeveloped portions of parks". Developments within backcountry areas are generally limited to trails, unpaved roads, and administrative facilities associated with dispersed recreational use. Dispersed recreational use is the most prevalent human use in backcountry areas, although research activities may also occur. +The NPS defines wilderness within US national parks as any "backcountry areas which have been specifically designated as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System or any other area that has been determined to possess the characteristics of wilderness as defined by Section 2(c) of the Wilderness Act". Section 2(c) states in part that wilderness: + +(1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least five thousand acres of land or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value. +Wilderness lands within US national parks are a subset of all backcountry lands. Wilderness and backcountry lands also exist outside of US national parks on public lands managed by the US Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. + + +=== Use of the term "backcountry" in New Zealand and Australia === +In New Zealand, "backcountry" often refers to land that is not accessible by public access. For example, it is common for a farmer to have some remote parts of their land left in scrubland or forest. This is often adjacent to other areas of backcountry which are yet to be developed or protected from development. Trampers and other explorers sometimes need to get farmers' permission to access parts of the national parks of New Zealand or other natural phenomena, if they intend to pass over backcountry. Hunters can ask for permission from farmers to hunt in their backcountry. + + +==== Backcountry in Australia ==== +Backcountry is generally only used for mountainous areas where snow falls in Australia, whereas other remote areas are usually called "the bush" which can cover both national park areas and farming areas. + + +== Hazards == +The backcountry may contain many hazards including rough terrain, life-threatening weather, avalanches, and wild animals. In the United States, tragic accidents and dramatic backcountry rescues of stranded hikers, climbers, or skiers are a staple of news reporting. +Some United States jurisdictions have discussed placing limits on human access to the backcountry during times of particular danger. + + +== See also == +Backcountry skiing +Backcountry snowboarding +Backcountry.com +Backcountry hut +Badlands +Bushland +Countryside +Desert +Outback +The bush +Potability of backcountry water +Wilderness +Frontcountry +Slackcountry + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c8b663907 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Barrier ridge" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:54.171011+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The terms barrier ridge, a term of art in the earth sciences, especially geology and sometimes barrier range (more common as a geography term) describing the existence of gross landforms describing long ridgelines which are particularly difficult to pass, especially in the context of being on foot or dependent upon other forms of animal powered transportation systems, in mountainous and sometimes hilly terrains. +Barrier ridges such as the steep rising slopes or escarpments of the Allegheny Front, separating the ridge-and-valley Appalachians from the drainage divides of the uplands of the Appalachian Plateau. The ridge and valley region is filled with a succession of nearly impassible ridges from Northern Georgia, along the Appalachian chain all the way to Maine. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Barrier ridge at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7bd37d13a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Binary distribution" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:55.509941+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Binary distribution is the presence of two or more very large and dominant cities in a country. + + +== Countries with binary distribution == +Australia (Melbourne, Sydney) +Brazil (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro) +Canada (Toronto, Montréal) +China (Shanghai, Beijing) +India (Mumbai, Delhi) +Italy (Rome, Milan) +Japan (Tokyo, Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto) +Netherlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam) +Russia (Moscow, Saint Petersburg) +Spain (Madrid, Barcelona) +Turkey (Ankara, Istanbul) +USA (New York City, Los Angeles) +Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b3dfce331 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Boundary (real estate)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:56.802552+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A unit of real estate or immovable property is limited by a legal boundary (sometimes also referred to as a property line, lot line or bounds). The boundary (in Latin: limes) may appear as a discontinuation in the terrain: a ditch, a bank, a hedge, a wall, or similar, but essentially, a legal boundary is a conceptual entity, a social construct, adjunct to the likewise abstract entity of property rights. +A cadastral map displays how boundaries subdivide land into units of ownership. However, the relations between society, owner, and land in any culture or jurisdiction are conceived of in terms more complex than a tessellation. Therefore, the society concerned has to specify the rules and means by which the boundary concept is materialized and located on the ground. +A 'Western' version of the boundary determination might be a legally specified procedure, performed by a chartered surveyor, supported by statements from neighbors and pertinent documents, and resulting in official recording in the cadastre as well as boundary markings in the field. Alternatively, indigenous people represent boundaries through ephemeral performances, such as song and dance, and, when in more permanent form, e.g. paintings or carvings, in an artistic or metaphorical manner. + + +== Identifying boundaries == + +Legal boundaries are usually established by a professional surveyor using a transit and or modern Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. The coordinates of the property line are often described on a drawing called a "plot plan" or "plat" by indicating the length of the boundary along a specific compass bearing in relation to a verifiable "point of beginning". The metes and bounds method is also used to provide a legal description of a property. +On maps, the line may be marked with U+214A ⅊ PROPERTY LINE. +The ⅊ symbol may also be used in architectural drawings and CAD design to show plates. + + +== Related concepts == +Land parcel +Boundary dispute +Butts and bounds +Digital Cadastral DataBase +National territories and borders +Redistribution, land consolidation +Surveying, Coordinate system +Territory (administrative division) +Title (property) +Commons + + +== References == + +Dyson, L. E.; Hendriks, M.; Grant, S. (2007) Information Technology and Indigenous People. Information Science Publishing. ISBN 1-59904-298-3 + + +== External links == + Media related to Boundary (real estate) at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0bcd812db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Butte" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:58.123904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geomorphology, a butte ( BEWT) is an isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small, relatively flat top; buttes are smaller landforms than mesas, plateaus, and tablelands. The word butte comes from the French word butte (French: [byt]), meaning 'knoll' (of any size); its use is prevalent in the Western United States, including the Southwest, where mesa (Spanish for 'table') is used for the larger landform. +Due to their distinctive shapes, buttes are frequently landmarks in plains and mountainous areas. To differentiate the two landforms, geographers use the rule of thumb that a mesa has a top that is wider than its height, while a butte has a top that is narrower than its height. + + +== Formation == +Buttes form by weathering and erosion when hard caprock overlies a layer of less resistant rock that is eventually worn away. The harder rock on top of the butte resists erosion. The caprock provides protection for the less resistant rock below from wind abrasion which leaves it standing isolated. As the top is further eroded by abrasion and weathering, the excess material that falls off adds to the scree or talus slope around the base. On a much smaller scale, the same process forms hoodoos. + + +== Notable buttes == +The Mitten Buttes of Monument Valley in the Utah–Arizona state line are two of the most distinctive and widely recognized buttes. Monument Valley and the Mittens provided backgrounds in the scenes of many western-themed films, including seven movies directed by John Ford. Another very well-known and frequently photographed butte in northern Arizona is Thumb Butte, which overlooks the city of Prescott and is the most prominent and distinctive geologic landmark in the vicinity. The Devils Tower in northeastern Wyoming is a laccolithic butte composed of igneous rock rather than sandstone, limestone or other sedimentary rocks. + +The term butte is sometimes applied more broadly to isolated, steep-sided hills with pointed or craggy, rather than flat, tops. Three notable formations that are either named butte or may be considered buttes even though they do not conform to the formal geographer's rule are Scotts Bluff in Nebraska which is a collection of five bluffs, Crested Butte, which is a 12,168 ft (3,709 m) mountain in Colorado, and Elephant Butte, which is now an island in Elephant Butte Reservoir in New Mexico. +Among the well-known non-flat-topped buttes in the United States are Bear Butte, South Dakota, Black Butte, Oregon, and the Sutter Buttes in California. In many cases, buttes have been given other names that do not use the word butte, for example, Courthouse Rock, Nebraska. Also, some large hills that are technically not buttes have names using the word, examples of which are Kamiak Butte, Chelan Butte and Steptoe Butte in Washington state. + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +"Butte" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. +"Butte" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63f8bf55b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,252 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of Arabic toponyms" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:50.237695+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The glossary of Arabic toponyms gives translations of Arabic terms commonly found as components in Arabic toponyms. A significant number of them were put together during the PEF Survey of Palestine carried out in the second half of the 19th century. + + +== A == + +'Ain, pl.: `Ayūn, ʿUyūn +Spring, fountain, source. Examples: El Aaiún +All pages with titles containing Ain +All pages with titles containing Aiun + +Ab, Abu +Father; as a geographical term it signifies "producing", "containing", etc.; +All pages with titles containing Ab +All pages with titles containing Abu + +Arak, pl.: Arkan +Cavern or cliff (among various meanings); see All pages with titles containing Arak + + +== B == + +Bab, pl.: Buwab +Gate. Examples Bab el-Mandeb; see All pages with titles containing Bab +Baḥr + Arabic: بحر - Sea, large river. see All pages with titles containing Bahr +Beit +House. see All pages with titles containing Beit +Balad +Arabic: بلد (sometimes transliterated as Beled or Belled) - Town; see All pages with titles containing Balad +Bir +Arabic: بير, Well; see All pages with titles containing Bir +Birkeh + Artificial pool, tank; see All pages with titles containing Birkeh +Buḥayra, Baḥeirah +Arabic: بحيرة, Lake, lagoon; Diminutive of بَحْر (baḥr, “sea”). +Burj +Arabic: برج, Tower, castle; see All pages with titles containing Burj + + +== C == + +Casbah +a kind of medina (old city) or fortress; cf. "Qasba"; see All pages with titles containing Casbah + + +== D == + +Dar +wikt:دار house; see Relevant pages with titles containing Dar +Deir +wikt:دير monastery, convent, cloister (often ruins thereof); see All pages with titles containing Deir +Derb +wikt:درب road, pass;see All pages with titles containing Derb +Dhahr +wikt:ظهر ridge; All pages with titles containing Dhahr + + +== H == + +Haram +Sacred place; see All pages with titles containing Haram +Haud +Reservoir, pond; see All pages with titles containing Haud + + +== I == + +Ibn +Son; as a geographical term it signifies "producing", "containing", etc. see All pages with titles containing Ibn + + +== J == + +Jama'a, Djama'a, Jami'a +place of gathering, community, mosque; +All pages with titles containing Jama'a +All pages with titles containing Jami'a + +Jazira, Jezireh, Jeziret +Island; +All pages with titles containing Jazira +All pages with titles containing Jezireh +All pages with titles containing Jeziret + +Jebel, Djebel, Jebal, Jabal +mountain; +All pages with titles containing Jabal +All pages with titles containing Jebal +All pages with titles containing Jebel +All pages with titles containing Djebel + +Jisr +bridge; see All pages with titles containing Jisr + +Jubb +(Arabic: جُبّ ): well, pit; see All pages with titles containing Jubb + + +== K == + +Kafr, Kafar, Kafer, Kufur, Kfar +Ultimately from an unattested "Mari language" through Akkadian and Aramaic, meaning "unfortified town". See the Wiktionary entry at كفر. Equivalent to Modern Hebrew Kfar. Unrelated to kafir or kufr. +All pages with titles containing Kafr +All pages with titles containing Kafar +All pages with titles containing Kafer +All pages with titles containing Kufur +All pages with titles containing Kfar + +Kasbah, Kasba, Kasaba +See Qasba +All pages with titles containing Kasba +All pages with titles containing Kasbah + +Khan +From Persian xân, meaning caravanserai. Unrelated to the "Khan" in "Genghis Khan". +Relevant pages with titles containing Khan + +Khirbet, Khurbet, Khirbat, etc. +is the conjunctive form "ruin of" (خربة) of the Arabic word for "ruin" (خرب, khirba, khirbeh, kharab ("ruined")) +All pages with titles containing Khirbet +All pages with titles containing Khirbat +All pages with titles containing Khurbet +All pages with titles containing Kharab + +Ksar, qsar, plural: ksour, qsour +Maghrebi Arabic; See "Qasr" +All pages with titles containing Ksar +All pages with titles containing Ksour +All pages with titles containing Qsar + +Kul'ah, Kal'at, Kalat, Kala, Kaleh +Arabic, Persian. See "Qalat" +All pages with titles containing Kal'at +All pages with titles containing Kalat +All pages with titles containing Kaleh + + +== M == + +Mazar +مزار: shrine, grave, tomb, etc. cf. "Mazar (mausoleum)". The placename usually refers to a grave of a saint, ruler, etc.. Examples: Mazar-i-Sharif +All pages with titles containing Mazar +All pages with titles containing Al-Mazar +All pages with titles containing Almazar + +Mazra', Mazra'a, Al-Mazra'a, Mazraa + مزرعة, mazraʿa: farm, مزرع, mazraʿ: field, farmland, origin for majra, hamlet in Indian subcontinent + + +== N == + +Nahr +wikt:نهر, river, with the particular meaning of perennial water course, as opposed to a seasonal one, which is called a wadi; see All pages with titles containing Nahr-e + + +== O == + +Oued + In North African Arabic, same as Wadi; see All pages with titles containing Oued + + +== Q == + +Qabr, Kabr, pl.:Qubūr +Arabic: قَبْر, pl. Arabic: قُبُور - tomb, grave +All pages with titles containing Qabr +All pages with titles containing Qubur + +Qal'a (construct state: qal'at) +Arabic, Persian. Fortified place, fort, fortress, castle; +All pages with titles containing al-Qal'a +All pages with titles containing Qal'at + +Casbah, Kasbah, Qaṣba, Qaṣbah, Qaṣaba +Arabic: القصبة, romanized: al-qaṣaba), a kind of medina (old city) or fortress +All pages with titles containing Casbah +All pages with titles containing Qasba +All pages with titles containing Qasbah +All pages with titles containing Qasaba +All pages with titles containing Kasbah + +Qaṣr, Kaṣr, al-Qaṣr, pl.:Quṣūr +Arabic: قصر, lit. 'palace/castle/fortress', from Latin castrum +All pages with titles containing Qasr +All pages with titles containing Kasr +All pages with titles containing Qusur +It entered into Spanish and Portuguese placenames in the forms Alcazar, Alcácer +North African (Maghrebi Arabic) form: Ksar + The dictionary definition of qasr at Wiktionary + + +== R == + +Ras +wikt:رأس, head, cape, top, peak, etc., see All pages with titles containing Ras + +Rujm, plural: rujum +wikt:رجم, mound, cairn, hill, spur, and also as "stone heap" or "tumulus". +All pages with titles containing Rujm +All pages with titles containing Rujum + + +== S == + +souk, sūq, souq +wikt:سوق, "market" +All pages with titles containing Souk +All pages with titles containing Suk +All pages with titles containing Souq + + +== U == + +Umm +Mother; as a geographical term it signifies "producing", "containing", etc.; cf. "Mother of all"; see All pages with titles containing Umm + + +== W == + +Wadi, Wad, North African Arabic: see Oued +Watercourse: stream (often intermittent stream), sometimes dry waterbed, valley +All pages with titles containing Wadi +All pages with titles containing Wady +All pages with titles containing Wad +All pages with titles containing Oued + + +== See also == +Toponymy of Maghreb +Oikonyms in Western and South Asia +Place names of Palestine +List of Arabic place names + + +== References == + + +== Sources == + + +== External links == +The intro to a 1950s gazetteer for 35,000 placenames of Arabian Peninsula and surrounding waters and islands contains a glossary of generic toponymic features \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..656c8dd32 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 1/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of geography terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in geography and related fields, including Earth science, oceanography, cartography, and human geography, as well as those describing spatial dimension, topographical features, natural resources, and the collection, analysis, and visualization of geographic data. It is split across two articles: + +This page, Glossary of geography terms (A–M), lists terms beginning with the letters A through M. +Glossary of geography terms (N–Z) lists terms beginning with the letters N through Z. +Related terms may be found in Glossary of geology, Glossary of agriculture, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of astronomy. + +== A == + +absolute location +The particular location of a point on Earth's surface that can be expressed by a grid reference such as latitude and longitude. + +accessibility +A locational characteristic that permits a place to be reached by the efforts of those at other places. + +accessibility resource +A naturally emergent landscape form that eases communication between areas. + +acculturation +The act of adopting a culture different to your own; usually due to immersion into a dominant group. + +acme +See summit. + +acre (ac) +A unit of area traditionally defined as the area of a plot of land one chain (66 feet) by one furlong (660 feet), equivalent to 43,560 square feet (0.001563 sq mi; 4,047 m2), or about 0.40 hectare. + +active volcano +A volcano that is currently erupting, or one that has erupted within the last 10,000 years (the Holocene) or during recorded history. + +adret +The sunny, warm aspect of a hill or mountain, as opposed to the ubac or shady side. + +affluent +See tributary. + +agricultural geography +A sub-discipline of geography which studies the spatial relationships between humans and agriculture, as well as the cultural, political, and environmental processes that lead to parts of the Earth's surface being transformed into agricultural landscapes through primary sector activities. + +alluvial fan +A distinctly triangular or fan-shaped deposit of sediment transported by water, often referred to as alluvium. Alluvial fans usually form at the base of mountains, where high-velocity rivers or streams meet a relatively flat area and lose the energy needed to carry large quantities of sediment, which ultimately spreads out in all available directions. They tend to be larger and more obvious in arid regions. + +alluvial plain +A wide, flat, gently sloping plain created by the long-term deposition of alluvium from one or more rivers flowing from highland regions, and typically characterized by various fluvial landforms such as braided streams, terraces, and meanders. Alluvial plains encompass the larger area over which a river's floodplain has shifted through geological time. + +alluvial soils +Soils deposited through the action of moving water. These soils lack horizons and are usually highly fertile. + +alluvium +Clay, silt, gravel, or similar detrital material deposited by flowing water. + +alpine +Characteristic of or resembling the European Alps, or any other high-elevation mountain range or mountainous environment (especially one deeply modified by glacial erosion so as to contain characteristic landforms such as cirques, horns, etc.), in topography, climate, or ecological communities. + +altitude +The height of an object in the atmosphere above sea level. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with elevation. + +amphidromic point +Also amphidrome and tidal node. +A geographical location where there is little or no tide, i.e. where the tidal amplitude is zero or nearly zero because the height of sea level does not change appreciably over time (meaning there is no high tide or low tide), and around which a tidal crest circulates once per tidal period (approximately every 12 hours). Tidal amplitude increases, though not uniformly, with distance from these points. Amphidromic points are the consequence of resonance phenomena which occur when obstructing landmasses reflect tidal bulges back and forth across oceanic basins; their precise locations, usually in the open ocean near the center of the basin, depend largely on the surrounding topography and bathymetry, and also vary slightly with winds, currents, and the positions of the Sun and the Moon. There are at least a dozen well-defined amphidromic points across the Earth's oceans. + +anastomosing stream +Also anastomosed stream. +A stream or river composed of multiple, branching, interconnected, coexisting channels that enclose floodbasins on alluvial plains, usually formed when a slow-moving river encounters avulsions that divert its flow, creating new channels on the floodplain. + +anecumene +Also anoecumene. +The part of the Earth's surface which is uninhabited and/or uninhabitable by human beings. Contrast ecumene. + +angle of repose +The steepest angle of descent or dip, relative to the horizontal plane, at which a mass of loose, freely movable material such as sand or unconsolidated rock debris can remain stationary, i.e. without sliding downward, despite the pull of gravity. + +Antarctic +The region of the Earth that is south of the Antarctic Circle. + +Antarctic Circle +The southernmost of the Earth's two polar circles of latitude, south of which the sun appears above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore visible at midnight) and also appears at least partially below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore not visible at noon). Its latitude is approximately 66°33′47.1″ south of the Equator. Contrast Arctic Circle. + +antecedent stream +Also antecedent river and antecedent drainage. +A stream or other watercourse that existed before the present form of the surrounding land surface was established and which maintains its original course and pattern despite changes in the local geology or topography. For example, a landscape featuring a river with a dendritic drainage pattern may be altered by gradual, localized tectonic uplift, but the river may be sufficiently powerful to erode through the new obstructions as rapidly as they are formed, carving a gorge rather than being redirected, and thereby preserving its dendritic pattern even though it now flows over a landscape that typically produces very different drainage patterns. Compare insequent stream. + +anthropization +The conversion of open spaces, landscapes, and natural environments by human action. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..faf7d7178 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 2/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +anthropogenic +1. Of or relating to anthropogeny, the scientific study of the origins of human beings. +2. Having an origin in human activity; caused by or attributable to humans. + +anti-dip stream +A stream flowing in a direction approximately opposite to that of the dip of the underlying surface rocks. It is frequently, though not necessarily, an obsequent stream. + +anticline +A geological upfold that has an arch-like convex shape and its oldest beds near its center, often visible at the Earth's surface in exposed rock strata. Contrast syncline. + +antimeridian +1. The meridian of longitude that is directly opposite or antipodal to a given meridian, i.e. the imaginary line that is exactly 180 degrees of longitude distant from the given meridian. Together, a meridian and its antimeridian form a great circle that passes through the geographic poles. +2. The 180th meridian in particular, i.e. the meridian of longitude that is exactly 180 degrees both east and west of the Prime Meridian, with which it forms a great circle dividing the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The 180th meridian is used as the approximate basis for the International Date Line because it mostly passes through the open waters of the Pacific Ocean. + +antipodes +Any pair of points on the Earth's surface that are diametrically opposite to each other, such that a straight line connecting them would pass through the Earth's center. Such points are as far away from each other as possible, with the great-circle distance between them being approximately 20,000 kilometres (12,000 mi). + +anywhere fix +A geographic position which a GPS receiver is able to calculate without requiring information about its own location or the local time. + +apogean tide +The tide when the Moon is at its furthest distance from Earth in its orbit (its apogee), during which its gravitational pull is reduced, resulting in a smaller tidal range than is usual, i.e. lower high tides and higher low tides. Contrast perigean tide. + +apparent place +The apparent position of an object in space as seen by an observer, which, because of physical and geometric effects, may differ from the object's true position. + +applied geography +The application of geographical knowledge and techniques to the solution of economic and social problems on any scale, ranging from local to global, in disciplines such as civic planning, land use and management, location policy, and population studies, among many others. + +apposed glacier +A glacier resulting from the merging of two separate glaciers. + +apron +A spread of alluvium deposited by streams, especially those originating from a melting glacier. See also alluvial fan and outwash plain. + +aquiclude +A normally permeable rock, underlying or overlying an aquifer, which becomes impermeable because of the saturation of its pores by water, potentially creating a confined aquifer. + +aquifer +Also aquafer. +An underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials such as gravel, sand, or silt, which is sufficiently porous to carry or conduct water yet also sufficiently coarse or non-absorptive to release the water and thereby permit its exposure to or access from the ground surface. Groundwater from aquifers may naturally emerge at the surface, e.g. at a spring, or may be extracted using man-made wells. There are many different types of aquifer with various levels of hydraulic conductivity. + +aquifuge +An impermeable rock stratum which not only obstructs the passage of water but cannot absorb it, e.g. granite. + +aquitard +A bed or layer of rock that slows the conveyance of water from an aquifer due to its low permeability or low hydraulic conductivity. + +archipelago +Also island chain. +A chain, cluster, or collection of islands in a sea. + +arête +A sharp, narrow mountain ridge, often resulting from the erosive activity of alpine glaciers flowing in adjacent valleys. + +arroyo +Also wash. +A deep gully cut by a stream that flows only part of the year; a dry gulch. The term is used primarily in desert areas in North America and South America. + +Arctic +The region of the Earth that is north of the Arctic Circle. + +Arctic Circle +The northernmost of the Earth's two polar circles of latitude, north of which the sun appears above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore visible at midnight) and also appears at least partially below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore not fully visible at noon). Its latitude is approximately 66°33′47.1″ north of the Equator. Contrast Antarctic Circle. + +ash +Fragments of lava or rock less than 1⁄3 centimetre (0.13 in) in diameter that have been ejected into the atmosphere by a volcanic explosion. + +aspect +Also exposure. +The direction toward which a slope faces with respect to a compass or to the Sun's position in the sky, or the direction which a segment of coastline faces as it meets the sea. + +assimilation +The process by which the rock forming the wall of a magma chamber in incorporated into the magma itself. + +Atlantic Seaboard fall line +The physiographic border between the Piedmont and Atlantic coastal plain regions of eastern North America. The name derives from the river rapids and waterfalls that occur as the water flows from the hard rocks of the higher piedmont onto the softer rocks of the coastal plain. + +Atlantic-type coastline +See discordant coastline. + +atlas +A bound collection of maps. + +atmosphere +The mixture of gases, aerosols, solid particles, and water vapor that envelops the Earth. + +atoll +A ring-shaped coral reef that partially or completely encircles a lagoon. + +autonomous height +See topographic prominence. + +aven +A vertical or inclined shaft connecting a cave passage to the surface. + +avulsion +1. The sudden loss of land by the action of water. +2. The rapid abandonment by a river or stream of an existing channel in favor of the formation of a new channel, typically because the new channel follows a steeper or less obstructed course. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d2f7273b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 11/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +desire path +Also social trail. +Any path or trail, often a footpath, created as a consequence of erosion caused by repeated human or animal traffic, usually because it is the shortest or easiest route to navigate between an origin and a destination. Desire paths often emerge as shortcuts where constructed paths or roads are circuitous, have gaps, or are non-existent. + +dew pond +A shallow artificial pond built to capture and hold rainwater or sea mist in order to provide water for livestock, made especially in areas where natural supplies of surface water are not readily available, such as on the chalk downlands of southern England. + +diapir +A type of igneous intrusion in which a more mobile, ductile, or deformable rock or other material is forced to intrude into relatively brittle overlying rocks. + +diaspora +The scattered dispersion of a human population from its original homeland; or the members of a dispersed population, now residing in various locations to which they are not indigenous. + +digital elevation model (DEM) +A three-dimensional computer graphics representation of a geographic terrain surface created from elevation data. DEMs are the most common basis for digitally produced relief maps. + +dike +1. A ditch, wall, embankment, or ridge, natural or man-made, that is an obstacle to something else; another name for a levee. +2. In geology, an intrusion in which molten rock has ascended through an approximately vertical fissure and solidified into a wall of rock that is often harder or less permeable than the rocks of the surrounding strata. + +diocese +A type of administrative division used by certain Christian churches for religious purposes. + +direction +The position of one point relative to another without reference to the distance between them, usually expressed as the angular distance in degrees between a line connecting the two points and a reference direction. In cartography, navigation, and orienteering, direction is often considered only with respect to a two-dimensional plane (see compass rose), but it is also commonly interpreted in three dimensions. + +discharge +In hydrology, the volumetric flow rate of water through a cross-sectional area, i.e. the volume of water that passes a particular point along a waterway (e.g. a cross-section of a stream channel) per unit time. The measure includes the volumes of any suspended solids, dissolved chemicals, or organic matter in addition to the water itself. Discharge is commonly measured for both natural and man-made hydrological systems, where it may be referred to by various names including streamflow and outflow. + +discordant coastline +Also Atlantic-type coastline. +A coastline which cuts transversely across the predominant orientation of the local geological strata, i.e. not parallel to them, as with a concordant coastline. + +dissected plateau +A landscape produced by significant stream erosion and incision of a plateau such that only a small part of the plateau surface is at or near the original elevation of the summit; much of the area instead occurs as eroded hills or badlands. + +distance decay +The decrease in cultural or spatial interactions between two places as the distance between them increases. This effect may be noticeable in towns and cities, where certain characteristics such as pedestrian traffic, building height, and land value tend to decline with greater distance from the city center. + +distributary +A stream or river that branches off and flows away from a main channel and does not return to it. Distributaries are common near river deltas. Contrast tributary. + +district +A type of administrative subdivision used by governments and institutions worldwide, typically at regional or local levels. Districts are commonly drawn to define the jurisdictions of special local government services, such as law enforcement and education, and often function more or less independently of the municipal or county governments that designate them. The term can refer to a wide variety of official and colloquial subdivisions, including electoral districts, school districts, and shopping districts. + +divide +See drainage divide. + +doab +In parts of South Asia, the low alluvial plain lying between and reaching to the confluence of two rivers or streams. See also interfluve. + +doline +Also vrtače and shakehole. +A shallow enclosed basin or funnel-shaped depression typical of karst landscapes, usually with a flat floor and linked to the underlying drainage system by a vertical shaft. See also sinkhole. + +dome +1. A steep-sided mound that forms when very viscous lava is extruded from a volcanic vent. +2. An uplifted area of sedimentary rock with a downward dip in all directions, often caused by molten rock material pushing upward from below. The sediments have often eroded away, exposing the rocks that resulted when the molten material cooled. + +donga +In southern Africa, another name for a gully or badland carved by extreme erosion. + +dormant volcano +An active volcano that is in repose (quiescence) but is expected to erupt in the future. + +dormitory town +See commuter town. + +downland +Also down and downs. +An open, treeless expanse of gently undulating, elevated grassland, usually of chalk and supporting grazing for livestock. The term is used primarily in southern England, Australia, and New Zealand. + +downtown +In English-speaking North America, the commercial, cultural, and often historical and/or geographical center of a city or town, especially a large city within a major metropolitan area, often synonymous with its central business district. + +drainage +The natural or artificial removal of surface and/or sub-surface water from an area with excess water, e.g. via runoff facilitated by channels such as streams and rivers, into which water collects and is transported to sea level by gravity. The patterns, hierarchies, and evolution of drainage networks are widely studied in physical geography disciplines. + +drainage basin +Also catchment, drainage area, river basin, water basin, or watershed. +Any area of land where precipitation collects and drains into a common outlet, such as into a river, lake, ocean, or any other body of water. The drainage system includes all of the surface water from precipitation runoff and snowmelt, as well as all of the groundwater beneath the Earth's surface. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a drainage divide. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..386c1df81 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 12/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +drainage divide +Also ridgeline, watershed, water parting, water divide, or simply divide. +The topographical barrier that separates neighboring drainage basins. Divides are often, though not always, located along conspicuous elevated ridges or mountain ranges. + +draw +Also re-entrant. +1. A terrain feature formed by two parallel ridges or spurs with low ground in between them. +2. Another name for an arroyo, ravine, or gulch, especially one with a broad floor and gently sloping sides. + +draw down +The maximum extent to which the water table is reduced in elevation as a result of pumping water from a well that penetrates an aquifer. The amount of draw down diminishes logarithmically with distance from the site of the well, a fact which determines the shape of the subsurface cone of depression in the area surrounding the well. + +drift +All sediment transported by a glacier, sorted or unsorted, whether deposited directly by the ice or by glacial meltwater. + +drift ice +Also brash ice. +A type of sea ice consisting of multiple ice floes that are not attached to the shoreline or any other fixed object such as a shoal, and which are therefore free to "drift" under the influence of winds and ocean currents. Contrast fast ice. + +drowned valley +A valley which was originally formed on land but later partially or entirely submerged beneath the sea due to a rise in sea level. See also fjord, calanque, and ria. + +drumlin +An elongated hill in the shape of an inverted spoon or half-buried egg which is formed by glacial ice acting on underlying unconsolidated till or ground moraine. + +dry farming +A type of farming practiced in semi-arid or dry grassland areas without irrigation, instead using such approaches as fallowing, maintaining a finely broken surface, and growing drought-tolerant crops. + +dry gap +See wind gap. + +dry point +An area of firm or dry ground in a wetland, marsh, or floodplain, often capable of supporting a human settlement. + +dryland +An ecoregion or more generally any land area defined by a relative scarcity of water, where precipitation is evenly balanced or exceeded by evaporation from surfaces and evapotranspiration by plants. Drylands encompass all sub-humid and arid environments, from tropical savannas to hyper-arid extremes such as deserts. + +dune +A hill of loose sand built by the movements and erosional and depositional processes of wind or water, often occurring in deserts and coastal areas. + +== E == + +Earth science +Also called the Earth sciences or geoscience. +1. A collective term for the various fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. +2. The branch of science that studies the physical constitution and characteristics of the Earth and its atmosphere, using methods and tools from geography, geology, physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth works and changes over time. + +earthquake +A sudden and intense shaking of the ground due to tectonic activity. + +Eastern Hemisphere +The half sphere of the Earth that is east of the Prime Meridian and west of the antimeridian. It is opposite the Western Hemisphere. + +easting + +economic distance +The physical distance a commodity may travel before its value is exceeded by the costs of transporting it. + +economic geography +A sub-discipline of geography which studies the location, distribution, and spatial organization of economic activities across the world. + +economic tiger +A country with rapid economic growth due to cheap labor, quickly advancing technology, and/or policies favoring aggressive exports. + +economies of agglomeration +The economic advantages that accrue to an activity by locating close to other activities; benefits that follow from complementarity or shared public services. + +econym +See oeconym. + +ecoregion +Also called an ecological region. +A type of biogeographic province that is smaller than a bioregion and which contains characteristic, ecologically and geographically distinct, and relatively uniform assemblages of biological communities and species. Ecoregion boundaries often overlap within ecotones and mosaic habitats, and most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from those described for their assigned biome. + +ecotone +A transition area between two biological communities, where different communities meet and integrate. It may manifest as a gradual blending of the communities across a broad area, or as an abrupt boundary line. + +ecumene +Also oecumene. +1. The habitable world according to the ancient Greeks; the part of the Earth's surface that is suitable for permanent human settlement, e.g. because it is climatically tolerable and physically occupiable. +2. All of human civilization considered collectively. + +edge city +A concentration of businesses, commercial buildings, or retail and entertainment venues situated outside of a traditional downtown or central business district in what was previously a suburban residential or rural area. + +edgelands +The transitional areas of "fringe" space at the boundaries of a country, city, or other artificial geographical entity, often distinguished by a partly man-made, partly natural landscape that is in the earliest stages of human management and organization. Compare hinterland. + +effective accessibility +The extent to which a place or service is actually accessible, governed not only by the distance to be traveled but also by whether or not the means of transport, the time available, and social circumstances make access possible. + +ekistics +The scientific study of human settlements of all types, incorporating concepts such as regional, metropolitan, and community planning and dwelling design with the goal of achieving harmony between the inhabitants of a settlement and their physical, social, and cultural environments. + +electoral geography +A branch of human geography concerned with analysis of the organization, methods, results, and consequences of political elections in the context of geographic space and using geographical techniques. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4e06aa2d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,122 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 13/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +elevation +1. The height of a geographic location above or below a fixed reference point; in particular, the height of a point on the Earth's surface with respect to sea level (or at least to a reference geoid used as an approximation of the Earth's mean sea level). Compare altitude, geopotential height, and depth. +2. The vertical angle between the horizontal and a high point, e.g. between the horizon and a star in the night sky, or between the base of a mountain and its summit. +3. In architecture, a view of one of the sides of a building, or a drawing of this view. + +ellipsoid +See reference ellipsoid. + +emergence +1. The rise of the level of a land surface with respect to the sea, so that land formerly under the sea becomes dry. +2. The location at which an underground stream or aquifer comes to the surface. + +emergent coastline +A coast or shoreline resulting from a rise in land surface elevation relative to sea level. + +empolder +To reclaim by the creation of a polder. + +enclave +A tract or territory completely surrounded by and enclosed within the territory of exactly one other state, country, or other political entity. Unlike enclaves, exclaves can be surrounded by more than one other state. + +endemic +Restricted or exclusive to a certain place, region, or people, having originated there, and existing nowhere else. + +endorheic basin +Also endoreic basin, closed basin, or terminal basin. +A closed drainage basin that allows little or no outflow to external bodies of water but converges instead into internal lakes or swamps which equilibrate through evaporation. + +englacial +Embedded within a glacier. Contrast subglacial and superglacial. + +entrepôt +Also entrepot or transshipment port. +A place (e.g. a port, city, or trading post) to which physical goods or merchandise are brought to be stored temporarily while awaiting export to another country, and where they are not liable to customs duties. Though the term once described important commercial centers situated along long-distance trade routes, modern customs areas have largely made such entrepôts obsolete, and the term is now more commonly used to refer to duty-free ports with a high volume of re-export trade. + +environment +Everything on and around the Earth's surface and atmosphere; the complex of physical, chemical, and biological elements which comprise the natural world, especially as contrasted with man-made objects or spaces. + +environs +The area surrounding a particular geographical place, i.e. its surroundings or environment. + +epeiric sea +A large, shallow body of salt water on a continental shelf which is connected to the ocean; an inland sea. See also marginal sea. + +epicenter +The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake, near which the seismic waves produced by the earthquake are usually most noticeable. + +equal-area projection + +equator +1. An imaginary line dividing a spheroid such as a planet into northern and southern hemispheres, defined by the intersection of the spheroid's surface and the plane perpendicular to its axis of rotation, which results in a great circle exactly midway between and hence equidistant from the planet's geographic poles and is therefore defined as zero degrees latitude. +2. The Earth's equator in particular (often capitalized as the Equator): the imaginary circle of latitude halfway between the geographic poles which is assigned a latitude of zero degrees (0°) and therefore used as a reference point from which all other lines of latitude are measured. At 40,074 kilometres (24,901 mi) in circumference, is the largest great circle of the Earth. Places located on or near the Equator experience approximately the same amount of daylight year-round, which causes local daytime temperatures and climate patterns to be relatively stable throughout the year. + +equatorial cylindrical orthomorphic map projection +See Mercator projection. + +equidistant +Equally distant from a point, object, or location; e.g. a given location A is said to be equidistant from two other locations B and C if B and C each have the same distance from A. + +equinox +A solar equinox is a moment in time when the Sun appears directly above the equator, rather than to its north or south. + +equirectangular projection + +erg +Also reg and hamada. +A broad, flat desert area covered by wind-swept sand and having little or no vegetative cover. + +erosion +The wearing away of the Earth's surface caused by the movement of water, ice, or wind. + +erratic +Also glacial erratic. +A boulder that has been carried from its source by a glacier and deposited as the glacier melted. Such boulders are often conspicuous because they differ geologically from the surrounding rock. + +escarpment +A long cliff or steep slope separating two comparatively level or more gently sloping surfaces and resulting from erosion or faulting. + +esker +Also os, eskar, or eschar. +A long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel, usually occurring in glaciated or formerly glaciated areas. + +estavelle +Also inversac. +A karstic sinkhole or ponor which, depending on the season and weather conditions, can serve as either a sink or a source of freshwater. + +estuary +The broad lower course of a river where it enters the ocean and is affected by the tides. Compare delta. + +étang +A shallow pool or lake caused by the ponding of backwash draining from a beach by material brought ashore by the sea. + +etchplain +A plain beneath which the bedrock has been subjected to considerable subsurface weathering, known as "etching". Erosion of the regolith overlying an etchplain often exposes topographical irregularities such as inselbergs. + +ethnic group +A group of people in a country who share a unique culture and identity. + +evorsion +See pothole. + +exaration +See plucking. + +exclave +A portion of a state or territory that is geographically separated from the main part by surrounding foreign territory of one or more other states or political entities. Many exclaves are also enclaves. + +exotic stream +A stream found in an area that is too dry to have spawned such a flow. The flow originates in some moister section. + +extinct volcano +A volcano that is not expected to erupt again. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67f945baa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 14/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +exurb +A region or district that lies outside a city and usually beyond its suburbs; a place of this type is called an exurb. Compare rural. + +== F == + +fairway +The part of a navigable waterway containing the navigable channel, in particular the central, deepest, widest, or most commonly used channel. + +fall line +A geomorphologic unconformity between an upland region of relatively hard crystalline basement rock and a coastal plain of softer sedimentary rock. + +fallow +Agricultural land that is plowed or tilled but left unseeded during a growing season. Fallowing is usually done to conserve moisture and soil nutrients. + +false origin +A selected point in a projected coordinate system from which the position of any place can be expressed in terms of its coordinates with respect to the selected point. The false origin differs from the true origin in order to exclude negative values. + +fast ice +Also land-fast ice and shore-fast ice. +Sea ice that is more or less securely "fastened" to a coastline, to the sea floor, or to grounded icebergs, and which therefore does not move with currents and winds (unlike drift ice). The formation of fast ice is usually seasonal and its properties vary with water depth, topography of the sea floor, tides, and pressure from adjacent drift ice. + +fault +A fracture in the Earth's crust accompanied by a displacement of one side of the fracture. + +fault-block mountain +A mountain mass created by either the uplift of land between faults or the subsidence of land outside the faults. + +fault zone +An area of numerous fractures in the Earth's crust along which movement has occurred. The movement may be in any direction and involve material on either or both sides of the fractures. + +federation +A form of government in which powers and functions are divided between a central government and a number of political subdivisions that have a significant degree of political autonomy. + +fell +A wild, barren, high-altitude moor or upland, or a treeless alpine tundra, often studded with boulders or rock outcrops; or a broad, isolated mountain summit. The term is used primarily in northern England, Scotland, and Fennoscandia. + +felsenmeer +See blockfield. + +fen +An area of spongy, waterlogged ground containing decaying vegetation that accumulates over time into peat, and which is supplied with an input of mineral-rich surface or groundwater by a direct connection to a larger hydrological system. This external input typically results in higher mineral concentrations and a more alkaline pH than other peat-forming ecosystems such as bogs. Fens are one of four main types of wetland, along with bogs, marshes, and swamps. + +field +1. Any large, open, outdoor space, natural or man-made, especially one with a natural surface covering such as grass or soil and having few trees and structures, permitting long sightlines. +2. (variable) A property, quantity, or observation (e.g. temperature, soil moisture, population density, etc.) that can be theoretically assigned to any point of space and which varies across space. Both scalar and vector fields are found in GIS applications, although the former is more common. Also spatially dependent variable. + +figure of the Earth +The size and shape of the Earth as studied in geodesy. Applications requiring varying levels of precision have led to the development of many different models of the Earth, ranging from simple spheres to much more accurate approximations such as geoids. + +firn +A type of ice that is at an intermediate stage between snow and glacial ice. More specifically, firn is partially compacted névé left over from past seasons which has subsequently recrystallized into a form that is harder and denser than névé. + +first bottom +A colloquial term loosely applied to the topographically lowest step of a floodplain that experiences regular flooding (though the frequency considered "regular" is inconsistently specified), i.e. the first part to be inundated when a flood occurs. The term is used primarily in the Midwestern United States. + +First Law of Geography +Also Tobler's First Law of Geography. +A fundamental assumption of spatial analysis articulated by the Swiss-American geographer Waldo Tobler as "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." This principle is considered foundational to the concepts of spatial dependence and autocorrelation, and is expressed mathematically in the inverse distance weighting method of spatial interpolation and in regionalized variable theory as the basis for kriging. + +firth +Another name for a coastal inlet, strait, or bay associated with the mouth of a large river, where the tidal effects of seawater passing upriver have widened the riverbed into an estuary. The term is used primarily in Scotland. + +fish ladder +A series of shallow steps down which water is allowed to flow, designed to permit salmon or other anadromous fish to circumvent artificial barriers such as dams as they swim upstream to spawn. + +fissure +A long, narrow opening or line of breakage made by cracking or splitting, especially in rock or earth. + +fjard +A large, open, navigable body of water between the islands of an archipelago or between an island and the mainland, either on the sea coast or in freshwater lakes or rivers. + +fjord +Also fiord. +A long, narrow, navigable marine inlet with steep sides or cliffs created by glacial erosion. + +flark +A hollow or depression within a bog, often water-filled and usually occurring as part of a repeated series of such depressions which are elongated and parallel to each other and separated by intervening ridges known as strings. + +flood bypass + +flood wall +A primarily vertical artificial barrier designed to temporarily contain the waters of a river or other waterway which may rise to high levels during flooding events. Flood walls are narrower and typically easier to build than dikes or levees, so they are mainly used in locations where space is limited or where building more traditional flood-control structures would interfere with other interests. + +floodbank +See levee. + +floodplain +Also bottomland. +A broad, flat area of land adjacent to a river or stream which is leveled by annual flooding and by the lateral and downstream movement of meanders. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba415dd51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 15/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +floodway +1. Another name for a flood bypass. +2. A large-capacity channel or culvert designed to capture and divert floodwaters or excess streamflow from populous or flood-prone areas and eventually drain it into a river or other body of water, e.g. an artificial drainage canal bounded by levees. They often run below street level in larger cities. +3. A road crossing of a flood-prone channel, built at or close to the natural ground level. It is similar to a causeway but crosses a shallow and often dry depression that is subject to flooding, rather than a continuously flooded waterway. +4. A part of a floodplain kept clear of encumbrances and reserved for emergency diversion of floodwaters. + +floor +The level or nearly level lower part of a valley or basin, or the bed of any body of water, such as a stream, lake, or ocean. + +flow regime +The general behavior of a river or other watercourse as defined by its average flow conditions throughout the year, including seasonal variations in discharge, size and frequency of floods, and frequency and duration of droughts. + +flute +A glacial landform created by the movement of a glacier around a boulder, consisting of a lineation or streamlined furrow or ridge parallel to the direction of ice movement. They generally form in newly deposited till or older drift and can reach heights of 25 metres (82 ft) and lengths of 20 kilometres (12 mi). + +fluvial +Of or pertaining to rivers or streams; produced by the action of a river or stream. + +fluvial terrace + +focality +The characteristic of a place that follows from its interconnections with more than one other place. When interaction within a region comes together at a single place (i.e. when the movement focuses on that location), the place is said to possess focality. + +focus +Also hypocenter. +The point inside the Earth's crust from which an earthquake originates. + +foothills +A geographic transition zone defined by gradual increases in elevation between plains or low-relief hills and adjacent topographically higher hills, mountains, or uplands. + +footslope +The part of the profile of a hillslope that forms the concave surface at the base of the slope. It is a transition area between sites of erosion and transport higher up the slope (e.g. the shoulder and backslope) and sites of deposition further down the slope (the toeslope). + +ford +A place, natural or man-made, where a river or stream is shallow enough to be crossed by wading, or by getting a vehicle's wheels wet (as opposed to crossing a permanently dry bridge). Fords may be seasonal or temporary, becoming impassable during high water. + +foredeep +A relatively narrow, deep, elongated, and steep-sided trough in the ocean floor, usually near or parallel to a mountainous land area or associated with an archipelago, or such a trough when infilled with sediment. See also foreland basin. + +foreland +1. Any land area or territory located in front of something else. +2. A landform projecting into the sea, e.g. a cape or headland. +3. The seaward trading area associated with a particular port or harbor. +4. (glaciology) The area between the current leading edge of a glacier and the moraines of the most recent maximum. + +foreland basin +A type of structural endmember basin that develops adjacent and parallel to a mountain range as a result of lithospheric flexure during its orogeny. Topographic loading and downflexure creates space in the basin that is filled by sediment eroded from the range. Compare rift basin. + +foreshore +The part of a seashore located between the lowest low water line and the mean high water line. See also intertidal zone; contrast backshore. + +forest +Any extensive area dominated by communities of trees. + +formal region +An area of the Earth that is unified by some measurable physical or human characteristic. + +form line +A contour line whose precise position on a map has not been accurately surveyed but rather interpolated from surrounding contours. + +fresh water +Any naturally occurring water characterized by low concentrations (typically less than 0.05% by volume) of dissolved salts and other solids relative to either salt water or brackish water. Sources of fresh water on Earth include glaciers, ice caps, icebergs, bogs, lakes, rivers, streams, and most groundwater. + +friction of distance +The influence and restraining effect of distance on all forms of movement, based on the fundamental geographical principle that movement necessarily incurs one or more costs, in the form of physical effort, energy, time, and/or other resources, and that these costs are directly proportional to the distance traveled. Such costs effectively resist the propensity for movement, akin to the friction of classical mechanics, and hence the concept of physical distance is a critical factor in determining whether or not a given movement, event, or process occurs. + +frontalier +Also cross-border worker and frontier worker. +Someone who lives in one country and works in a neighboring country, commuting across the international border each workday and returning to their country of residence on a nightly or weekly basis; someone who lives and works across political or geographical frontiers. + +frontcountry + +frontier +1. The area near or beyond a political or geographical boundary; a march or borderland. +2. The area near or beyond the edge of a settled or civilized area, consisting of sparsely populated or uninhabited wilderness. See also hinterland and edgeland. + +frost hollow +Also frost pocket. +A hollow or depression surrounded on all sides by higher terrain, such as the floor of a deep valley, where very cold, dense air tends to concentrate as strong terrestrial radiation on the slopes above forces the cold air downslope, often at nighttime. Temperatures in these hollows can be tens of degrees colder than the immediate surroundings. + +functional diversity +The characteristic of a place where a variety of different activities (economic, political, or social) occur, most often associated with urban places. + +functional region +An area of the Earth's surface that is defined by its interaction with or connectivity to other regions. + +== G == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b50056466 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 16/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +gallery forest +A narrow strip of trees or shrubs lining both banks of a river or stream in otherwise treeless, open country. Above very narrow streams, the foliage on each side may meet in the canopy. + +gazetteer +A geographical dictionary or directory used in conjunction with a map or atlas and containing information concerning the geographical make-up, social statistics, and physical features of a country, region, or continent. + +gentilic +See demonym. + +geo +Also gio. +A narrow inlet within a deep cleft in a rocky coastline, sheltered by tall, near-vertical cliffs created by wave-driven erosion along faults and bedding planes in the rock. The term is primarily used in the islands of northern Scotland. + +geoblocking +Also geolocking. +A technology that restricts access to online content according to an Internet user's geographical location, which may be determined by any of various geolocation techniques, including checking the user's IP address against a blacklist, triangulating GPS queries, and measuring the latency of a signal traveling between the user's computer and another endpoint in the network. + +geocode +A concise, human-readable series of letters, numbers, and/or other symbols which represents and uniquely identifies a particular geographic entity so as to distinguish it from other geographic entities in a finite set or database. + +geocoding +The conversion of a text-based description of a physical location, such as the name of a place or a street address, into geographic coordinates, e.g. latitude and longitude, which can then be plotted in a spatial coordinate system and represented on a map to locate and uniquely identify its position on the Earth's surface. The reverse process, where geographic coordinates are converted into a text-based description, is known as reverse geocoding. + +geocell +In many geographic information systems, an imaginary polygon on the surface of the Earth with dimensions 1 degree of latitude by 1 degree of longitude, or approximately 111 by 111 kilometres (69 by 69 miles) at the Equator, representing an area equal to about 12,321 square kilometres (4,757 square miles). The east-west distance equal to 1 degree of longitude gradually decreases as one approaches the poles, such that the shape of a geocell becomes increasingly trapezoidal at higher latitudes. + +geodata +Also geospatial data, georeferenced information, and geoinformation. +Any data or information having an implicit or explicit association with one or more locations on the Earth, especially that used for georeferencing in GIS databases. + +geodesic +Also orthodrome, geodesic line, and geodetic line. +In geodesy, the shortest line on a specific surface between two particular points on that surface. The geodesic between a given two points on a flat plane is a segment of a straight line drawn between those points; the geodesic between two points on a sphere is a shorter arc of the great circle which connects both points. Geodesics may also be plotted on the surface of an ellipsoid, such as an idealized reference ellipsoid used to model the shape of the Earth. + +geodesy +Also geodetics. +The science of accurately measuring and understanding the Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field and how these properties change over time. + +geodetic control network +Also geodetic network, reference network, or control point network. + +geodetic datum +Also geodetic system, geodetic reference datum, or geodetic reference system. +A coordinate system and set of reference points used for locating places on the Earth, which defines horizontal and vertical coordinates upon a particular reference ellipsoid that approximates the figure of the Earth. Geodetic datums are used in geodesy, navigation, and surveying applications to translate positions indicated on paper or digital maps to their actual positions on the Earth; because the Earth is an imperfect ellipsoid, localized datums such as the ED50 covering only specific countries or regions are often more accurate representations of their area of coverage than global standards such as the WGS 84 of the World Geodetic System. + +geodetic north +See true north. + +geodetics +See geodesy. + +geodynamics +A subfield of geophysics and Earth science that studies the physical dynamics of the Earth by applying physics, chemistry, and mathematics to the understanding of how mantle convection and other internal processes lead to plate tectonics and geological phenomena such as mountain formation, volcanism, earthquakes, and faulting, among others. + +geofence +A virtual boundary or perimeter drawn around a real-world geographic area in a GIS software application, allowing distinctions between the properties of adjacent places which cannot be physically made on the ground to be made and stored digitally in an electronic database. + +geographic coordinate system +A coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters, or symbols. Geographic coordinates are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position such as elevation and two or three other numbers represent a horizontal position such as latitude and longitude. + +geographic factor +Any physical or human condition that impacts the environment of a geographic place. + +geographic information science (GIS) +Also GIScience. +The scientific study of data structures and computational techniques for capturing, representing, processing, and analyzing geographic information. + +geographic information system (GIS) +Any system of computer software tools designed to allow users to record, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present large sets of spatial or geographic data. + +Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) +A digital public-domain database developed by the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Board on Geographic Names which contains name and locative information about more than two million physical and cultural features located throughout the United States and its territories. Each feature recorded in the database receives a unique feature record identifier called a GNIS identifier. + +geographic pattern +Any observable model, style, or trend in some element of geography, generally observed on maps. + +geographic process +Any process or activity, natural or man-made, that brings changes to some aspect of physical or human geography. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c06a2daa7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 17/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +geographical inertia +Also geographical momentum. +The tendency of a place with established installations and services to maintain its size and its importance as a focus of economic or industrial activity after the conditions originally influencing its development have appreciably altered, ceased to be relevant, or disappeared. + +geographical mile +A unit of length defined as the distance equal to one minute of arc along the Earth's Equator: approximately 1,855.3 metres (1.1528 mi; 1.8553 km). The precise length varies with the reference ellipsoid used to approximate the shape of the Earth. Regardless of the particular ellipsoid, the length of one degree of longitude at the Equator is equal to exactly 60 geographical miles. + +geography +The scientific study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. + +geoid +The shape that the surface of the Earth's oceans would take under the influence of Earth's gravity and rotational acceleration alone, in the absence of other influences such as winds and tides. It is often characterized as the precise mathematical figure of the Earth: a smooth but irregular gravitational equipotential surface at every point of which, by definition, the direction of the force of gravity is always perpendicular and spirit levels are always parallel. Its shape results from anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field caused by the uneven distribution of mass within and on the Earth's surface. A reference ellipsoid is an idealized approximation of the more complex and accurate geoid. + +geoinformatics +The science and technology which develops and uses information science infrastructures to address problems and analyze data within geography, cartography, geoscience, and related branches of science and engineering. + +geoinformation +See geodata. + +geolocation +The identification or estimation of the real-world geographic location of an object, involving the generation of a set of geographic coordinates in order to determine a more meaningful description of location, such as a street address. + +geolocking +See geoblocking. + +geomatics +Also geospatial science. +The scientific discipline that involves gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic or spatially referenced information. + +geometer +See surveyor. + +geomorphology +The study of the arrangement and form of the Earth's crust and of the relationship between these physical features and the geologic structures beneath. + +geopotential +1. The potential of the Earth's gravitational field, expressed as the sum, U, of the gravitational potential Vg of the Earth at point P and the rotational potential Vc at the same point, i.e. U = Vg + Vc. +2. The negative of the sum of the gravitational potential Vg and the rotational potential Vc, i.e. U = −(Vg + Vc). This alternative definition is often used by physicists. +3. The potential energy of a unit mass relative to the geoid, numerically equivalent to the work which would be done in lifting the mass from the geoid against the force of gravity to the elevation at which the mass is actually located. + +georeferencing + +geoscience +See Earth science. + +geosophy +The study of geographical knowledge from any and all points of view, past or present, true or false; the study of the nature and expression of geographical ideas. + +geospatial science +See geomatics. + +geosphere +The collective non-living parts of the Earth: the lithosphere, the atmosphere, the cryosphere, and the hydrosphere. + +geostatistics +A branch of statistics which involves the organization, management, and analysis of spatial and spatiotemporal datasets. Geostatistical algorithms are often incorporated in GIS software applications. + +geosystems +See physical geography. + +geotargeting + +ghetto +A section of a city occupied by members of a minority group who live there because of social restrictions on their residential choices. Originally, the term referred specifically to a section of a European city to which Jews were confined. + +ghost town +A deserted or abandoned village, town, or city, especially one in which remaining buildings and infrastructure such as roads are still visible. The term is also sometimes used to refer to settlements that are still populated, but significantly less so than in previous years. + +glacial +Of or pertaining to a glacier or to the consequences of glaciation; formed, deposited, caused, or affected by glaciological processes. + +glacial drift +See drift. + +glacial erratic +See erratic. + +glacial flour +See rock flour. + +glacial lake +A lake or other enclosed body of water created by historical or ongoing glacial activity; e.g. the Great Lakes of North America. + +glacial till +The mass of rocks and finely ground material carried by a glacier and deposited when the ice melts. This creates an unstratified material of varying composition. + +glacial trough + +glaciation +1. The process or state of being covered with a glacier. +2. Another name for a glacial period, an interval of time that is marked by colder temperatures and advancing glaciers. + +glacier +A persistent mass of dense ice that moves slowly but constantly under its own weight, and which is composed largely of compacted snow that forms over very long periods of time wherever the annual accumulation of snow exceeds its rate of melting and sublimation. Glaciers slowly deform and abrade the land beneath them, causing many unique geomorphological processes and creating a huge variety of landforms including cirques, moraines, and fjords. They form exclusively on land and are distinct from the much thinner ice that forms on bodies of water. + +glaciology +The scientific study of glaciers, including their formation, composition, behavior, causes, effects, and distribution; or more generally of ice or any natural phenomena involving ice. + +glacis +A smooth, gently sloping surface at the foot of a hill, mountain, or any other high promontory, whether natural or artificial. In the latter case, the term is used in particular to describe a stone or earthen slope constructed at the base of some historical military fortifications. + +glade +Also clearing. +Any large, open, mostly treeless area within a forest. + +glen +A long valley bounded by gently sloping, concave sides, and typically narrower and deeper than a strath. The term is used primarily in Scotland. + +glint +A steep cliff, terrace, or edge of a plateau. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a985a55cf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 18/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +global +1. Of or concerning all parts of the world (i.e. worldwide); affecting or distributed across the whole of the Earth. +2. Of or relating to a globe or sphere; spherical or approximately so. +3. Comprehensive; total; encompassing all or nearly all considerations, categories, items, etc. + +global city +Also world city, power city, or alpha city. +A city which functions as an important or primary node in the global economy. Though criteria are not strictly defined, a global city typically is very large; dominates trade and economic interactions within a large surrounding area; supports a large and demographically diverse population; serves as a center of ideas and innovation in business, science, culture, and politics; and/or is a headquarters for major financial institutions, multinational corporations, or worldwide media and communications networks. + +global navigation satellite system (GNSS) + +Global Positioning System (GPS) +A satellite-based radionavigation positioning system owned and operated by the United States Department of Defense and made available for use by both the military and the general public. It is one of several GNSS standards that provides geolocation and time information, transmitted via microwave signals, to enabled satellite navigation devices, known as GPS receivers, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to at least four GPS satellites. Modern state-of-the-art GPS receivers can accurately pinpoint locations to within 30 centimetres (0.98 ft). + +globalization +The process of interaction and integration among people, companies, governments, and cultures across the world. A complex and multifaceted phenomenon, globalization is considered largely the result of economically motivated advances in transportation and communication technologies in the past several centuries which have dramatically increased interactions between otherwise isolated groups of people. + +globe +A true-to-scale map of the Earth that duplicates its round shape and correctly represents relative areas, sizes, and shapes of physical features, distances, and directions. + +gnamma +See panhole. + +gore +1. An irregularly shaped parcel of land of any size, often approximately triangular, that is left between two adjoining surveyed parcels as the result of incomplete or inaccurate boundary surveys. +2. A lune-shaped map which may be fitted to the surface of a globe with a negligible amount of distortion. + +gorge +See canyon. + +graben +A depression or valley bounded on either side by distinct, parallel escarpments or faults and formed by the downward displacement of a block of the Earth's crust. Grabens often occur side-by-side with horsts, their uplifted or non-displaced counterparts, in a repeated series of vertical displacements. + +grade +Also slope, incline, gradient, pitch, rise, or mainfall. +A physical surface that is inclined with respect to the horizontal, or the angle between that surface and the horizontal, typically expressed in degrees, or calculated as a ratio of "rise" (vertical distance) to "run" (horizontal distance) and expressed as a fraction or percentage; a larger number indicates a steeper incline. The term "grade" is often used to describe the incline of man-made surfaces such as roads and the roofs of buildings, whereas the term "slope" is more commonly used to describe natural surfaces such as the sides of hills or mountains or the beds and banks of watercourses. + +grassland +Any land area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (i.e. plants of the botanical family Poaceae), sometimes also inclusive of grass-like plants of other families. A large and important biome occurring worldwide, grasslands may be natural or created for agricultural purposes. + +graticule +A network of lines on a map or chart (or imagined on the surface of the Earth) representing geodetic parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. + +gravimetry +The measurement of the strength of a gravitational field, especially the Earth's gravitational field, typically by calculating the acceleration due to gravity at a particular point on the Earth's surface. Because it can vary widely across the surface, knowing the local magnitude of the gravitational force is often necessary in order to produce accurate geographical data. + +great circle +Also orthodrome. +Any circle on the surface of a sphere created by the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through its center. A great circle divides the sphere into two equal hemispheres, and all of a sphere's great circles have the same center and circumference, which by definition is the largest possible circumference of the sphere. The mathematical properties of great circles make them useful in geodesy, where they are often visualized upon the surface of the Earth (despite the fact that the Earth is not a perfect sphere): for example, the Equator of the idealized Earth is a great circle, and any meridian with its antimeridian forms a great circle. Because the shortest path between any two points on the surface of a sphere follows the arc of a great circle, great-circle distances are often used as approximations of geodesics for the purposes of air and sea navigation. See also small circle. + +great-circle bearing +The horizontal direction or bearing followed by the arc of a great circle through a given pair of terrestrial points, expressed as the angular distance from a reference direction. + +great-circle distance +Also orthodromic distance. +The length of a line between two points which follows the arc of a great circle as defined by the intersection of the Earth's surface with an imaginary plane passing through the Earth's center. It is the shortest route between those two points on the Earth's surface. + +green belt +Also greenway. +A special land-use zone designated in some cities to prevent development of wild, undeveloped, or agricultural land surrounding or adjacent to urban areas, in order to conserve natural ecosystems, to allow the return and establishment of wildlife, and/or to create urban green space for aesthetic or recreational purposes. The term may also refer more specifically to the boundary between developed and undeveloped areas rather than to the undeveloped area itself. + +greenfield +A previously undeveloped plot of land for which development is proposed or on which it is in progress, or which is intentionally not being developed so as to permit it to evolve naturally. Compare brownfield. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cfb64b4a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 19/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +grid +A pattern of lines on a chart or map, such as those representing latitude and longitude, which helps determine absolute location. + +grid magnetic angle +Also grid variation or grivation. +The angular difference in direction between grid north and magnetic north, typically expressed in degrees east or west of grid north. + +grid north +The direction northwards as indicated by the grid lines of a map projection, which may or may not be aligned with geodetic north and magnetic north. + +grivation +See grid magnetic angle. + +groundwater +The water present beneath the Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in fractures and voids within geological strata. Contrast surface water. + +grove +A small group of trees growing close together and generally surrounded by little or no undergrowth. + +growing season +The part of the year during which local weather conditions (i.e. temperature and precipitation) permit the normal growth of plants in a given location. What defines a "growing season" is often informal and colloquial, and may vary widely by location and from year to year; in many places, the local growing season is defined as the period of time between the average date of the last frost (in temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, this typically occurs in the spring) to the average date of the first frost (in the autumn). + +groyne +A rigid, man-made hydraulic structure extending from an ocean shore or river bank, constructed to interrupt water flow and limit the movement of sediment by longshore drift. + +gulch +A deep, V-shaped valley formed by erosion, often containing a small stream or a dry streambed, especially one in arid regions. + +gulf +A large arm or inlet of an ocean or sea that lies within a curved coastline, similar to a bay but usually larger and often with a narrower opening. + +gully +A landform resembling a large ditch or a small ravine created by the action of swift running water eroding deeply and sharply into soil, typically on a hillside. + +gumbo +Any very fine, clayey soil which rapidly turns to sticky mud when wet. The term is used primarily in the United States and Canada. + +guyot +Also tablemount. +An isolated underwater seamount with a flat top that is at least 200 metres (660 ft) below the water's surface. + +gypsey +See winterbourne. + +gyre +Any large system of circulating ocean currents, particularly those related to large-scale wind movements. Gyres are caused by the Coriolis effect and play a fundamental role in the global thermohaline circulation. + +gyroscope +A device consisting of a spinning disc or rotor mounted in such a way as to preserve the orientation and angular velocity of its axis of rotation with respect to an inertial reference frame, irrespective of perturbations to the mounting itself, which makes it possible to measure and maintain an unbiased equilibrium in the attitude and/or course of a moving object such as an airborne or waterborne vehicle or camera. Modern digital gyroscopes and their associated readouts are widely used in navigation and geodesy as the basic sensor in direction-seeking, direction-keeping, and attitude stabilization systems. + +== H == + +habitus +An individual's sense of "home", or of their place in the world, comprising socially ingrained habits, beliefs, skills, and dispositions based on their geographical environment, cultural origin, inheritance, experiences, and the social networks they develop throughout their life, all of which may be subject to refashioning with passing time or increasing distance. + +hachure +Any of a series of non-numerical lines used on a map to indicate the general orientation and steepness of topographical terrain. Such lines vary in length, thickness, and spacing, with steeper slopes indicated by shorter, heavier, and more closely spaced lines. + +haff +A coastal lagoon of fresh or brackish water on the south coast of the Baltic Sea, fed by a stream which is blocked by a nehrung, through which it is linked to the sea by a channel. + +halo effect +In the context of geography, the detrimental effect of a border or other boundary on locations close to it, making those locations unattractive to people intending to visit or settle there; e.g. a political boundary in disputed territory, where immigration across the boundary occurs frequently. There may also be beneficial effects on such locations. + +ham +In southern England, a plot of meadow land, especially a tract of rich pasture near a river; or a small settlement, ranging in size from a single homestead to a town. + +hamada +Also hammada. +A desert landscape consisting of high, largely barren, rocky plateaus where most of the sand has been removed by deflation, and thus lacking most surficial materials other than boulders and exposed bedrock. + +hamlet +A small human settlement, variably defined as one the size of a town, village, or parish or as a smaller subdivision of or satellite entity to a larger settlement. + +hanging valley +A tributary valley that is higher in elevation than the main valley into which it drains, such that it appears to be "hanging" above the lower valley. Hanging valleys are commonly the result of differential glacial erosion, when adjacent areas beneath a glacier are subjected to different rates of erosion. + +harmonic tremor +One of a series of continuous rhythmic earthquakes in the Earth's upper lithosphere that can be detected by seismographs. Harmonic tremors often precede or accompany volcanic eruptions. + +head of navigation +The farthest point above the mouth of a river that can be navigated by watercraft, whether because of natural or man-made obstacles. + +heading +The compass direction in which the bow or nose of a moving vessel or aircraft is pointed. This is not necessarily the same direction in which the vessel is actually traveling, known as its course; any difference between heading and course is due to the motion of the air or water through which the vessel is moving, or other aerodynamic effects such as skidding or slipping. See also bearing. + +headland +A high coastal promontory that extends out into a body of water, often surrounded by steep cliffs. A very large headland is often called a cape. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e7be99cf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 20/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +headwall +A steep slope or sheer cliff face at the upper end of a valley (e.g. at the back of a cirque), or at the active face of a mine, pit, or quarry. + +headwaters +1. Another name for the source of a river, stream, or other watercourse, i.e. the point or points furthest from the mouth of a particular channel at which precipitation, meltwater, or groundwater first accumulates into a persistent, identifiable, and/or named body of water whose contents ultimately empty into that particular channel; or all of the uppermost tributaries of a watershed considered collectively (of which there may be thousands), typically including all streams identified as first-order through third-order in conventional stream order systems. +2. The entire region, inclusive of land, surrounding these sources, often abutting the boundary of a drainage divide that separates distinct watersheds. + +hearth +The source area of any innovation; the place from which an idea, crop, artifact, or good is diffused to other areas. + +heartland +1. The central or interior part of a region. +2. A part of a region considered essential to the viability and survival of the whole. + +heath +Also heathland. +A shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining, infertile, acidic soils and characterized by open, low-growing, woody vegetation. + +hectare (ha) +A metric unit of area defined by a square with sides of 100 metres, equal to 10,000 m2 or 2.471 acres. There are 100 hectares in 1 square kilometre (km2). + +hedgerow +Also simply hedge. +A line of closely spaced shrubs or trees, planted and trained so as to form a barrier or to mark a boundary between two neighboring areas, or to serve as a windbreak for crops in adjacent fields. + +heliotrope +A device used in geodetic surveying to reflect sunlight onto a distant point so as to aid long-distance observations. + +hemisphere +One half of the Earth, usually conceived as resulting from the division of the globe into two equal parts of either north and south or east and west. + +heteroclinal fold +A geological fold of which one side is sloped at an angle steeper than that of the other side. + +high plain +A plain lying at a high elevation, generally above 600 metres (2,000 ft). + +high water mark +A natural or man-made demarcation that indicates the maximum rise of a body of water over an area of land. Though not necessarily an actual physical mark, river or sea waters rising to a high point often leave a lasting physical impression such as a noticeable discoloration or deposited debris; such a mark is often the result of a flood or storm surge. High water marks may reflect an all-time high, an annual high, or the high point for some other period of time (e.g. a tidal cycle). A natural delineation created by debris deposited by a high tide is called a strandline. See also wash margin and mean high water. + +highland +Sometimes used interchangeably with upland. +1. Any elevated region of land, often one that is mountainous or situated atop a plateau. The term is sometimes reserved for relatively low-elevation mountain ranges or foothills. +2. Any area of land (mountainous or otherwise) that is higher in elevation relative to another area. In this sense, the term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater riparian areas, on the basis of elevation above sea level. + +highway +Any major public or private road or other thoroughfare on land, especially one that is paved and capable of supporting high-capacity, rapid transit between populated places. + +hill +Any landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. A hill is generally considered less steep than a mountain. + +hillock +Also knoll. +A small hill. + +hinterland +1. An area that is tributary to a place and linked to that place through lines of exchange or interaction. +2. The area, not necessarily settled itself, that is nonetheless influenced by a particular settlement or establishment; i.e. its sphere of influence. + +historical geography +A branch of human geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time, especially (though not necessarily limited to) geographic change as it relates to human activity; the geography of the past, whether real, perceived, or theoretical. + +hoe +A projecting ridge or outcropping of land, its height ending abruptly or steeply. The term is used primarily in placenames in Great Britain. + +hogback +Also hog's back or hogsback. +A long, narrow ridge or series of hills with a narrow crest and steep, symmetrical slopes of nearly equal inclination on both flanks, especially one created by the differential erosion of an outcropping which exposes homoclinal sedimentary rock strata. Compare esker, drumlin, and cuesta. + +holding +Land owned or occupied by legal right for the purpose of agriculture. + +homestead +1. (dwelling) A house or home, especially an isolated farmhouse with its associated outbuildings on a large agricultural holding such as a ranch; or a small rural settlement of dispersed farms. +2. (legal concept) In the United States, a plot of land given legal meaning by a series of federal laws granting applicants ownership of land in the public domain upon the condition that they live on it and improve it. Homesteaders were initially granted plots of 160 acres (0.65 km2), which was considered adequate to support a single family, but later as much as 640 acres (2.6 km2). + +horizon +Also skyline. +The apparent line that separates the ground from the sky, dividing all visible directions into two categories: those that intersect the Earth's surface and those that do not. When not obscured by buildings, trees, or mountains, the true horizon can be useful in navigation and determining positional orientation. In perfect visibility, to an observer on Earth standing at an elevation of 3 metres (10 ft) from the horizontal, the horizon in any direction is approximately 6.5 kilometres (4 mi) distant; at 30 metres (100 ft), it is 21 kilometres (13 mi) away. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96a11f768 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 3/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +awareness space +All of the locations of which an individual is "aware", i.e. about which they have knowledge above some minimum level, even those they may not have actually visited. Awareness space includes activity space, and it enlarges as new locations are discovered and new information is gathered. See also search space and mental map. + +axis +1. (coordinate system) Any of the reference lines of a Cartesian coordinate system, from which the signed distances to each coordinate are measured, e.g. the x-axis or the y-axis. +2. (of a fold) The imaginary central line or plane dividing the limbs of the fold as symmetrically as possible; the crest from which strata dip downward and away in an anticline, or the lowest depth of the trough from which strata rise in opposite directions in a syncline. +3. (of the Earth) The rotational axis of the Earth: the diameter between the North Geographic Pole and the South Geographic Pole, passing through the planet's geometric center, around which the Earth rotates anti-clockwise (i.e. to the east) once every 23 hours and 56 minutes. This axis is constantly tilted at an angle of about 66°30' with respect to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, which is the primary cause of the seasonal weather cycles experienced at temperate and polar latitudes. + +ayre +Another name for a shingle beach or other gravel-covered spit, bar, or tombolo, used primarily in the archipelagos of northern Scotland. + +azimuth +The angle formed between a reference vector (often magnetic north) and a line from the observer to a point of interest projected perpendicularly to the zenith on the same plane as the reference vector. Azimuth is usually measured in degrees and can be determined with a compass. + +azimuthal projection +A map projection in which all bearings are laid off correctly from the centerpoint of the map, so that all points on the map are true in distance and direction from the center. + +== B == + +backcountry +Any geographical area that is remote, isolated, undeveloped, or difficult to access, as contrasted with frontcountry; sparsely populated or uninhabited wilderness. See also bush. + +backshore +The part of a seashore lying inland from the mean high water line, landwards of the foreshore, from which it is often delineated by a conspicuous strandline. This part of the beach is only affected by waves during exceptional high tides or severe storms. + +backslope +The part of the profile of a hillslope that forms the steepest, typically linear portion of the slope, generally located in the middle and bounded by a convex shoulder above and a concave footslope below. The backslope may or may not include vertical or near-vertical cliffs. + +backwash +The seaward return flow of a receding wave after it has broken on a beach or other surface. Contrast swash. + +backwater +1. A part of a river in which there is little or no current, especially a side channel, a sluggish meander, or a slowing and widening of the main stem created by an obstruction to flow. +2. A place regarded as remote, underdeveloped, or culturally backward relative to other places; a place or state of stagnation, in which little or no economic, social, or intellectual progress occurs. +3. A secluded, peaceful place. + +badia +In the Middle East, an arid area characterized by low or irregular precipitation and little or no vegetation. + +badlands +An area of rugged or irregular topography resulting from extensive wind and water erosion of unconsolidated sedimentary rock. + +bajada +Also bahada. +A series of adjacent alluvial fans coalescing in a basin at the foot of a mountain range. + +Balkanization +The political fragmentation of a larger region or state into multiple smaller regions or states, often implying mutual hostility or lack of cooperation between such units, as has occurred frequently in the Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe. + +bank +1. The land alongside a body of water, particularly the sloping ground bordering and defining the channel of a flowing watercourse such as a river or stream. +2. An elevation in the bed of a river, stream, or shallow sea, either fully or partially submerged, mid-channel or connected to the shore, and usually made of sand, mud, gravel, or other loose sediment. See also bar and shoal. +3. Another name for a hill or hillside. + +bankfull stage +The stage during which the channel of a river or stream is completely filled with water from bank to bank, immediately preceding the overbank stage, when the river overflows its banks and inundates the surrounding floodplain. + +bar +An elevated area of unconsolidated sediment such as sand or gravel which has been deposited by the flow of a river or other moving body of water. See also shoal. + +barrage +An impoundment built for seasonal floodwater storage and/or to create a reservoir for irrigation, as opposed to a dam, which instead serves the purpose of hydroelectric power generation, though the terms are sometimes used more or less interchangeably. + +barrier island +A long, narrow ridge or shoal lying above the highest high tide level (thereby creating an island) and parallel to the mainland coast, from which it is separated by a lagoon. Barrier islands are essentially very large sandbars deposited naturally by wave and tidal action, often in extensive chains along the coastline, or created artificially by dredging. Though their size and shape change frequently, particularly during storms, they are important natural breakwaters, sheltering areas of relatively calm waters where wetlands and marine life flourish. See also spit and tied island. + +barrier reef +A coral reef lying parallel to a shore and some distance from it, creating a sheltered lagoon which the reef protects from the open ocean. + +barrier ridge +Any steep, unnavigable ridge or escarpment isolating one terrain from another. + +barrio +In the Spanish-speaking world, a neighborhood or community within a larger urban area, generally with informal boundaries, though in some places the term may refer to a formal subdivision of a municipality. + +barrow +See tumulus. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..92b808aab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 21/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +horizontal equivalent +The distance between two points on a land surface when projected on to a perfectly horizontal (i.e. flat) plane, e.g. on a map, as opposed to measuring the actual physical length along the real-world surface, which can be greatly increased by slopes and other topographic variation. The distance between the start and end points of any route, even if at the same elevation, will often appear to be much shorter on a map than the shortest route that could actually be walked between them, because of the influence of real-world changes in vertical displacement along the path followed by the route. + +horn +A mountain formed by the back-to-back abutment of three or four adjacent cirques, leaving a distinctly pyramidal peak. + +horst +A raised block of the Earth's crust, bounded by parallel escarpments or faults, that has been displaced upward or has remained stationary while adjacent blocks on either side, known as grabens, have been displaced downward. Horsts and grabens often occur side-by-side in a repeated series of vertical displacements. + +hotspot +An area in the middle of a lithospheric plate where magma rises from the mantle and erupts at the Earth's surface, despite being far from the plate's tectonic boundaries. Volcanoes often occur above a hotspot. + +hum +A residual hill in limestone country, resembling a haystack, left standing when the surrounding land surface is eroded. + +human geography +The branch of geography that studies humans and their communities, cultures, economies, and interactions with the environment by examining their relations with and across space and place. Along with physical geography, it is one of the two major sub-fields of geography. + +human–environment interaction +The interdependent relationship between humans and the environment. + +humanistic geography +Also humanist geography. +An approach in human geography which emphasizes the subjective as distinct from the objective in that it stresses the importance of perception, creativity, thinking, and beliefs as well as human experience and values in the formation of the attitudes of people toward their environment and in affecting their relationships with it. + +hummock +A small knoll or mound, typically less than 15 metres (49 ft) in height and situated above an otherwise level ground surface. + +humus +Partially decomposed organic soil material. + +hundred +In England, Scandinavia, and many other parts of the world, an administrative subdivision of a larger region, often a county or shire, with its own judicial authority. + +hydrograph +A graph showing the rate of flow (i.e. the discharge) of water past a specific point of measurement in a river or other channel over time, typically expressed in cubic metres or cubic feet per second (m3 or ft3/s). + +hydrography +The study of the surface waters of the Earth. + +hydrosphere +The totality of the water found on, under, and above the Earth's surface in liquid, solid, and gaseous forms, including all oceans, lakes, rivers, and streams, as well as all ice and glaciers and subsurface groundwater. Some definitions restrict the hydrosphere to liquid water only, instead placing solid forms in the cryosphere and gaseous forms in the atmosphere. + +hypsography +The geographic representation on a map of features related to elevation, altitude, and other measures of height above a reference surface (and sometimes inclusive of depths below the reference surface as well). + +hypsometer +Any instrument used to measure the height or elevation of an object above a reference surface, either by trigonometry or by measuring changes in atmospheric pressure or boiling point. Trigonometric principles are applied when viewing the measured object from a distance, e.g. when determining the heights of trees or buildings, or when surveying the elevations of distant landforms; whereas the principle that atmospheric pressure decreases predictably with elevation above sea level is applied in instruments that measure their own height (i.e. the elevation of the instrument's location). + +hypsometry +The study or measurement of the elevation or depth of features of the Earth's surface relative to mean sea level. In a narrower sense, hypsometry may refer to land elevations only, and therefore is sometimes viewed as the terrestrial equivalent of bathymetry. + +== I == + +ice age +Any very long period of Earth's history during which surface and atmospheric temperatures are greatly reduced, resulting in the development or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and widespread glaciation. The most recent such period was the Pleistocene Epoch, which ended approximately 12,000 years ago. + +ice cap +A flattened, often dome-shaped mass of ice that covers less than 50,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi) of land area and is not constrained by topographical features such as mountains; larger masses of ice are termed ice sheets. Contrast polar ice cap. + +ice floe +A large piece of floating drift ice, typically with a flat surface and at least 20 metres (66 ft) across at its widest point. + +ice sheet +Also continental glacier. +A mass of glacial ice that covers more than 50,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi) of land area; smaller masses of ice may be termed ice caps or ice shelves. The two polar ice sheets are the only ice sheets that currently exist on Earth. + +ice shelf +A large floating platform of ice formed when a glacier or ice sheet in a coastal area flows onto the ocean surface. By contrast, sea ice is formed directly over the water and is typically much thinner. + +ice stream +A region of relatively fast-moving ice within an ice sheet that flows like a stream under its own weight (making it essentially equivalent to a glacier) and empties into the ocean. Ice streams are responsible for the majority of the mass lost from both the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets. + +iceberg +A large chunk of fresh water ice which has broken away from a larger body of ice (such as a glacier or ice shelf) and is floating freely in open water. + +icefall +A portion of a glacier where a steepening or narrowing of the underlying bed causes the ice to move more rapidly than elsewhere, resulting in a chaotic, highly fractured surface characterized by numerous crevasses and seracs. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-21.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-21.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c5c6ec461 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-21.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 22/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +igneous rock +Rock formed when molten (melted) materials harden. + +immigration +To move to another country. People that move to another country are called immigrants. + +impact crater +A type of crater formed by the hypervelocity collision of a solid astronomical body, such as a meteor, with the Earth's surface. Unlike volcanic craters, impact craters typically have raised rims higher in elevation and depressed floors lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain. + +impoundment +1. Another name for a dam that impounds a body of water. +2. The reservoir created by such a dam. + +improved land +Any land area which has been intentionally altered from its natural condition by human activity, such as ploughing, clearing, cultivation, or some other form of management, and thereby made more valuable or productive for human purposes (not necessarily to the benefit of any other organism or the environment in general). Legal definitions vary with location, but in most countries the term refers primarily to certain types of agricultural land or to property which has been developed for residential or commercial use. + +inclinometer +Also clinometer, declinometer, tilt meter, gradient meter, slope gauge, and level gauge. +An instrument used to measure angles of slope, elevation, or depression with respect to the direction of the gravitational force, i.e. in the vertical plane, including both inclines and declines. The measure may be expressed in degrees, percentage points, or topos. + +index contour +A contour line drawn with a heavier line weight to distinguish it from intermediate contours. Depending on the contour interval, index contours are usually indicated every fourth or fifth contour, along with their assigned numerical values, in order to facilitate ease of interpretation. + +index map +See map index. + +indigenous +Originating in or native to a particular place or region, usually used of a living organism. + +inertia costs of location +Costs borne by an activity because it remains located at its original site, even though the distributions of supply and demand have changed. + +influent +(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing into a larger watercourse or body of water. + +infrastructure +The broad set of facilities and interrelated systems that serve a city, country, or any other inhabited area, encompassing the structures and services necessary for its industries, economies, and residential spaces to function. Infrastructure may include public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, water reservoirs, canals, sewers, and electrical and telecommunications networks, among other things. A well-developed infrastructure is essential to enable, sustain, and improve living and working conditions in any society or organization. + +ingression coast +Also ingressed coast and depressed coast. +A generally flat coastline whose shape has been largely defined by the penetration of the sea into relatively low-lying areas of the land surface, often as a result of crustal movements or a rise in sea level, such that the boundary between land and water closely matches the topographic contours of the land prior to its being covered by seawater. + +inland +Of, relating to, within, or towards the interior of a landmass, i.e. distant from the coast. + +inland sea +A very large, isolated expanse of open water in the interior of a landmass, either completely surrounded by dry land or connected to the ocean by a river, strait, or other narrow waterway. + +inland waters +Any surface watercourse or body of water surrounded entirely by land, including ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers, or all such waters within a polity considered collectively. See also internal waters. + +inlet +An indentation of a shoreline, usually long and narrow, which leads to an enclosed body of salt water, such as a sound, bay, lagoon, or marsh. + +inselberg +Also monadnock. +An isolated rocky hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain that rises abruptly from a virtually level surrounding plain. Compare mogote. + +inset +A subsection of a map that is reserved for depicting another map of the same place at a different scale, often a smaller scale to show relative location within a larger geographic area (e.g. a country's location on the globe) or a larger scale to show increased detail (e.g. of public transit routes in a downtown area), or with different features or overlays in order to provide additional information that would be difficult to interpret if presented in the main map area. Insets are usually outlined with an obvious boundary to prevent confusion, and may include their own set of cartographic elements such as a scale, graticule, and legend. + +inshore +(relative to a position on a body of water) Near to or moving towards the shore; shorewards of a position as opposed to seawards of it. See also onshore and offshore. + +insular +Of or relating to an island, or suggestive of the isolated condition of an island. + +integrated drainage +A drainage pattern in which stream systems have developed to the point that all parts of the landscape drain into some part of a stream and to a common base level, the initial or original surfaces having essentially eroded away entirely, such that few or no closed drainage systems are present. + +integrated geography +Also integrative geography, environmental geography, or human–environment geography. +The branch of geography that describes and explains the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment. + +intercardinal directions +Also intermediate directions or ordinal directions. +The set of four intermediate directions used in cartography and navigation, each of which is located halfway between a pair of cardinal directions: northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW). They are often included in the compass rose and are used to define further subdivisions such as the secondary-intercardinal directions. + +interfluve +A narrow, elongated, and plateau-like or ridge-like landform between two valleys, or an area of higher ground between two rivers in the same drainage basin. + +intermediate directions +See intercardinal directions. + +intermittent stream +A stream or other watercourse in which water does not flow continuously but dries up occasionally, often predictably with the seasons, as opposed to a perennial stream which flows year-round. See also bourne. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-22.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-22.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6735fc894 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-22.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 23/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +intermontane +Also intermountain. +Situated between mountains or mountain ranges, e.g. the high plateaus lying between the eastern and western ranges of the Andes. + +International Date Line +A line of longitude generally 180 degrees east and west of the Prime Meridian. The date is one day earlier to the east of the line. + +international waters + +interpolation +In geographic information science, the estimation of the values of spatially dependent variables at unsampled points based on known values of surrounding points, under the assumption that any unknown quantity can be calculated based on its distance to each surrounding quantity. Interpolation techniques such as spline and kriging are commonly raster operations, but can also be applied in vector environments using a triangulated irregular network to model a surface. + +interruption +Any place where the contiguous geographic area represented in a map projection has been split, separating to distant parts of the projection certain features and locations which are in reality much closer to each other, in order to permit the representation of a three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional map. All world maps, for example, have at least one interruption, conventionally along the length of a single meridian, thus forming an east–west boundary despite that the approximately spherical shape of the Earth is continuous, with no such boundaries; features on either side of the interruption, though very close to each other on the actual Earth, are depicted on opposite edges of the map, appearing to be separated by thousands of miles. Some world map projections attempt to reduce distortion of scale by having more than one interruption, which divide the projected area into multiple gores, each with its own central meridian. + +intervening opportunity +The existence of a closer, less expensive opportunity for obtaining a good or service, or for a migration destination. Such opportunities lessen the attractiveness of more distant places. + +Intracoastal Waterway (ICW) +A system of navigable inland waterway channels, maintained through dredging and sheltered for the most part by a series of linear offshore islands, that follows the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States more than 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) from Boston, Massachusetts, around the southern tip of Florida, to Brownsville, Texas. + +inversac +See estavelle. + +inverted river delta + +island +Also isle. +Any piece of sub-continental land that is entirely surrounded by water; or more generally, any isolated habitat that is surrounded by a different habitat, including different types of land. + +island nation +A country or polity whose territory consists primarily or entirely of one or more islands or parts of islands. + +isle +See island. + +islet +A very small island. + +isometric +Having equal measure. + +isopleth +Any line on a map connecting places of equal value of some specified variable. The variable may be a physical or natural quantity, such as elevation above sea level (as with contour lines) or temperature (as with isotherms), or a quantity related to social or economic statistics, such as population, wealth, or transport costs. + +isostasy +Also isostatic equilibrium. +The state of gravitational equilibrium between the Earth's crust and its mantle, such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density. This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at Earth's surface. Isostatic theory maintains that where equilibrium exists at the surface, equal mass must underlie equal surface area, and that the thickness of crustal features and the depth of the world's oceans tend to change over time in order to compensate for the uneven distribution of mass in the lithosphere. For example, the instability of continental margins where high mountains are found adjacent to deep oceanic trenches is explained by the subterranean movement of magma to effect a return to regional equilibrium, a process known as isostatic adjustment. + +isthmus +A narrow piece of land connecting two larger land areas across an expanse of water by which they are otherwise separated. + +== J == + +jetty +Any man-made structure that projects from land out into a body of water, serving as a breakwater, a walkway, or a landing stage for watercraft, or, in pairs, as a means of constricting a channel. + +jhum cultivation +Also jhoom cultivation or slash-and-burn agriculture. +Clear-cutting and/or setting fire to an area of land so it can be used for farm cultivation. + +junction +A meeting or intersection of two or more routes of travel, as of roads, rivers, or lines on a map, or a place at which a single route diverges into two or more different routes. + +jungle +An area covered with dense vegetation dominated by large trees, often tropical. + +jurisdiction +1. The right and power to apply the law in a particular place or within a defined field of responsibility. +2. The geographical area to which such authority applies. + +juvenile water +Also magmatic water. +Water present within or derived from the magma of the Earth's mantle and which when brought to the surface by volcanic eruptions is entering the water cycle for the first time (or at least for the first time in millions of years, having previously circulated in the oceans or the atmosphere but becoming subducted beneath the surface and returned to the mantle). + +== K == + +kame +An irregularly shaped hill or mound composed of sand, gravel, and glacial till which accumulates in a depression on a retreating glacier and is subsequently deposited on the land surface with further melting of the glacier. Kames are often associated with kettles. + +karre +A furrow or channel varying in depth from a few millimetres to more than a metre, and separated from others by ridges, caused by solution on limestone surfaces. + +karst +An area possessing surface topography resulting from the underground solution of subsurface limestone or dolomite. + +kettle +Also kettle hole or pothole. +A shallow, sediment-filled body of water formed by blocks of ice calving from a retreating glacier, or by draining floodwaters. + +key +See cay. + +key col + +kill +Also kil. +A river, stream, strait, or tidal inlet. The term is used primarily in areas of Dutch influence in the northeastern United States. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-23.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-23.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3fb5fe9cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-23.md @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 24/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +knickpoint +Also nickpoint. +1. A point of abrupt inflection in the longitudinal profile of a river or its channel or valley, such as occurs at a waterfall. +2. Any interruption or break in the character of a slope. + +knob +A peak or projection from the top of a hill or mountain, or any rounded protrusion of land, especially a small but prominent or isolated hill with steep sides; a boulder or an area of resistant rock protruding from the side of a hill or mountain. The term is used primarily in the southern United States. + +knoll +See hillock. + +kolk +Also colc and colk. +1. A violently rotating underwater vortex capable of plucking and scouring depressions in bedrock, which may leave behind distinct pits or lakes known as rock-cut basins or potholes. +2. Another name for a bog pond. + +kopje +See tor. + +krai +In Russia and other Slavic countries, a generic term for a region, historically and politically reserved for border regions in particular, and variously translated as march, frontier, or territory. The term is cognate with the name of Ukraine. + +kriging +Also Gaussian process regression and Wiener–Kolmogorov prediction. +In geostatistics, an interpolation technique in which, for a given spatially dependent variable, a predicted value for an unmeasured location is derived by weighting the surrounding measured values based on the distance between them and to the unmeasured location, as well as the overall spatial arrangement of the measured points. Widely used in GIS applications, kriging is based on regionalized variable theory, which assumes that the spatial variation in the data being modeled is homogeneous across the surface. + +kum +A sandy desert of Central Asia, roughly equivalent to the Saharan erg. + +kyle +In Scotland, a narrow channel or strait between two islands, or between an island and the mainland. + +== L == + +lacustrine +Of or pertaining to a lake; formed by or deposited in a lake. + +lacustrine plain +A nearly level land area formed by the infilling of a lake with sediment and the complete drainage or evaporation of water from the lake, leaving the deposited sediments behind. + +lagoon +A small area of water connected to the ocean but otherwise blockaded by one or more islands. + +lahar +Also mudflow or debris flow. +A flowing mixture of water and debris (intermediate between a volcanic avalanche and a water flood) that forms on the slopes of a volcano. + +lake +A body of water localized in a basin and surrounded entirely by land. Lakes are often defined as separate from any river or stream that serves to feed or drain them. + +land bridge +Any piece of land connecting larger land areas that are otherwise separated by water, especially one over which living organisms, such as terrestrial animals and plants, are able to cross and thereby colonize previously inaccessible lands. Land bridges may be created by falling sea levels, tectonic activity, or post-glacial rebound. Compare isthmus. + +land cover +The physical material present on the surface of the Earth, including categories such as vegetation (grasslands, shrubs, forests, etc.), bare ground, water, asphalt and artificial surfaces, and many others. + +land-fast ice +See fast ice. + +landform +A natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth. A combined set of landforms makes up the terrain of a given area, and their arrangement in a landscape is known as topography. + +landlocked +1. (of a country or other polity, or a geographical region) Completely surrounded by land and thus lacking a marine coastline; having no territory directly connected to or bordering the ocean. +2. (of a property or parcel of land) Completely surrounded by privately owned property and having no access to a public road. + +landmark +Any natural or artificial feature that is recognizable enough to be used for navigation; a feature that stands out enough from its environment to be visible across long distances. + +landmass +Any large contiguous area of land typically surrounded by an ocean or sea. Compare continent. + +landscape +1. A broad or distinct area of land consisting of a collection of landforms which define a general geomorphologic form or setting, e.g. a mountain range, valley, plain, coast, etc. Landforms within a landscape are spatially associated but may vary in formation processes and age. +2. The visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. In the broadest sense, landscapes may include geophysical landforms such as hills and mountains; bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, and the sea; living elements of land cover such as vegetation; human elements such as buildings, structures, and various forms of land use; and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. They reflect both physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence in a living synthesis of people and place. + +landscape studies +A branch of geography which examines the structure and organization of landscapes, focusing on landscapes as the settings for cultural and ecological patterns, processes, and histories, as well as on the social and cultural evolution of landscapes, including the ways in which they shape and are shaped by human societies and the interrelationships between place-making and personal and social memory. + +landslide +Also landslip. +A sudden mass movement of earth from a hill, mountain, or cliff, in which displaced material slides, flows, falls, or collapses under the force of gravity yet often retains form as it moves; or the visible evidence of this movement after the displaced material has come to rest. Landslides may have many causes, though they are commonly associated with heavy precipitation, underground aquifers, wave action, and earthquakes. + +land-tied island +See tied island. + +lateral blast +A sideways-directed explosion from the side or summit of a volcano. + +lateral moraine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-24.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-24.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4dc4b4f7f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-24.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 25/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +latitude +A measure of distance north or south of the Equator. One degree of latitude equals approximately 111 kilometers (69 mi). Lines of latitude, also called circles of latitude or parallels, are the imaginary lines that cross the surface of the Earth in an east-west direction (parallel to the Equator) and measure how far north or south of the Equator a place is located. + +lava +The term used for magma once it has erupted onto the Earth's surface. + +layer of no motion +In oceanography, a hypothetical layer at some depth in the ocean within which the water is assumed to be at rest, implying that the isobaric surfaces within that layer are level and hence that such surfaces can be used as points of reference when calculating absolute-gradient currents. + +lea +A pasture, meadow, or grassy field. + +leaching +A process of soil nutrient removal through the erosive movement and chemical action of water. + +lee +The side or slope of a physical feature (such as a hill or mountain) which faces downwind, i.e. away from the direction in which the wind is blowing, or which faces away from an advancing glacier or ice sheet. The lee side is often sheltered by the topography from exposure to the wind and any moisture it brings. + +leeward +Toward the lee side; sheltered from the wind; the direction downwind from a point of reference. Contrast windward. + +legend +A key for understanding the meanings of the symbols or pictures on a map. + +levee +Also dike, embankment, floodbank, and stopbank. +An elongated naturally occurring ridge or an artificially constructed wall or barrier which regulates water levels in areas prone to flooding. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river or a coastline. + +lithosphere +The Earth's hard, outermost shell. It comprises the crust and the upper part of the mantle. It is divided into a mosaic of 16 major slabs or plates, which are known as lithospheric plates or tectonic plates. + +lithospheric plates +See tectonic plates. + +loam +A type of easily worked, highly fertile soil composed of clay, silt, and sand in an approximate ratio of 20:40:40. Loams generally heat rapidly, are well-aerated, and drain neither too quickly nor too slowly. + +localism +A movement or philosophy that prioritizes local or small-scale politics, issues, and values over regional or broader concerns, rejecting things like centralized government and economic outsourcing in favor of local production and consumption of goods, local control of government, and the promotion of local history, local culture, and local identity. + +localization +The set of processes by which social, cultural, economic, or other activities become embedded in specific places or locations, rather than in alternative places or across many places, either in contrast to or as a related aspect of globalization. In the former sense localization may be deliberately practiced as a form of resistance to globalization through the promotion of increased local control, self-government, and economic self-sufficiency. See also deglobalization. + +location +A particular point or place in physical space. Compare absolute location. + +location theory +A group of theories which seek to explain the siting of economic activities in particular locations. + +loess +A soil made up of small particles that were transported by the wind to their present location. + +longitude +A measure of distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, a line drawn between the North and South Poles and passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England. Lines of longitude, also called meridians, are the imaginary lines that cross the surface of the Earth in a north-south direction (parallel to the Prime Meridian) and measure how far east or west of the Prime Meridian a place is located. + +longshore drift +Also longshore current and littoral drift. +A geological process by which sediment is transported along a coast parallel to the shoreline due to incoming wind-driven waves meeting the shore at an oblique angle; this generates a water current which moves unidirectionally along the shore within the surf zone. A well-known example occurs on sandy beaches when breaking waves send swash up the beach at an angle but gravity drains the backwash straight downslope, perpendicular to the shoreline, causing the same sand particles to gradually move down the beach over multiple cycles. The same process occurs at many different scales and affects all sediment sizes, and can vary with the wind direction even at the same location. + +lowland +Any area of land that is lower in elevation relative to another area. The term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater riparian areas, on the basis of elevation above sea level. Lowland areas are usually relatively flat and characterized by slow-flowing waterways and alluvial plains. Contrast highland and upland. + +== M == + +maar +A broad, shallow, flat-bottomed volcanic crater created by an eruption involving groundwater coming into contact with magma. Maars commonly have low rims and subtle relief and characteristically fill with water to form crater lakes. + +machair +A fertile, low-lying, grassy plain on the northwest coasts of Ireland and Scotland. + +magma +Molten rock containing liquids, crystals, and dissolved gases that forms within the upper part of the Earth's mantle and crust. When erupted onto the Earth's surface, it is called lava. + +magmatic water +See juvenile water. + +magnetic anomaly +A local deviation from the predicted value of the Earth's magnetic field, due either to the presence of rocks formed in past geological eras which have preserved internal magnetizations that differ from modern magnetic alignments, or to local abundances or deficiencies of ferromagnetic minerals. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-25.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-25.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2cb4c5fb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-25.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 26/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +magnetic declination +Also magnetic variation. +The angle on the horizontal plane between magnetic north and true north. Because compass needles always point to magnetic north, and because the Magnetic North Pole and the Geographic North Pole are not in precisely the same location, the north direction indicated by a compass may be slightly different from the direction of geographic north, depending on the user's location on the Earth. The user can compensate for this discrepancy by adding the known declination angle for their location to the magnetic bearing reported by their compass, yielding the true bearing with respect to true north. + +magnetic dip +Also dip angle and magnetic inclination. +The angle made with the horizontal by the Earth's magnetic field lines. Locations in the Northern Hemisphere usually have positive values of inclination, indicating that the magnetic field is angled downward, into the Earth; the angle increases as one approaches the North Magnetic Pole, where the field lines point vertically downward, perpendicular to the horizontal. Locations in the Southern Hemisphere usually have negative inclination, indicating that the field lines are angled upward, away from the Earth, with the maximum angle located at the South Magnetic Pole. Dip angle is in principle the angle made by the needle of a vertically held compass, though in practice ordinary compass needles may be deliberately weighted against dip, or may be unable to move freely in the correct plane. Magnetic dip can be measured more reliably with a dip circle. + +magnetic meridian + +magnetic north +The direction a compass points, towards the Magnetic North Pole. Magnetic north differs from true north and grid north. + +magnetic pole +Either of the two poles of the Earth's true magnetic field – the Magnetic North Pole or the Magnetic South Pole. + +magnetic variation +See magnetic declination. + +main stem +Also trunk. +The primary downstream channel of a river, as contrasted with its tributaries. Virtually all of the water in a river's drainage basin eventually flows through the main stem. + +mainfall +See grade. + +mainland +A term used to denote a contiguous landmass or political territory relative to its politically associated but geographically remote outlying territories. It is variously used to refer to the continental (i.e. non-insular) part of a polity relative to its exclaves or oceanic islands; or to the largest or most politically, economically, and/or demographically significant island within an island nation. For example, continental Europe is often considered "the mainland" relative to the British Isles, while the island of Great Britain is considered "the mainland" relative to Northern Ireland and the many smaller islands that constitute the United Kingdom. + +makhtesh +A deep, closed valley (usually drained by a single wadi) surrounded by steep walls of resistant rock and superficially resembling a crater. The term is used primarily in the deserts of Israel and Egypt. + +mammilated +Smooth and rounded in appearance, used of various landforms of different sizes from individual rocks to entire landscapes. + +mantle +The layer of the Earth's interior between the crust and the core, consisting of ultrabasic rock which is predominantly solid under the immense pressure of overlying rock but behaves as a viscous fluid over geological time scales or if this pressure is relieved (as with magma penetrating the crust). The mantle is about 2,900 kilometers (1,800 mi) thick, making up 84% of the Earth's volume and 67% of its mass. The uppermost sub-layer is known as the asthenosphere; the lithosphere is composed of the topmost 65–70 kilometres (40–43 mi) of the mantle and the crust. + +map +A picture of a place drawn at an established scale on a two-dimensional plane surface, often depicting natural and manmade features on or under the surface of the Earth or other planetary body, typically with the features positioned as accurately as possible relative to a coordinate reference system. More generally, a map is any graphical representation of locative information about the relative positions of particular features within a space or place. + +map index +Also index map. +A graphical key identifying the relationships between the individual maps of a map series, their coverage areas, and/or their production status or availability. Index maps enable users to find a map or set of maps covering a particular region of interest by overlaying a grid or a set of rectangles on a map of a larger geographical area. Each grid unit or rectangle is labeled with a name or number corresponding to a specific map sheet which depicts the indicated area in greater detail. + +map projection +A systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations from the surface of a three-dimensional shape, such as a sphere or an ellipsoid, into locations on a two-dimensional plane. Maps of locations on the Earth require map projections to represent features in a convenient format that is easy to view and interpret, though all map projections necessarily distort the true properties of the Earth's surface to some degree. + +map series +A group of topographic or thematic map sheets usually having the same scale and cartographic specifications and collectively identified by the publisher or producing agency as belonging to the same group. + +map sheet +An individual map or chart printed on a single page or sheet of paper, either complete in itself or part of a map series. + +mapping +The process of designing, drawing, or creating a map. The term is used in particular to refer to the application of cartographic techniques in order to make planimetric or topographic maps, but may also be used for any map, and in the broadest sense may refer to the gathering of geographical data of any kind. + +march +Also marche or mark; (pl.) marches or marchlands. +A boundary, frontier, or borderland, as opposed to an interior heartland. In medieval Europe, a march was the land surrounding a border between realms, or a neutral buffer zone under the joint control of two or more realms with conflicting laws or territorial claims. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-26.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-26.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d251d2bd2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-26.md @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 27/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +margin +1. The line or edge along which the surface of a body of water meets the land. +2. In property law, the boundary of a piece of land which is bounded by a stream or watercourse, often with the center of the stream or the thalweg defining the legal boundary. +3. The mostly blank, unused space lying beyond the neatline of a map and completely surrounding the map area. See also surround. + +marginal land +Land that is of low agricultural value because any crops produced from it would be worth the same or less than the costs paid to produce them, either because the rights or improvements required to cultivate it are very expensive, or the market prices for the crops are very low, or for any other reason. A change in economic conditions may allow formerly marginal lands to become profitable again. + +marginal sea +1. A sea or other large area of the ocean that is partially enclosed by land and/or submarine ridges yet still adjacent to, widely open to, and connected to the larger ocean at the surface; e.g. the Yellow Sea and Hudson Bay. +2. Also territorial sea, marine belt, and maritime belt.Those waters along a nation's coast within which the nation has exclusive jurisdiction except for the right of innocent passage of foreign vessels. See also territorial waters. +marine +1. Of, relating to, found in, or produced by the sea or ocean. +2. Of or relating to shipping or navigation, particularly by watercraft. + +maritime climate +A climate strongly influenced by an oceanic environment, typically found on islands and the windward shores of continents. It is characterized by small daily and yearly temperature variation and high relative humidity. + +market orientation +The tendency of a firm or industry to be located close to wherever demand for the commodities it produces is strongest. + +marsh +A type of wetland dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species and often found at the edges of lakes and streams, where it forms a transition between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. + +Massenerhebung effect + +massif +1. Any section of the Earth's crust which is demarcated by faults or flexures and tends to retain its internal structure while being displaced as a whole. +2. A single large mountain mass or compact group of connected mountains forming an independent portion of a mountain range. + +mayen +In Switzerland and the Central Alps, a large shelf or ledge, intermediate between high alpine meadows and valley floors, where cattle are allowed to rest briefly during their annual movements between summer and winter pasture. + +mean sea level (MSL) +The average sea level of one or more of the Earth's coastal bodies of water, such as oceans and seas, or at a particular location, from which heights such as elevation and altitude are measured. + +meander +One of a series of regular sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or windings in the main channel of a river, stream, or other watercourse. Meanders are produced by the repetitive upstream erosion and downstream deposition of sediments along the banks of a watercourse as the water flows back and forth across the axis of a valley or floodplain. + +meander cutoff +The process by which the strip of land separating the two closest parts of a meandering river or stream channel is breached by the river's flow, forming a new, shorter channel that effectively "shortcuts" the loop of the meander and causes it to be gradually abandoned until it is completely isolated from the main flow. The river's course suddenly becomes much straighter, and the abandoned meander often forms a slackwater or an oxbow lake, or becomes loaded with sediment and dries up entirely, leaving visible traces of the former channel. + +meander neck +The narrow strip of land separating the river on each side of a well-developed meander. If this strip is completely eroded away, a cutoff occurs. See also neck. + +meander scar +Also meander scarp. +A typically crescent-shaped incision in a bluff or valley wall formed by the remnants of a dry, abandoned meander. + +medial moraine +Also median moraine. +The morainic debris lying centrally in a line across the surface of a glacier, formed when the lateral moraines of two confluent glaciers meet. + +median line + +medical geography +A branch of human geography that studies the geographical aspects of health and the provision of healthcare, examining the spatial distribution of human diseases, mortality, morbidity, and the environmental factors conducive to human health and illness. + +Mediterranean climate +Any climate characterized by mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, as experienced in the Mediterranean Basin. + +megacity +A very large city, typically with a population of at least 10 million people. Precise definitions vary, but criteria are usually based on total population and/or population density. + +megafan +An exceptionally large alluvial fan, variously defined as being more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) long from apex to toe or having a surface area of more than 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi). + +megalopolis +A chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas which have merged into a very large and heavily populated urban complex. See also conurbation and metropolitan coalescence. + +megaregion + +meilograph +See opisometer. + +meltwater +Also snowmelt. +Water (usually freshwater) derived from the melting of snow or ice, including seasonal snowfall, glacial ice, icebergs, and ice shelves over the ocean. + +mental map +The conception of an actual geographic space as it exists within a person's mind; an imagined "map" of the spatial relationships and orientations of physical objects and locations within the real-world environment, reflecting the knowledge and prejudices of the individual and characteristic of the way the individual acquires, classifies, stores, retrieves, and interprets geographic information. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-27.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-27.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..26b21a2e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-27.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 28/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mercator projection +Also equatorial cylindrical orthomorphic map projection. +A conformal cylindrical map projection in which the equator is represented by a straight line true to scale and meridians are represented by parallel straight lines perpendicular to the equator and uniformly spaced according to the distances between them at the equator. Lines of latitude are also represented by a system of straight lines which are perpendicular to all of the meridians and therefore parallel to the equator, though their spacing is not uniform but rather increases with increasing distance from the equator in order to conform with the expanding scale resulting from the parallel representations of the meridians. The standard Mercator projection has long been popular in navigation because it represents north as up and south as down everywhere in the world while preserving local directions and shapes, though it also greatly inflates the size of objects near the geographic poles. + +mere +A shallow pond, lake, or wetland. The term is used primarily in Great Britain and other parts of Western Europe. + +mereing +A type of surveying in which boundaries are established with respect to ground features present at the time of the survey, which may include natural features and may or may not remain unchanged over time, e.g. a metes and bounds survey. + +meridian +A line of longitude, i.e. any imaginary line connecting points of equal longitude and running perpendicular to all lines of latitude, intersecting them at right angles. Unlike lines of latitude, meridians are all the same length, but are not parallel to each other, instead converging at the geographic poles. Each meridian is half of a great circle drawn on the Earth's surface; the other half, connecting all of the meridian's antipodes, is termed an antimeridian. Meridians are numbered according to their longitudinal measure in angular degrees (further subdivided into minutes and seconds) up to 180 degrees east or west of an arbitrarily designated zero or prime meridian, by convention the International Reference Meridian. + +meridional +Of, relating to, or characteristic of the south, especially of the inhabitants of a southern region or territory, in particular southern Europe. Contrast septentrional. + +mesa +An isolated, relatively flat-topped natural elevation, usually more extensive than a butte but less extensive than a plateau. + +metamorphic rock +Rock that has been physically altered by heat and/or pressure. + +metes and bounds +A system of land survey that defines parcels of land according to visible natural landscape features and distance. The resultant field pattern is usually very irregular in shape. + +metropole +The homeland or central territory from which a colonial empire governs, as opposed to its colonies or overseas territories. + +metropolis +A large city or conurbation which is considered a significant economic, political, or cultural center for a country or geographic region and/or an important hub for regional or international connections and communications. + +metropolitan area +Also metro area or commuter belt. +A region consisting of one or more densely populated urban cores (often a metropolis) and its less populous surrounding territories, including satellite cities, towns, and intervening rural areas, all of which are socioeconomically tied to the core as typically measured by commuting patterns. A metropolitan area usually comprises multiple neighborhoods, jurisdictions, and municipalities, with its inhabitants sharing industry, housing, and many other forms of infrastructure. + +metropolitan coalescence +The merging of the urbanized parts of separate metropolitan areas; a megalopolis is a result of this process. + +metropolitan state + +migration +The movement of people, animals, or other living organisms from one place to another. + +mire +See bog. + +mogote +An isolated, rounded, steep-sided hill composed of either limestone, marble, or dolomite and surrounded by nearly flat alluvial plains, especially as found in tropical regions. + +Mohorovičić discontinuity +Also Moho discontinuity, Moho boundary, or simply Moho. +The boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle, as defined by the abrupt change in velocity of seismic P waves traveling across this boundary, which occurs as the waves pass through different densities of rock. + +mole +A long, massive, man-made stone or earthen structure used as a pier or breakwater, or as a causeway between places separated by water, but designed to prevent the free movement of water underneath it (unlike a true pier). + +monadnock +See inselberg. + +montane +Of or pertaining to a mountain or mountains; mountainous; occurring at high elevation. The term is used in particular to describe biomes or ecological communities occupying cool, humid zones at or near timberline. See also alpine. + +monticule +A secondary cone on the side of a larger volcano, or any small mountain or large hill. + +moor +Also moorland. +An upland habitat and ecoregion characterized by low-growing vegetation on acidic soils and generally referring to uncultivated hills but also including low-lying wetlands. + +moraine +The rocks and soil carried and deposited by a glacier. A terminal moraine, either a ridge or low hill running perpendicular to the direction of ice movement, is often visible near the end of a retreating glacier, indicating the glacier's maximum advance. + +moulin +A vertical, cylindrical shaft, up to 25–30 metres (82–98 ft) deep, by which surface meltwater flows into a glacier, usually formed at lines of structural weakness in the ice. + +mound +Any heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris, typically with a rounded top and of topographically higher elevation than its immediate surroundings. + +mountain +A large landform that rises prominently above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a rocky peak with great vertical relief; a mountain is generally considered steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed by volcanic or tectonic forces and erode slowly through the actions of rivers, glaciers, and weathering. Most exist within extensive mountain ranges. + +mountain pass +A navigable route through a mountain range or over a ridge, often crossing a saddle. + +mountain range +A series of neighboring mountains or hills, often closely arranged in a line and connected by high ground. Individual mountains within the same mountain range are usually the result of the same orogeny, and often (though not always) share a common form, alignment, and geology. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-28.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-28.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..783b98e21 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-28.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 29/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +mouth +1. The place where a river or stream flows into another body of water, such as a lake or another river but especially a sea or ocean. Deltas and estuaries occur near the mouths of rivers. +2. The lower or downstream end or the most accessible entrance of a valley, canyon, ravine, or cave. + +mudflat +Also mud flat and tidal flat. +A type of coastal wetland consisting of exposed layers of bay mud formed by the deposition of silts, clays, and marine animal detritus by tides or rivers. Mudflats usually form within the intertidal zone of relatively sheltered areas such as bays and lagoons. + +mudflow +See lahar. + +multicultural +Of, pertaining to, or including multiple distinct cultures. + +multilingual +The ability to use more than one language when speaking or writing. This term often refers to the presence of more than two populations of significant size within a single political unit, each group speaking a different language as their primary language. + +municipal corporation +The legal term for a government body at the local level, including but not necessarily limited to cities, counties, towns, townships, villages, and boroughs. + +municipality +A type of general-purpose urban administrative subdivision having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and/or state laws to which it is subordinate. Municipalities are often included within but usually distinguished from larger administrative divisions such as counties, though the nature of their territorial boundaries and political jurisdictions can vary considerably in different parts of the world. + +muskeg +Another name for a bog, used primarily in Alaska and western Canada. + +== See also == + +Index of geography articles +Outline of geography + +== Notes == +Much of this material was copied from U.S. government works which are in the public domain because they are not eligible for copyright protection. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..77186662a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 4/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +barysphere +The Earth's core and mantle considered together, i.e. all of the Earth's interior beneath the lithosphere. + +base level +The lowest level to which a stream can erode its bed. The ultimate base level of all streams is sea level. + +baseline +An accurately measured line of known length on the Earth's surface, used as a reference line in triangulation and other surveying operations. + +basin +Another name for a depression, particularly one that is approximately circular, level or nearly level at the bottom, and/or surrounded on all sides by land of uniform elevation. + +batholith +A very large body of igneous rock, usually granite, which has been exposed by erosion of the overlying rock. + +bathymetry +1. The measurement of water depth, mainly of seas and oceans but sometimes of deep lakes. +2. The study and depiction of the physical features or relief of the floor of a lake or ocean. In this sense bathymetry is considered the underwater equivalent of hypsometry or topography. + +bay +A coastal body of water that is directly connected to but recessed from a larger body of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, or another bay. The land surrounding a bay usually shelters it from strong winds and waves, making bays ideal places for ports and harbors. + +bayou +In the southern United States, a sluggish or stagnant slough or backwater, or a marshy outlet of a lake or river. + +beach +A landform along the shoreline of an ocean, sea, lake, or river with a loose surface of sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, shells, stones, or coral. + +bearing +The direction or position of an object, or the direction of an object's movement, relative to a fixed point. It is typically measured in degrees and can be determined with a compass. By convention, magnetic north is defined as having a bearing of zero degrees. + +bedrock +The solid rock in the Earth's crust that underlies all soil and other loose material; the rock material that breaks down eventually to form soil. + +belt +Also corridor. +A large region or district (often but not necessarily a broad, elongated area of vague or indeterminate boundaries) identified or associated with one or more particular, distinctive characteristics, e.g. of climate (banana belt), vegetation (Pine Belt), topography (Alpide belt), geology or mineral resources (Lead Belt), agriculture (Corn Belt), land use (green belt), language or ethnicity (Hindi Belt), or social/cultural demographics (Bible Belt). See also regionalism. + +bench +A narrow step, shelf, ledge, or terrace, typically backed by a steep slope, produced either naturally (e.g. by erosion, as with a wave-cut bench) or artificially (e.g. by mining). + +benchmark +A surveying mark cut or embedded into a durable, fixed material, such as a rock or the wall of a building, for which the height above some designated datum level has been accurately measured. + +berg +1. A mountain or hill; a cliff face or precipice. +2. Another name for a bergschrund, iceberg, or inselberg. + +bergschrund +Also rimaye or simply berg or schrund. +A crevasse or series of parallel crevasses that opens in a glacier when a mass of moving ice detaches and pulls away from stagnant ice or firn. Bergschrunds are common in mountainous areas, often forming seasonally near the back of a cirque where the ice meets a steep or rocky headwall. When the rift forms directly between ice and rock, the gap is called a randkluft. + +berm +1. A level space, shelf, or raised barrier separating two areas, often man-made and built of compacted earth. Berms often function as impoundments, fortification lines, or border walls and other lines of demarcation. +2. A low, impermanent, nearly horizontal or landward-sloping shelf, bench, or narrow terrace on the backshore of a beach and parallel to the shoreline, formed by waves which deposit material beyond the average high water mark, e.g. during storms. Some beaches have no berms; others may have one or more. + +bight +A bend or curve in a coastline, river, or other geographical feature typically indicating an especially large, open bay that is shallower than a sound. + +billabong +In Australia, a branch of a river that is cut off when the main stem changes course, leaving an elongated and often ephemeral waterhole or oxbow lake. + +biogeography +The study of the distribution of biological species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. + +biogeosphere +The outer part of the lithosphere, specifically the part which is also part of the biosphere, from the surface of the Earth to the greatest subterranean depths at which organic life can exist. + +biological diversity +Also biodiversity. +A concept recognizing the variety of life forms in an area of the Earth and the ecological interdependence of these life forms. + +biome +A large ecosystem characterized by a distinct climate, flora, and fauna. + +biosphere +The entirety of all biological systems on Earth, integrating all living beings and ecosystems; the realm in which biological organisms live. + +biota +The animal and plant life of a region, considered as a total ecological entity. + +blackwater +The water of a slow-moving river channel flowing through a forested swamp or wetland, characterized by high concentrations of tannins leached from decaying vegetation, which gives it a darkly stained color and high acidity. + +blockfield +Also felsenmeer. +A surface of broken, boulder-sized rock fragments found in periglacial or volcanic environments, created in situ by processes other than mass wasting, often by frost weathering in the joints of larger rocks. + +blowhole +Also marine geyser. +A hole or fissure, especially a nearly vertical one, that is the landward opening of a sea cave, frequently spouting or spraying air and seawater as waves crash against the cave's seaward opening. + +blowout +A sandy depression formed when wind erodes into patches of bare sand on otherwise vegetation-stabilized sand dunes at the margins of coastal and arid ecosystems. + +bluff +A steep slope or cliff marking the outer margin of a floodplain, especially one formed as the river erodes the concave bend of a meander. See also cut bank. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5b924cd80 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 5/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +bocage +A landscape of mixed woodland and pasture, with fields and winding country lanes sunken between low, narrow ridges and banks surmounted by tall, thick hedgerows, especially as found in rural parts of western Europe. + +body of water +Any significant accumulation of water, either natural or artificial, on the surface of the Earth. Bodies of water may hold or contain water, as with lakes and oceans, or they may collect and move water from one place to another, as with rivers, streams, and other watercourses. + +bog +Also mire, quagmire, or muskeg. +A type of wetland which accumulates deposits of dead plant material, especially mosses, known as peat. Bogs occur where water at the ground surface is acidic and low in dissolved nutrients. They are one of four main types of wetland, along with fens, marshes, and swamps. + +bootheel +See salient. + +border +The geographical boundary of a political entity or legal jurisdiction, such as a country, state, or other subnational entity. + +bore +1. (tidal) A steep-fronted wave formed by the convergence of two tidal bulges or by the constriction of an incoming tide as it travels up a river, firth, or narrow bay, temporarily reversing the direction of the current. +2. (hole) A deep, man-made hole or shaft drilled into the ground, e.g. in mining, or for digging a well or tunnel. + +bornhardt +A bald, steep-sided, dome-shaped hill, mountain, or rock outcropping at least 30 metres (98 ft) in height and several hundred meters in width. Compare inselberg, tor, and nubbin. + +borough +A type of administrative subdivision in certain English-speaking parts of the world. Though traditionally used to refer to a fortress or a walled town, modern usage of the term can variably refer to any town with its own local self-government, a formal or informal subdivision of a large metropolis (as in New York City and London), or an entire administrative region (as in the U.S. state of Alaska). + +bottomland +See floodplain. + +boulevardization +The replacement of the narrow, congested, winding streets of an older town or neighborhood with wider, more modern streets or boulevards, often according to a carefully plotted grid layout. + +boundary +Any line of demarcation, real or imaginary, visible or invisible, natural or artificial, with or without legal significance, which may be perceived from either or both sides of the line, indicating the place at which two or more geographical areas of distinct ownership, administration, legal jurisdiction, or any other quality meet; e.g. a border separating political or administrative divisions, zones of occupation, natural areas, or private and public property. See also frontier. + +bourne +Also bourn, born, borne, and burn. +A seasonal or intermittent stream flowing from a spring in an otherwise dry valley, and whose flow depends on the level of the water table; or the spring or fount itself. The term is used primarily in the chalklands of southern England. See also winterbourne. + +box canyon +A short, narrow canyon with steep walls on three sides, allowing entry and exit only through the mouth of the canyon. + +brake +See canebrake. + +brash ice +See drift ice. + +breadbasket +A region of a country or other polity which supports a large proportion of the country's domestic food production (especially of wheat and other grains) due to its fertile soils, favorable climate, and/or relative accessibility to agricultural interests. + +break +1. Any more or less abrupt change in the profile of a slope or hillside. +2. A heavily eroded area along a river featuring steep banks, bluffs, ravines, or gorges. The term is used chiefly in the plural (i.e. breaks) and primarily in the United States and Canada. + +breaker +1. Another name for a breaking wave. +2. A reef, shoal, bar, skerry, or area of shallow water against which waves routinely break. + +breaker zone +See surf zone. + +break-in-bulk point +A transfer point on a transport route where the mode of transport or type of carrier changes and where large-volume shipments are reduced in size. For example, goods may be unloaded from a ship and transferred to trucks at an ocean port. + +breaking wave +Also breaker. +A wave of water on the surface of an ocean, lake, or other body of water with enough energy that, upon reaching a peak size or velocity, its crest "breaks" or overturns upon itself with a distinct forward curve, with the linear energy transforming into turbulence. Waves tend to break as they enter areas of shallow water, most reliably near shorelines, where the decreasing depth of the sea floor beneath them forces them to grow to a critical height at which point they overturn and the remaining forward energy is dissipated upon the beach as swash, though other forces may also cause breaking, including stormy weather and passing watercraft. + +breakwater +Any man-made structure built on the coast of a body of water, typically the sea, in order to reduce the intensity of wave action in an area adjacent to the shore, thereby providing safe harbourage for human activities in the inshore waters. Breakwaters may also be designed to protect the coastline from coastal erosion and longshore drift. + +brownfield +Any previously developed area of land that is no longer in use, often with derelict buildings and infrastructure, and in some contexts implying land that has been abandoned because of pollution or contamination. Compare greenfield. + +brush +Low-lying, woody, often dense vegetation or plant debris, e.g. scrub; a thicket of small trees and shrubs, or the plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs. + +built environment +The human-made spaces that provide the setting for human activity, in which people live, work, and recreate on a day-to-day basis. + +burgh +A type of administrative subdivision in Scotland and northern England, equivalent to a borough. + +burn +In parts of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, a large stream or a small river. See also bourne. + +bush +Wild, undeveloped, or uncultivated land, especially when covered by thick shrubs and vegetation; sparsely populated or uninhabited wilderness. See also backcountry, hinterland, outback, and bushveld. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c44ea357 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,112 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 6/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +bushveld +Also lowveld, or simply bush or veld. +In southern Africa, a tropical or subtropical woodland ecoregion consisting largely of open savanna with scattered trees; wild countryside as opposed to cultivated land. + +butte +An isolated hill or mountain with steep or precipitous sides, usually having a smaller summit area than a mesa. + +bypass +1. A route which diverges around a place rather than traveling through it, especially a road or footpath built specifically for the purpose of diverting automobile or pedestrian traffic away from areas that are congested, blocked, under construction, or unsafe. +2. See flood bypass. + +== C == + +cadastre +Also cadaster. +A type of parcel-based land recording system containing a comprehensive record of interests in individual units of land within a country or other polity, usually including a geometric description of each parcel's physical location, dimensions, and boundaries that is linked to legal information detailing the nature of the interests (e.g. rights, restrictions, and responsibilities), the ownership or control of those interests, and the economic value of the land and its improvements. The cadastre is a fundamental source of data used in resolving disputes between landowners. + +cairn +A man-made stack or mound of rocks, stones, or masonry, usually roughly conical or pyramidal in shape, constructed as a burial mound, to mark a surveyed point, or as a landmark or waypoint to aid routefinding on a route that is otherwise unmarked and difficult to distinguish from the surrounding environment. + +calanque +A narrow, steep-sided valley surrounding an inlet formed in karstic regions along the Mediterranean coast, either by fluvial erosion or the collapse of the roof of a cave that has been subsequently partially submerged by a rise in sea level. + +caldera +A very large cauldron-shaped depression of volcanic origin which forms through the subsidence and collapse of the ground surface following the evacuation of an underlying magma chamber. See also volcanic crater. + +campo +1. In the Spanish-speaking world, the rural countryside or the bush. +2. In Brazil, an area of level, open grassland with scattered trees, comparable to a savanna. + +canal +A navigable artificial water channel, usually built as a conduit for human activity. + +canebrake +Also canebreak. +A dense thicket of giant cane grasses, often lining a riverbank or other body of water. The term is used primarily in the southeastern United States. + +canopy +The canopy is the aboveground portion of a plant cropping or crop, formed by the collection of individual plant crowns. + +canyon +Also gorge or cañon. +A deep cleft between cliffs or escarpments, or a rift between two mountain peaks, resulting from weathering and the erosive activity of a river over long periods of geologic time. + +cape +A large headland or promontory extending into a body of water, usually a sea or ocean. + +capillary fringe +The soil layer lying immediately above the water table, in which water is drawn up and held within pore spaces by capillarity. + +capital +1. A primary city or town of a country, state, province, or other subnational polity, especially one that is a seat of government for the entire polity, either by law or by virtue of being the physical location of the government's offices and meeting places, or both. A capital is often but not always the largest or most economically or historically important city of its constituent. A polity may have one or more capitals, or none. +2. Any place considered to have informal primacy or importance with respect to some characteristic or association, e.g. Milan, Italy is sometimes unofficially called the "Fashion Capital of the World". + +caprock +A stratum of erosion-resistant sedimentary rock (usually limestone) found in arid areas. Caprock forms the top layer of most mesas and buttes. + +cardinal directions +The set of four primary directions used in cartography and navigation: north (N), south (S), east (E), and west (W). Together they form the primary divisions of the compass rose. They can be further subdivided into the intercardinal directions and secondary-intercardinal directions. + +carrying capacity +The total number of human beings that an area can support given the quality of the natural environment and the level of technology of the population. + +cartography +The study and practice of making maps and charts. A person who draws or makes maps or charts is called a cartographer. + +cartogram +A map in which some thematic mapping variable, such as travel time, population, or gross national product, is substituted for traditional measures of land area or distance such that the geometry or space of the map is distorted in order to convey and emphasize the information of the alternate variable. + +cartouche +A decorative panel or emblem on a map or a globe, enclosing the title, legend, scale, or any other information. + +castle koppie +See tor. + +cataract +A large waterfall, or a long series of rapids in a river, of the type occurring in the river Nile. + +catchment +See drainage basin. + +causeway +A track, road, or railway raised above a body of water or a low-lying place by virtue of being built upon a man-made embankment, typically constructed of earth, masonry, wood, or concrete. Compare bridge. + +cave +Any naturally hollow underground space large enough for a person to enter. + +cavern +A type of solutional cave that is formed in soluble rock with the ability to grow speleothems. + +cay +Also key. +A small, sandy, low-elevation island on the surface of an otherwise submerged coral reef; a type of coral island. Compare atoll. + +celestial pole +Either of the two imaginary points in the sky at which an indefinitely extended projection of the Earth's axis of rotation intersects the celestial sphere. As the Earth rotates upon its axis, the north and south celestial poles remain permanently fixed in the sky (directly overhead to observers at the North Pole and South Pole, respectively), and all other points appear to rotate around them. + +cenote +A natural pit or sinkhole resulting from the collapse of limestone bedrock which exposes groundwater underneath. + +census-designated place (CDP) +A concentration of population identified by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..59fa73b6b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 7/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +central business district (CBD) +A centrally located commercial business district in an urban area, typically containing a concentration of office and retail activities. + +centroid +The point in a geometric figure for which the coordinates are the average values of the coordinates of all other points in the figure, i.e. the arithmetic mean position of all points in the figure; or the point with the smallest possible average distance from all other points of the figure. In geography, the geographical center of a region of the Earth's surface is the centroid of the two-dimensional shape of that region, as projected radially to sea level or onto a geoid. + +chain +A unit of length equal to 66 feet (20.117 m), used especially in public land surveys in the United States; 10 square chains is equal to 1 acre (0.40 hectares). Though the literal chains used to measure this distance have long been superseded, surveying tapes are often still called "chains", and measuring with a tape may be called "chaining". + +channel +Also strait. +1. A waterway separating two relatively close landmasses. +2. Any narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water. +3. The deepest part of a shallow body of water, often used as a passageway for large ships. + +chaparral +A class of terrestrial vegetation characterized by dense, impenetrable thickets of thorny shrubs or dwarf broadleaved trees, commonly found in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. + +chart +A special-purpose map designed for navigation, especially nautical and aeronautical navigation, or to present specific data or technical information. + +chevron +A triangular or V-shaped erosional microform which characteristically develops on the shallow flanks of cuestas in arid regions. + +chimney +See salient. + +chine +A steep-sided coastal gorge, typically of soft eroding cliffs of sandstone or clay, through which a river or stream flows to the sea. The term is used primarily in southern England. + +chinook +A warm, dry wind experienced along the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. Most common in winter and spring, it can result in a rise in temperature of 20 °C (36 °F) in a quarter of an hour. + +chorography +The art of establishing, describing, or mapping a geographic region or district, or more broadly, the representation of space or place. + +chorology +The study of the causal relations of the phenomena present in a region; a comprehensive explanatory study of a region. + +choropleth +A map showing the distribution of a phenomenon by graded shading which indicates the density per unit area of that phenomenon; the darker the shading, the greater the density. + +chott +Also shott and shatt. +An ephemeral, often highly saline lake that forms seasonally with fluctuations in the water table, usually in the winter, in the desert basins of Northwest Africa. + +cinder cone +A steep-sided volcano formed by the explosive eruption of cinders that form around a vent. Cinders are lava fragments about 1 centimetre (0.39 in) in diameter. + +circle of latitude +See parallel. + +cirque +Also corrie or cwm. +An amphitheatre-shaped valley surrounded on three or more sides by steep, cliff-like slopes and formed by glacial or fluvial erosion. + +city +A large human settlement, generally with extensive systems constructed for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, and communication. + +city center +Also city centre. +The commercial, cultural, political, or historical focal point of a city or urban area, where a significant proportion of its population, workforce, business, traffic, administration, and/or other activity is concentrated, often though not necessarily located near its geographic center. The city center may include or overlap with a central business district or downtown area, and the terms are commonly used interchangeably. + +city-state +A sovereign state or small independent country that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories. + +clearing +1. The practice of permanently removing vegetation, especially trees and bushes, from a forest or woodland in order to use the space for another purpose, such as agriculture, civic development, or paths for roads, railways, or power lines. +2. Another name for a glade. + +cliff +Any vertical or nearly vertical rock exposure, usually formed by the processes of weathering and erosion. + +cliffed coast +Also abrasion coast. +A coastline where the repeated action of ocean waves has formed steep and often precipitous cliffs, as opposed to a flat or gently sloping alluvial coast. + +climate +A pattern of the combination of precipitation and the temperature over time. + +climax vegetation +The vegetation that would exist in an area if growth had proceeded undisturbed for an extended period. This would be the "final" collection of plant types that presumably would remain forever, or until the stable conditions were somehow disturbed. + +clinometer +See inclinometer. + +coast +Also coastline, seashore, and seaboard. +The area where land meets a sea or ocean. Compare shore. + +coastal +Of, on, or pertaining to a coast or coastline, i.e. a boundary or transition between land and sea. Coastal areas are regions defined by interactions between terrestrial and marine processes. + +coastal bench +See wave-cut platform. + +coefficient of localization +Also index of concentration. +A measure of the degree of localization or spatial concentration of a given phenomenon, e.g. residential housing or industrial activity, within a particular space or spaces. Values for this variable, often mathematically symbolized as L, range from 0 (where the phenomenon is evenly distributed across all spaces) and 1 (where it is densely concentrated in one space and completely absent elsewhere). + +col +Also gap or notch. +The lowest point on a mountain ridge between two peaks. + +colatitude +The complementary angle of a given latitude; i.e. the arithmetic difference between 90 degrees and the given latitude. For example, the colatitude of 36° 22′ 49″ is 53° 37′ 11″. + +colony +A territory under the immediate complete political control of a sovereign metropolitan state but otherwise distinct, often geographically, from the state's home territory. Colonies have no international representation independent of the metropolitan state and its ruling country controls its trade for its benefit. Compare satellite state. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4c6bc427c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 8/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +colluvium +Loose, unconsolidated sediment that has been transported and deposited at the base of a hillslope by any of various wash or mass movement processes, such as surface runoff, sheet erosion, or landslides. Typically a heterogeneous mixture of rock types and sizes ranging from silt to talus boulders, colluvium is often derived from eluvium, and differs from alluvium, which is deposited primarily by fluvial activity. + +combe +Variously comb, coomb, coombe, and cumb. +A steep, narrow valley or a large hollow on the side of a hill or coastline, especially one enclosed on all but one side. The term is used primarily in southern England, where it often implies a dry ravine in a limestone or chalk escarpment. See also cwm. + +commonwealth +1. Traditionally, a political community founded for the benefit of all or most of the members of the community, i.e. for the public welfare or the common good; or a state or other polity in which the supreme power of government is vested in the people being governed; a republic or a democracy. +2. A free association of otherwise individual, autonomous, self-governing territories organized as a federation or confederation, with a jointly operated government being charged with responsibility for certain matters in the common interest, such as defense. + +compass +An instrument used for navigation and orientation that indicates direction relative to the geographic cardinal directions by measuring the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field with respect to the North Magnetic Pole. Compasses often display markings for angles or degrees, which allow them to show azimuths and bearings, in addition to a compass rose. + +compass rose +Also compass star, wind rose, or rose of the winds. +A figure on a compass, map, nautical chart, or monument used to display the orientation of the four cardinal directions — North, East, South, and West — and their intermediate points. + +compass survey +A traverse which relies on the indications of a magnetic compass for orienting the traverse as a whole or for determining the directions of individual lines. + +confluence +The place at which two or more rivers or other watercourses flow together to form one larger river or watercourse. + +coniferous +Bearing cones; from the conifer family. + +contiguity +The characteristic of a group of neighboring political or geographical divisions not being interrupted by politically unaffiliated land or water. Such divisions are said to be contiguous. + +continent +One of several very large, contiguous landmasses into which the Earth's land area is divided, generally by geographical or political convention rather than any strict criteria. Geologically, continents correspond largely to areas of continental crust on continental plates. + +continental climate +The type of climate found in the interior of the major continents in the middle or temperate latitudes. The climate is characterized by a great seasonal variation in temperatures, four distinct seasons, and a relatively small annual precipitation. + +continental divide +The line of high ground that separates the different oceanic drainage basins of a particular continent. The river systems of a continent on opposite sides of a continental divide flow toward different oceans. See drainage divide. + +continental shelf +A portion of a continent that is submerged beneath an area of relatively shallow water known as a shelf sea. Though continental shelves are usually treated as physiographic provinces of the ocean, they are not part of the deep ocean basin proper but the flooded margins of the continent. + +continentality +The quality of being located on a continent. + +contour line +Also isoline or isopleth. +A line marked on a topographic map which connects points of equal elevation above or below a specified reference datum. Multiple contour lines, each representing a different elevation, are depicted together to show the shape of the terrain within the map area. + +contour interval +The difference in elevation between any two adjacent contour lines as depicted on a particular topographic map. + +conurbation +An extensive urban area formed when two or more initially separate cities coalesce to form a continuous metropolitan area. + +cordillera +A long chain of mountain ranges or highlands, especially those formed by the same orogeny and spanning the length of a continent along tectonic boundaries. The term is used in particular to refer to the American Cordillera, an almost continuous system of parallel ranges lining the west coasts of North, Central, and South America. + +core area +The portion of a country or territory that contains its economic, political, intellectual, and cultural focus. It is often the center of creativity and change. See also hearth. + +cornice +An accumulation of ice and wind-blown snow overhanging the edge of a ridge or cliff face, usually on the lee side of a steep mountain. + +corrasion +The process of mechanical erosion of the Earth's surface by the impact or grinding action of particles being transported across it, either by moving water, waves, glaciers, wind, or gravity. + +corrie loch +See tarn. + +cosmopolitan +Occurring worldwide; belonging to all parts of the world and free of geographical or political limitations. See also global. + +coulee +A dry canyon eroded by Pleistocene floods that cut into the lava beds of the Columbia Plateau in the western United States. + +couloir +A narrow gully with a steep gradient in a mountainous terrain, often enclosed by sheer cliffs and filled with snow or ice even during the summer months. + +country +A region identified as a distinct national entity in political geography. Compare state. + +county +A type of subnational division of a country or federal state used for administrative or other purposes. + +course +The cardinal direction in which a vessel or aircraft is moving, or in which it is steered. This is not necessarily the same as the heading, the direction in which the craft's bow or nose is pointed; any difference between heading and course is due to the motion of the air or water through which the vessel is moving, or other aerodynamic effects such as skidding or slipping. See also bearing. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7eb2f5134 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,114 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 9/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +cove +1. A walled, rounded, cirque-like opening at the head of a small valley. +2. A small, narrow, sheltered bay, inlet, tidal creek, or recess in an estuary, often within a larger embayment. +3. A small, often approximately circular, wave-cut indentation or recess in a cliff on a large body of water, especially one with a relatively narrow or secluded entrance. +4. A shallow tidal river, or the backwater near the mouth of a tidal river. + +crater +Any large, roughly circular depression, pit, or hole in the Earth's surface. Craters are classified into different types based on their ultimate causes; see impact crater, volcanic crater, and pit crater. + +crater lake +A lake that forms in a volcanic crater or caldera (such as a maar), an impact crater left by a meteorite, or a crater resulting from a man-made explosion. + +craton +An old and stable region of continental lithosphere, characterized by a thick crust composed of ancient crystalline basement rock. Cratons are generally found in the interiors of tectonic plates, having remained relatively unaffected by orogenic and tectonic activity for very long periods of time. + +creek +A small, intermittent stream that is larger than a brook but smaller than a river. The term is used primarily in the United States, Canada, and Australia. + +crevasse +1. A deep crack, fissure, or chasm in the ice of a glacier or ice sheet, or more generally in any ground surface. +2. A break in the natural levee or bank of a river. + +crossroads +A place where many roads or routes of travel intersect or meet; a junction. + +crust +The thin shell of solid material that is the Earth's outermost layer and the outermost component of the lithosphere. The Earth's crust is generally divided into two distinct types, oceanic crust and continental crust, both of which "float" on top of the mantle. + +cryosphere +The totality of water in the solid phase on the Earth's surface, including glaciers; sea, lake, and river ice; snow; and permafrost. The cryosphere is sometimes considered a subset of the hydrosphere. + +cryoturbation +Also frost churning. +The mixing of materials from various horizons of the soil down to the bedrock due to freezing and thawing. + +cuesta +A long, low ridge with a steep scarp slope and a gentle backslope (dip slope). + +cultural conversion +The process of cultures becoming more alike. + +cultural diffusion +The processes by which culture is spread from one region to another. + +cultural diversion +A process in which cultural groups distinguish themselves from other cultural groups. + +cultural geography +A branch of human geography which studies the patterns and interactions of human culture in relation to the natural environment and the human organization of space. + +cultural landscape +The physical setting created by humans that reflects the identity and culture of the area. + +culture +The accumulated habits, attitudes, and beliefs of a group of people that define for them their general behavior and way of life; the total set of learned activities of a people. + +culture hearth +The area from which the culture of a particular group or population diffused. See also hearth. + +culvert +A tunnel or conduit that channels water through or beneath an obstacle (e.g. through a man-made crossing of a ravine that would otherwise block the natural flow of water), or any artificially buried watercourse. + +curvimeter +See opisometer. + +cusp +An arc-shaped, dune-like mound of sediment on a beach or foreshore. Cusps tend to be uniformly spaced in repeating patterns close to the shoreline, with the embayment of each arc made of fine-grained sand or gravel and the "horns" made of coarser sediment. + +cut bank +A continually eroding bank along a meandering river or stream channel, especially a bank that has been eroded into a nearly vertical cliff. Cut banks generally form on the outside bend of a deep meander, opposite the depositional point bar that forms on the inside bend. + +cutoff +The new channel formed when a meandering stream erodes through a narrow strip of land and thereby shortens the length of the main channel. + +cwm +See cirque. + +cyclone +A large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure. It can rotate clockwise or counter clockwise depending on which hemisphere it is in. + +Cyclopean stairs +A term referring to the longitudinal profile of some glaciated valleys which have been eroded into a series of consecutive hanging valleys resembling stairs. + +== D == + +dale +Another name for a valley. + +dam +Also impoundment. +Any barrier, either natural or artificial, that stops or restricts the flow of water, either on the surface or underground. Man-made dams are most commonly built to impound rivers or streams, generally to retain water for purposes such as human consumption, irrigation, aquaculture, or power generation (whereas related structures such as floodgates and levees are more specifically designed to manage or prevent water flow into particular areas). + +dasymetric map +A type of thematic map that uses areal symbols to visualize a spatially dependent variable (e.g. population density) by refining a choropleth map with ancillary information about the distribution of the variable. The dasymetric method attempts to improve the resolution of maps based on average or per-capita figures calculated for discrete administrative units, which tend to show sharp contrasts between adjacent areas, by supplementing these figures with additional geographic data that allow more precise categories to be constructed. Dasymetric maps are a hybrid of choropleth and isarithmic maps, combining their strengths and weaknesses in order to more accurately depict quantities that vary continuously across space. + +datum plane +Also datum level or datum line. +The zero-elevation baseline or vertical datum to which a measurement of elevation or altitude is relative, e.g. the mean sea level calculated for a given location over a given period of time. See also geodetic datum. + +de facto segregation +The spatial and social separation of populations that occurs without legal sanction. + +de jure segregation +The spatial and social separation of populations that occurs because of legal measures. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c9d0c676c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,89 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)" +chunk: 10/29 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +debouch +Also debouche. +A place where water runoff from a relatively small, confined space emerges into a much larger, broader space, or where a body of water pours forth from a narrow opening, such as where a stream or river enters a lake or ocean. + +deciduous forest +A forest composed of trees which lose their leaves each year. + +decolonization +The process of ending the colonization of a region or a state. + +deep +A trough-like depression or trench in the ocean floor, of limited extent but great depth, generally more than 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) below sea level. + +deferred junction +A confluence of two watercourses in which a tributary stream is prevented by levees, natural or artificial, from immediately joining another stream or river and consequently is forced to flow parallel beside it, usually within a large floodplain, for a considerable distance before the channels eventually merge, often at the convex bend of a large meander. + +defile +A narrow pass or gorge between mountains or hills. + +deforestation +The destruction of forests by any means, whether naturally or by human activity. + +degree +A unit of angular measure, represented by the º symbol. A circle is divided into 360 degrees; subdivisions of the degree include the minute (1⁄60 of one degree) and the second (1⁄3600 of one degree). Degrees are commonly used to divide the roughly spherical shape of the Earth for geographic and cartographic purposes, e.g. when reporting latitudes and longitudes. + +degree day +Deviation of one-degree temperature for one day from an arbitrary standard, usually the long-term average temperature for a place. + +dell +A small, secluded hollow, usually within a grassy, park-like, partially wooded valley. + +delta +A landform at the mouth of a river where the main stem splits up into several distributaries. It is formed from the deposition of the sediment carried by the river as the flow leaves the mouth of the river. It is often affected by incoming tides. Compare estuary. + +demilitarized zone (DMZ) +A politically neutral area or buffer zone in which treaties or agreements between polities or other competing factions forbid military installations, activities, or personnel. These zones are usually situated along an established boundary or frontier separating territories controlled by adjacent military powers or alliances. + +demography +The study and systematic analysis of population, particularly human population. + +demoiselle +A pillar of rock weathered from volcanic breccia or similar material and capped by a large boulder which has protected the material underneath. + +demonym +Also gentilic. +A word identifying a person or a group of people in relation to a particular place, usually derived from the name of the place (which may be any kind of place, formal or informal, of any size or scale, from a town or city to a region, province, country, or continent) and used to describe all residents or natives of that place, regardless of any ethnic, linguistic, religious, or cultural differences which may exist within the local population. Examples include "Vietnamese", describing a person from Vietnam; "Detroiter" for a person from the city of Detroit, Michigan; and "Macedonian" for a person from North Macedonia or the wider historical region of Macedonia. + +denudation +The uncovering of deeper layers of rock by any natural process, e.g. erosion, weathering, or mass movement. + +dependency +Also dependent territory. +A territory relying on or subject to the control of another country, neither possessing full political independence nor forming an integral part of the controlling country's political or economic interests. + +deposition +Any natural process by which material such as soil and rocks is added to a landform or landmass, e.g. by the action of wind, water, ice, or gravity in transporting previously weathered surface material, which comes to rest when sufficient kinetic energy is lost and accumulates in layers of sediment. See also sedimentation. + +depression +Any landform that is sunken or depressed below the surrounding area. Depressions include an enormous variety of landforms and can form by a number of different mechanisms, including erosion, ground collapse, tectonic activity, volcanism, and meteorite impacts. + +derelict land +An area of land which has been damaged or devalued by some process, either natural or man-made (e.g. extractive industry), and/or simply neglected, causing it to be abandoned by human interests (and often other organisms) and leaving it incapable of being used productively in its present condition. See also brownfield land. + +desert +An arid, barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and living conditions are consequently unfavorable for most plant and animal life. Deserts are characterized by exposure of the unprotected ground surface to processes of denudation as well as large variations in temperature between night and day. They are often classified by the amount of precipitation they receive, by their average temperature, by the causes of their desertification, or by their geographical location. + +desert pavement +Also reg, serir, gibber, saï, and desert mosaic. +A ground surface often found in arid environments, consisting of interlocking rock fragments of pebble and cobble size, closely packed after the removal of finer rock material and smoothed or polished by blown sand so that eventually their upper surfaces are more or less uniformly flat. + +desert varnish +Also desert patina, rock varnish, and rock rust. +A conspicuous orange-yellow to black coating often present on exposed rock surfaces in arid environments, consisting of thin, hard, polished layers of metal oxides, especially iron and manganese, which form when minute quantities of matter migrate to the surface of the rock by capillary action and are then precipitated by evaporation. + +desertification +The process by which a previously fertile area becomes increasingly arid, infertile, or desert-like; a type of land degradation in which biological productivity is lost due either to natural or man-made processes, e.g. climate change or overexploitation of soils for agriculture. + +desire line +A straight line drawn on a map between the point of origin and the destination of a trip, i.e. the shortest distance between these two points, indicating the route a person would like or desire to follow if it were possible. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ac2a0ac6a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,84 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 1/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of geography terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in geography and related fields, including Earth science, oceanography, cartography, and human geography, as well as those describing spatial dimension, topographical features, natural resources, and the collection, analysis, and visualization of geographic data. It is split across two articles: + +Glossary of geography terms (A–M) lists terms beginning with the letters A through M. +This page, Glossary of geography terms (N–Z), lists terms beginning with the letters N through Z. +Related terms may be found in Glossary of geology, Glossary of agriculture, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of astronomy. + +== N == + +nadir + +narrows +Also narrow. +A land or water passage that is confined or restricted by its narrow breadth, often a strait or a water gap. + +nation +A stable community of people formed on the basis of a common geographic territory, language, economy, ethnicity, or psychological make-up as manifested in a common culture. + +national mapping agency +A governmental agency which manages, produces, and publishes topographic maps, geographic data, and sometimes cadastral information that is specific to an individual nation or political territory, such as the United Kingdom's Ordnance Survey. + +national park +A type of protected area created and managed as a public park by a national governmental authority for conservation purposes. Though individual governments designate national parks differently, they usually share the common goal of preserving natural or semi-natural landscapes (often wilderness) for posterity and as symbols of national pride. + +natural landscape +The original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by humans. Contrast cultural landscape. + +nautical mile +A unit of distance traditionally defined as the length equal to one minute of arc (1⁄60 of one degree) along a meridian of the Earth. Because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, the length of one minute of arc at the Equator differs from that measured at the geographic poles; thus the modern internationally agreed-upon standard defines the nautical mile as the average of these two extremes: 1,852 metres (6,076 feet; 1.151 miles). It is widely used in air, marine, and space navigation as well as for defining the limits of territorial waters. + +navigable +1. (of a place) Capable of being navigated; sufficiently deep, wide, predictable, and/or free of obstructions to afford easy or safe passage to vessels such as ships or automobiles. The term is often used to describe river channels and coastal inlets. +2. (of a vessel) In a navigable condition; steerable; seaworthy or roadworthy. + +navigation +1. The determination of position and direction, generally by comparing the navigator's position to known locations or patterns. +2. The process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a vehicle or craft from one place to another. + +neap tide +A tide of decreased tidal range occurring semi-monthly as a result of the Moon being in quadrature with respect to the Earth and the Sun (i.e. in the first quarter or last quarter phases, when roughly half of the lunar disk is visible), or the time period recurring every 14 days during which such tides occur. The average height of the high waters of the neap tides occurring at a particular location is called neap high water or high water neaps, and that of the corresponding low waters is called neap low water or low water neaps. Compare spring tide. + +nearshore +The part of a beach between the shoreline and the line at which the waves break. + +neatline +A line separating the main body of a map from the map's margin. On a standard quadrangle map, the neatlines are the meridians and parallels delimiting the quadrangle. + +neck +1. A narrow stretch of land with water on each side, e.g. an isthmus or promontory. +2. A narrow stretch of woodland or of ice. +3. A high level pass, especially the narrowest part. + +nehrung +A long sandspit separating a haff or lagoon from the sea, especially one along the south coast of the Baltic Sea. + +neighborhood +Also neighbourhood or abbreviated to hood. +A geographically localized community within a larger city, town, suburb, or rural area, particularly one which supports considerable face-to-face interactions between residents. + +ness +In Scotland and parts of England, a headland or cape, or another name for a cuspate foreland; or a spur of a mountain ridge. + +névé +A young, granular type of snow that has been partially melted, refrozen, and compacted but is not yet in the form of ice. Névé that survives a full season of ablation becomes firn, which is older and slightly more compact, and thus contributes to the formation of glaciers. The term may also refer to the alpine region surrounding the head of a glacier where snowfall accumulates and becomes névé, feeding the glacier. + +nodal region +A region characterized by a set of places connected to another place by lines of communication or movement. + +North Geographic Pole +Also called the Geographic North Pole, Geographic North, or simply the North Pole. +The point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is the northernmost point on Earth, directly opposite the South Geographic Pole, and defines the direction of true north at a latitude of 90 degrees North; its longitude can be assigned any degree value. Unlike the South Pole, the North Pole is not located on a continental landmass but in the middle of the Arctic Ocean. See also North Magnetic Pole. + +North Geomagnetic Pole +Also called the Geomagnetic North Pole. +The point in the Northern Hemisphere where the axis of a theoretical simplified dipole passing through the center of the Earth would intersect the Earth's surface. It is antipodal to the South Geomagnetic Pole. Because of the fluid nature of the Earth's molten core, the true axis of the Earth's magnetic field is not a perfect dipole, and so the Geomagnetic Poles and the actual Magnetic Poles lie some distance apart. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..91db36a82 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 2/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +North Magnetic Pole +Also called the Magnetic North Pole or Magnetic North. +The point in the Northern Hemisphere at which the Earth's magnetic field points vertically downward. It is close to but distinct from the Geographic North Pole and the Geomagnetic North Pole, and its precise location varies considerably over time due to frequent magnetic changes in the Earth's core. Its counterpart in the Southern Hemisphere is the South Magnetic Pole, though the two poles are not directly opposite each other. + +Northern Hemisphere +The half sphere of the Earth that is north of the Equator. It is opposite the Southern Hemisphere. + +northing + +nubbin +A small, gentle hill consisting of a bedrock core dotted with rounded residual boulders. Nubbins form in a similar way to castle koppies and bornhardts. + +nunatak + +== O == + +oasis +A combination of a human settlement and an area of cultivated vegetation in an otherwise desolate desert or semi-desert environment, made fertile when sources of fresh water, such as underground aquifers, irrigate the surface naturally or via man-made wells. + +oblate spheroid +The approximate geometric shape of the Earth: a three-dimensional ellipsoid that is nearly but not exactly a true sphere, being instead slightly flattened at the poles and slightly elongated at the equator. + +obsequent +(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing in the direction opposite to that of the dip of the underlying rock strata. Contrast consequent and subsequent. + +ocean +The vast, contiguous body of salt water covering more than 70% of the Earth's surface area and surrounding the continental landmasses; or any portion of this larger body of water that is divided and distinguished from the other portions, each of which is called an ocean, by the presence of the landmasses. The International Hydrographic Organization recognizes five principal oceanic divisions on Earth: from largest to smallest, they are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. + +ocean current + +ocean floor +See seabed. + +ocean trench +A long, narrow, very deep depression in the ocean floor at the junction of two tectonic plates, where one plate is subducted steeply beneath the other, often penetrating the mantle. See also deep. + +oceanography +Also oceanology. +The scientific study of the Earth's oceans and all processes and phenomena relating to them, including their formation and evolution over time; their physical and chemical properties and how these vary within the ocean and across its boundaries; their interactions with landmasses along coasts; the bathymetry and geology of the sea floor; currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; marine life and ecosystems; and how humans affect and are affected by oceans. The interdisciplinary field draws from and involves a diverse range of other sciences, including physics, biology, geology, hydrology, meteorology, and climatology, among others. + +oeconym +Also econym and oikonym. +A toponym or proper name for a house or other residential building, or in the broadest sense for any inhabited settlement, such as a village, town, or city. + +oecumene +See ecumene. + +offshore +1. Moving away from the shore and toward the sea. +2. Located at a point or in an area that is relatively close to but still seaward of the shore (as with an offshore island). Contrast onshore. +3. Seaward of the foreshore and the backshore. + +ogive +One of a series of regularly spaced bands of alternating height and color visible on the surface of some glaciers, resulting from seasonal patterns of alimentation and ablation. Because ice flows faster near the center of the glacier, where there is less friction with the surrounding glacial bed, ogives are usually shaped into conspicuous arcs that point towards the terminus of the glacier. + +ojo +In the southwestern United States, a small pond, lake, or spring, especially a hot spring. + +one-commodity country +A country that relies on one principal export for much of its earnings. + +open ocean +The part of the ocean that is beyond or outside of coastal areas, i.e. distant from land and not enclosed or partially enclosed by it. In oceanography, the term is synonymous with pelagic zone and is often defined as all oceanic waters seaward of any continental shelf; politically and economically, "open ocean" usually refers to all areas of a sea or ocean that are not within territorial waters (hence, any area that is within international waters) or, much more restrictively, not within any sovereign state's exclusive economic zone. See also high seas. + +open range +A cattle- or sheep-ranching area characterized by a general absence of fences and in which livestock are by law allowed to roam freely. + +opisometer +Also curvimeter, meilograph, or map measurer. +An instrument used to measure the lengths of arbitrary curved lines, especially the distances of rivers and roads on a map. + +ordinal directions +See intercardinal directions. + +ordnance datum (OD) +Any vertical datum used by the British Ordnance Survey as the basis for reporting elevations on maps. In modern Great Britain, the standard ordnance datum is the ODN, defined as the mean sea level calculated from hourly observations of the tidal gauge at Newlyn, Cornwall, between 1915 and 1921. All heights shown on British maps are measured from this benchmark. + +orientation +The position of or the act of positioning a person or object with respect to the directional points of a compass, especially the placement of a map or surveying instrument in the field so that a north–south line on the map or instrument lies parallel to a north–south line on the ground. Determining one's orientation at a given time is the chief aim of orienteering, and is generally of critical importance in navigation. + +orienteering +The use of a map and compass to navigate over unfamiliar terrain, either by land or water; or a recreational activity or competitive sport in which participants navigate in this way, generally on foot from point to point along a predetermined route, and often in wilderness areas while racing to complete the course within a certain period of time or before competitors. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1b1b48f48 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 11/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +sea lane +Also sea road, seaway, or shipping lane. +A navigable route across a wide waterway such as an ocean, sea, or large lake that is regularly used for maritime trade by large vessels or ships because it is safe, direct, and economical. + +sea level +The average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans from which heights such as elevation and altitude are commonly measured. Often called mean sea level (MSL), it is a type of standardized geodetic vertical datum that is used in numerous applications, including surveying, cartography, and navigation. Mean sea level is commonly defined as the midpoint between the mean low and mean high tides at a particular location. + +sea stack +See stack. + +seabed +Also sea floor or ocean floor. +The bottom of a sea or ocean. As with land terrain, the ocean floor may have ridges, mountains, valleys, and plains. + +seaboard +Any extensive region of land adjacent to the sea, broadly synonymous with coast or coastline. + +seamount +A mountain (often a volcano) rising from the ocean floor whose summit does not reach the water's surface and which is therefore entirely submerged and not an island or islet. + +search space +In human geography, the locations within an area where an individual or group searches for the resources necessary to meet their specific needs (e.g. for housing or employment), based on information from their current awareness space. + +seaway +See sea lane. + +second home +A seasonally occupied dwelling that is not the primary residence of the owner. Such residences are usually found in areas with substantial opportunities for recreation or tourist activity. + +secondary-intercardinal directions +The set of eight intermediate directions used in cartography and navigation, each of which is located halfway between a pair of intercardinal directions: north-northeast (NNE), east-northeast (ENE), east-southeast (ESE), south-southeast (SSE), south-southwest (SSW), west-southwest (WSW), west-northwest (WNW), and north-northwest (NNW). They may or may not be explicitly labeled on a compass rose. + +secondary sector (secondary economic activity) +That portion of a region's economy devoted to the processing of basic materials extracted by the primary sector; i.e. to the production of material goods. + +sector principle +The principle on which political claims to territory in the polar regions have historically been made, such that the territories are divided into arbitrary wedge-shaped sectors, each one having an apex at the geographic pole and including outer areas of both land and sea extending to a particular latitude. Because of the limited accessibility and generally low material value of both the Arctic and Antarctic, the sector principle has emerged as a means of formally sharing responsibility for these regions between the world's sovereign states. + +sector theory +Also sector model. +The view that commercial, industrial, and especially residential areas in a city develop in 'sectors' or districts along lines of transport and communication, from the central business district outwards. In many urban areas the basic pattern of development often approximately follows this model, with industrial sectors developing along canals and railways, working-class housing developing near industrial sectors, and higher quality housing being built away from industrial zones but still in places with quick and convenient road access to other sectors. + +sedimentary rock +Rock formed by the hardening of material deposited in some process; most commonly sandstone, shale, and limestone. + +seismograph +A scientific instrument that detects and records vibrations (seismic waves) produced by earthquakes. + +selva +A dense equatorial forest, especially in the Amazon basin of South America. + +sense of place +Either the intrinsic character of a place or the meaning people give to it, or a mixture of both. This sense of meaning may include national, regional, or local identity or awareness, or emotional attachments formed between humans and the places they reside in or travel to. It is often the intangible characteristics of a particular place which are most important to mental representations of that place; these characteristics may be natural and unintentional, or may be consciously created or preserved through memorable or singular structures in order to give a place a distinctive identity. + +serac +Also sérac. +A large block or pillar of glacial ice formed by the intersection of numerous crevasses where the glacier fragments as it reaches a steep slope. Seracs are usually found in icefalls, often in large numbers, in mountainous terrain. + +settlement +Also locality or populated place. +Any place where people live and form communities; an inhabited or populated place. Settlements vary widely in size and complexity, from small clusters of dwellings to huge cities and metropolitan areas. + +settlement pattern +The spatial distribution of where humans inhabit the Earth. + +shaded relief +A type of relief mapping in which terrain features are drawn with colors proportional to their elevation or degree of slope, such that the shading of higher or steeper terrain is darker or lighter than the shading of lower or flatter terrain. This gives the map the illusion of three-dimensional relief, as if the depicted landforms were creating shadows due to illumination from an off-map light source. + +shadow effect +The phenomenon by which a large, well-served urban center affects the transport services of a nearby smaller town or city, often by drawing producers and consumers away from the smaller settlement and toward the larger one, causing the smaller settlement to be relatively ill-provided with direct services. + +shakehole +See doline. + +shallows +An area of water of relatively little depth, e.g. in a sea, lake, or river. + +sheepback +Also rôche moutonnée. +A rock formation created by the passage of a glacier over underlying bedrock, which often results in asymmetrical erosional forms created by abrasion on the upstream side of the rock and plucking on the downstream side. + +shelf sea +A relatively shallow marginal sea, generally less than 300 metres (980 ft) deep, beneath which a portion of a continental shelf is submerged. + +shield +A broad area of very old rocks above sea level that is usually characterized by thin, poor soils and low population densities. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1273ed2a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,101 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 12/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +shield volcano +A class of volcano that resembles an inverted warrior's shield, with long gentle slopes produced by multiple eruptions of fluid lava flows. + +shoal +Also sandbank, sandbar, or gravel bar. +A natural submerged ridge, bank, or bar that consists of or is covered by sand or other unconsolidated material and rises from the bed of a body of water to just below or above the surface. + +shore +Also shoreline. +The fringe of land at the edge of a large body of water, such as an ocean, sea, or lake. Compare coast. + +shore platform +See wave-cut platform. + +shoulder +1. A rounded spur on a mountainside; or a bench on the side of a glacier-deepened U-shaped valley, demarcating an abrupt transition between the gentle upper slopes which have been largely unaffected by glacial erosion and the steep lower slopes of the heavily eroded inner valley. +2. The part of a roadway between the edge of the graded or paved driving surface and the top of the foreslope of an adjacent ditch or embankment. + +shoulder drop +See topographic prominence. + +side valley +A valley whose mouth opens onto a larger, lower-order valley to which its drainage is tributary. + +sighting compass +A handheld magnetic compass fitted with a sighting device that permits the user to accurately determine the bearing or azimuth of a specified target with respect to their own position. The sighting instrument may make use of a simple notched protrusion akin to a gunsight, an image of the target reflected in a mirror, or a prismatic or lensatic system. + +sinkhole +A crater formed when the roof of a cavern collapses, usually found in areas of limestone rock. + +site +The features of a place related to the immediate environment in which the place is located (e.g. terrain, soil, subsurface, geology, groundwater, etc.). + +situation +The features of a place related to its location relative to other places (e.g., accessibility, hinterland quality). + +skerry +A small, rocky islet or reef, often one of a series lying just offshore and parallel to the main trend of the coastline, over which large waves may break at high tide or in stormy weather. + +sky island +An isolated mountain, mountain range, or high plateau characterized by conspicuous elevational gradients in geology, climate, and/or biodiversity, so that environments and ecosystems near the summit differ greatly from those of the adjacent slopes or the surrounding lowlands. This effectively cuts off the ecosystems of the highest areas, turning them into "islands" in a "sea" of dissimilar landscapes. + +slack +A shallow hole or hollow among coastal sand dunes or mud banks. + +slack water +Also slack tide or simply slack. +The brief period of time during which a body of water susceptible to tides is completely unstressed because the tidal stream is almost still, i.e. there is no movement in either direction in the tidal current, usually occurring twice daily at the high and low water marks prior to the tide reversing direction. + +slant range +The line-of-sight distance along the relative direction between two points, especially two points which are not at the same elevation relative to a specific datum. If the two points are at the same elevation, the slant range equals the horizontal distance. + +slash +1. In the southeastern United States, a low-lying swampy or boggy area, overgrown with shrubs and cane grasses and favorable for the growth of the slash pine and related trees. +2. The debris of felled trees, especially in a forest that has been subjected to slash-and-burn agriculture. + +slide +1. A noticeable track of bare rock or furrowed earth left by the mass movement of soil, mud, snow, or rock under shear stress down a steep slope, as in a landslide or avalanche. +2. The mass of material moved or deposited by such an event, and which has become fixed or settled upon the landscape. + +slip-off slope +The more gently sloping of the two banks of a river or stream, usually on the inside bend of a meander, as opposed to a cut bank. + +slope +The upward or downward inclination of a natural or artificial surface (e.g. a hillside or a road), or the degree or nature of such an incline; a deviation from the perpendicular or horizontal direction (these directions generally being assigned with respect to the direction of the force of gravity). See also grade. + +slough +A type of wetland – usually a swamp, a shallow lake, or a backwater branching from or feeding into a river – in which water tends to be stagnant or flows only very slowly on a seasonal basis. + +slum +A residential settlement or neighborhood associated with extreme poverty and overpopulation, usually in or near an urban area. Slums are characterized by densely packed and poorly built or dilapidated housing units and a deterioration or lack of civic infrastructure such as reliable water, electricity, sanitation, law enforcement, and other basic services. + +smog +A mixture of particulate matter and chemical pollutants which has accumulated in the lower atmosphere, usually over urban areas. + +smooth sheet +Also smooth chart, fair sheet, and fair chart. +A sheet on which field control and hydrographic data such as soundings, depth curves, and regions surveyed with a wire drag are plotted or drawn during the creation of a hydrographic chart. + +snout +Also terminus or toe. +The lowermost margin or extremity of a glacier, always either gradually advancing or retreating, sometimes partially hidden by morainic material, and commonly featuring a cave from which meltwater flows. + +snowline +The lowest elevation at which snow remains throughout the year if the summer warmth does not completely melt the winter accumulation, e.g. on a high mountain. This elevation varies widely with latitude, local climate, directional aspect, and steepness of slope, such that the snowline may be very different on different mountains in the same range, on different faces of the same mountain, or on the same face in different years. + +social trail +See desire path. + +society +A group of people living in an organized community. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-12.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f3c5248f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-12.md @@ -0,0 +1,77 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 13/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +soil building process +The creation of organic matter from weathered rock, air, and water. + +soil horizon +A distinct layer of soil which can be distinguished from other layers in vertical cross-section. + +solstice +The time when the Sun reaches its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere. Two solstices occur annually, around 20–22 June and 20–22 December. In many countries, the seasons of the year are defined by reference to the solstices and the equinoxes. + +solution pan +See panhole. + +solubility +The degree to which a substance can be dissolved in another substance. In a geographical context, solubility is a characteristic of soil minerals that describes their tendency to be carried away in solution by water. See also leaching. + +sound +1. A large inlet of a sea or ocean that is larger than a bay, deeper than a bight, and wider than a fjord. +2. A narrow sea or ocean channel between two landmasses. + +sounding +1. A measured depth in water, usually a measurement of the distance from an instrument on a vessel at the surface to the bottom of the bed or floor of the body of water at a point directly below the vessel; or the process by which such a measurement is made. In very shallow water, depths may be measurable by mechanical devices such as long sounding poles that make physical contact with the bottom; in deeper water, accurate determination of depth usually relies on a lead-line or the return of sonar echoes. Depth sounding is fundamental to bathymetry. +2. A specific depth of water referred to a datum (e.g. a tidal datum) given in the legend of a hydrographic chart. +3. A point on a map where the measured value of the depth of a body of water at that point is explicitly shown. + +South Geographic Pole +Also called the Geographic South Pole, Geographic South, or simply the South Pole. +The point in the Southern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is the southernmost point on Earth, directly opposite the North Geographic Pole, and is located on continental land in Antarctica at a latitude of 90 degrees South; its longitude can be assigned any degree value. See also South Magnetic Pole. + +South Geomagnetic Pole +Also called the Geomagnetic South Pole. +The point in the Southern Hemisphere where the axis of a theoretical simplified dipole passing through the center of the Earth would intersect the Earth's surface. It is antipodal to the North Geomagnetic Pole. Because of the fluid nature of the Earth's molten core, the true axis of the Earth's magnetic field is not a perfect dipole, and so the Geomagnetic Poles and the actual Magnetic Poles lie some distance apart. + +South Magnetic Pole +Also called the Magnetic South Pole or Magnetic South. +The point in the Southern Hemisphere at which the Earth's magnetic field points vertically downward. It is close to but distinct from the Geographic South Pole and the Geomagnetic South Pole, and its precise location varies considerably over time due to frequent magnetic changes in the Earth's core. Its counterpart in the Northern Hemisphere is the North Magnetic Pole, though the two poles are not directly opposite each other. + +Southern Hemisphere +The half sphere of the Earth that is south of the Equator. It is opposite the Northern Hemisphere. + +space economy +The locational pattern of economic activities and their interconnecting linkages. + +spatial analysis +1. Any of the wide variety of formal techniques used to study entities according to their topological, geometric, or geographic properties. +2. An approach to geography in which the locational variations of a phenomenon or a series of phenomena are studied and the factors influencing or governing the observed patterns of distribution within space are investigated. This approach attempts to break down spatial patterns into simple elements so that measurements can be made of individual sub-patterns, which then allows the comparison of two or more distinct patterns and the development of statistical tests to determine whether a given pattern differs significantly from random variation. + +spatial citizenship +The participation of individuals and groups of laypeople in decision-making about spatial planning and social rules in public spaces through the reflexive production and use of geographic media such as maps, virtual globes, and GIS software, particularly to question existing perspectives on the appropriation of space and the actions permitted within that space and to negotiate alternative spatial visions. + +spatial complementarity +The occurrence of location pairing such that items demanded by one place can be supplied by another. + +spatial diffusion +The process by which materials, ideas, diseases, or information are distributed or spread through space. + +spatial interaction +Movement or exchange between locationally separate places. + +spatial reference system (SRS) +Also coordinate reference system (CRS). +A coordinate-based local, regional, or global system used to locate geographical entities and which defines a specific map projection as well as transformations between different systems. + +spatial science +The measurement, management, analysis, and display of spatial information describing geographic spaces, including both natural and socially constructed features. Spatial science emphasizes the study of aggregate spatial patterns, including spatial behavior, within theoretical frameworks and by using quantitative methods to evaluate models and hypotheses. It is an interdisciplinary field combining elements of and overlapping with cartography, geodesy, hydrography, surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing, and geographic information science. + +spatiality +The effects of geographic space on actions, interactions, entities, perceptions, and ideas. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-13.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ff4038cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-13.md @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 14/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +spatiomap +A map that is not merely a diagrammatic representation of a place but is based on an aerial orthophotograph, such that the map includes actual imagery of ground-level features which are often omitted from conventional maps. Spatiomaps are usually created by overlaying annotations directly upon an orthophoto, such as a north arrow or compass rose, a scale bar, political boundaries and labels, or other cartographical information. They are useful when reliable data from ground-based surveys are missing for a particular geographical area or when accurate maps must be produced very quickly, especially during disaster relief efforts where a natural disaster has dramatically changed ground-level detail but new surveys have not yet been conducted. + +spirit level + +spit +Also sandspit. +A type of bar or shoal extending from a beach into an ocean or lake and which develops by the deposition of sediment as a result of longshore drift. Spits form where the shoreline sharply changes direction, such as at a headland, and often develop a "hooked" or recurve shape at their distal ends. + +spot elevation +Also spot height. +A point on a map or chart whose height or elevation above a specified reference datum (often mean sea level) is explicitly annotated, usually by a numerical elevation value printed immediately adjacent to a dot or sawbuck indicating the point itself. Topographic maps often include spot elevations, wherever practicable, for the summits of hills, mountains, plateaus, and buttes; mountain passes; forks and intersections of roads, trails, and waterways; water surfaces of lakes and ponds; notable low points such as the local elevational minimum of a basin; very large flat areas; and any other point which may be of interest to the map user. + +spreading ridge +See mid-ocean ridge. + +spring +Any location where groundwater naturally emerges from an underground aquifer to the Earth's surface. + +spur +A lateral ridge or other salient landform protruding from the side of a hill, mountain, or the main crest of a ridge and typically surrounded on at least three sides by steep hillsides. + +stack +Also sea stack. +A coastal landform consisting of a steep and often vertical column or columns of rock above the surface of the sea and formed by erosion due to wave action. See also pinnacle. + +stage +Also stream stage or river stage. +In hydrology, the height of the surface of a stream or river at a particular location and a particular point in time, with respect to a reference height such as its bed or a position on its banks, and used especially to monitor seasonal changes in discharge and flooding. + +stand +An area of vegetation dominated by a single plant species, e.g. a stand of oak trees. + +Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) +A statistical unit used in the United States consisting of one or more counties that focus on one or more central cities larger than a specified size, or with a total population larger than a specified size. + +state +A compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory. See country. + +stateless society +A society that is not governed by a state; there is little concentration of authority. Most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in power, and they are generally not permanent positions, and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small. + +steilhang +A steep mountainside, hillside, or escarpment, especially one with an average incline between 30 and 60 degrees from the horizontal. The term is used primarily in the German-speaking world. + +steppe +An ecoregion characterized by expansive grassland plains without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes. + +stopbank +See levee. + +stoss +An adjective describing the side of a hill or ridge that faces the direction from which an advancing glacier or ice sheet is moving or has moved; i.e. facing upstream or "up-ice" with respect to the glacier, and therefore most exposed to its abrasive action. The opposite side, facing downstream or away from the glacier, is known as the lee. + +strait +See channel. + +strandline +A beach or shoreline, especially a former or relict one, now elevated above the present water level, which appears as a bench or other visible demarcation lining the length of the shore at a common elevation. See also high water mark. + +strath +A large river valley, typically wider and shallower than a glen. The term is used primarily in Scotland, Australia, and Canada. + +stratovolcano +Also composite volcano. +A steep-sided volcano built by lava flows and tephra deposits. + +stream +A natural body of water in which surface water flows between the banks of a channel. Long, large streams are called rivers. + +stream order +Also waterbody order. +The hierarchical classification of all of the branching streams comprising a river system or watershed, usually by assigning an ordinal number to each individual tributary indicating the magnitude of its channel and/or its position within the overall drainage sequence. Several different numbering methods are in common usage. In the Strahler system, the outermost tributaries (i.e. near the sources) are designated first-order streams, and at least two streams of any given order must combine to form a stream of the next higher order, e.g. two first-order streams unite to form a second-order stream, two-second-order streams join to form a third-order stream, and so on until the largest channel or main stem, terminating at the mouth, is reached. + +streambed +Also riverbed or simply bed. +The bottom of the channel of a stream or river, usually covered with rocks, sand, or debris and totally devoid of terrestrial vegetation if the stream has flowed recently. The bed is generally considered the part of the channel up to the normal water line, whereas the bank is the part above the water line. + +strike +The direction of the line of intersection between an imaginary horizontal plane and the plane of a geological stratum, fault, or hillslope. Strike is usually combined with dip in describing the orientation of a geographical surface. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-14.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dd43d6097 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 15/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +strip map +A map covering only a narrow band of territory in which the user is interested, e.g. alongside each side of a trail or vehicle route. + +subcontinent +A large landmass forming a contiguous part of an even larger continent, though often separable by physiographic or political boundaries, e.g. the Indian subcontinent; or a non-contiguous but still very large landmass that is smaller than one usually termed a continent, e.g. Greenland. + +subduction zone +The place where two lithospheric plates come together, one riding over the other. Most volcanoes on land occur parallel to and inland from the boundary between the two plates. + +subglacial +Of, relating to, or formed on or by the underside of a glacier. Contrast englacial and superglacial. + +sublittoral +1. Of or relating to the coastal area of the sea between the intertidal zone and the edge of the continental shelf. Compare littoral zone. +2. Of or relating to the deepest parts of a lake or other large body of freshwater, distant from the shore, where plants cannot root. See also aphotic zone. + +subsequent +(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing along a course determined by the structure of the local bedrock. Contrast consequent and obsequent. + +subsistence farming (agriculture) +A farming practice where a family produces only enough food for their own family and not to sell or export. + +suburban +An adjective describing a mixed-use or residential area existing either as an ancillary part of an urban area or as a separate community within commuting distance of a city; a place of this type is called a suburb. Suburbs are often defined by commuter infrastructures and have lower population densities than inner-city neighborhoods. + +suburbanization +The process by which a human population shifts from urban to suburban residency, or the gradual increase in the proportion of people choosing to live in suburban neighborhoods which act as satellite communities within commuting distance of larger, centralized urban areas. Suburbanization is inversely related to urbanization. + +summit +Also acme, apex, peak, and zenith. +A point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, it is a local maximum in elevation. The highest point of a hill or mountain is often referred to as the summit. + +superglacial +Also supraglacial. +Of or relating to the surface or to the environment at the surface of a glacier. Contrast englacial and subglacial. + +supranational region +A region composed of several countries working together for either political, economic, or social purposes, e.g. the European Union. + +surf zone +Also breaker zone. +The area along a shoreline in which breaking waves routinely form, between the furthest seaward limit at which incoming waves begin to break and the furthest landward extent reached by the uprush of swash on the beach. The extent of the surf zone may change with the tide and local weather conditions. + +surface water +Water present on the surface of the Earth, such as in a river, lake, wetland, or ocean, as opposed to subsurface water. + +survey marker + +surveying +The science, technique, and profession of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional positions of points on the surface of the Earth and the distances and angles between them. These points are often used to draw maps and establish boundaries for property ownership, construction projects, and other purposes required by civil law. + +swale +Any shallow channel or trough with gently sloping sides, either natural or artificial. Man-made swales are often designed to manage surface runoff and increase rainwater infiltration. + +swallet +See ponor. + +swamp +A forested wetland, often occurring along a large river or on the shores of a large lake. + +swell +1. The regular, undulating motion of the surface of a large body of water, e.g. of the ocean; the succession of surface waves in the open ocean which, though they may grow very large, do not break. +2. A rise or uplift on the deep sea floor. +3. Any dome-shaped landform, often a plateau or other geological uplift, covering a very large area. + +swirlhole +See pothole. + +syncline + +synekism + +syrt +A denudational highland or elevated flatland in Russia and Central Asia; a kind of dissected plateau. + +== T == + +table +Also tableland. +A butte, plateau, or highland with a relatively flat, often expansive summit area. See also mesa. + +tablemount +See guyot. + +taiga +A moist subarctic coniferous forest that begins where the tundra ends and is dominated by spruces and firs. + +tailings +Also tails. +Waste materials left over after the mining and processing of ore, during which a valuable mineral or metal is extracted from the uneconomic fraction accompanying it; the latter plus any substances applied in the extraction process are then discarded, often in spoil piles or ponds near the mine, usually because it is prohibitively expensive or impossible to relocate, reuse, or otherwise destroy the discarded material. Mine tailings are distinct from overburden, which is displaced during mining but not processed, and are often nutrient-poor or toxic to living organisms, making it difficult for plant and animal life to reclaim the environs without further treatment. + +talik +A layer of year-round unfrozen ground between or within layers of permafrost, or between the active layer and permafrost. + +talus +Loose, broken rock fragments of any size and shape, usually coarse and angular, derived from and lying at the base of a cliff or a very steep rock slope. Large quantities tend to accumulate on the slopes of high mountains by falling, rolling, or sliding from an eroding rockfall source. Compare scree. + +talweg +See thalweg. + +tank +A small man-made pond or reservoir created by impounding a stream or by constructing a pit or basin to collect and hold rainwater or snowmelt. Less commonly, the term may also refer to a natural pond or basin. + +tarn +Also corrie loch. +A mountain lake or pool of water formed in a cirque excavated by a glacier. A moraine may form a natural dam below a tarn. + +tectonic forces +The physical processes involving the movement of the Earth's crust. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-15.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ed120fea1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-15.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 16/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +tectonic plate +Any of several very large divisions of the Earth's crust consisting of solid rock which "floats" on top of the semi-solid mantle. + +temperate zone +Traditionally, either of the two mid-latitude regions of the Earth defined by their latitudinal position between the tropics and the polar zones, i.e. the region between latitudes 23°30' N and 66°30' N, or that between 23°30' S and 66°30' S. In modern usage, the term may refer instead to regions of mild or temperate climate, regardless of latitude. + +temperature inversion +An increase in temperature with height above the Earth's surface, a reversal of the normal pattern, often observed in deep valleys and basins that are mostly or entirely enclosed by high mountain ranges. + +tephra +Solid material of all sizes explosively ejected from a volcano into the atmosphere. + +terminal moraine +Also end moraine. +A moraine that forms at the terminus or snout of a glacier, marking its furthest advance. Debris transported by plucking and abrasion accumulates at the glacier's leading edge, where it is deposited in an unsorted pile of sediment as the ice begins to retreat. + +terracette +One of a series of regularly spaced, horizontal, step-like ridges forming a distinctive ribbed pattern on a steep and usually grassy hillside, similar to an agricultural terrace or lynchet but naturally occurring. Various explanations for their origins have been suggested, including soil creep, solifluction, and animal trampling. + +terrain +Also topographical relief or simply relief. +The vertical and horizontal dimensions of a land surface, usually as expressed in terms of elevation, slope, and orientation of geographical features. + +terrane +A fragment or block of the Earth's crust which forms on one tectonic plate but becomes accreted or "sutured" to the crust of another tectonic plate, such that the fragment's distinctive geological history differs markedly from that of surrounding areas. The suture zone between a terrane and the crust it attaches to is usually delimited by faults. + +terrestrial +1. Consisting of, living on, or relating to land, as opposed to water or air; e.g. a terrestrial animal lives primarily on land surfaces rather than in the sea. +2. On, of, or relating to the Earth, as opposed to other planets or to celestial phenomena occurring outside the Earth's atmosphere. + +territorial waters +1. A concept of the Law of the Sea defined as the belt of coastal waters extending no more than 12 nautical miles (22 km) from a designated baseline (usually defined as the mean low-water line) for a coastal state and regarded as the sovereign territory of the state; or more generally any area of water over which a state has legal jurisdiction, including internal waters, the exclusive economic zone, and potentially others. + +territory +A specific area or portion of the Earth's surface, especially one claimed or administered by a particular country; similar to though distinct from a region. + +tertiary economic activity (tertiary sector) +That portion of a region's economy devoted to service activities (e.g. retail and wholesale operations, transportation, and insurance). + +thalweg +Also talweg. +The line of lowest elevation within a valley or watercourse, i.e. the line defining the longitudinal profile of an area with respect to the path followed by water draining from the area. Thalwegs are significant in political geography because borders along rivers are often defined by the river's thalweg. This has sometimes led to conflict because the river's course may change naturally over time. + +thaw lake +A shallow, rounded lake or pond occupying a depression resulting from the melting of ground ice or permafrost, ubiquitous in thermokarst regions wherever there are flat lowlands with silty alluvium and high ice content, including much of the North American and Siberian Arctic. Many thaw lakes develop elongate shapes oriented with the long axis at a right angle to the prevailing wind. + +theodolite +An optical instrument consisting of a small telescope, a spirit level, and graduated arcs mounted on a tripod, used in surveying and other applications to precisely measure angles between designated visible points in the horizontal and vertical planes. + +thermal spring +See hot spring. + +thermal stratification +The tendency of bodies of water such as lakes to separate into distinct thermal layers along a vertical gradient, such that water temperature varies predictably with increasing depth. Stratification is typically a seasonal phenomenon, exemplified in deep lakes at temperate latitudes during the summer, which often form a warm, turbulent upper layer near the surface, a colder bottom layer, and a transition zone of rapidly decreasing temperature in between. In all but the deepest lakes and oceans, these layers often disappear entirely in the spring and fall, when convective mixing makes the temperature more or less uniform at all depths, and may even invert if the surface freezes during the winter. Local topography, wind patterns, and dissolved solutes also strongly influence the formation and disruption of stratified waters. + +thermocline +A thin layer of water in an ocean or lake, typically between the non-circulating hypolimnion and the warmer epilimnion, through which temperature changes more drastically with depth than it does in the layers above or below; e.g. temperature may decrease much more rapidly with increasing depth in this layer, commonly exceeding 1 °C (1.8 °F) per metre of descent. + +thermokarst +A type of terrain characterized by expansive landscapes of small hummocks interspersed with irregular, marshy depressions formed by the thawing of ice-rich permafrost. The unique landforms of thermokarst, including pingoes, palsen, thaw lakes, alases, and linear and polygonal troughs, result from various periglacial and thermo-erosional phenomena common in the Arctic and on a smaller scale in mountainous areas such as the Himalayas and the Alps. + +tholoid +A volcanic cone occurring inside of a larger volcanic crater or caldera. + +throw +The vertical displacement of strata or rocks across the line of a fault, varying from a few millimetres to hundreds of metres in height. Those rocks on the higher side of the fault are termed upthrow, while those on the lower side are termed downthrow. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-16.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-16.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b22cb574c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-16.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 17/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +tidal creek +Also tidal channel. +A narrow inlet or estuary that is affected by the ebb and flow of tides from an adjacent ocean. Water in the lower portions of these channels tends to vary greatly in depth, salinity, electrical conductivity, and other hydrological properties over the course of the tidal cycle, but is often slow-moving and rich in organic sediment drained from upstream freshwater sources, making them important habitats for many species. + +tidal flat +An extensive, nearly horizontal, and barren or sparsely vegetated tract of land at the edge of a sea or ocean that is alternately covered and uncovered by the tide. + +tidal prism +The total volume of water that flows in and out of a coastal inlet or estuary with each cycle of the tides, excluding any freshwater discharges; i.e. the difference in the inlet's volume between the mean high and low tides. + +tidal range +The difference in height between high tide and low tide at a given location. This range may vary over the course of the year, e.g. during neap tides and spring tides. + +tide +The periodic rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the Earth's rotation. + +tide pool +A shallow pool of seawater, supplied regularly by incoming tides, that forms on a rocky intertidal shore. + +tied island +Also land-tied island. +An island that is connected to a mainland only by a narrow spit or tombolo which may or may not be occasionally submerged. + +till +See glacial till. + +timberline +See tree line. + +time distance +A measure of how far apart places are in terms of the amount of time it takes to travel between them (how long does it take to travel from place A to place B?). This may be contrasted with other distance metrics such as geographic distance (how far is it?) and cost-distance (how much will it cost to get there?). + +time geography +Also time-space geography. +An interdisciplinary perspective, ontological framework, and visual language in which space and time are used as basic dimensions of analysis of dynamic processes and events, including social and ecological interactions, environmental changes, and biographies of individuals. + +time zone +A region of the globe that observes a uniform standard time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. Most time zones span about 15 degrees of longitude, and in each of these divisions the mean solar time at an arbitrarily selected meridian (usually one near the longitudinal center of the division) is made the standard time across the entire zone. Time zones tend to follow political boundaries between countries and their subdivisions, however, rather than strictly following the same meridian, because it is convenient for areas in frequent communication to keep the same time. + +Tissot's indicatrix +Also Tissot's ellipse and ellipse of distortion. +A mathematical contrivance used to illustrate the linear, angular, and areal distortions that result when projecting information from a curved three-dimensional geometric model such as a globe onto a two-dimensional map. A single indicatrix is traditionally a circle of determinate size drawn upon the surface of the globe, with center at specific coordinates; the extent to which this circle is deformed when the globe's coordinates are transformed onto a flat two-dimensional map makes apparent the nature of the distortion affecting nearby map features, such as the size and shape of landmasses, which might otherwise be difficult to visualize. Because distortion can vary greatly across a map, it is common for multiple indicatrices to be depicted at multiple points on the map, e.g. at major intersections of meridians and parallels. + +toe +See snout. + +toeslope + +toll road +Also tollway or turnpike. +A public or private road or highway for which a fee or toll is charged to drivers for passage. + +tombolo +A sandy or shingle-covered spit, bar, or isthmus connecting an island to the mainland or to another island (thereby forming a tied island). + +topocide + +topographic isolation +The minimum great-circle distance between the summit of a mountain or hill and a point of equal elevation, representing a radius of dominance in which the summit is the highest point. + +topographic map +Also relief map. +A map that uses contour lines to represent the three-dimensional features of a landscape on a two-dimensional surface. + +topographic prominence +Also autonomous height, relative height, or shoulder drop. +A measure of the independence of a mountain or hill defined as the vertical distance between its summit and the lowest contour line completely encircling it but containing no higher summit within it; or, equivalently, the difference between the elevation of the summit and the elevation of the key col. Mountains with high prominence tend to be the highest points in their vicinity. + +topographical relief +See terrain. + +topography +The physical features of a place, or the study and depiction of physical features, both natural and man-made, including terrain relief. + +topological map +A type of diagrammatic map which depicts the actual positional relationships between certain features but on which true scale is distorted and unnecessary detail is absent to accommodate other considerations (e.g. simplicity so as to aid understanding of a complex communications network or public transit system). + +topology +In geographical studies, a discipline concerned with the mathematical analysis of enclosure, order, connectivity, contiguity, and relative position rather than with actual distance and orientation. Topological relationships are commonly expressed in terms of networks and depicted with topological maps. + +toponymy +The study of placenames (known as toponyms), their origins, meanings, use, and typology. + +tor +Also castle koppie or kopje. +A prominent, free-standing rock outcrop that rises abruptly from the smooth slopes of a gently rounded hill or ridge. In the United Kingdom, the term is also used to refer to the hill itself. + +town +A medium-sized human settlement that is generally larger than a village but smaller than a city, though the criteria for distinguishing a town vary considerably in different parts of the world. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-17.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-17.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd1fe9c6c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-17.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 18/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +township +A type of populated place or administrative subdivision for which definitions vary widely between jurisdictions. In the United States, the township is the basic unit of land in the Public Land Survey System, a quadrangle with sides of approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) aligned to parallels and meridians and further subdivided into 36 one-square-mile sections. The location of each township is specified with respect to a designated reference parallel and a reference meridian. + +township and range +The rectangular system of land subdivision used to plat real property for sale and settlement in much of the agriculturally settled United States west of the Appalachian Mountains, established by the Land Ordinance of 1785. + +towpath +A road or path alongside a navigable river, canal, or other inland waterway designed to allow land vehicles, draught animals, or a team of human pullers to tow a boat or barge. + +trafficability +The capacity of a soil or of a particular type of terrain to permit the movement of vehicles or pedestrians. + +trail + +transferability +The extent to which a good or service can be moved from one location to another; the relative capacity for spatial interaction. + +transhumance +The seasonal movement of people and animals in search of pasture. Commonly, winters are spent in snow-free lowlands and summers in the cooler uplands. + +transverse +Crosswise; lying across; crossing from one side to another, as a line on a map. + +transverse coast +See discordant coastline. + +transverse dune +A sand dune with its crest oriented at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind, as opposed to the orientation of a longitudinal dune. + +transverse valley +A valley which cuts across a ridge or mountain range at right angles to the primary orientation of the crest. Contrast longitudinal valley. + +trap street +In cartography, a misrepresented or nonexistent road or street that is deliberately included on a map (often outside the map's nominal area of coverage) for the purpose of detecting plagiarism by acting as a copyright trap: plagiarists who have copied other cartographers' work would find it difficult to explain the inclusion of the trap street on their map as coincidental. For this reason trap streets are often inconspicuous and given unique names. Many other map features are also used as copyright traps, including natural features and entire towns, and the implementation may also involve mislabeling features such as topographic elevations as well as making subtle stylistic alterations such as exaggerated or nonexistent bends in roads or rivers, ideally in a way that does not interfere significantly with navigation. + +traverse +1. In surveying, a line or route and the sequence of points on it at which observations or measurements are made, or the process by which such a sequence is established. The term may also refer more generally to any route or path traveled for any purpose. +2. A relatively horizontal route taken so as to bypass obstacles when the primary goal is to move vertically, as in rock climbing and mountaineering. + +tree line +Also timberline. +The latitudinal or elevational limit of normal tree growth. Beyond this limit (i.e. closer to the poles or at higher elevations) climatic conditions are too severe for such growth and trees are stunted or entirely absent. The term cold timberline may also be used to emphasize that the limiting factor is temperature, particularly when distinguishing it from the dry timberline of arid regions, where tree growth is instead limited by the availability of water. + +triangulation +The process of determining the location of a given point or object, especially its distance from an observer, by measuring only the angles to it from two known points along a common baseline, which represent two vertices of an imaginary triangle. The unknown point can then be fixed as the third vertex of the triangle, using the one known side and two known angles. Triangulation differs from trilateration, which measures distances to the point directly instead of angles. + +tributary +Also called an affluent. +A stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem or a lake, rather than directly into a sea or ocean. Contrast distributary. + +trilateration +The process of determining the location of a given point or object by measuring only the distances to it from a sufficient number of other points; in particular, a method of surveying in which the location of one point relative to two or more others is determined by measuring the distances between all points (either ordinary Euclidean distances or great-circle distances). When more than three distances are involved, the process may be called multilateration. Measurement of direction and angle is not strictly necessary for trilateration, though this information is often used in tandem with trilateration data. + +tropic +Either of the two parallels of latitude marking the boundary of the tropics: the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. + +Tropic of Cancer +The northernmost circle of latitude on the Earth at which the Sun appears directly overhead at its culmination, which lies approximately 23.4 degrees north of the Equator. Its southern equivalent is the Tropic of Capricorn. + +Tropic of Capricorn +The southernmost circle of latitude on the Earth at which the Sun appears directly overhead at its culmination, which lies approximately 23.4 degrees south of the Equator. Its northern equivalent is the Tropic of Cancer. + +tropical +Characteristic of, located in, or relating to the tropics, either the specific parallels of latitude or the zone lying between those two parallels. + +tropics +Also called the tropical zone or torrid zone. +The region of the Earth's surface surrounding the Equator and bounded by the Tropic of Cancer (23.4° N latitude) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.4° S latitude). It is characterized by high annual precipitation and the absence of any significant seasonal variation in temperature. The term is often used more broadly to describe any area possessing what is considered a hot, humid climate, regardless of latitude. See also temperate zone and polar zone. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-18.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-18.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4142b9ad1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-18.md @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 19/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +trough +Any elongated, generally U-shaped valley, ravine, basin, or ditch, natural or artificial, dry or wet. Particularly common usages refer to a submarine trench or deep in the ocean floor, or to a geological syncline. + +true north +Also geodetic north. +The direction along the Earth's surface towards the Geographic North Pole. Geodetic true north differs from magnetic north and grid north, and also very slightly from astronomical true north, which is based on the direction of the north celestial pole. + +true south +Also geodetic south. +The direction along the Earth's surface that is exactly opposite (i.e. bearing 180 degrees) of true north, towards the Geographic South Pole. + +trunk +See main stem. + +tsunami +A giant ocean wave caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption with great destructive power. + +tundra +A treeless plain characteristic of the Arctic and subarctic regions. + +tunnel valley +A deep, greatly elongated, U-shaped valley carved from land beneath a mass of glacial ice, often near the margin of a continental ice sheet. Tunnel valleys may be up to 100 kilometres (62 mi) long, 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) wide, and 400 metres (1,300 ft) deep, and often occur side-by-side in a series of multiple parallel valleys. + +turlough +In western Ireland, a depression or sinkhole which fills with water when the water table rises, e.g. by tidal effects. + +turnpike +See toll road. + +tuya +A subglacial landform consisting of a flat-topped, steep-sided volcanic mountain formed when lava erupts beneath an overlying glacier or ice sheet and melts through the ice to the surface, where it pools and solidifies into a level bed of volcanic rock; the glacier continues to gradually erode the surrounding landscape and, upon retreating, leaves behind a characteristic mesa-like rock formation. + +== U == + +umland +An area which is culturally, economically, and politically related to a particular town or city. + +underfit stream +A misfit stream that is seemingly too small to have eroded the valley or passage through which it flows, often an indication that there was once a larger stream in its place. Contrast overfit stream. + +underpopulation +Economically, a situation in which an increase in the size of the labor force will result in an increase in per-worker productivity. + +uniform region +A territory with one or more features present throughout which are absent or unimportant elsewhere. + +uninverted relief +Topographic surface relief which closely reflects the shape and orientation of the underlying geological structure, i.e. where hills and ridges coincide with anticlines and valleys with synclines. Contrast inverted relief. + +Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) + +upland +Sometimes used interchangeably with highland. +Any area of land that is higher in elevation relative to another area, especially one that is populated by low hills or situated atop a plateau. The term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater riparian areas, on the basis of elevation above sea level. Upland areas are usually characterized by relatively fast-flowing waterways and hilly or rocky terrain. Contrast lowland. + +upstate + +urban +An adjective describing a settlement with a high population density and a developed infrastructure of built environment; places of this type are variously categorized as cities, towns, or conurbations, or simply called urban areas. Contrast suburban, exurban, and rural. + +urban geography +The sub-discipline of geography that derives from the study of cities, urban processes, and the built environment. + +urban sprawl +The unrestricted growth of housing, commercial development, and roads (typically of low densities) over large expanses of land, usually within or near an existing urban or suburban area and with little concern for civic planning. It is often considered a type of urbanization and almost always carries negative connotations. + +urban studies +The study of the development of cities and urban areas, especially from historical, architectural, or civic planning perspectives. + +urbanization +The process by which a human population shifts from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas such as towns and cities, and the ways in which human societies respond and adapt to this change. Urbanization may be characterized as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of the total population or physical area within a given set of towns or cities) or as an increase in that condition over time. It precipitates enormous social, economic, and environmental changes for the planet as a whole. + +== V == + +vale +Another name for a valley. + +valley +Also vale. +1. A low area between hills or mountains, often with a river running through it. +2. A depression that is longer than it is wide. + +veld +See bushveld. + +vent +An opening at the Earth's surface through which volcanic materials (lava, tephra, and gases) erupt. Vents can be at a volcano's summit or on its slopes; they can be circular (craters) or linear (fissures). + +vertical exaggeration +A scale used in certain maps, such as raised-relief maps, that deliberately distorts the apparent elevation of the map's topography to emphasize vertical features, which might otherwise appear too small to identify relative to the corresponding horizontal scale. + +viewshed +The geographical area that is visible from a particular location. It includes all surrounding points within line-of-sight of the location and excludes points beyond the horizon or obstructed by terrain and natural or artificial objects. + +village +A small, clustered human settlement or community, usually larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town and often in rural areas, though the criteria for distinguishing a village can vary considerably in different parts of the world. + +virtual globe +A computer-generated three-dimensional software model or representation of Earth or another planet, providing the user with the ability to freely move around in the virtual environment by changing the viewing angle and position, and also to map many different types of data upon the modeled surface, such as land use statistics, meteorological records, and demographic quantities. An example is Google Earth. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-19.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-19.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..baa6d47cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-19.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 20/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +volcanic avalanche +Also debris avalanche. +A large, chaotic mass of soil, rock, and volcanic debris moving swiftly down the slopes of a volcano. Volcanic avalanches can also occur without an eruption due to an earthquake, heavy rainfall, or unstable soil, rock, and volcanic debris. + +volcanic crater +A type of crater created by volcanic activity, typically shaped like a bowl and containing one or more volcanic vents. Compare caldera. + +volcano +A vent or opening in the Earth's surface through which magma erupts, or the landform that is constructed by the eruptive material. + +volcanology +Also vulcanology. +The scientific study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and the body of related geophysical phenomena known as volcanism. It is a branch of geology and Earth science which seeks to understand the formation, activity, and dormancy of volcanoes, their current and historic eruptions, and how to predict them. + +vrtače +See doline. + +== W == + +wadi +1. A dry, ephemeral riverbed which contains water only when heavy rainfall occurs. +2. Another name for a valley, used primarily in Arabic-speaking parts of the world. + +warping +1. The slow, gentle deformation of the Earth's crust over a wide area, resulting in a raising or lowering of the surface. +2. (sedimentation) Any process, natural or artificial, whereby the low-lying land of a tidal estuary is flooded, leading to deposition of silt, mud, or clay. + +wash +1. The surging movement of the sea or any other large body of water; another name for the swash of a breaking wave. +2. An area of sand and mud submerged or wettened during high tide and exposed during low tide. +3. A dry streambed or gully; an arroyo. +4. Another name for a washland. +5. The collection of fine, granular material that is moved down a slope by erosional processes. See also wash slope. + +wash margin + +wash slope +See gravity slope. + +washland +Also simply wash. +A low-lying area of unused or undeveloped land adjacent to a river or stream, often within a natural floodplain, which is deliberately flooded when the water is high in order to prevent developed residential or agricultural areas from flooding. Washlands are thus sacrificed as a form of flood control, and may simultaneously function as wetlands and wildlife refuges. + +waste land +Also wasteland or simply waste. +1. Wild, uncultivated, uninhabited land, especially that which is barren or desolate, supporting little or no plant and animal life, such as is found in some deserts. +2. Land that yields little or no return when used for agriculture. +3. Any land, common or otherwise, that was previously cultivated or developed but is now abandoned, and for which further use has yet to be found. See also brownfield land. + +water column +In hydrology and oceanography, a conceptual column of water extending from the surface of an ocean, lake, or river to the sediment of the floor or bed, used to aid interpretation of properties and processes that vary along a depth gradient. + +water gap +A low point or opening in a ridge or mountain range carved by the erosional activity of flowing water and through which water continues to flow in the present day. Contrast wind gap. + +water mapping +Also water point mapping. +The collection and presentation of point data related to the distribution, status, and sustainability of water supplies, generally by overlaying these data on a map showing administrative boundaries and population data, which can help to visualize and predict coverage issues and inform water management practices. + +water pollution +The contamination of water by chemical or biological constituents which make it unfit for use. + +water table +The level below the land surface at which subsurface material such as permeable rock is fully saturated with groundwater. The depth of the water table reflects the minimum level to which wells must be drilled for groundwater extraction; a spring, marsh, or lake results wherever the theoretical water table lies above the level of the land surface. The level of the water table is the boundary between the vadose zone and the phreatic zone, below which the ground is fully saturated. In many places its depth fluctuates seasonally, which accounts for the intermittent flow of bournes. In some circumstances, there may be no regular water table; in others, a perched water table may exist. + +water-meadow +A low-lying area of grassland beside a natural stream or river, subjected to periodic flooding through controlled irrigation to increase agricultural productivity, typically via a series of man-made canals or drains connected to the stream or river. + +waterbody +See body of water. + +watercourse +Any channel followed by a flowing body of water such as a river or stream, potentially including channels that are dry for part or all of the year. + +waterfall +Also cascade, cataract, or simply fall or falls. +An abrupt and steep or perpendicular descent in a watercourse, e.g. in the bed of a river, resulting in a significant volume of water tumbling vertically downward or even freely falling by the pull of gravity. Waterfalls occur where the water's normally more level flow is interrupted by a nearly horizontal layer of hard rock overlying more easily eroded soft rock, or by the sharp edge of a plateau, or by the steep rock faces of a hanging valley, coastal cliff, or any other escarpment or knickpoint. They may be permanent or ephemeral; many alpine waterfalls form seasonally on mountainsides as snow and ice melts during the summer. + +waterhole +Also water hole. +A hollow or depression in the ground, natural or artificial, in which water can collect, either from precipitation or fed by a spring, especially in savannas or deserts where water is otherwise scarce; or a pool in the bed of an intermittent stream. Waterholes may be permanent or ephemeral. + +watershed +Another name for a drainage divide, or for the entire catchment area of a drainage basin. + +waterway +Any body of water that is deep, wide, and slow enough to be navigable by watercraft. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..288024c3d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,113 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 3/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +orographic rainfall +Precipitation that results when moist air is lifted over a topographic barrier, such as a mountain range. + +orography +A branch of physical geography and geomorphology concerned with the scientific study and description of the topographic relief of the Earth, particularly of mountains and hills, and more broadly of any elevated terrain. + +orthodrome +See great circle. + +orthodromic distance +See great-circle distance. + +orthophotograph +Also orthophoto, orthoimage, or orthoimagery. +An aerial photograph or satellite image that has been geometrically corrected or orthorectified such that the scale is uniform across all parts of the image, allowing the image to align with a particular map projection. In an uncorrected aerial photo, distances on the ground may be distorted by topographic relief, camera tilt, or the curvature of the Earth; techniques of digital image processing can compensate for these distortions, often by combining multiple images captured from slightly different perspectives into a single composite image. Orthophotos can be used to measure true distances because they accurately depict the relative sizes and positions of features on the Earth's surface. + +outback +In Australia, the vast, remote, sparsely populated backcountry. See also bush. + +outcrop +Also outcropping. +Any visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth; or more generally, any bare, rocky surface that is topographically distinct from the surrounding terrain. Outcrops occur frequently in places where the rate of erosion exceeds the rate of weathering, such as on steep hillsides and mountains, river banks, and coastlines. + +outwash +Rocky and sandy surface material deposited by melted water that flows from a glacier. + +outwash plain +A smooth, flat plain of sandy or gravelly alluvial sediment formed by outwash deposited in front of the toe of a melting glacier, with larger material deposited closer to the terminal moraine. + +overbank +1. Alluvial sediment, usually consisting of fine sand, silt, and clay, that has been deposited on the floodplain of a river or stream by flood waters that have broken through or overtopped the river's banks. +2. The stage when a river or stream overflows the banks of its normal channel and spreads on to a floodplain, depositing such sediment. + +overburden +In strip mining, the uneconomic material covering a mineral seam or bed that must be removed before the valuable mineral can be extracted. + +oxbow +1. A wide U-shaped meander in a river or stream. +2. The lake formed when a meander is cut off from the main stem of the river, creating a separate body of water. + +== P == + +Pacific-type coastline +See concordant coastline. + +padang +An uncultivated, treeless grassland in Southeast Asia, sometimes swamp-like, supporting a scrubby heath-type vegetation common on leached sandy soils. + +palisade +1. A wall of wooden stakes used as a defensive barrier. +2. A line of bold cliffs, especially one showing basaltic columns. + +palsa +(pl.) palsen +An elliptical dome-like permafrost mound containing alternating layers of ice lenses and peat or mineral soil, commonly 3–10 metres (10–33 ft) high and 2–25 metres (7–82 ft) long, and occurring frequently in bogs in the Arctic and subarctic zones of discontinuous permafrost. + +paludal +Of or pertaining to a swamp or marsh, or to sediments that accumulate in a marshy environment. + +pampa +(pl.) pampas +In parts of South America, a vast, fertile, grassy plain, or the temperate lowland region encompassing these plains. + +pan +Any shallow, generally rounded basin or hollow, which may seasonally capture and hold water from rainfall or snowmelt, especially one occurring in an arid or semi-arid region; more specifically, the flat central part of such a depression, which may be temporarily or seasonally flooded. + +pandemic +A pandemic is an epidemic of an infectious disease that has a sudden increase in cases and spreads across a large region, for instance, multiple continents or worldwide. + +panhandle +See salient. + +panhole +Also gnamma, weathering pit, and solution pan. +A rounded or circular depression eroded into flat or gently sloping cohesive rock, typically shallow and ranging in diameter from a few centimeters to several meters, that is capable of collecting and holding rainwater and snowmelt. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with pothole, though the latter may also refer to distinct geological features. + +pantanal +In southern Brazil, a wetland region consisting of a usually dry savanna that is seasonally flooded by a river. + +pantograph +An instrument that enables the mechanical copying of a map or technical drawing on a selectable scale, such that the movement of one pen, in tracing an image, produces identical movements in a second pen, resulting in a duplicate image that is the same size, enlarged, or miniaturized with respect to the original. Pantographs typically consist of hinged rods arranged in the shape of a parallelogram which rotate about a fixed point. + +parallel +1. (geometry) Extending in the same direction, equidistant at all points, and never converging or diverging; having the same orientation, nature, tendency, or course; corresponding or similar. +2. (geography) Another name for a circle of latitude. + +parish +A type of subnational division of a country or federal state used for religious, administrative, or other purposes. + +park + +pass +See mountain pass. + +passive glacier +A glacier with low rates of both alimentation and ablation because it receives only light snowfall and undergoes little melting throughout the year. Such glaciers move very slowly and transport relatively small amounts of ice and debris. Contrast active glacier. + +pasture +Any land used for grazing by livestock, often a natural grassland supporting native grasses and forbs with little or no active management by humans, as opposed to a meadow, where the vegetation is mown for hay or silage. + +peak +1. A pointed or protruding top or other vertical projection on a landform, e.g. a mountain, especially implying the highest point or elevational maximum, i.e. the summit. +2. A mountain as a whole, in particular a high, isolated, or prominent one. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-20.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-20.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5c98ba2f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-20.md @@ -0,0 +1,95 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 21/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +wave-cut platform +Also shore platform, wave-cut cliff, or coastal bench. +A flat erosion surface along the shore of a lake, bay, or sea that is formed by the undercutting and eventual collapse of a sea cliff as a result of repetitive wave action. + +waypoint +A reference point in physical space used for purposes of navigation, especially when plotted on a map or in a GIS application as part of a traveled route. + +weathering +The breaking of rocks into smaller rocks, gradually becoming soil. + +weir +Also low head dam. +A man-made obstruction built across the width of a river that alters its flow and usually results in a change in the height of the river level, commonly by permitting water to flow freely over a low barrier before cascading down to a lower level. Weirs may serve many purposes, including decreasing or increasing the force of the current, maintaining water depth, or diverting or impounding flow, typically for navigation, irrigation, fishing, to generate a head for a water mill, or to control outflow from a lake or reservoir. Compare dam and barrage. + +welfare geography +An approach in human geography which considers the areal differentiation and spatial organization of human activity from the perspective of the welfare (health, prosperity, well-being, etc.) of the people involved, covering everything, positive or negative, contributing to the quality of human life and examining how and where observed inequalities between different societies arise. + +well +A hole or shaft dug into the ground to access liquid resources, especially water, oil, or gas, from beneath the Earth's surface. Water wells typically tap into natural groundwater aquifers and remain filled with water up to the level of the water table, which can vary seasonally. The water is drawn up by a pump, or by using containers such as buckets that are raised mechanically or by hand. An artesian well taps a water source held under considerable pressure. + +Western Hemisphere +The half sphere of the Earth that is west of the Prime Meridian and east of the antimeridian, and opposite the Eastern Hemisphere. The Western Hemisphere includes all of the Americas, the Atlantic Ocean, and a large portion of the Pacific Ocean. + +wetland +Any area of land or ecosystem, natural or artificial, which is flooded or saturated by water, either seasonally or intermittently for short periods or permanently for years or decades, and characterized generally by oxygen-poor hydric soils, distinct flora, high biodiversity, and interactions between terrestrial and aquatic processes. Wetlands may be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater ecosystems, and are often classified based on their sources of water (as with tidal wetlands, estuaries, floodplains, fens, and bogs) and/or their dominant vegetation (as with marshes and swamps). + +wilderness +Any natural environment which has not been significantly developed or modified by human activity, or within which natural processes operate without human interference. Such areas are considered important for the survival of wild plant and animal species as well as for maintaining biodiversity and ecological stability. Wildernesses are often protected areas. + +wind gap +Also air gap. +A pass, notch, or opening in a ridge or mountain range, originally carved by a watercourse flowing through it but which is now dry as a result of stream capture. Contrast water gap. + +wind rose +See compass rose. + +windward +The side of a landmass facing the direction from which the wind is blowing. Contrast leeward. + +winterbourne +Also gypsey. +An intermittent stream or bourne which is dry during the summer, especially one formed in the downlands of southern England. + +witness hill + +world + +world city +See global city. + +World Geodetic System (WGS) +A standard geographic coordinate system, spheroidal reference ellipsoid (for raw altitude data), and geoid (which defines the nominal sea level) used in cartography, geodesy, and satellite navigation applications worldwide. The latest revision, WGS84, is the standard coordinate system used by the Global Positioning System. + +world map +A map of most or all of the surface of the Earth. + +worldwide +See global. + +== Z == + +zeuge +A tabular mass of rock that has become perched atop a pinnacle created by erosion (often aeolian) of the softer, underlying rock. See also demoiselle, hoodoo, and pinnacle. + +zibar +A type of low sand dune with limited slip face development, often occurring in the corridors between higher dunes. + +zonation +In biogeography and ecology, the separation of the Earth's flora and fauna into distinct groups occupying characteristic habitats, biomes, ecozones, or other idealized geographic divisions, primarily defined by climate, for the purpose of identifying and categorizing patterns in biodiversity. The boundaries of the resulting "zones" may be loosely defined or even somewhat arbitrary. The term has also been extended to include any ecological unit with spatial dimensions. + +zoning +The public regulation of land and building use to control the character of a place. + +zenith +The imaginary point on the celestial sphere that is directly above a particular location (i.e. in the vertical direction exactly opposite to the apparent direction of the gravitational force at that location). Contrast nadir. + +== See also == + +Index of geography articles +Outline of geography + +== Notes == +Much of this material was copied from U.S. government works which are in the public domain because they are not eligible for copyright protection. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7bc7516e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 4/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +pediment +An eroded, often bare rock platform, cut into the local bedrock, usually slightly concave and triangular in shape and extending over a considerable area at the foot of an abrupt mountain slope or face, the lower edge sloping gently away. Pediments form basal slopes of transport for weathered material derived from the steeper slope above, and are characteristic of arid and semi-arid lands. + +pediplain + +pedology +The scientific study of the morphology, composition, and spatial distribution of soils, with an emphasis on classifying soils and understanding their formation and evolution. + +pedosphere +The uppermost layer of the Earth's crust that is composed of soils and subject to pedological processes such as soil formation and erosion, a consequence of dynamic interactions between the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. + +pelagic zone + +peneplain +A low-relief plain leveled by long-term erosion, often implying a landscape that is in the final stages of fluvial erosion during an extended period of tectonic stability, i.e. approaching the point at which all initial topographic inequalities such as mountains and hills have been eroded and evenly redistributed into a broad, flat, uniform surface at or near sea level. + +peninsula +A piece of land surrounded almost entirely by water while still being connected to a mainland from which it projects. + +perceptual region +An area of the Earth's surface that is defined by the perceptions of the people living there or by those of the general society, and thus is based largely on subjective or qualitative distinctions. + +perched water table + +perennial stream +A stream that normally flows continuously throughout the entire year, without drying up, as opposed to a transient or intermittent stream. + +pericline +Also centrocline. +An anticline in which the rock strata have been arched up in the shape of a dome, such that the beds dip away on all sides from a higher central point. + +periglacial +1. Of or relating to an area located adjacent to or on the margin of an ice sheet or glacier, either presently or in the past, or to associated glacial or cryological phenomena. +2. Describing any place where seasonal cycles of freezing and thawing modify the landscape in a significant manner. + +periplus +Also periplous. +A historical manuscript listing the ports, safe anchorages, and coastal landmarks that a maritime vessel could expect to encounter along a shore or coastline, arranged in order according to a particular direction of travel and including the intervening distances between them. See also itinerarium. + +permafrost +A permanently frozen layer of soil, or any ground at high latitude or high elevation that remains frozen year-round. + +petrographic province + +photic zone +Also euphotic zone, epipelagic zone, and sunlight zone. +The uppermost layer of a body of water (e.g. a lake or ocean), defined by the maximum depth to which sunlight can penetrate the water column. The photic zone usually supports large populations of photosynthetic organisms and the majority of the aquatic life inhabiting the body as a whole. + +photogrammetry +1. The science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and environments through the process of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images (usually aerial or orbital ones) and patterns of electromagnetic radiant imagery and other phenomena. +2. The science of extracting three-dimensional measurements from two-dimensional data, such as images. + +photo-relief +The use of shading on a topographic map to give the illusion of elevational relief, as if the image was produced from a photograph of an illuminated three-dimensional model of a physical surface, with the light conventionally coming from the northwest direction. + +phreatic water +See groundwater. + +phreatic zone +Also zone of saturation. +The part of an aquifer that is below the water table, where nearly all pores and fractures are fully saturated with water. Contrast vadose zone. + +physical geography +Also physiography or geosystems. +The branch of geography that studies processes and patterns in the natural environment, such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment. Along with human geography, it is one of the two major sub-fields of geography. + +physiographic region +A portion of the Earth's surface with a common topography and morphology. + +physiography +Another name for physical geography. + +piedmont +Also foothills. +A geographic region of relatively low, gently rolling hills lying or formed at the base of a higher mountain range or other upland area; a transition zone characterized by gradual increases in elevation from plains or lowlands to topographically higher areas. As a proper noun, "Piedmont" may refer in particular to a formally defined region in northwest Italy immediately south of the Alps, or to a broad, informal region on the eastern seaboard of the United States extending from the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Atlantic coastal plain. + +piezometric surface +Also potentiometric surface. + +pingo +A periglacial landform consisting of a relatively large conical mound of soil-covered ice, commonly 30–50 metres (100–160 ft) high and up to 1,000 metres (0.6 mi) in diameter, and that grows and persists in part as a result of hydrostatic pressure within and below the permafrost of Arctic and subarctic regions. + +pinnacle +Also chimney, finger, monument, needle, pillar, spire, and tower. +Any natural, free-standing, vertical or nearly vertical column of earth or rock in the shape of a tall, often slender shaft or spire, and which is distinguished by its isolation from nearby rocks or other landforms. The term is applied to a wide variety of geological formations of various sizes and has numerous regional and local synonyms with which it may be used more or less interchangeably. See also demoiselle, hoodoo, prominence, stack, and zeuge. + +pit crater +Also subsidence crater or collapse crater. +A type of crater formed by the sinking or collapse of the surface lying above a void or empty chamber. Pit craters are similar to calderas and are often associated with volcanic activity, but lack the ejecta deposits and lava flows of volcanic craters. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..66e70a4c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 5/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +place +A particular point on the Earth's surface, or the area surrounding such a point, having or encompassing a definite position; a location, often specifically named, that is identifiable in social interaction because humans have endowed it with meaning or purpose; or a mental representation of a physical space created from functional or emotional associations in the human mind. The concept of place – how places are created, identified, mapped, connected, and used – is fundamental to all of geography. + +place identity + +place utility +The measure of approval or satisfaction accorded by an individual to a location in his or her action space; the value or usefulness of a particular place as perceived by a particular person. Dissatisfaction with place utility may result in migration. + +placename +See toponym. + +placer +1. (mineral deposit) An accumulation of valuable minerals, particularly gold, formed by gravity separation from a source rock during natural sedimentary processes. The minerals, weathered from rocks or veins, are washed out by streams and mixed with alluvial deposits of sand or gravel, from which they can then be extracted by placer mining. +2. (reef) A flat, shallow sandbank or reef submerged beneath the ocean surface, often with a sandy bottom suitable as an anchorage for seagoing vessels. + +plain +Any broad, flat expanse of land that generally does not show significant variation in topography or elevation. + +plane table +Also plain table. +A small drawing board mounted on a tripod, used in surveying, site mapping, and related disciplines to provide a solid and level surface upon which to make drawings, charts, and maps while in the field. + +planimetric map +A map which uses a two-dimensional coordinate system, where each point is represented by only two coordinates (x, y), as if all of the depicted features existed within a single, flat plane. These maps usually exclude information about vertical position and therefore do not show topographic relief and represent only horizontal distances. + +plat +A cadastral map, drawn to scale, showing the legal boundaries and divisions of a surveyed tract of land, particularly of the type used to divide real property for sale and settlement in the Public Land Survey System of the United States. + +plate tectonics +A geologic theory that the bending (folding) and breaking (faulting) of the solid surface of the Earth results from the slow movement of large sections of that surface called tectonic plates. + +plateau +Also high plain or tableland. +A large area of relatively flat terrain that is significantly higher in elevation than the surrounding landscape, often with one or more sides with steep slopes. + +platted land +Land that has been divided into surveyed lots. + +playa +An exceptionally flat, arid basin that is the dry bed of an evaporated lake; or the shallow, usually saline lake itself which periodically forms when the basin is temporarily covered with water, e.g. after substantial rainfall. See also salt pan. + +Playfair's law +In hydrology, an empirical relationship which observes that, especially in areas of uniform bedrock and structure which have been subject to consistent rates of erosion for long periods of time, the size of a valley is directly proportional to the size of the river or stream that drains it, and that confluences between streams in such valleys are generally accordant in level. + +plucking +Also exaration. +An erosional phenomenon whereby a glacier gradually scours and displaces pieces of rock from the bedrock beneath it and transports them along with the glacial flow of ice and debris. As the glacier moves down a valley, friction causes the basal ice to melt and infiltrate joints and cracks in the bedrock; repeated freezing and thawing widens and deepens these cracks, eventually loosening the rock and causing large blocks and boulders to be carried along by the overlying ice. These boulders are often deposited hundreds of kilometers from their source, becoming erratics. The term is also sometimes used to describe the similar process of quarrying, which occurs on a smaller scale in fast-moving rivers and streams. + +plug +A cylindrical mass of volcanic rock marking the neck of an ancient volcano, especially one exposed by denudation of the surrounding cone. + +plumb line +A vertical reference line created by suspending a weight, known as a plumb bob or plummet, from a string above the Earth's surface and allowing it to hang freely in the direction of the pull of gravity. A precursor to the spirit level, plumb lines are used to establish a vertical datum in a wide range of applications, particularly in surveying to determine the nadir of a point in space, and often in combination with an instrument to set the instrument precisely over a fixed survey marker. + +plunge pool +A deep depression at the base of a waterfall into which the water drops with great force, plucking and abrading the rock beneath and behind the falls and creating an often nearly circular concavity which may remain filled with water long after the waterfall itself dries up. + +plural society +A situation in which two or more distinct cultures occupy the same territory but maintain their separate cultural identities. + +point bar +A depositional feature made of alluvium that accumulates on the inside bend of a meandering stream or river, below the slip-off slope and often directly opposite a cut bank. Point bars are usually crescent-shaped beaches of sand, silt, or gravel, similar to shoals and river islands. + +polar aspect +A planar map projection with its origin located at either the North or the South geographic pole. + +polar circle +Either of the two circles of latitude enclosing the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1b3a5948f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 6/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +polar ice cap +Also polar ice sheet. +Either of the two very large regions near the Earth's geographical poles that are seasonally or persistently covered in ice, which occurs because high-latitude regions receive less direct solar radiation than other regions and therefore experience much lower surface temperatures. The Earth's polar ice may cover both land and sea, and varies in size seasonally and with long-term climate change. They typically cover a much larger area than true ice caps and are more correctly termed ice sheets. + +polar region +Either of the two high-latitude regions surrounding the Earth's geographical poles (the North and South Poles), which are characterized by frigid climates and extensive polar ice caps. The polar region of the Northern Hemisphere is often called the Arctic and that of the Southern Hemisphere is called the Antarctic. + +polder +Also empolder. +A low-lying tract of land enclosed by dikes, forming an artificial hydrological entity by creating land from a naturally inundated area, e.g. by reclaiming land from a lake or sea, or by building barriers around a floodplain or marsh and then draining it. All polders are eventually below the surrounding water table some or all of the time, making them especially prone to flooding, and they often require continuous draining. + +pole +1. An extreme geographical point, especially one of a pair. +2. Either of the two points where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface, i.e. the geographic poles, representing the northern and southern extremities of terrestrial latitude: the Geographic North Pole and the Geographic South Pole. +3. Either of the two ends of the geomagnetic field generated by the dynamo in the Earth's core. These ends may refer either to the true magnetic poles, known as the Magnetic North Pole and the Magnetic South Pole, which are not directly opposite each other, or to the antipodal poles of a hypothetical perfect dipole passing through the Earth's center, known as the Geomagnetic North Pole and the Geomagnetic South Pole. + +pole of inaccessibility +A location that, with respect to a given geographical criterion, is the most difficult to reach according to that criterion, e.g. the geographical location that is the most distant from the nearest point meeting that criterion. The term most commonly refers to the so-called continental or oceanic poles of inaccessibility, i.e. the point on a given continental landmass that is the furthest distance from a coastline, and the point in the ocean that is the furthest distance from land, respectively. + +political geography +The study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. A sub-discipline of human geography, its primary concerns can be summarized as the relationships between people, state, and territory. + +polje +Also karst polje or karst field. +A very large plain found in karstic regions, enclosed within a depression, usually elliptical, with a flat floor either of bare limestone or covered by alluvium, and generally surrounded by steep limestone walls; or more broadly any enclosed or nearly enclosed valley. The term is used primarily in the Slavic-speaking world. + +polynodal +Many-centered; having many nodes. + +polynya +An area of unfrozen seawater surrounded by an otherwise contiguous area of pack ice or fast ice. Polynyas are often formed along polar coastlines through the action of katabatic winds, but may also form in the open ocean. + +pond +A natural or artificial body of standing water that is usually smaller than a lake. + +populated place +A place or area with clustered or scattered buildings and a permanent human population (a city, settlement, town, or village) that is referenced with geographic coordinates. + +population +A collection of organisms of the same group or species which live in a particular geographical area. In the context of geography, it often refers to a collection of humans and is represented at the most basic level as the number of people in a given geographically or politically defined space, such as a city, town, region, country, or the entire world. + +population geography +A branch of human geography that studies the ways in which spatial variations in the composition, distribution, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places. This often involves factors such as where populations are found and how the size and composition of these populations is regulated by the demographic processes of fertility, mortality, and migration. + +positional error +The amount by which the mapped location of an imaged cartographic feature fails to agree with the feature's actual location in the real world. + +positioning system +Any technology or mechanism used to determine the position of an object in space. Numerous methods for determining position have been practiced since ancient times, though modern positioning systems generally rely on electromagnetic and/or satellite-based technologies capable of providing coverage ranging from local or regional to global and accuracy ranging from tens of metres to sub-millimetre. + +post-industrial +An economy that gains its basic character from economic activities developed primarily after manufacturing grew to predominance. Most notable would be quaternary economic patterns. + +potamology +The branch of hydrology that studies rivers, including the processes and phenomena that occur at their sources, main channels, and mouths; the structure and morphology of drainage basins; and the water, thermal, ice, and sediment regimes that affect and are affected by river discharge. + +potentiometric surface +See piezometric surface. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad5253f68 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 7/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +pothole +Also pot, swirlhole, churn hole, evorsion, rock mill, and eddy mill. +1. Any smooth, bowl-shaped or cylindrical hollow, generally deeper than it is wide, that is carved into the rocky bed of a watercourse such as a stream or river. Fluvial potholes are created by the grinding action of stones or coarse sediment kept in perpetual motion in the same spot by the turbulence of the current. The term is also used to refer to plunge pools beneath waterfalls, which are created by similar processes. See also kolk. +2. A vertical or steeply inclined karstic shaft in a limestone deposit. +3. In the Great Plains of North America, a shallow depression, generally less than 10 acres (4.0 ha) in area, occurring between dunes or on morainic relief on a prairie and often filled by an intermittent pond or marsh. +4. Another name for a kettle. +5. Another name for a panhole. + +prairie +A type of temperate grassland ecosystem dominated by a characteristic composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than by trees. The term is used primarily in North America, but similar ecosystems can be found across the world. + +Precambrian rock +The oldest rocks, generally more than 600 million years old. + +precipitation +Any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull. + +presque-isle +A peninsula connected to the mainland by an extremely narrow neck of land such that the land at its distal end is very close to being an island. See also tied island. + +prevailing winds +The direction from which winds most frequently blow at a specific geographic location. + +primary sector (primary economic activity) +That portion of a region's economy devoted to the extraction of basic materials (e.g. mining, lumbering, and agriculture). + +Prime Meridian +The imaginary line running from north to south through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England which is assigned a longitude of 0 degrees and is therefore used as the reference point for all other lines of longitude. + +proglacial +Preceding, in advance of, or in front of the toe or moraine of a glacier, either spatially or temporally. + +progradation +The natural extension of a shoreline into a body of water by the gradual accumulation of sediment over time, especially as a result of fluvial sedimentation processes, such as the protrusion of a river delta into the sea. This occurs when the volume of sediment carried by the river and deposited at its mouth exceeds the volume lost through subsidence, sea level rise, or coastal erosion. + +prominence +1. A conspicuous high point that projects above or beyond its surroundings, e.g. a butte or a promontory. +2. See topographic prominence. + +promontory +A raised mass of land that projects into a lowland or a body of water. Compare headland and cape. + +protected area +Any clearly defined geographic space in which human occupation or the exploitation of resources is limited or forbidden through legal or other effective means because of the area's recognized natural, ecological, cultural, or historical value. + +province +A type of second-level administrative division within a country or federal state. + +psychogeography +The study of specific effects of the geographical environment on the emotions and behaviors of individuals, whether consciously organized or not; the landscape of atmospheres, histories, attitudes, actions, and characters that occupy environments and influence group and individual psychologies. + +public land +Any land area held and managed in the public domain by a federal or local government for use by the general public, as opposed to privately held land, for which access and use can be restricted by the individual landholder. + +pueblo +A type of Indian village constructed by some tribes in the southwestern United States. A large community dwelling, divided into many rooms, up to five stories high, and usually made of adobe. This is also a Spanish word for town or village. + +pull factor +In human geography, anything that encourages people to move or immigrate to a new place or location. + +puna +An ecoregion in the central Andes Mountains of South America, or any of the various high-altitude ecosystems encompassing it, including cold deserts and alpine grasslands. + +push factor +In human geography, anything that encourages people to leave or emigrate from a place or location. + +== Q == + +quadrangle +Also abbreviated quad. +A standard division of the Earth's surface area used in maps produced by the United States Geological Survey. Quadrangles are four-sided polygons of varying size, depending on the map series; for example, 7.5-minute quadrangles divide the mapped surface into quadrilaterals measuring 7.5 minutes (0.125 degrees) of latitude by 7.5 minutes of longitude, with each 7.5-minute map showing the topographical detail within one particular quadrilateral of this size. Because the boundaries of quadrangles are based on lines of latitude and longitude, the northern and southern limits of a quadrangle map are not straight lines, and the eastern and western limits are usually not parallel; the actual surface area covered by each map varies with the latitudes depicted. + +quagmire +See bog. + +quarry +A place from which stone, rock, sand, gravel, slate, or aggregate is excavated from the ground, especially a large man-made pit that is exposed to the open air. + +quaternary sector (economic activities) +Activities focused on the management, processing, and research of information. + +== R == + +raft ice +A jumbled mass of blocks of ice that impedes the flow of water in a river or stream. + +rail gauge +The distance between the two rails of a railroad. + +railroad bed +The track or trace of a railroad route, commonly raised slightly above the adjacent natural ground surface and constructed mostly of locally occurring, earthy materials (e.g. gravel and rock fragments). + +rain shadow +An area on the leeward (downwind) side of a mountain or mountain range that receives greatly diminished precipitation. + +rainforest +Any forest characterized by abundant rainfall, dense layers of vegetation, and extremely high biodiversity. Rainforests are found in both tropical and temperate regions. The term jungle is sometimes used to refer to a tropical rainforest. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..11e3c18e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 8/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +rake +A sloping terrace on a mountainside or rock face. The term is used primarily in Scotland. + +rapid +Also rapids or whitewater. +A section of a river or stream where the riverbed is sufficiently steep, the rate of flow is sufficiently fast, and/or the channel is sufficiently narrow or obstructed by shallow or protruding rocks or other obstacles that the water at the surface is visibly swift, turbulent, and broken, often forming large white-capped breaking waves, eddies, whirlpools, and "holes", in contrast to other sections where relatively slow, steady, laminar flows predominate. Rapids can persist long enough to form distinct, stable patterns at particular locations, though they are ultimately dependent on water volume and thus may change seasonally, disappearing entirely if water levels are too low or too high. Generally, watercourses are more likely to form rapids closer to their source, where channels are relatively shallow and narrow and often pass through mountainous or highly eroded terrain, than to downstream portions near their mouth, where channels tend to be deeper and wider. + +raster +A representation of spatial data within a two-dimensional image that defines space as a rectangular array or grid of equally sized cells arranged in rows and columns, where each cell can be identified with location coordinates and is associated with attribute values containing a discrete amount of information from one or more layers or "bands". Raster models are useful for storing and presenting large amounts of complex multivariate data that vary continuously across space, as is commonly encountered in maps, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and many other aspects of geographic information science. Raster data are contrasted with vector data, which instead store and represent geographic information in the form of points, lines, and polygons. + +ravine +A fluvial slope landform of relatively steep sides, sometimes with an intermittent stream flowing along the downslope channel. Ravines are typically narrower and shallower than canyons, larger than gullies, and smaller than valleys. + +reach +1. A relatively straight, level, uninterrupted segment of a stream, river, channel, or other watercourse, or of an arm of a sea or ocean, traditionally defined by its ability to be sailed in one "reach" (i.e. on a single point of sail, without tacking) and also usually implying a line-of-sight stretch of water between two bends or horizons, or between rapids, locks, stream gauges, or any other landmarks. +2. Any expanse or widening of a watercourse, natural or man-made (commonly on dammed streams and rivers), or even an expanse of land, especially one that appears to be visually contiguous. +3. In fluvial hydrology, a length of a stream or river having fairly uniform characteristics and which is therefore convenient to study as a discrete subdivision of the longer whole. + +reclaimed land +1. Any land area that is artificially created from earthy fill material that has been intentionally placed and shaped so as to approximate natural contours, especially as part of land reclamation efforts such as those designed to bury tailings following the cessation of mining operations. +2. An area of land, commonly submerged underwater in its natural state, that has been protected by artificial structures such as dikes and drained for agricultural or other purposes (e.g. a polder). + +reef +A submerged ridge-like or mound-like structure built by sedentary calcareous organisms, especially corals, in shallow marine waters, and consisting primarily of their skeletal remains, though often still supporting living colonies as well. Reefs may also be partially composed of rocks, sand, gravel, or seashells. They are locally prominent above surrounding sediments deposited on the sea floor, rising to or nearly to the water's surface. + +re-entrant +See draw. + +reference ellipsoid +A mathematically defined surface that approximates the geoid for use in spatial reference systems or geodetic datum definitions. Because of their relative simplicity, reference ellipsoids are used in geographic applications as preferred surfaces on which geodetic network computations are performed and point coordinates such as latitude, longitude, and elevation are defined. + +reg +See desert pavement. + +region +An area having some characteristic or characteristics that distinguish it from other areas; a territory that is of interest to people, for which one or more distinctive traits (e.g. climate, economy, history, etc.) define its identity. + +regionalism +1. The feeling or expression of a common sense of identity, purpose, or group consciousness associated with a particular geographical region, e.g. the Southern United States, Scandinavia, or Lower Egypt, often combined with the creation of institutions that accommodate that particular identity and shape public action. +2. A movement to decentralize central government, placing administrative responsibility instead at a level intermediate between that of the state and that of smaller local or municipal units. +3. In architecture, an approach that strives to counter placelessness and lack of identity by incorporating elements of the building's geographical context in its design. +4. In linguistics, a word or phrase originating in, characteristic of, or limited in usage to a particular region. + +regiopolis +A city located outside the core of a metropolitan area that serves as an independent driving force for political, economic, or cultural development within a larger region. Contrast metropolis. + +register mark +A small cross-shaped symbol printed in multiple, overlapping colors at each corner of a colored map, used to indicate the accuracy of the printing of each color by the coincidence of the colored crosses on the completed print. + +regolith +A layer of loose, unconsolidated, heterogeneous superficial deposits (e.g. soil, sediments, broken rock, volcanic ash, wind-blown material, etc.) overlying solid bedrock. + +relative height +See topographic prominence. + +relative relief +The elevation or altitude of one location relative to another location; the difference between the highest and lowest points within a given geographical area. + +reliction +Also dereliction. +The gradual, long-term recession of a body of water such that submerged land features are uncovered and exposed above the surface; or the formerly submerged land itself. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4146d34a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,101 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 9/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +relief +The actual physical surface of a region of the Earth, i.e. the specific shape, dimensions, and particularities of its terrain; or the deviation of a real-world surface from a reference surface such as the geoid, a sphere, or a plane. When only the patterns and contours of the natural surface are considered and man-made features are ignored, relief is more or less synonymous with topography. + +relief map +See topographic map. + +religion +The belief in a supernatural power that is regarded as the creator and maintainer of the universe, as well as the system of beliefs itself. + +remote +(of a particular location) Isolated or inaccessible, either by being physically very distant from another location or by lacking connectivity to transportation or communication networks which would otherwise make exchange between locations convenient. + +remote sensing +The gathering of information about an object or place from a remote location (i.e. without making physical on-site observations), most commonly by the use of satellite- or aircraft-based electromagnetic sensor technologies. + +representative fraction (RF) +The fraction expressing the ratio between the distance measured between two points on a map and the corresponding actual distance measured between those points in the real world, used to indicate the map's scale. The fraction's numerator is typically 1 (indicating one of some specified unit of length, e.g. inches or centimetres) and the denominator is the number of the same unit in the real world which this length represents on the map. For example, a representative fraction of 1⁄1,000,000, often written as 1:1,000,000 or 1:1 mn, means that one inch (or one centimetre) on the map itself is equivalent to one million inches (or centimetres) in the real world. One statute mile is equal to 63,360 inches, so 1,000,000 inches is approximately 16 miles. + +reservoir +Also impoundment. +An artificial lake or an artificially enlarged natural lake that is used to store water. Reservoirs are often created by the construction of a dam or lock in a natural drainage basin. + +resource +Anything that is both naturally occurring and of use to humans. + +retroreflector + +rhumb line +Also loxodrome or simply rhumb. +A line drawn on the surface of a sphere (or on an idealized representation of the Earth) which crosses all meridians of longitude at the same angle, and which therefore has constant bearing relative to true or magnetic north. + +ria +The seaward end of a river valley which has been flooded as a result of a rise in sea level. + +ribbon development +The build-up of residential and economic communities along the main routes of communication and transportation radiating from a city or other developed area, because of the advantages of accessibility, relatively inexpensive land, and trade from passers-by. + +ribbon lake +A long, narrow, finger-shaped lake, especially one found in a glacial trough and dammed by a rock bar or moraine. + +ridge +An elongated raised landform which forms a continuous elevated crest for some distance, such as a chain of hills or mountains. The line formed by the highest points, with only lower terrain immediately to either side, is called the ridgeline. + +ridge and swale +Also dune and swale. +A landscape characterized by a series of regularly spaced, parallel ridges or hills alternating with marshy depressions. They are most commonly formed on beaches or near river banks by the gradual fluctuations of tides or in association with scroll bars on the inside bends of meanders. See also berm and basin and range. + +riegel +An outcrop of resistant bedrock that forms a bar across a glacial trough and often acts as a dam to impound the waters of a lake. + +rift valley +A valley that has formed along a long, narrow continental trough bounded by normal faults; a graben of regional size. + +rill +A shallow water channel, generally not more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep, that has been cut into a soil surface (especially a cultivated agricultural soil) by the erosive action of flowing water. Larger erosional channels may be called gullies. + +rimaye +See bergschrund. + +riparian rights +See water rights. + +riparian zone +Also riparian area, riparian corridor, and riparian strip. +The area along the margins or banks of a river, stream, canal, estuary, or other watercourse; or the interface between land and a watercourse, generally including any land that is close enough to the watercourse to be frequently or persistently hydrated with its water. Riparian areas are important biomes with characteristics of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and often support dense hydrophilic plant communities of high biodiversity. They often overlap with and by some definitions may be considered wetlands. + +river +A natural watercourse, usually fresh water, that flows towards an ocean, sea, lake, another river, or in some cases into an endorheic basin or an underground aquifer. See also stream. + +river pocket +An area of land enclosed within the bend of a river, especially where the bend is extended or pronounced (e.g. a meander) and the only road access is along the isthmus. The term is used primarily in Australia. + +riverine +Also riparian. +Located on or inhabiting the banks or the area adjacent to a river or lake. + +rivulet +A very small stream or brook, often intermittent or ephemeral; a streamlet. + +road map +Also route map and street map. +Any map that shows man-made roads, streets, highways, railways, and/or other transportation routes within a particular coverage area, especially one which prioritizes the display of this information over other information such as natural features. Road maps are designed to emphasize information relevant to motorists, often including road-use designations, political boundaries and labels, and points of interest such as tourist attractions, parks and recreational facilities, hotels, restaurants, gas stations, airports, and emergency services. The widths of the roads themselves are often exaggerated to make the routes more conspicuous. + +roadstead +A body of water, natural or man-made, that is sheltered from rip currents, spring tides, and swells, and is therefore a known general station in which ships can safely be anchored without dragging or snatching. + +rôche moutonnée +See sheepback. + +rock mill +See pothole. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d61e83763 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)" +chunk: 10/21 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +rose +A diagram printed on a map consisting of a set of lines radiating from a point and marked so as to indicate velocity or some other quantity having direction; e.g. a compass rose or current rose. + +route +1. A way or course taken in getting from one place to another; an established or selected course of travel or action; a line of travel or means of access, especially when marked by a path, track, road, or rail. +2. A circuit traveled in delivering, selling, or collecting goods, e.g. by a mail carrier. + +routefinding +The determination of a viable route or line of travel between two places, especially in rugged or unexplored areas such as mountainous terrain or in conditions of poor visibility, and especially when done without the benefits of prior knowledge of the area, maps, or other technology that might aid orienteering, instead relying entirely on recognition of natural features and landmarks and quick estimations of distance, scale, ease, and safety. + +rural +An adjective describing any geographic area located outside areas of significant human population such as towns and cities; all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area is often said to be rural. Rural areas are typified by low population densities, very small settlements, and expansive areas of agricultural land or wilderness. + +== S == + +sabkha +Also sebkha. +A mudflat or sandflat in the supratidal zone of an arid or semiarid coastal plain in which large amounts of mineral salts accumulate; or, more generally, any flat area, coastal or interior, where salts or other evaporites readily precipitate at or near the land surface. The term is used primarily in Western Asia and Africa, though the landforms it describes occur worldwide. See also salt pan, salt marsh, and playa. + +saddle +For a given pair of mountain summits, the region surrounding the elevational low point or col on the ridge connecting the two summits; mathematically, it is the critical point that is simultaneously a relative minimum in one axial direction (e.g. between the peaks) and a relative maximum in the perpendicular direction. Assuming it is navigable, a saddle can be thought of as the area surrounding the highest point on the lowest route which one could use to pass between the two summits. + +salient +Also panhandle, chimney (if protruding northward), or bootheel (if protruding southward). +Any narrow, elongated protrusion of a larger territory, either physical or political, such as a state. + +salt marsh +Also tidal flat, sea marsh, or salt swamp. +A natural coastal marsh ecosystem in the upper intertidal zone, between land and open seawater or brackish water, that is regularly flooded by the tide at high water. Salt marshes support dense stands of terrestrial salt-tolerant plants, especially grasses and low shrubs, which trap and bind sediments from the ocean and help protect the nearby shoreline from coastal erosion. + +salt pan +Also salt flat. +A large, flat expanse of land naturally covered with mineral salts and/or other evaporites, usually to the exclusion of virtually all vegetation. Salt pans are common in deserts, where they form by the precipitation of dissolved mineral solids as a large body of water evaporates. See also playa. + +saltwater +Also seawater. +Any naturally occurring water, especially the water from a sea or ocean, characterized by high concentrations (between 3 and 5% by volume) of dissolved salts, primarily sodium and chloride ions, relative to fresh water or brackish water. Salt water in the Earth's oceans has an average salinity of about 3.5%; it is both denser and freezes at a lower temperature than fresh water. + +sand dune +See dune. + +sand sea +See erg. + +sandbar +See shoal. + +sandplain +A flat area where the soil or ground surface is covered with or composed of sand that has been transported from elsewhere and deposited by wind or oceans, rather than by weathering of the local bedrock. + +sandur +See outwash plain. + +satellite navigation +Also satnav. +A method of navigation or an autonomous geospatial positioning system that relies on artificial satellites in orbit around the Earth to transmit time signals at radio frequencies along a line of sight to electronic receivers on the surface, which can then use this information to determine the receiver's location, direction, and the current local time to high precision. Satnav systems operate independently of telephonic or internet connectivity, though simultaneous use of these technologies can enhance the accuracy and usefulness of the positioning information generated. + +satellite state +A formally independent state or polity which nevertheless depends economically, politically, or militarily upon, or is strongly influenced or controlled by, another, more powerful state. + +savanna +Also savannah. +A mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem characterized by scattered trees and bushes that are sufficiently widely spaced that the canopy does not close, permitting enough sunlight to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer of primarily xerophytic grasses. The term is used especially to refer to the vast, hot, arid grasslands covering parts of equatorial Africa, South America, and northern Australia, but is also sometimes applied more broadly. + +scale +1. The relationship between a linear measurement on a map and the distance it represents on the Earth's surface. +2. The level at which a geographical phenomenon occurs or is described. + +scarp +Also escarpment. +A steep cliff face or slope terminating an elevated surface of low relief, formed either because of faulting or by the erosion of inclined rock strata. + +schrund +See bergschrund. + +scroll +Also scroll bar. +1. A narrow stretch of floodplain added to the outer end and downstream side of spurs between enclosed meanders on a river. +2. A type of point bar consisting of a low, narrow ridge running in line with the curve of a meander, formed when the river overflows its banks. + +sea +1. Any large body of salt water surrounded in whole or in part by land. +2. Any large subdivision of the World Ocean. "The sea" is the colloquial term for the entire interconnected system of salty bodies of water, including oceans, that covers the Earth. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b16b0110e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Guild (ecology)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:33.654559+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A guild (or ecological guild) is any group of species that exploit the same resources, or that exploit different resources in related ways. It is not necessary that the species within a guild occupy the same, or even similar, ecological niches. + + +== Details == +Guilds are defined according to the locations, attributes, or activities of their component species. For example, the mode of acquiring nutrients, the mobility, and the habitat zones that the species occupy or exploit can be used to define a guild. The number of guilds occupying an ecosystem is termed its disparity. Members of a guild within a given ecosystem could be competing for resources, such as space or light, while cooperating in resisting wind stresses, attracting pollinators, or detecting predators, such as happens among savannah-dwelling antelope and zebra. +A guild does not typically have strict, or even clearly defined boundaries, nor does it need to be taxonomically cohesive. A broadly defined guild will almost always have constituent guilds; for example, grazing guilds will have some species that concentrate on coarse, plentiful forage, while others concentrate on low-growing, finer plants. Each of those two sub-guilds may be regarded as guilds in appropriate contexts, and they might, in turn, have sub-guilds in more closely selective contexts. Some authorities even speak of guilds in terms of a fractal resource model. This concept arises in several related contexts, such as the metabolic theory of ecology, the scaling pattern of occupancy, and spatial analysis in ecology, all of which are fundamental concepts in defining guilds. +An ecological guild is not to be confused with a taxocene, a group of phylogenetically related organisms in a community that do not necessarily share the same or similar niches (for example, "the insect community"). Nor is a guild the same as a trophic species, which is a functional group of taxa sharing the same set of predators and prey within a food web. + + +=== Microbial guilds === +Some authors have used the term guild to analyze microbial communities. However, precisely because of the pointed lack of concretion in the original definition, it has been used with different connotations. Recently, some effort has been made to address this issue. Some authors have proposed a formal definition for guilds that avoids this inherent ambiguity of niche exploitation, and a quantification method considering the problems arising from degeneracy in protein functions. According to the authors, any organism that performs a function, regardless of its phylogenetic lineage, its environmental preferences or how it carries it out, would be regarded as a representative member of the guild. This contrasts with the definitions used for the study of macro organisms, where membership demanded that the different forms of exploitation of the resource were related or similar. + + +=== Alpha vs Beta guilds === +The term guild is a broad term to describe the relationship between different species using the same resource. Since it is difficult to classify a guild it can be broken down into two more specific categories, alpha guilds and beta guilds. +Alpha guild is specifically related to species that share a resource used within the same community. Species in an alpha guild do not typically coexist in the same area, as the competitive exclusion principle prevents this. If species are grouped into an alpha guild together one of them will need to change the way they use this resource or change the resources they use to survive. +Beta guild is specifically related to species that are found in the same environmental conditions. Species in a beta guild are typically found in the same space and time together, as their environmental range is the same. Species grouped into the same beta guild still may use the same resources but not competitively. + + +== Example guilds == + + +== See also == +Functional group (ecology) + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0544710c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Habitat destruction" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved elsewhere, or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide. +Humans contribute to habitat destruction through the use of natural resources, agriculture, industrial production and urbanization (urban sprawl). Other activities include mining, logging and trawling. Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes, climate change, introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient depletion, water and noise pollution are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an initial habitat fragmentation. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of endangered species. + +== Observations == + +=== By region === + +Biodiversity hotspots are chiefly tropical regions that feature high concentrations of endemic species and, when all hotspots are combined, may contain over half of the world's terrestrial species. These hotspots are suffering from habitat loss and destruction. Most of the natural habitat on islands and in areas of high human population density has already been destroyed (WRI, 2003). Islands suffering extreme habitat destruction include New Zealand, Madagascar, the Philippines, and Japan. South and East Asia—especially China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Japan—and many areas in West Africa have extremely dense human populations that allow little room for natural habitat. Marine areas close to highly populated coastal cities also face degradation of their coral reefs or other marine habitat. Forest City, a township in southern Malaysia built on Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) Rank 1 wetland is one such example, with irreversible reclamation proceeding prior to environmental impact assessments and approvals. Other such areas include the eastern coasts of Asia and Africa, northern coasts of South America, and the Caribbean Sea and its associated islands. +Regions of unsustainable agriculture or unstable governments, which may go hand-in-hand, typically experience high rates of habitat destruction. South Asia, Central America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Amazonian tropical rainforest areas of South America are the main regions with unsustainable agricultural practices and/or government mismanagement. +Areas of high agricultural output tend to have the highest extent of habitat destruction. In the U.S., less than 25% of native vegetation remains in many parts of the East and Midwest. Only 15% of land area remains unmodified by human activities in all of Europe. +Currently, changes occurring in different environments around the world are changing the specific geographical habitats that are suitable for plants to grow. Therefore, the ability for plants to migrate to suitable environment areas will have a strong impact on the distribution of plant diversity. However, at the moment, the rates of plant migration that are influenced by habitat loss and fragmentation are not as well understood as they could be. + +=== By type of ecosystem === + +Tropical rainforests have received most of the attention concerning the destruction of habitat. From the approximately 16 million square kilometers of tropical rainforest habitat that originally existed worldwide, less than 9 million square kilometers remain today. The current rate of deforestation is 160,000 square kilometers per year, which equates to a loss of approximately 1% of original forest habitat each year. +Other forest ecosystems have suffered as much or more destruction as tropical rainforests. Deforestation for farming and logging have severely disturbed at least 94% of temperate broadleaf forests; many old growth forest stands have lost more than 98% of their previous area because of human activities. Tropical deciduous dry forests are easier to clear and burn and are more suitable for agriculture and cattle ranching than tropical rainforests; consequently, less than 0.1% of dry forests in Central America's Pacific Coast and less than 8% in Madagascar remain from their original extents. + +Plains and desert areas have been degraded to a lesser extent. Only 10–20% of the world's drylands, which include temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands, scrub, and deciduous forests, have been somewhat degraded. But included in that 10–20% of land is the approximately 9 million square kilometers of seasonally dry-lands that humans have converted to deserts through the process of desertification. The tallgrass prairies of North America, on the other hand, have less than 3% of natural habitat remaining that has not been converted to farmland. + +Wetlands and marine areas have endured high levels of habitat destruction. More than 50% of wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed in just the last 200 years. Between 60% and 70% of European wetlands have been completely destroyed. In the United Kingdom, there has been an increase in demand for coastal housing and tourism which has caused a decline in marine habitats over the last 60 years. The rising sea levels and temperatures have caused soil erosion, coastal flooding, and loss of quality in the UK marine ecosystem. About one-fifth (20%) of marine coastal areas have been highly modified by humans. One-fifth of coral reefs have also been destroyed, and another fifth has been severely degraded by overfishing, pollution, and invasive species; 90% of the Philippines' coral reefs alone have been destroyed. Finally, over 35% of the mangrove ecosystems worldwide have been destroyed. + +== Natural causes == + +Habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire, and climate change is well documented in the fossil record. One study shows that habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles. +Gamma ray bursts are potential cause for the habitat destruction by depleating ozone layer in upper atmosphere of a planet. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7599ac0ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Habitat destruction" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Causes due to human activities == +Habitat destruction caused by humans includes land conversion from forests, etc. to arable land, urban sprawl, infrastructure development, and other anthropogenic changes to the characteristics of land. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and pollution are aspects of habitat destruction caused by humans that do not necessarily involve over destruction of habitat, yet result in habitat collapse. Desertification, deforestation, and coral reef degradation are specific types of habitat destruction for those areas (deserts, forests, coral reefs). +Studies show that deforestation in forests, desertification in drylands, and the degradation of coral reefs in marine environments each contribute to habitat destruction and the loss of biodiversity. + +=== Overarching drivers === +The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as drivers of habitat destruction. Demographic, economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural drivers all contribute to habitat destruction. +Demographic drivers include the expanding human population; rate of population increase over time; spatial distribution of people in a given area (urban versus rural), ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning, gender, and education status of people in certain areas. Most of the exponential human population growth worldwide is occurring in or close to biodiversity hotspots. This may explain why human population density accounts for 87.9% of the variation in numbers of threatened species across 114 countries, providing indisputable evidence that people play the largest role in decreasing biodiversity. The boom in human population and migration of people into such species-rich regions are making conservation efforts not only more urgent but also more likely to conflict with local human interests. The high local population density in such areas is directly correlated to the poverty status of the local people, most of whom lacking an education and family planning. +According to the Geist and Lambin (2002) study, the underlying driving forces were prioritized as follows (with the percent of the 152 cases the factor played a significant role in): economic factors (81%), institutional or policy factors (78%), technological factors (70%), cultural or socio-political factors (66%), and demographic factors (61%). The main economic factors included commercialization and growth of timber markets (68%), which are driven by national and international demands; urban industrial growth (38%); low domestic costs for land, labor, fuel, and timber (32%); and increases in product prices mainly for cash crops (25%). Institutional and policy factors included formal pro-deforestation policies on land development (40%), economic growth including colonization and infrastructure improvement (34%), and subsidies for land-based activities (26%); property rights and land-tenure insecurity (44%); and policy failures such as corruption, lawlessness, or mismanagement (42%). The main technological factor was the poor application of technology in the wood industry (45%), which leads to wasteful logging practices. Within the broad category of cultural and sociopolitical factors are public attitudes and values (63%), individual/household behavior (53%), public unconcern toward forest environments (43%), missing basic values (36%), and unconcern by individuals (32%). Demographic factors were the in-migration of colonizing settlers into sparsely populated forest areas (38%) and growing population density—a result of the first factor—in those areas (25%). + +=== Forest conversion to agriculture === + +Geist and Lambin (2002) assessed 152 case studies of net losses of tropical forest cover to determine any patterns in the proximate and underlying causes of tropical deforestation. Their results, yielded as percentages of the case studies in which each parameter was a significant factor, provide a quantitative prioritization of which proximate and underlying causes were the most significant. The proximate causes were clustered into broad categories of agricultural expansion (96%), infrastructure expansion (72%), and wood extraction (67%). Therefore, according to this study, forest conversion to agriculture is the main land use change responsible for tropical deforestation. The specific categories reveal further insight into the specific causes of tropical deforestation: transport extension (64%), commercial wood extraction (52%), permanent cultivation (48%), cattle ranching (46%), shifting (slash and burn) cultivation (41%), subsistence agriculture (40%), and fuel wood extraction for domestic use (28%). One result is that shifting cultivation is not the primary cause of deforestation in all world regions, while transport extension (including the construction of new roads) is the largest single proximate factor responsible for deforestation. +Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species. Even the simplest forms of agriculture affect diversity – through clearing or draining the land, discouraging weeds and pests, and encouraging just a limited set of domesticated plant and animal species. +There are also feedbacks and interactions among the proximate and underlying causes of deforestation that can amplify the process. Road construction has the largest feedback effect, because it interacts with—and leads to—the establishment of new settlements and more people, which causes a growth in wood (logging) and food markets. Growth in these markets, in turn, progresses the commercialization of agriculture and logging industries. When these industries become commercialized, they must become more efficient by utilizing larger or more modern machinery that often has a worse effect on the habitat than traditional farming and logging methods. Either way, more land is cleared more rapidly for commercial markets. This common feedback example manifests just how closely related the proximate and underlying causes are to each other. + +=== Climate change === + +Climate change contributes to destruction of some habitats, endangering various species. For example: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..32729bb70 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Habitat destruction" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Climate change causes rising sea levels which will threaten natural habitats and species globally. +Melting sea ice destroys habitat for some species. For example, the decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty‐first century, with a decline rate of 4.7% per decade (it has declined over 50% since the first satellite records). One well known example of a species affected is the polar bear, whose habitat in the Arctic is threatened. Algae can also be affected when it grows on the underside of sea ice. +Warm-water coral reefs are very sensitive to global warming and ocean acidification. Coral reefs provide a habitat for thousands of species. They provide ecosystem services such as coastal protection and food. But 70–90% of today's warm-water coral reefs will disappear even if warming is kept to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). For example, Caribbean coral reefs – which are biodiversity hotspots – will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate. + +=== Habitat fragmentation === + +== Impacts == + +=== On animals and plants === +When a habitat is destroyed, the carrying capacity for indigenous plants, animals, and other organisms is reduced so that populations decline, sometimes up to the level of extinction. +Habitat loss is perhaps the greatest threat to organisms and biodiversity. Temple (1986) found that 82% of endangered bird species were significantly threatened by habitat loss. Most amphibian species are also threatened by native habitat loss, and some species are now only breeding in modified habitat. Endemic organisms with limited ranges are most affected by habitat destruction, mainly because these organisms are not found anywhere else in the world, and thus have less chance of recovering. Many endemic organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be found within a certain ecosystem, resulting in their extinction. Extinction may also take place very long after the destruction of habitat, a phenomenon known as extinction debt. Habitat destruction can also decrease the range of certain organism populations. This can result in the reduction of genetic diversity and perhaps the production of infertile youths, as these organisms would have a higher possibility of mating with related organisms within their population, or different species. One of the most famous examples is the impact upon China's giant panda, once found in many areas of Sichuan. Now it is only found in fragmented and isolated regions in the southwest of the country, as a result of widespread deforestation in the 20th century. +As habitat destruction of an area occurs, the species diversity offsets from a combination of habitat generalists and specialists to a population primarily consisting of generalist species. Invasive species are frequently generalists that are able to survive in much more diverse habitats. Habitat destruction leading to climate change offsets the balance of species keeping up with the extinction threshold leading to a higher likelihood of extinction. +Habitat loss is one of the main environmental causes of the decline of biodiversity on local, regional, and global scales. Many believe that habitat fragmentation is also a threat to biodiversity however some believe that it is secondary to habitat loss. The reduction of the amount of habitat available results in specific landscapes that are made of isolated patches of suitable habitat throughout a hostile environment/matrix. This process is generally due to pure habitat loss as well as fragmentation effects. Pure habitat loss refers to changes occurring in the composition of the landscape that causes a decrease in individuals. Fragmentation effects refer to an addition of effects occurring due to the habitat changes. Habitat loss can result in negative effects on the dynamic of species richness. The order Hymenoptera is a diverse group of plant pollinators who are highly susceptible to the negative effects of habitat loss, this could result in a domino effect between the plant-pollinator interactions leading to major conservation implications within this group. It is observed from the worlds longest running fragmentation experiment over 35 years that habitat fragmentation has caused a decrease in biodiversity from 13% to 75%. + +=== On human population === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..82d083965 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Habitat destruction" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Habitat destruction can vastly increase an area's vulnerability to natural disasters like flood and drought, crop failure, spread of disease, and water contamination. On the other hand, a healthy ecosystem with good management practices can reduce the chance of these events happening, or will at least mitigate adverse impacts. Eliminating swamps—the habitat of pests such as mosquitoes—has contributed to the prevention of diseases such as malaria. +Completely depriving an infectious agent (such as a virus) of its habitat—by vaccination, for example—can result in eradicating that infectious agent. +Agricultural land can suffer from the destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via erosion, salinization, compaction, nutrient depletion, pollution, and urbanization. Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as birdwatching, recreational uses like hunting and fishing, and ecotourism usually rely upon relatively undisturbed habitat. Many people value the complexity of the natural world and express concern at the loss of natural habitats and of animal or plant species worldwide. +Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many valuable ecosystem services. Habitat destruction has altered nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon cycles, which has increased the frequency and severity of acid rain, algal blooms, and fish kills in rivers and oceans and contributed tremendously to global climate change. One ecosystem service whose significance is becoming better understood is climate regulation. On a local scale, trees provide windbreaks and shade; on a regional scale, plant transpiration recycles rainwater and maintains constant annual rainfall; on a global scale, plants (especially trees in tropical rainforests) around the world counter the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by sequestering carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Other ecosystem services that are diminished or lost altogether as a result of habitat destruction include watershed management, nitrogen fixation, oxygen production, pollination (see pollinator decline), +waste treatment (i.e., the breaking down and immobilization of toxic pollutants), and nutrient recycling of sewage or agricultural runoff. +The loss of trees from tropical rainforests alone represents a substantial diminishing of Earth's ability to produce oxygen and to use up carbon dioxide. These services are becoming even more important as increasing carbon dioxide levels is one of the main contributors to global climate change. The loss of biodiversity may not directly affect humans, but the indirect effects of losing many species as well as the diversity of ecosystems in general are enormous. When biodiversity is lost, the environment loses many species that perform valuable and unique roles in the ecosystem. The environment and all its inhabitants rely on biodiversity to recover from extreme environmental conditions. When too much biodiversity is lost, a catastrophic event such as an earthquake, flood, or volcanic eruption could cause an ecosystem to crash, and humans would obviously suffer from that. Loss of biodiversity also means that humans are losing animals that could have served as biological-control agents and plants that could potentially provide higher-yielding crop varieties, pharmaceutical drugs to cure existing or future diseases (such as cancer), and new resistant crop-varieties for agricultural species susceptible to pesticide-resistant insects or virulent strains of fungi, viruses, and bacteria. +The negative effects of habitat destruction usually impact rural populations more directly than urban populations. Across the globe, poor people suffer the most when natural habitat is destroyed, because less natural habitat means fewer natural resources per capita, yet wealthier people and countries can simply pay more to continue to receive more than their per capita share of natural resources. +Another way to view the negative effects of habitat destruction is to look at the opportunity cost of destroying a given habitat. In other words, what do people lose out on with the removal of a given habitat? A country may increase its food supply by converting forest land to row-crop agriculture, but the value of the same land may be much larger when it can supply natural resources or services such as clean water, timber, ecotourism, or flood regulation and drought control. + +== Outlook == +The rapid expansion of the global human population is increasing the world's food requirement substantially. Simple logic dictates that more people will require more food. In fact, as the world's population increases dramatically, agricultural output will need to increase by at least 50%, over the next 30 years. In the past, continually moving to new land and soils provided a boost in food production to meet the global food demand. That easy fix will no longer be available, however, as more than 98% of all land suitable for agriculture is already in use or degraded beyond repair. +The impending global food crisis will be a major source of habitat destruction. Commercial farmers are going to become desperate to produce more food from the same amount of land, so they will use more fertilizers and show less concern for the environment to meet the market demand. Others will seek out new land or will convert other land-uses to agriculture. Agricultural intensification will become widespread at the cost of the environment and its inhabitants. Species will be pushed out of their habitat either directly by habitat destruction or indirectly by fragmentation, degradation, or pollution. Any efforts to protect the world's remaining natural habitat and biodiversity will compete directly with humans' growing demand for natural resources, especially new agricultural lands. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ceacbffe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Habitat destruction" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Solutions == +Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments embodied by Sustainable Development Goal 15 "Life on Land" and Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water". However, the United Nations Environment Programme report on "Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals. +Tropical deforestation: In most cases of tropical deforestation, three to four underlying causes are driving two to three proximate causes. This means that a universal policy for controlling tropical deforestation would not be able to address the unique combination of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation in each country. Before any local, national, or international deforestation policies are written and enforced, governmental leaders must acquire a detailed understanding of the complex combination of proximate causes and underlying driving forces of deforestation in a given area or country. This concept, along with many other results of tropical deforestation from the Geist and Lambin study, can easily be applied to habitat destruction in general. +Shoreline erosion: Coastal erosion is a natural process as storms, waves, tides and other water level changes occur. Shoreline stabilization can be done by barriers between land and water such as seawalls and bulkheads. Living shorelines are gaining attention as a new stabilization method. These can reduce damage and erosion while simultaneously providing ecosystem services such as food production, nutrient and sediment removal, and water quality improvement to society + +Preventing an area from losing its specialist species to generalist invasive species depends on the extent of the habitat destruction that has already taken place. In areas where the habitat is relatively undisturbed, halting further habitat destruction may be enough. In areas where habitat destruction is more extreme (fragmentation or patch loss), restoration ecology may be needed. +Education of the general public is possibly the best way to prevent further human habitat destruction. Changing the dull creep of environmental impacts from being viewed as acceptable to being seen a reason for change to more sustainable practices. Education about the necessity of family planning to slow population growth is important as greater population leads to greater human caused habitat destruction. Habitat restoration can also take place through the following processes; extending habitats or repairing habitats. Extending habitats aims to counteract habitat loss and fragmentation whereas repairing habitats counteracts degradation. +The preservation and creation of habitat corridors can link isolated populations and increase pollination. Corridors are also known to reduce the negative impacts of habitat destruction. +The biggest potential to solving the issue of habitat destruction comes from solving the political, economical and social problems that go along with it such as, individual and commercial material consumption, sustainable extraction of resources, conservation areas, restoration of degraded land and addressing climate change. +Governmental leaders need to take action by addressing the underlying driving forces, rather than merely regulating the proximate causes. In a broader sense, governmental bodies at a local, national, and international scale need to emphasize: + +Considering the irreplaceable ecosystem services provided by natural habitats. +Protecting remaining intact sections of natural habitat. +Finding ecological ways to increase agricultural output without increasing the total land in production. +Reducing human population and expansion. Apart from improving access to contraception globally, furthering gender equality also has a great benefit. When women have the same education (decision-making power), this generally leads to smaller families. +It is argued that the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation can be counteracted by including spatial processes in potential restoration management plans. However, even though spatial dynamics are incredibly important in the conservation and recovery of species, a limited amount of management plans are taking the spatial effects of habitat restoration and conservation into consideration. + +== See also == +Impacts of shipping on marine wildlife and habitats in Southeast Asia + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayduke-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayduke-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d59ecb0c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayduke-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Hayduke" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayduke" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:36.242587+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hayduke is a term and verb used among environmental activists and people who cite cult "revenge" books. +It derives from the name of George Washington Hayduke, a fictional character based on Edward Abbey's friend Doug Peacock in Abbey's cult classics The Monkey Wrench Gang and Hayduke Lives!. The Hayduke character personified the "no compromise in defense of the Earth" approach to environmentalism, made real in early Earth First! activism. + + +== Background == +A complete series of revenge books using the pseudonym George Hayduke exist, mostly published by the Paladin Press, including The Big Book of Revenge, Get Even, Make 'Em Pay, Up Yours and Screw Unto Others. Each describe various methods of committing mischief and mayhem against those who have wronged others in a manner reminiscent of The Anarchist Cookbook. "Haydukery" refers to committing such acts in general. + + +== See also == +Hajduk – a name for highwaymen or guerrilla freedom fighters in parts of Europe during the late 16th to mid 19th century + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..81cdf311d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Hemerochory" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:37.619457+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hemerochory (Ancient Greek ἥμερος, hemeros: 'tame, ennobled, cultivated, cultivated' and Greek χωρίς choris: separate, isolated), or anthropochory, is the distribution of cultivated plants or their seeds and cuttings, consciously or unconsciously, by humans into an area that they could not colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but are able to maintain themselves without specific human help in their new habitat. +Hemerochory is one of the main propagation mechanisms of a plant. Hemerochoric plants can both increase and decrease the biodiversity of a habitat. + +== Categorisation == +Hemerochoric plants are classified according to the manner of introduction into, for example: + +Ethelochory: the conscious introduction by seed or young plants. +Speirochory: the unintentional introduction by contaminated seed. Examples are the true chamomile and the cornflower. +Agochory: the introduction by unintentional transport with, among other things, ships, trains and cars. These plants are common in port areas, roadsides, stations and railways. + +=== Division === +Chronologically the hemerochoric plants are divided in: + +Archaeophytes: plants that were introduced before the onset of world trade around the year 1500, or before the year 1492 (discovery of America). +Neophytes: plants that were introduced later. + +=== Related terms === +Anthropochory is often used synonymously but does not mean exactly the same. Anthropochory is the spread by humans. The spread through domestic animals does not belong to the anthropochoric, but to the hemerochoric, because domestic animals belong to the human culture. Strictly speaking, anthropochoric means the spread through humans as a transport medium. These can also be native species that were either adapted from the outset to locations created by human cultural activity or have adapted to them afterwards; As a result, their area of distribution has often, but not always, increased. + +== History == +Hemerochorous spread of plants through human cultural activity very likely already happened in the Stone Age, but demonstrably at the latest in antiquity, namely along old trade routes. Fruits such as apples and pears gradually made their way along the Silk Road from the area around the Altai Mountains to Greece and from there to the gardens of the Romans, who in turn brought these cultivated plants to Central Europe, and some of these plants were eventually able to survive outside the culture. Many useful plants, such as tomato, potato, pumpkin and French bean did not reach Central Europe until the 16th century, after the American continent was discovered, and are now grown worldwide. +In the last 400 to 500 years the spread has expanded through trade and military campaigns, through explorers and missionaries. The latter brought countless plants with them from their travels both out of an interest in exotic plants, which were often included in the plant collections of princely courts, and for purely scientific purposes. In the context of botanical studies, the interest was often in the possible healing effects of these plants, but also in the expansion of botanical knowledge, or the plants were only used for collecting (herbaria). +Some ornamental plants also came to Europe because they promised a lucrative business. This applies, for example, to the camellias, one of which is also grown as a tea plant in Japan and China. While this species turned out to be not cultivable in Central Europe, people very quickly discovered the aesthetic appeal of the other camellia species as an ornamental plant. Botanical gardens played a major role in the acclimatization of such plants from distant habitats. + +== Forms == + +=== Agochory === + +Agochoric plants are those that are spread through accidental transport. Unlike speirochoric plants, they are usually not sown on human-prepared soil. On land, agochoric plants used to be common in harbors, at train stations or along railway lines. +However, mainly aquatic plants are spread through agochory. Ballast water plays a major role in the agochoric spread of aquatic plants. Around the world, around ten billion tons of seawater and the organisms it contains are shipped in this way. Exporting countries in particular are affected by the spread of organisms through ballast water. The ships arrive at the ports with empty cargo hold, but fully pumped ballast tanks. In the draining of this ballast water, these ports receive thousands of cubic meters of seawater brimming with alien creatures now in a new environment. The seaweed Undaria pinnatifida, which is native to the Japanese coast, reached the Tasmanian coast via ballast water and has formed dense kelp forests along the coast since 1988, displacing the native flora and fauna. Caulerpa taxifolia is one of those plants that are often spread by ballast water. It is also spread by the fact that ships tear off parts of the algae with their anchors. +Australia was the first country to introduce a ballast water policy back in 1990 and is now the most determined to address this problem. Ships were asked not to take in ballast water in shallow and polluted bays and not to refuel with ballast water during the night, since then many marine organisms that are otherwise on the seabed rise to the surface of the water. Ships should also exchange their ballast water 200 kilometers away from the coastal waters, so that on the one hand the offshore species are not introduced into the more sensitive coastal waters and, on the other hand, no inhabitants of the coastal zone are transported to other continents. + +=== Ethelochory === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6509aaf26 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Hemerochory" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:37.619457+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ethelochory is intentional transportation of plants or seeds to different regions for agricultural and gardening purposes. Numerous crops that are important for human nutrition have been willingly spread by humans. Wheat, barley, lentil, beans, flax and poppy seeds, for example, are not typical plants for Central Europe, although they are all archaeotypes. People brought them after the beginning of the Neolithic (about 6,500 years ago) gradually from the eastern Mediterranean to central Europe and the rest of the world through the upcoming centuries. In central Europe, it is especially Cyperus esculentus which has been classified since the 1980s among the invasive species, because their tubers have been spread en masse, by sticking to vehicles or machines. +Many of the old cultivated plants have spread around the world, primarily through emigrants from Europe. Grown for at least 4,000 years, wheat was introduced to America in the 16th century and Australia in the 19th century. Orange, lemons, apricots and peaches were originally native to China. They probably came via the Silk Road as early as the 3rd century BC. In Asia Minor and from there through the Romans to the Mediterranean. European settlers, in turn, used these species to grow fruit in suitable regions of America. +From the 16th century, ornamental plants were grown more and more. Species native to Europe were first introduced as garden plants. These include, for example, the gladioli, the ornamental onion, European bluebell, the snowdrop native to southeast Europe and the common clematis. Ornamental plants from more distant regions were added later. From East Asia in particular, a number of plants were introduced to Europe as exotic or for economic reasons. + +=== Speirochory === + +Some plants were unintentionally introduced in this process; this unwanted hemerochory as a seed companion is called speirochory. Since every seed packet also contains seeds of the herbs of the field from which it comes, their competitors, the "weeds", were also sold through the trade in the seeds of the useful plant. The real chamomile is one of the plants that were unintentionally spread as a companion to seeds. +Speirochoric plants are sown on human-prepared soil and are competitors of the crops. Plants that are considered to be archaeophytes, such as the poppy, native to the Mediterranean area, the real chamomile, the cornflower and field buttercup, spread through the seeds with the grain in Central Europe. In the meantime, the seeds are cleaned more thoroughly using modern methods and the cultivation is hardly contaminated by pesticides or other control techniques. +In spite of this, Cuscuta campestris, which is classified as a problematic weed in Australia, was accidentally imported into the country together with basil seeds in 1981, 1988 and 1990. + +== See also == +Assisted colonization +Escaped plant +Volunteer plant +Adventive plant + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e8d1e3479 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Hyperaccumulator" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:38.913323+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + +== Metallophytes == +A metallophyte is a type of plant capable of surviving in metal-rich soil. Metallophytes are classified as metal indicators, excluders, or hyperaccumulators. Such plants range between obligate metallophytes and facultative metallophytes. Obligate metallophytes can only survive in the presence of heavy metals while facultative metallophytes can tolerate such conditions but are not confined to them. + +== Hyperaccumulators == + +A hyperaccumulator is a category of metallophyte that is capable of growing in soil or water with a higher concentration of metals, absorbing the metals through its roots and storing it in its foliage. The metals are concentrated at levels that are toxic to closely related species not adapted to growing on the metalliferous soils. Approximately 85-90% of hyperaccumulators are obligate metallophytes. +Compared to non-hyperaccumulating species, hyperaccumulator roots extract the metal from the soil at a higher rate, transfer it more quickly to their shoots, and store large amounts in leaves and roots. The ability to hyperaccumulate toxic metals compared to related species has been shown to be due to differential gene expression and regulation of the same genes in both plants. Hyperaccumulators are regularly discussed within the context of phytoremediation, although their commercialization remains aspirational. 450 plant species, including the model organisms Arabidopsis and Brassicaceae, have demonstrated the capacity to uptake and sequester metals such as Arsenic (As), Cobalt (Co), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Selenium (Se), Manganese (Mn), Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn), and Molybdenum (Mo) in 100–1000 times the concentration found in sister species or populations. + +=== Table on Hyperaccumulators === + +Note that it is under debate as to whether Allium, Amaranthus, Iris, Lonicera, Rorippa, Salsola and Solanum are truly hyperaccumulators or metallophytes at all as their hyperaccumulation was recorded in labs, not nature. + +=== Applications of Hyperaccumulators === + +==== Phytoremediation ==== +Hyperaccumulating plants are of interest in the context of phytoremediation: to detoxify contaminated soils. Phytoextraction is a subprocess of phytoremediation in which plants remove metal ions from soil or water. Phytoextraction could in principle be used to remove contaminants from an ecosystem. For example, water hyacinth have been demonstrated to remove arsenic from water. Cadmium accumulation has also received attention as this metal is usually toxic. +Caesium-137 and strontium-90 were removed from a pond using sunflowers after the Chernobyl accident. +The remediation of metal-contaminated soils recognizes that metals cannot be degraded, they must be removed. Organic pollutants can be, and are generally the major targets for phytoremediation. Field trials support the feasibility of using plants for environmental cleanup. + +==== Phytomining ==== + +Phytomining, sometimes called agromining, is the concept of extracting heavy metals from the soil using hyperaccumulating plants. Once the hyperaccumulation has proceeded to some extent, the metals are collected from the plant matter and then refined for sale or disposed of. +Phytomining typically follows three steps: 1) Phytoextraction, where metals are sequestered from soil into plants; 2) Enrichment, where plant biomass is eliminated and heavy metals are enriched as solids; 3) Extraction, where the solid remains are processed into more accessible forms. +Phytomining would, in principle, minimize environmental effects compared to conventional mining. Phytomining could also remove low-grade heavy metals from mine waste. A 2021 review concluded that the commercial viability of phytomining was "limited" because it is a slow and inefficient process. Its purpose is either: +(i) gathering the metals for economic use +(ii) gathering toxic metals to improve the soil. +Phytomining was proposed in 1983 by Rufus Chaney, a USDA agronomist. He and Alan Baker, a University of Melbourne professor, first tested it in 1996. They, as well as Jay Scott Angle and Yin-Ming Li, filed a patent on the process in 1995 which expired in 2015. +Several startups are investigating the process for mining surface-available heavy metals. In 2025, Genomines received 45 million dollars of Series A funding to commercialize nickel phytomining from mine tailings. The French company Econick and the Albanian company MetalPlant both have nickel phytomining projects. As of mid-2024, MetalPlant had extracted less than a kilo of usable nickel, using Odontarrhena plants. + +=== Physiological advantage for hyperaccumulation === +The biological advantage of hyperaccumulation may be that the toxic levels of heavy metals in leaves deter herbivores or increase the toxicity of other anti-herbivory metabolites. The plant defense hypothesis, "the elemental defense hypothesis", provided by Poschenrieder, suggested that the expression of these genes assist in antiherbivory or pathogen defenses by making tissues toxic to organisms attempting to feed on that plant. Another hypothesis, "the joint hypothesis", provided by Boyd, suggests that expression of these genes assists in systemic defense. The benefit for a plant to hyperaccumulate may be that root-to-shoot transport system drives hyper-accumulation by creating a metal deficiency response in roots. + +=== T. caerulescens === +As a hyperaccumulator variously of Cd, Pb, and Zn, T. caerulescens, pennycress, has received particular attention. Its leaves accumulate up to 380 mg/kg Cd. On the other hand, the presence of copper seems to impair its growth. It is found mostly in Zn/Pb-rich soils, as well as serpentines and non-mineralized soils. When grown on mildly polluted soils, a closely related species, Thlaspi ochroleucum, is a heavy metal-tolerant plant, but it accumulates much less Zn in the shoots than T. caerulescens. Thus, T. ochroleucum is a non-hyperaccumulator and of the same family T. caerulescens is a hyperaccumulator. The transfer of Zn from roots to shoots varied significantly between these two species. T. caerulescens had much higher shoot/root Zn concentration levels than T. ochroleucum, which always had higher Zn concentrations in the roots. When Zn was withheld, the amount of Zn previously accumulated in the roots in T. caerulescens decreased even more than in T. ochroleucum, with a concomitantly greater rise in the amount of Zn in the shoots. The decreases in Zn in roots may be mostly due to transport to shoots, since the volume of Zn in shoots increased during the same time span. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9b5f8f69d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Hyperaccumulator" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:38.913323+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Genetic basis of hyperaccumulation === +An overexpression of a Zn transporter gene, ZNT1, in root and shoot tissue is an essential component of the Zn hyperaccumulation trait in T. caerulescens. This increased gene expression has been shown to be the basis for increased Zn2+ uptake from the soil in T. caerulescens roots, and it is possible that the same process underpins the enhanced Zn2+ uptake into leaf cells.The proteins are coded by genes in the ZIP family, however other families such as the HMA (heavy metal ATPase), MATE, YSL and MTP families have also been observed to be involved. The ZIP gene family encodes Cd, Mn, Fe and Zn transporters. The ZIP family plays a role in supplying Zn to metalloproteins. +In one study on Arabidopsis, it was found that the metallophyte Arabidopsis halleri expressed a member of the ZIP family that was not expressed in a non-metallophyte sister species. This gene was an iron-regulated transporter (IRT-protein) that encoded several primary transporters involved with cellular uptake of cations above the concentration gradient. When this gene was transformed into yeast, hyperaccumulation was observed. This suggests that overexpression of ZIP family genes that encode cation transporters is a characteristic genetic feature of hyperaccumulation. +Another gene family that has been observed ubiquitously in hyperaccumulators are the ZTP and ZNT families. A study on T. caerulescens identified the ZTP family as a plant specific family with high sequence similarity to other zinc transporter. Both the ZTP and ZNT families, like the ZIP family, are zinc transporters. It has been observed in hyperaccumulating species, that these genes, specifically ZNT1 and ZNT2 alleles are chronically overexpressed. +AhHMHA3 is expressed in hyperaccumulating individuals. AhHMHA3 has been identified to be expressed in response to and aid of Zn detoxification. In another study, using metallophytic and non-metallophytic Arabidopsis populations, back crosses indicated pleiotropy between Cd and Zn tolerances. This response suggests that plants are unable to detect specific metals, and that hyperaccumulation is likely a result of an overexpressed Zn transportation system. +One of the most well-documented HMAs is HMA4, which belongs to the Zn/Co/Cd/Pb HMA subclass and is localized at xylem parenchyma plasma membranes. HMA4 is upregulated when plants are exposed to high levels of Cd and Zn, but it is downregulated in its non-hyperaccumulating relatives. Also, when the expression of HMA4 is increased there is a correlated increase in the expression of genes belonging to the ZIP (Zinc regulated transporter Iron regulated transporter Proteins) family. + +=== Genetic Engineering of Hyperaccumulators === +Genetic engineering has been used to research potential improvements towards hyperaccumulation efficiency and species resistance to biological side effects of metal uptake. Methods have included engineering overexpression of pollutant degrading enzymes or proteins associated with heavy metal transportation pathways, and transgenesis, where genes from hyperaccumulators are inserted into the genome of other hyperaccumulators to target specific metals or metals previously inaccessible to that species. +For example, Sedum plumbizinicicola is a hyperaccumulator of Cd using the heavy metal transporter genes SpHMA2, SpHMA3, and SpNramp6. In 2023, Yang et al. inserted these genes into Brassica napus, or Rapeseed plants, resulting in high uptake efficiency and sequestration of Cd compared to the wild-type rapeseed. +Transgenic phytoextractors theoretically function to combine favorable traits like high biomass production with hyperaccumulation, showing the potential to improve the speed of phytoremediation. However, research reports often do not include long term data of artificial phytoextraction by transgenic plants to see if they can actually survive their entire life cycle intaking hyperaccumulator-levels of contaminants. Site implementation of transgenic plants for phytoremediation is also controversial, due to how these plants could negatively impact native biodiversity. + +=== Molecular pathway === +Often hyperaccumulation is the result of promiscuous zinc binding, i.e. protein-based sequestrants, transporters, etc with a high affinity for zinc that will bind other metal ions. Metals ions in solution are susceptible to extraction. For example, ligands secreted by plant - phytosiderophores, organic acids, or carboxylates -can selectively binds certain ions. + +== Metal Excluders == +A metal excluder is a category of metallophyte that absorbs metals at only their roots. + +== Metal Indicators == +A metal indicator is a metallophyte that accumulates heavy metal concentration in shoots and leaves.While good at absorbing metals, they eventually succumb to the metals' toxicity. + +== Other Examples == +Alpine pennycress (Thlaspi caerulescens), the zinc violet (Viola calaminaria), spring sandwort (Minuartia verna), sea thrift (Armeria maritima), Cochlearia, common bent (Agrostis capillaris), and plantain (Plantago lanceolata). + +== Further reading == +K.B. Axelsen and M.G. Palmgren, Inventory of the superfamily of P-Type ion pumps in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol., 126 (1998), pp. 696–706. + +== See also == +Biohydrometallurgy +Calaminarian grassland +Chara baltica +Cladophora socialis +Coccotylus +Furcellaria +Polysiphonia +Stuckenia pectinata +Zannichellia palustris +List of hyperaccumulators +Phytoremediation + +== References == + +13. Souri Z, Karimi N, Luisa M. Sandalio. 2017. Arsenic Hyperaccumulation Strategies: An Overview. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 5, 67. DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2017.00067. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7f6fe0288 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Intact forest landscape" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:40.195479+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An intact forest landscape (IFL) is an unbroken natural landscape of a forest ecosystem and its habitat–plant community components, in an extant forest zone. An IFL is a natural environment with no signs of significant human activity or habitat fragmentation, and of sufficient size to contain, support, and maintain the complex of indigenous biodiversity of viable populations of a wide range of genera and species, and their ecological effects. +IFLs are estimated to cover 23 percent of forest ecosystems (13.1 million km2). Two biomes hold almost all of these IFLs: dense tropical and subtropical forests (45 percent) and boreal forests (44 percent), while the proportion of IFLs in temperate broadleaf and mixed forests is very small. IFLs remain in 66 of the 149 countries that could potentially have them. Three of these countries, Canada, Russia, and Brazil, contain 64 percent of the total IFL area in the world. Nineteen percent of the global IFL area is under some form of protection, but only 10 percent is strictly protected, i.e., belongs to IUCN protected areas categories I–III. It is estimated that the planet has lost seven percent of its IFLs since 2000. + +== History == +The term "intact forest landscape" was developed by a group of environmental non-governmental organizations including Greenpeace, the World Resources Institute, Biodiversity Conservation Center, International Socio-Ecological Union, and Transparent World. IFL has been used in regional and global forest monitoring projects such as Intact-Forests.org, and in scientific forest ecology research. + +== Definition == +The concept of an intact forest landscape and its technical definition were developed to help create, implement, and monitor policies concerning the human impact on forest landscapes at the regional or country levels. +Technically, an IFL is defined as an area which contains forest and non-forest ecosystems minimally influenced by human economic activity, with an area of at least 500 km2 (50,000 ha) and a minimal width of 10 km (measured as the diameter of a circle that is entirely inscribed within the boundaries of the territory). +Areas with evidence of certain types of human influence are considered "disturbed" and not eligible for inclusion in an IFL: + +Settlements (including a buffer zone of one kilometer) +Infrastructure used for transportation between settlements or for industrial development of natural resources, including roads (except unpaved trails), railways, navigable waterways (including seashore), pipelines, and power transmission lines (including in all cases a buffer zone of one kilometer on either side) +Agriculture and timber production +Industrial activities during the last 30–70 years, such as logging, mining, oil and gas exploration and extraction, peat extraction +Areas with evidence of low intensity and old disturbances are treated as subject to "background" influence and are eligible for inclusion in an IFL. Sources of background influence include local shifting cultivation activities, diffuse grazing by domesticated animals, low-intensity selective logging and hunting. +This definition builds on and refines the concept of a frontier forest as has been used by the World Resources Institute. + +== Conservation value == + +Most of the world's original forests have either been lost to conversion or altered by logging and forest management. Forests that still combine large size with insignificant human influence are becoming increasingly important as their global extent continues to shrink. +Ecosystems are generally better able to support their natural biological diversity and ecological processes the lower their exposure to humans and the greater their area. They are also better able to absorb and recover from disturbance (resistance and resilience). +Fragmentation and loss of natural habitats are the main factors threatening plant and animal species with extinction. Forest biodiversity largely depends on intact forest landscapes. Large roaming animals (such as forest elephants, great apes, bears, wolves, tigers, jaguars, eagles, deer, etc.) especially require that intact forest landscapes be preserved. Loss of natural habitat can occur through introduction of forest monoculture or by even aged timber management, which are also destructive of biodiversity and wildlife abundance. For example, many wildlife species such as the wild turkey depend upon variegation of tree ages and sizes for its optimal sub-canopy flight; forests that have been managed for even aged composition fail to achieve abundance values of the wild turkey and many other organisms. +Large natural forest areas are also important for maintaining ecological processes and supplying ecosystem services like water and air purification, nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, erosion and flood control. +The conservation value of forest landscapes that are free from human disturbance is therefore high, although it varies among regions. At the same time the cost of conserving large unpopulated areas is often low. The same factors that have kept them from being developed, such as remoteness and low economic value, also help to reduce the cost of protecting them. +Several international initiatives to protect forest biodiversity (CBD), to reduce carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (IGBP, REDD), and to stimulate use of sustainable forest management practices (FSC) require that large natural forest areas be preserved. Mapping, conservation and monitoring of intact forest landscapes is a therefore a task of global importance. + +== IFL mapping initiatives == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d59f0eb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Intact forest landscape" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:40.195479+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Several attempts have been made since the 1990s to map the remaining extent of large natural forests. At the global level, these include: wilderness area maps by McCloskey and Spalding; human footprint map by Sanderson, et al.; and frontier forests map by Bryant, et al. These efforts have generally combined already existing maps and information to identify areas of low human impact at a coarse scale, typically no finer than 1:16 million. +The IFL mapping initiatives differ from these by using the IFL definition mentioned above, by using information from satellites in addition to other sources, and by producing results at a much finer scale, approximately 1:1 million. +The first regional IFL map was presented by Greenpeace Russia in 2001, covering northern European Russia. The report also contains a complete description of the IFL concept and the mapping algorithm. +A number of regional IFL maps were presented in 2002–2006, using similar methods, by a group of scientists and environmental non-governmental organizations under the framework of Global Forest Watch, an initiative of the World Resources Institute. +Using the same method, a global IFL map was prepared in 2005–2006 under the leadership of Greenpeace, with contributions from the Biodiversity Conservation Center, International Socio-Ecological Union, Transparent World (Russia), Finnish Nature League, Forest Watch Indonesia, and Global Forest Watch. +The global IFL map relies on publicly available high spatial resolution satellite imagery provided by Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) and USGS and on a simple and consistent set of criteria. + +== Implementation of the IFL concept == +The IFL concept is a useful tool for making, implementing, and monitoring policy in the realms of sustainable forest management, conservation and climate, as shown by the following examples. + +=== Forest degradation assessed by IFL monitoring === +The distinction between intact and non-intact forest landscapes can be used to account for losses of carbon from forest degradation, as proposed by Mollicone, et al. The global IFL map provides a geographically explicit baseline with several advantages: + +it provides a globally consistent and highly detailed snapshot of the ecological integrity of the world's forest biomes at the beginning of the new millennium (approximately year 2000) +the method that was used to create the map can easily be adapted into a monitoring method that uses high spatial resolution satellite images +its high precision and fine scale make it a meaningful baseline for assessment of small-scale disturbances that can be detected by remotely sensed data + +=== Nature conservation strategies formulated using IFL maps === + +Conservation of large IFLs is a robust and cost-effective way to protect biodiversity and maintain ecological integrity and should therefore be an important component of a global conservation strategy. The remoteness and large size of these areas provide the best guarantee for their continued intactness. Withdrawing remaining intact areas from the production base would lead to small or negligible economic loss. +Russian NGOs have, for example, used IFL maps to argue that the most valuable of the remaining intact natural landscapes of northern European Russia and Far East be preserved, and to propose several new national parks: Kutsa and Hibiny (Murmansk Region), Kalevalsky (Karelia Republic) and Onezhskoye Pomorye (Arkhangelsk Region). + +=== Sustainable forest management underpinned by IFL maps === +Several boreal countries are using the IFL concept in the context of forest certification. One of the categories of High Conservation Value Forest used by the Forest Stewardship Council is analogous to that of IFLs. The formulation used in the Canadian and Russian national FSC standards—globally, nationally, or regionally significant forest landscapes, un-fragmented by permanent infrastructure and of a size to maintain viable populations of most species—calls for IFL maps for implementation. IFLs are directly mentioned among other categories of High Conservation Value Forest in the FSC Controlled Wood standard. +Several retailers, including IKEA and Lowe's, have committed not to use wood from IFLs unless intactness values are preserved. Others, such as Bank of America, invest only in companies that maintain such values. These companies use regional IFL maps to implement their policies. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == +Intactforests.org +World Intact Forest map and publications +Global Forest Watch publications Archived 2012-06-13 at the Wayback Machine +A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Intact Forest Landscapes +A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: High Conservation Value Areas +Greenpeace: Our disappearing forests Archived 2008-12-28 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f950d0fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. Since the 20th century, invasive species have become serious economic, social, and environmental threats worldwide. +Invasion of long-established ecosystems by organisms is a natural phenomenon, but human-facilitated introductions have greatly increased the rate, scale, and geographic range of invasion. For millennia, humans have served as both accidental and deliberate dispersal agents, beginning with their earliest migrations, accelerating in the Age of Discovery, and accelerating again with the spread of international trade. +Notable plant species that are invasive in many parts of the world include the kudzu vine (Pueraria), water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes), common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), and yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis). Notable animal species that are invasive include European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), domestic cats (Felis catus), and red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). + +== Terminology == + +Invasive species are the subset of established non-native species that pose a threat to native species and biodiversity. The term "invasive" is poorly defined and often very subjective. Invasive species may be plants, animals, fungi, and microbes; some include native species that have invaded human habitats such as farms and landscapes. Some broaden the term to include indigenous or "native" species that have colonized natural areas. Some sources name Homo sapiens as an invasive species, but broad appreciation of human learning capacity and their behavioral potential and plasticity may argue against any such fixed categorization. +The definition of "native" can also be controversial. For example, the ancestors of modern horses (Equus ferus) evolved in North America and radiated to Eurasia before becoming extinct in North America. Their reintroduction to North America, by Spanish conquistadors, led to a 1943 debate over whether the feral horses were native or exotic to the continent of their evolutionary ancestors. +While invasive species can be studied within many subfields of biology, most research on invasive organisms has been in ecology and biogeography. Much of the work has been influenced by Charles Elton's 1958 book The Ecology of Invasion by Animals and Plants which creates a generalized picture of biological invasions. Studies remained sparse until the 1990s. This research, largely field observational studies, has disproportionately been concerned with terrestrial plants. The rapid growth of the field has driven a need to standardize the language used to describe invasive species and events. Despite this, little standard terminology exists. The field lacks any official designation but is commonly referred to as "invasion ecology" or more generally "invasion biology". This lack of standard terminology has arisen due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field, which borrows terms from disciplines such as agriculture, zoology, and pathology, as well as due to studies being performed in isolation. + +In an attempt to avoid the ambiguous, subjective, and pejorative vocabulary that so often accompanies discussion of invasive species, even in scientific papers, Colautti and MacIsaac proposed a new nomenclature system. Based on biogeography rather than on taxa, the proposed system emphasizes ecology over taxonomy, human health, and economic factors. The model evaluated individual populations rather than entire species. It classified each population based on its success in that environment. This model applied equally to indigenous and to introduced species, and did not automatically categorize successful introductions as harmful. +The USDA's National Invasive Species Information Center defines invasive species very narrowly. According to Executive Order 13112, "'Invasive species' means an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health." + +== Causes == +Typically, an introduced species must persist at low population densities before it can become invasive in a new environment. At low densities, introduced species often face difficulties in reproducing and sustaining a viable population—sometimes requiring multiple introductions before establishment occurs. Patterns of repeated human movement, such as ship traffic between ports or vehicles travelling along major highways, can create recurring opportunities for arrival and establishment, a phenomenon known as high propagule pressure. + +=== Ecosystem-based mechanisms === +In ecosystems, the availability of resources determines the impact of additional species on the ecosystem. Stable ecosystems have a resource equilibrium, which can be changed fundamentally by the arrival of invasive species. When changes such as a forest fire occur, normal ecological succession favors native grasses and forbs. An introduced species that can spread faster than natives can outcompete native species for food, squeezing the natives out. Nitrogen and phosphorus are often the limiting factors in these situations. Every species occupies an ecological niche in its native ecosystem; some species fill large and varied roles, while others are highly specialized. Invading species may occupy unused niches, or create new ones. For example, edge effects describe what happens when part of an ecosystem is disturbed, as in when land is cleared for agriculture. The boundary between the remaining undisturbed habitat and the newly cleared land itself forms a distinct new habitat, creating new winners and losers, and potentially hosting species that would not otherwise thrive outside the boundary habitat. +In 1958, Charles S. Elton claimed that ecosystems with higher species diversity were less subject to invasive species because fewer niches remained unoccupied. Other ecologists later pointed to highly diverse, but heavily invaded ecosystems, arguing that ecosystems with high species diversity were more susceptible to invasion. This debate hinged on the spatial scale of invasion studies. Small-scale studies tended to show a negative relationship between diversity and invasion, while large-scale studies tended to show the reverse, perhaps a side-effect of invasives' ability to capitalize on increased resource availability and weaker species interactions that are more common when larger samples are considered. However, this pattern does not seem to hold true for invasive vertebrates. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..20234921f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Island ecosystems may be more prone to invasion because their species face few strong competitors and predators, and because their distance from colonizing species populations makes them more likely to have "open" niches. For example, native bird populations on Guam have been decimated by the invasive brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis). However, the geographical distance and open water characteristic of island ecosystems can also delay colonisation by invasive species. For example, island nations such as Australia and the Galapagos have a high proportion of their island ecology consisting of endemic species due to immigration of other species being limited by oceans and their geographical isolation. +In New Zealand the first invasive species were the dogs and rats brought by Polynesian settlers around 1300. These and other introductions devastated endemic New Zealand species. The colonization of Madagascar brought similar harm to its ecosystems. Logging has caused harm directly by destroying habitat, and has allowed non-native species such as prickly pear (Opuntia) and silver wattle (Acacia dealbata) to invade. The water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) forms dense mats on water surfaces, limiting light penetration and hence harming aquatic organisms, and creating substantial management costs. The shrub lantana (Lantana camara) is now considered invasive in over 60 countries, and has invaded large geographies in several countries prompting aggressive federal efforts to control it. +Along with island ecosystems, intensively managed fenced areas are more prone to invasion. One reason is that species can enter through ways that fences cannot block. In the case of many plant species, dispersal can occur through wind, water, and birds carrying seeds either internally or externally. Small animals or insects are sometimes also able to make it through fenced areas. Another reason is that intensive management methods create opportunities for these invasive species to thrive. When fenced areas are established, they are intensively managed through clearing vegetation, mowing, and disturbing the soil. This reduces competition from the native plant species in the area and exposes the soil so that invasive species can easily populate the area. The purpose of these fenced areas is often to keep unwanted herbivores out of the areas. Because there are no threats to the invasive plants that can take over intensively managed fenced areas, they can flourish without predatory threats. Finally, in general, invasive species have traits that favor their survival. Most invasive species are extremely resilient and have traits that favor their establishment in areas where they are not native. These traits, along with the intensive management of the fenced areas, create an ideal environment in which these invasive species can thrive. +Primary geomorphological effects of invasive plants are bioconstruction and bioprotection. For example, kudzu (Pueraria montana), a vine native to Asia, was widely introduced in the southeastern United States in the early 20th century to control soil erosion. The primary geomorphological effects of invasive animals are bioturbation, bioerosion, and bioconstruction. For example, invasions of the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) have resulted in higher bioturbation and bioerosion rates. +A native species can also become harmful and effectively invasive to its native environment after human alterations to its food web. This has been the case with the purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus), which has decimated kelp forests along the northern California coast due to overharvesting of its natural predator, the California sea otter (Enhydra lutris). + +=== Species-based mechanisms === + +Invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases, these characteristics include rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases, invasive species interact with native species other more directly. One study found that 86% of invasive species could be identified from such traits alone. Another study found that invasive species often had only a few of the traits, and that noninvasive species had these also. Common invasive species traits include fast growth and rapid reproduction, such as vegetative reproduction in plants; association with humans; and prior successful invasions. Domestic cats (Felis catus) are effective predators of wildlife. They have become feral and invasive in places such as the Florida Keys. +An introduced species might become invasive if it can outcompete native species for resources. If these species evolved under great competition or predation, then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate. Ecosystems used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero-sum systems, in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native. However, such unilateral competitive superiority (and extinction of native species with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a9b541c11 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An invasive species might be able to use resources previously unavailable to native species, such as deep water accessed by a long taproot, or to live on previously uninhabited soil types. For example, barbed goatgrass (Aegilops triuncialis) was introduced to California on serpentine soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high magnesium/calcium ratio, and possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to show low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils and crowd out native species. +Invasive species may also alter their environment by releasing chemical compounds, modifying abiotic factors, or affecting the behavior of herbivores, all of which can impact other species. Some, like mother of thousands (Kalanchoe daigremontana), produce allelopathic compounds that inhibit competitors. Others like the toad plant (Stapelia gigantea) facilitate the growth of seedlings of other species in arid environments by providing appropriate microclimates and preventing herbivores from eating seedlings. +Changes in fire regimens are another form of facilitation. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), originally from Eurasia, is highly fire-adapted. It spreads rapidly after burning, and increases the frequency and intensity of fires by providing large amounts of dry detritus during the fire season in western North America. Where it is widespread, it has altered the local fire regimen so much that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing it to become dominant in its introduced range. +Ecological facilitation occurs where one species, including invasive species, physically modifies a habitat in ways advantageous to other species. For example, zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) increase habitat complexity on lake floors, providing crevices in which invertebrates live. This increase in complexity, together with the nutrition provided by the waste products of mussel filter-feeding, increases the density and diversity of benthic invertebrate communities. +Introduced species may spread rapidly and unpredictably. When bottlenecks and founder effects cause a great decrease in the population size and may constrict genetic variation, individuals begin to show additive variance as opposed to epistatic variance. This conversion can lead to increased variance in the founding populations, which permits rapid evolution. Selection may then act on the capacity to disperse as well as on physiological tolerance to new stressors in the environment, such as changed temperature and different predators and prey. +Rapid adaptive evolution through intraspecific phenotypic plasticity, pre-adaptation, and post-introduction evolution lead to offspring that have higher fitness. Critically, plasticity permits changes to better suit the individual to its environment. Pre-adaptations and evolution after the introduction reinforce the success of the introduced species. +The enemy release hypothesis states that evolution leads to ecological balance in every ecosystem. No single species can occupy a majority of an ecosystem due to the presences of competitors, predators, and diseases. Introduced species moved to a novel habitat can become invasive, with rapid population growth, when these controls do not exist in the new ecosystem. + +== Vectors == +Non-native species have many vectors, but most are associated with human activity. Natural range extensions are common, but humans often carry specimens faster and over greater distances than natural forces. An early human vector occurred when prehistoric humans introduced the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) to Polynesia. +Humans have historically acted as vectors, both deliberately and accidentally. During the colonial era, there were acclimatization societies that aimed to deliberately establish animals and plants that were recognizable to Europeans. These societies felt that this would be an "improvement" to nature by adding species that were nostalgic and valuable. Another reason for deliberate introduction was that some species are thought to act as biocontrol. The cane toad was introduced in Australia in hopes of controlling the cane beetle population. Cane beetles are pests of the sugar cane crop. While only 100 toads were initially imported, there are now over 200 million present in Australia. Another example of animal introduction is the Indian mongoose, which was introduced in Hawaii to control the rat population as the rats were damaging sugar cane yields. This, however, ended up being ineffective because rats are nocturnal while the mongoose is diurnal. Their introduction ended up causing new problems for the island's ecosystems. + +Vectors also include plants or seeds imported for horticulture. The pet trade moves animals across borders, where they can escape and become invasive. Organisms may also stow away on transport vehicles. Incidental human assisted transfer is the main cause of introductions – other than in polar regions. Diseases may be vectored by invasive insects: the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri) carries the bacterial disease citrus greening. The arrival of invasive propagules to a new site is a function of the site's invasibility. +Many invasive species, once they are dominant in the area, become essential to the ecosystem of that area, and their removal could be harmful. Economics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable Chinese mitten crab is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters. + +=== Within the aquatic environment === +Maritime trade has rapidly affected the way marine organisms are transported within the ocean; new means of species transport include hull fouling and ballast water transport. In fact, Molnar et al. 2008 documented the pathways of hundreds of marine invasive species and found that shipping was the dominant mechanism for the transfer of invasive species. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7f3120a10 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Many marine organisms can attach themselves to vessel hulls. Such organisms are easily transported from one body of water to another, and are a significant risk factor for a biological invasion event. Controlling for vessel hull fouling is voluntary and there are no regulations currently in place to manage hull fouling. However, the governments of California and New Zealand have announced more stringent control for vessel hull fouling within their respective jurisdictions. +Another vector of non-native aquatic species is ballast water taken up at sea and released in port by transoceanic vessels. Some 10,000 species are transported via ballast water each day. Many of these are harmful. For example, freshwater zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) from Eurasia most likely reached the Great Lakes via ballast water. The mussels outcompete native organisms for oxygen and food, and can be transported in the small puddle left in a supposedly empty ballast tank. Regulations attempt to mitigate such risks, not always successfully. +Climate change is causing an increase in ocean temperature. These changes to the environment in turn cause range shifts in organisms, creating new species interactions. For example, organisms in a ballast tank of a ship traveling from the temperate zone through tropical waters may experience temperature fluctuations as much as 20 °C. Heat challenges during transport may enhance the stress tolerance of species in their non-native range, by selecting for genotypes that will survive a second applied heat stress, such as increased ocean temperature in the founder population. + +=== Effects of wildfire and firefighting === +Invasive species often exploit disturbances to an ecosystem (wildfires, roads, foot trails) to colonize an area. Large wildfires can sterilize soils, while adding nutrients. +Invasive plants that can regenerate from their roots then have an advantage over natives that rely on seeds for propagation. + +== Adverse effects == +Invasive species can affect the invaded habitats, communities, and ecosystems adversely, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. + +=== Ecological === +The European Union defines "Invasive Alien Species" as those that are outside their natural distribution area, and that threaten biological diversity. Biotic invasion is one of the five top drivers for global biodiversity loss, and is increasing because of tourism and globalization. This may be particularly true in inadequately regulated fresh water systems, though quarantines and ballast water rules have improved the situation. + +Invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via competitive exclusion, niche displacement, or hybridization with related native species. Therefore, besides their economic ramifications, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution of the biota at sites of introduction, leading ultimately to the homogenization of the world's fauna and flora and the loss of biodiversity. It is difficult to unequivocally attribute extinctions to a species invasion, though for example there is strong evidence that the extinction of about 90 amphibian species was caused by the chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) spread by international trade. +Multiple successive introductions of different non-native species can worsen the total effect, as with the introductions of the amethyst gem clam (Gemma gemma) and the European green crab (Carcinus maenas). The gem clam was introduced into California's Bodega Harbor from the US East Coast a century ago. On its own, it did not displace native clams (Nutricola spp.). However, in the mid-1990s, the introduction of the European green crab resulted in an increase of the amethyst gem at the expense of the native clams. In India, multiple invasive plants have invaded 66% of natural areas, reducing the densities of native forage plants, declining the habitat-use by wild herbivores and threatening the long-term sustenance of dependent carnivores, including tigers. +Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the fire regime (e.g., cheatgrass, Bromus tectorum), nutrient cycling (e.g., smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora), and hydrology (e.g.,Tamarix) in native ecosystems. Invasive species that are closely related to rare native species have the potential to hybridize with the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinction of native species. For example, hybridization with introduced cordgrass threatens the existence of California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa) in San Francisco Bay. Invasive species cause competition for native species, and because of this 400 of the 958 endangered species under the Endangered Species Act are at risk. + +The unintentional introduction of forest pest species and plant pathogens can change forest ecology and damage the timber industry. Overall, forest ecosystems in the U.S. are widely invaded by exotic pests, plants, and pathogens. +The Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) was first introduced into the U.S. in 1996, and was expected to infect and damage millions of acres of hardwood trees. As of 2005 thirty million dollars had been spent in attempts to eradicate this pest and protect millions of trees in the affected regions. The woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) has inflicted damage on old-growth spruce, fir and hemlock forests and damages the Christmas tree industry. Chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch elm disease (Ascomycota) are plant pathogens with serious impacts. Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) is one of the most problematic invasive plant species in eastern North American forests, where it is highly invasive of the understory, reducing the growth rate of tree seedlings and threatening to modify the forest's tree composition. + +Native species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution. Genetic pollution is unintentional hybridization and introgression, which leads to homogenization or replacement of local genotypes as a result of either a numerical or fitness advantage of the introduced species. Genetic pollution occurs either through introduction or through habitat modification, where previously isolated species are brought into contact with the new genotypes. Invading species have been shown to adapt to their new environments in a remarkably short amount of time. The population size of invading species may remain small for a number of years and then experience an explosion in population, a phenomenon known as "the lag effect". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ae9f5e149 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hybrids resulting from invasive species interbreeding with native species can incorporate their genotypes into the gene pool over time through introgression. Similarly, in some instances a small invading population can threaten much larger native populations. For example, cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) was introduced in the San Francisco Bay and hybridized with native California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa). The higher pollen count and male fitness of the invading species resulted in introgression that threatened the native populations due to lower pollen counts and lower viability of the native species. Reduction in fitness is not always apparent from morphological observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal, and preserves constellations of genes and genotypes. An example of this is the interbreeding of migrating coyotes (Canis latrans) with the critically endangered red wolf (Canis rufus), in areas of eastern North Carolina where the red wolf was reintroduced, reducing wolf numbers. + +=== Environmental === +In South Africa's Cape Town region, analysis demonstrated that the restoration of priority source water sub-catchments through the removal of thirsty alien plant invasions (such as Australian acacias, pines, eucalyptus, and Australian black wattle) would generate expected annual water gains of 50 billion liters within 5 years compared to the business-as-usual scenario (which is important as Cape Town experiences significant water scarcity). This is the equivalent to one-sixth of the city's current supply needs. These annual gains will double within 30 years. The catchment restoration is significantly more cost-effective then other water augmentation solutions (1/10 the unit cost of alternative options). A water fund has been established, and these exotic species are being eradicated. + +=== Human health === +Invasive species can affect human health. With the alteration in ecosystem functionality (due to homogenization of biota communities), invasive species have resulted in negative effects on human well-being, which includes reduced resource availability, unrestrained spread of human diseases, recreational and educational activities, and tourism. Alien species have caused diseases including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), monkey pox, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). +Invasive species and accompanying control efforts can have long term public health implications. For instance, pesticides applied to treat a particular pest species could pollute soil and surface water. Encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems has exposed exotic diseases such as HIV to the wider population. Introduced birds (e.g. pigeons), rodents, and insects (e.g. mosquito, flea, louse and tsetse fly pests) can serve as vectors and reservoirs of human afflictions. Throughout recorded history, epidemics of human diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, typhus, and bubonic plague, spread via these vectors. A recent example of an introduced disease is the spread of the West Nile virus, which killed humans, birds, mammals, and reptiles. The introduced Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) are carriers of Asian lung fluke. Waterborne disease agents, such as cholera bacteria (Vibrio cholerae), and causative agents of harmful algal blooms are often transported via ballast water. + +=== Economic === + +Globally, invasive species management and control are substantial economic burdens, with expenditures reaching approximately $1.4 trillion annually. The economic impact of invasive species alone was estimated to exceed $423 billion annually as of 2019. This cost has exhibited a significant increase, quadrupling every decade since 1970, underscoring the escalating financial implications of these biological invasions. +Invasive species contribute to ecological degradation, altering ecosystem functionality and reducing the services ecosystems provide. This necessitates additional expenditures to control the spread of biological invasions, mitigate further impacts, and restore affected ecosystems. For example, the damage caused by 79 invasive species between 1906 and 1991 in the United States has been estimated at US$120 billion. Similarly, in China, invasive species have been reported to reduce the country's gross domestic product (GDP) by 1.36% per year. +The management of biological invasions can be costly. In Australia, for instance, the expense to monitor, control, manage, and research invasive weed species is approximately AU$116.4 million per year, with costs directed solely to central and local governments. +While, in some cases, invasive species may offer economic benefits—such as the potential for commercial forestry from invasive trees—these benefits are generally overshadowed by the substantial costs associated with biological invasions. In most cases, the economic returns from invasive species are far less than the costs they impose. + +==== United States ==== +In the Great Lakes region the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) is an invasive species. In its original habitat, it had co-evolved as a parasite that did not kill its host. However, in the Great Lakes region, it acts as a predator and can consume up to 40 pounds of fish in its 12–18 month feeding period. Sea lampreys prey on all types of large fish such as lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and salmon. The sea lampreys' destructive effects on large fish negatively affect the fishing industry and have helped cause the collapse of the population of some species. +Economic costs from invasive species can be separated into direct costs through production loss in agriculture and forestry, and management costs. Estimated damage and control costs of invasive species in the U.S. amount to more than $138 billion annually. Economic losses can occur through loss of recreational and tourism revenues. When economic costs of invasions are calculated as production loss and management costs, they are low because they do not consider environmental damage; if monetary values were assigned to the extinction of species, loss in biodiversity, and loss of ecosystem services, costs from impacts of invasive species would drastically increase. It is often argued that the key to invasive species management is early detection and rapid response. However, early response only helps when the invasive species is not frequently reintroduced into the managed area, and the cost of response is affordable. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..850ffc706 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Weeds reduce yield in agriculture. Many weeds are accidental introductions that accompany imports of commercial seeds and plants. Introduced weeds in pastures compete with native forage plants, threaten young cattle (e.g., leafy spurge, Euphorbia virgata) or are unpalatable because of thorns and spines (e.g., yellow starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis). Forage loss from invasive weeds on pastures amounts to nearly US$1 billion in the U.S. A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by honey bees (Apis mellifera) infected by the invasive varroa mite (Varroa destructor). Introduced rats (Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus) have become serious pests on farms, destroying stored grains. The introduction of leaf miner flies (Agromyzidae), including the American serpentine leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii), to California has caused losses in California's floriculture industry, as the larvae of these invasive species feed on ornamental plants. +Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can suppress agricultural yields and harm nursery stock. Citrus greening is a bacterial disease vectored by the invasive Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri). As a result, citrus is under quarantine and highly regulated in areas where the psyllid has been found. +Invasive species can impact outdoor recreation, such as fishing, hunting, hiking, wildlife viewing, and water-based activities. They can damage environmental services including water quality, plant and animal diversity, and species abundance, though the extent of this is under-researched. Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) in parts of the US, fills lakes with plants, complicating fishing and boating. The loud call of the introduced common coqui (Eleutherodactylus coqui) depresses real estate values in affected neighborhoods of Hawaii. The large webs of the orb-weaving spider (Zygiella x-notata), invasive in California, disrupts garden work. + +==== Europe ==== +The overall economic cost of invasive alien species in Europe between 1960 and 2020 has been estimated at around US$140 billion (including potential costs that may or may not have actually materialized) or US$78 billion (only including observed costs known to have materialized). These estimates are very conservative. Models based on these data suggest a true annual cost of around US$140 billion in 2020. +Italy is one of the most invaded countries in Europe, with an estimate of more than 3,000 alien species. The impacts of invasive alien species on the economy has been wide-ranging, from management costs, to loss of crops, to infrastructure damage. The overall economic cost of invasions to Italy between 1990 and 2020 was estimated at US$819.76 million (EUR€704.78 million). However, only 15 recorded species have more reliably estimated costs, hence the actual cost may be much larger than the aforementioned sum. +France has an estimated minimum of 2,750 introduced and invasive alien species. Renault et al. (2021) obtained 1,583 cost records for 98 invasive alien species and found that they caused a conservative total cost between US$1.2 billion and 11.5 billion over the period 1993–2018. This study extrapolated costs for species invading France, but for which costs were reported only in other countries but not in France, which yielded an additional cost ranging from US$151 million to $3.03 billion. Damage costs were nearly eight times higher than management expenditure. Insects, and in particular the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and the yellow fever mosquito (A. aegypti), created the highest economic costs, followed by non-graminoid terrestrial flowering and aquatic plants (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Ludwigia sp. and Lagarosiphon major). Over 90% of alien species currently recorded in France had no costs reported in the literature, resulting in high biases in taxonomic, regional and activity sector coverages. However, the lack of reports does not mean there are no negative consequences or costs. + +== Favorable effects == + +The consensus of the scientific community is that the effects of invasive species on biodiversity are primarily negative, despite the potential for some favorable impacts. The entomologist Chris D. Thomas argues that most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species but this is a minority opinion. +Some invasive species can provide a suitable habitat or food source for other organisms. In areas where a native has become extinct or reached a point that it cannot be restored, non-native species can fill their role despite having negative impacts elsewhere. For instance, in the US, the endangered southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii) mainly nests in the non-native tamarisk. +The introduced mesquite (Neltuma juliflora) is an aggressive invasive species in India, but is the preferred nesting site of native waterbirds in small cities like Udaipur in Rajasthan. Similarly, Ridgway's rail (Rallus obsoletus) has adapted to the invasive hybrid of Spartina alterniflora and Spartina foliosa, which offers better cover and nesting habitat. In Australia, saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus), which had become endangered, have recovered by feeding on introduced feral pigs (Sus domesticus). +Non-native species can provide ecosystem services, functioning as biocontrol agents to limit the effects of invasive agricultural pests. Some species have invaded an area so long ago that they are considered to have naturalised there. In the US, the endangered Taylor's checkerspot butterfly (Euphydryas editha taylori) has come to rely on invasive ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata) as the food plant for its caterpillars. +Some invasions offer potential commercial benefits. For instance, silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) can be harvested for human food and exported to markets already familiar with the product, or processed into pet foods or mink feed. Water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) can be turned into fuel by methane digesters, and other invasive plants can be harvested and utilized as a source of bioenergy. + +== Control, eradication, and study == +Humans are versatile enough to remediate adverse effects of species invasions. The public is motivated by invasive species that impact their local area. +The control of alien species populations is important in the conservation of biodiversity in natural ecosystem. Previous studies and control programs that target invasives are the most effective during the earlier phases of invasion, such as eliminating founder population quickly before the introduced species can spread. One of the most promising methods for controlling alien species is genetic. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7bbdb7a31 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Cargo inspection and quarantine === +The original motivation was to protect against agricultural pests while still allowing the export of agricultural products. In 1994 the first set of global standards were agreed to, including the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). These are overseen by the World Trade Organization. The International Maritime Organization oversees the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (the Ballast Water Management Convention). Although primarily targeted at other, more general environmental concerns, the Convention on Biological Diversity does specify some steps that its members should take to control invasive species. The CBD is the most significant international agreement on the environmental consequences of invasive species; most such measures are voluntary and unspecific. + +=== Slowing spread === +Firefighters are becoming responsible for decontamination of their own equipment, public water equipment, and private water equipment, due to the risk of aquatic invasive species transfer. In the United States this is especially a concern for wildland firefighters because quagga (Dreissena bugensis) and zebra (Dreissena polymorpha) mussel invasion and wildfires co-occur in the American West. + +=== Reestablishing species === + +Island restoration deals with the eradication of invasive species on islands. A 2019 study suggests that if eradications of invasive animals were conducted on just 169 islands, the survival prospects of 9.4% of the Earth's most highly threatened terrestrial insular vertebrates would be improved. +Invasive vertebrate eradication on islands aligns with United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 and associated targets. +Rodents were carried to South Georgia, an island in the southern Atlantic Ocean with no permanent inhabitants, in the 18th century by sealing and whaling ships. They soon wrought havoc on the island's bird population, eating eggs and attacking chicks. In 2018, the South Georgia Island was declared free of invasive rodents after a multi-year extermination effort. Bird populations have rebounded, including the South Georgia pipit (Anthus antarcticus) and South Georgia pintail (Anas georgica georgica), both endemic to the island. + +=== Taxon substitution === + +Non-native species can be introduced to fill an ecological engineering role that previously was performed by a native species now extinct. The procedure is known as taxon substitution. On many islands, tortoise extinction has resulted in dysfunctional ecosystems with respect to seed dispersal and herbivory. On the offshore islets of Mauritius, tortoises now extinct had served as the keystone herbivores. Introduction of the non-native Aldabra giant tortoises (Aldabrachelys gigantea) on two islets in 2000 and 2007 has begun to restore ecological equilibrium. The introduced tortoises are dispersing seeds of several native plants and are selectively grazing invasive plant species. Grazing and browsing are expected to replace ongoing intensive manual weeding, and the introduced tortoises are already breeding. + +=== By using them as food === + +The practice of eating invasive species to reduce their populations has been explored. In 2005, Chef Bun Lai of Miya's Sushi in New Haven, Connecticut, created the first menu dedicated to invasive species. At that time, half the items on the menu were conceptual because those invasive species were not yet commercially available. By 2013, Miya's offered invasive aquatic species such as Chesapeake blue catfish (Ictalurus furcatus), Florida lionfish (Pterois sp.), Kentucky silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), Georgia cannonball jellyfish (Stomolophus meleagris), and invasive plants such as Japanese knotweed (Reynoutria japonica) and autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata). Joe Roman, a Harvard and University of Vermont conservation biologist and recipient of the Rachel Carson Environmental award, runs a website named "Eat The Invaders". In the 21st century, organizations including Reef Environmental Educational Foundation and the Institute for Applied Ecology have published cookbooks and recipes using invasive species as ingredients. Invasive plant species have been explored as a sustainable source of beneficial phytochemicals and edible protein. +Proponents of eating invasive organisms argue that humans have the ability to eat away any species that it has an appetite for, pointing to the many animals which humans have been able to hunt to extinction—such as the Caribbean monk seal (Neomonachus tropicalis) and the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius). They further point to Jamaica's success in significantly decreasing the population of lionfish by encouraging the consumption of the fish. Skeptics point out that once a foreign species has entrenched itself in a new place—such as the Indo-Pacific lionfish that has now virtually taken over the waters of the western Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico—eradication is almost impossible. Critics argue that encouraging consumption might have the unintended effect of spreading harmful species even more widely. + +=== Pesticides and herbicides === +Pesticides are commonly used to control invasives. Herbicides used against invasive plants include fungal herbicides. Although the effective population size of an introduced population is bottlenecked, some genetic variation has been known to provide invasive plants with resistance against these fungal bioherbicides. Invasive populations of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) exist with resistance to Ustilago bullata used as a biocontrol, and a similar problem has been reported in Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum) subject to Bipolaris microstegii and B. drechsleri. This is not solely a character of invasive plant genetics but is normal for wild plants such as the weed wild flax (Linum marginale) and its fungal pathogen flax rust (Melampsora lini). Crops have another disadvantage over any uncontrolled plant – wild native or invasive – namely their greater uptake of nutrients, as they are deliberately bred to increase nutrient intake to enable increased product output. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4c770aa9d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Gene drive === +A gene drive could be used to eliminate invasive species and has, for example, been proposed as a way to eliminate invasive mammal species in New Zealand. Briefly put, an individual of a species may have two versions of a gene, one with a desired coding outcome and one not, with offspring having a 50:50 chance of inheriting one or the other. Genetic engineering can be used to inhibit inheritance of the non-desired gene, resulting in faster propagation of the desired gene in subsequent generations. Gene drives for biodiversity conservation purposes are being explored as part of The Genetic Biocontrol of Invasive Rodents program because they offer the potential for reduced risk to non-target species and reduced costs when compared to traditional invasive species removal techniques. A wider outreach network for gene drive research exists to raise awareness of the value of gene drive research for the public good. Some scientists are concerned that the technique could wipe out species in their original native habitats. The gene could mutate, causing unforeseen problems, or hybridize with native species. + +=== Predicting invasive plants === +Accurately predicting the impacts of non-native plants can be an especially effective management option because most introductions of non-native plant species are intentional. Weed risk assessments attempt to predict the chances that a specific plant will have negative effects in a new environment, often using a standardized questionnaire. The resulting total score is associated with a management action such as "prevent introduction". Assessments commonly use information about the physiology, life history, native ranges, and phylogenetic relationships of the species evaluated. The effectiveness of the approach is debated. + +=== Predicting invasive animals === +Invasive alien animal species can seriously affect human well-being and biodiversity. A hierarchical approach underpins the management measures used to lessen these effects, ranging from invasive species management to invasion prevention through early warning and quick response. Currently, a small number of research on invading mammals have employed spatially explicit models, and the majority of them only looked at a small number of species. The majority of the research employed climate matching to assess the appropriateness of global geographic regions or the potential for established species to spread farther. For species that are not yet established but are anticipated to do so, modelling techniques may be a helpful tool to evaluate the risk of establishment; nevertheless, there aren't many research of this kind for mammals. + +=== Returning invasive species to origin country === +In 2025, for the first time in history, a project to return an invasive species to the country it came from has been started in the Hebrides in Scotland. Hedgehogs "native to the UK mainland" were brought to those islands decades ago to fight garden pests, but the introduction caused severe harm to birds which nested on the ground. The authorities decided to move them back to the mainland, helping the birds without harming the hedgehogs. + +=== Government Regulations === +Government regulations offer another way to eradicate invasive species. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission (FWC) sponsors competitions aimed at removing lionfish from Florida waters. The challenge offers divers with prizes contingent on the number of lionfish each competitor successfully removes. Similarly, the FWC encourages local Floridians to collect invasive green iguanas and turn them into local government facilities. When the state undergoes cold snaps, these non-native lizards often freeze and become stunned allowing for the ease of collecting them. The FWC permits the killing of green iguanas year-round to combat the population. +The state of Texas classifies feral hogs as invasive species. As such, hunting of these hogs is permitted and highly encouraged by the Texas government year-round. Methods described by the Texas State Government include trapping, corralling, aerial gunning (high-powered rifles discharged from individuals aboard helicopters), and tracking dogs. Many local governments across Texas also provide bounties that encourage hunters to increase pressure on the feral hog populations. +The state of Idaho classifies walleye as an invasive species in their waters. These predatory fish pose a threat to native aquatic populations. Idaho Fish and Game officials strongly encourage anglers to harvest caught walleye year-round with no limits regarding amount or size. Similarly, the Indiana Department of Natural Resources classifies thirteen species of fish, including bighead carp and walking catfish, as invasive to Indiana waters and finds anglers not in violation of the Exotic Fish Rule only if the fish are killed immediately after being caught. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2b2c96e93 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Invasive species" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Criticisms of the invasive species discourse == +The process of removing and classifying animals as invasive species is not without controversy. Several animal welfare movements have attempted to dissuade the eradication of invasive species. A main point of contention for these activists is the treatment of the invasive species during the eradication process. These proponents argue that the stigma surrounding an invasive species seemingly outweighs the notion that all animals are living beings that deserve respect and care. These activists acknowledge that invasive species contribute to more economic and environmental damage than every natural disaster combined but find the removal process largely unethical and cruel. +Other animal activists reject the idea of labeling a species as invasive altogether. These activists posit the labeling of a species as ‘invasive’ constitutes wrongful discrimination that permits systemic violence on the creatures. Proponents of this subset of animal activism profess invasive species labeling is inherently arbitrary and a perpetuator of speciesism, a term coined by Peter Singer to describe the “misguided belief that one species is more important than another.” Once a species is determined to be legally invasive, those animals often fail to be protected by anti-cruelty statutes and inhumane killings of the species, like cane toads in Australia, become commonplace. +A growing contingent of scientists, ecologists, and animal welfare activists caution utilizing the term ‘invasive’ for species migrating to new ecosystems. Scientists disclose that climate change has begun pushing species such as white-tailed deer, armadillos, lobsters, unicorn snails, and even maple trees to pursue new ecosystems, a migration necessary to survive hotter temperatures. Rather than labeling these species as invasive, this contingent urges these animals should be welcomed as refugees. The term ‘invasive’ compares these species to enemies in war which warps the public perception of the innocent animals’ livelihood and welfare. + +== See also == +Adventive plant +Archaeophyte +Climate change and invasive species +Ecologically based invasive plant management +Escaped plant +Hemerochory +Invasion genetics +Lists of invasive species +Naturalisation (biology) +Neophyte (botany) +Seed dispersal +100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species + +== References == + +=== Attribution === +This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference + +=== Citations === + +== Further reading == +Mitchell, Heidi J.; Bartsch, Detlef (January 21, 2020). "Regulation of GM Organisms for Invasive Species Control". Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 7 454. doi:10.3389/fbioe.2019.00454. PMC 6985037. PMID 32039172. +Removing Threat from Invasive Species with Genetic Engineering—Science in the News +Sheppard, Andy; et al. (September 4, 2023). "The true damage of invasive alien species was just revealed in a landmark report. Here's how we must act". The Conversation. +White, Michael (13 Dec 2017) [6 Dec 2017]. "Should We Fight Invasive Species with Genetic Engineering?" Pacific Standard. + +== External links == +North American Invasive Species Network, a consortium that uses a coordinated network to advance science-based understanding and enhance management of non-native, invasive species. +Great Britain Non-native Species Secretariat (NNNS) website +CABI Invasive Species Compendium, an encyclopaedic resource of scientific information +Invasive Species, National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library +Invasive Species Specialist Group – Global Invasive Species Database +Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk project +invadingspecies.com of the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunters +Aquatic invasive species in Ireland, Inland Fisheries Ireland +Invasive alien species in Belgium Belgian Forum on Invasive Species (BFIS) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_limnology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_limnology-0.md index 48fe0bab8..420a7956f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_limnology-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_limnology-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_limnology" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:15:40.323130+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:42.892030+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7235d8b88 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Limbing" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:45.539083+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Limbing or delimbing is the process of removing branches from a standing or fallen tree trunk. + +In logging, limbing follows felling. +Limbing plays a role in fire prevention by removing branches from live trees that can otherwise serve as part of a fuel ladder allowing a fire to climb from the ground into the tree canopy. A California fire prevention guide recommends to "Remove all tree branches at least 6 feet [1.8 meters] from the ground" and "Allow extra vertical space between shrubs and trees." +In British English, limbing can be synonymous with snedding. Alternatively, limbing can be used to describe the operation on larger branches, and snedding on smaller. + + +== In logging == +Options for cutting off the branches include chain saws, harvesters, stroke delimbers and others. Limbing can happen at the stump in log/tree length systems and cut-to-length systems or at the landing in whole-tree logging. + +When the tree is lying on the ground, branches may be storing enormous potential energy through mechanical strain. When a branch is cut, often with a chain saw, this energy can be released suddenly and the branch can jump dangerously. In addition, a branch may be supporting the tree, and the tree can fall or roll when the branch is cut. For these reasons, limbing is a skilled operation requiring careful safety planning. + + +== See also == +Axe +Chainsaw +Felling +Fuel ladder +Hewing +Logging +Log bucking +Feller buncher + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d30bce7b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ +--- +title: "List of waste management acronyms" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The following article contains a list of acronyms and initials used in the waste management industry. + +== A == +AATF Approved Authorised Treatment Facility +ABPO Animal By-Products Order +ABPR Animal By-Products Regulations +ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene +ACE Alliance of Beverage Cartons and the Environment +ACL Approved Carriers List +ACM Asbestos Containing Material +ACoP Approved Code of Practice +ACP Advisory Committee on Packaging +AD Anaerobic Digestion +ADBA Anaerobic Digestion & Biogas Association +ADI Acceptable Daily Intake +ADR Accord Europeen Relatif aux Transport International des Marchandises Dangereuses par Route, a European treaty concerned with the international carriage of dangerous goods by road +AE Approved Exporter +AfOR Association for Organics Recycling +ALANI Association of Local Authorities in Northern Ireland +ALARP As Low As Reasonably Practicable +ALCO Association of London Cleansing Officers +ANPR Automatic Number Plate Recognition +APC Air Pollution Control +APCR Air Pollution Control Residue +APSRG Associate Parliamentary Sustainable Resource Group +AR Accredited Reprocessor +ARF Advanced Recycling Fee +ARM Alternative Raw Material +ASBO Anti Social Behaviour Order +ASR Automotive Shredder Residue +ASSURE Association for Sustainable Use and Recovery of Resources +ATEX Atmosphères Explosives Directive 94/9/EC +ATF Authorised Treatment Facility (e.g. for the treatment of end-of-life vehicles (see ELV) and waste electrical and electronic equipment (see WEEE)) +ATT Advanced Thermal Treatment +AV Abandoned Vehicle/s +AVAC Automated Vacuum Collection +AWC Alternate Weekly Collections +AWCS Automated Waste Collection System +AWTT Alternative Waste Treatment Technologies +AWP Area Waste Plan + +== B == +BAN Basel Action Network +BANANA Build absolutely nothing anywhere near anything +BAT (NEEC) Best available technique (not entailing excessive costs) +BATRRT Best Available Treatment Recycling and Recovery Technology +BCS Batteries Compliance Scheme +BDF Biodiesel fuel +BFR Brominated Flame Retardant +BIFM British Institute of Facilities Management +BMRA British Metals Recycling Association +BMT Biological Mechanical Treatment +BMW Biodegradable Municipal Waste +BOD Biological Oxygen Demand +BOO Build Own Operate +BOT Build Operate Transfer +BPEO Best Practicable Environmental Option +BPF British Plastics Federation +BPPO Best Practicable Planning Option +BRBA Buy Recycled Business Alliance (Australia) +BREEAM Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method +BREF BAT Reference Note +BREW(p) Business Resource Efficiency and Waste programme +BRITE Better Regulation in the Environment (Environment Agency initiative) +BRE Building Research Establishment +BSI British Standards Institute +BSI PAS 100 Specification for composted materials +BSI PAS 101 Recovered container glass: Specification for quality and guidance for good practice in collection +BSI PAS 102 Specification for processed glass for selected secondary end markets +BSI PAS 103 Collected waste plastics packaging: Specification for quality and guidance for good practice in collection and preparation for recycling +BSI PAS 104 Wood recycling in the panelboard manufacturing industry: Specification for quality and guidance for good practice for the supply of post consumer wood for consumption in the manufacture of panelboard products +BSI PAS 105 Recovered paper sourcing and quality for UK end markets +BSI PAS 107 Specification for the manufacture and storage of size reduced tyre materials +BSI PAS 108 Specification for the production of tyre bales for use in construction +BSI PAS 109 Specification for the production of recycled gypsum from waste plasterboard +BSI PAS 110 Specification for whole digestate, separated liquor and separated fibre derived from the anaerobic digestion of source-segregated biodegradable materials +BSI PAS 111 Specification for the requirements and test methods for processing waste wood +BSI PAS 141 Reuse of used and waste electrical and electronic equipment (UEEE and WEEE). Process management - Specification +BVPI Best Value Performance Indicator +BVPP Best Value Performance Plan + +== C == +CA Civic amenity site +CAFÉ Clean Air For Europe programme +CATNAP Cheapest Available Technology Narrowly Avoiding Prosecution +CATNIP Cheapest Available Technology Not Involving Prosecution +CAVE Citizens against virtually everything +CBI Confederation of British Industry +CBM Compressed Biomethane +CCGT Combined cycle gas turbine +CCHP Combined cooling, heating and power +CCL Climate Change Levy +CCT Compulsory Competitive Tendering +C&D Construction and demolition (e.g. C&D waste) +CDG(CPL) Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail (Classification, Packaging and Labelling) Regulations 1994 +CEC Commission of the European Communities +CEMP Construction Environmental Management Plan +CEN Comite Europeen de Normalisation (European Committee for Standardization) +CEWEP Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants +CFC Chlorofluorocarbon +CfSH Code for Sustainable Homes +CHEM Container Handling Equipment Manufacturers +CHIP Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations +CHP Combined heat and power +CHPA Combined Heat and Power Association +C&I Commercial and industrial (e.g. C&I waste) +CIPFA Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy +CIWEM Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management +CIWM Chartered Institution of Wastes Management +CIWMB California Integrated Waste Management Board +CL:AIRE Contaminated Land: Application In Real Environments CLAIRE +CLEA Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment +CLO Compost-like output +CLR Contaminated Land Register +CNEA Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act +COD Chemical oxygen demand or certificate of destruction +COMAH Control of Major Accident Hazards +COPA Control of Pollution Act +COPLR Code of Practice for Litter and Refuse +CoRWM Committee on Radioactive Waste Management +COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health +CoTC Certificate of Technical Competence +CPA Comprehensive Performance Assessment +CRC CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme (formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment) +CRC Community recycling centre +CRN Community Recycling Network +CRNS Community Recycling Network for Scotland +CRR Campaign for Real Recycling +CRT Cathode-ray tube +CSER Corporate, social and environmental responsibilities +CSR Corporate social responsibility +CSTR Continuous stirred-tank reactor +CV Calorific value +CWMRE Creating Welsh Markets for Recyclates +CWP Cheshire Waste Partnership +CWR Controlled Waste Regulations + +== D == +DAC Dense Asphaltic Concrete +DBFO Design Build Finance and Operate +DCF Designated Collection Facility +DCLG Department for Communities and Local Government +DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change +DECLG Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government (Ireland) +DEFRA Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs +DGXI Directorate General of the European Commission responsible for the Environment +DLGE Department of Local Government and the Environment (Isle of Man) +DMR Dry Mixed Recyclables +DoC Duty of Care +DOENI Department for the Environment (Northern Ireland) +DRI Dynamic Respiration Index +DSD Duales System Deutschland +DSO Direct Service Organisation +DTI Department of Trade and Industry +DTLR Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions +DTS Distributor Takeback Scheme +DWP Dorset Waste Partnership \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..07443981c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,198 @@ +--- +title: "List of waste management acronyms" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== E == +EA Enforcement Agency +EBRA European Battery Recycling Association +ECN European Compost Network +EDIE Environmental Data Interactive Exchange +eDoC Electronic Duty of Care +EEA European Environment Agency +EfW Energy-from-Waste +EGSB Expanded Granular Sludge Bed +EHO Environmental health officer +EHS Environment & Heritage Service (Northern Ireland) +EIA Environmental Impact Assessment +EIC Environmental Industries Commission +EIR Environmental Information Regulations +ELSEF East London Sustainable Energy Facility +ELV End of Life Vehicles +ELWA East London Waste Authority +EMAS Eco-Management and Audit Scheme +EMS Environmental Management System +ENTRUST The European Trust Scheme Regulatory Body +ENCAMS Environmental Campaigns (umbrella name for former Going for Green and Tidy Britain Group) +EP Environmental Permit +EPA Environmental Protection Act or Environmental Protection Agency +EPERN Electronic Packaging Waste Export Recovery Notes +EPOW European Pathway to Zero Waste +EPR Environmental Permitting Regulations +EPRN Electronic Packaging Waste Recovery Notes +EPS Expanded Polystyrene +ERFO European Recovered Fuels Organisation +ERI Energy Recovery Incineration +ES Environmental Statement +ESA Environmental Services Association +ESWET European Suppliers of Waste-to-Energy Technology +ETBC Electronics TakeBack Coalition +ETRMA European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers' Association +ETS Emissions Trading Scheme +ETSU Energy Technology Support Unit +EUHWL EU Hazardous Waste List (now incorporated into EWC) +EUROPEN European Organization for Packaging and the Environment +EWC European Waste Catalogue +EWP Essex Waste Partnership + +== F == +FABRA Foodchain & Biomass Renewables Association +FAPP Fit And Proper Person +FBA Furnace Bottom Ash +FCC Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas +FEAD Fédération Européenne des Activités du Déchet et de l’Environnement European Federation of Waste Management and Environmental Services +FEL Front End Loader +FGT Flue Gas Treatment +FOE Friends of the Earth +FORWARRD Forum for Waste and Resource Research and Development +FPN Fixed Penalty Notice +Frag Fragmentised Waste (e.g. from the vehicle recycling industry) +FTE Full-time equivalent +FWD Food Waste Disposer + +== G == +GAIA Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives +GCV Gross Calorific Value +GHG Greenhouse Gas +GIB Green Investment Bank +GIS Geographical Information System +GLA Greater London Authority +GMWDA Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority +GWP Global Warming Potential + +== H == +HCRW Healthcare Risk Waste +HCW Healthcare Waste +HDPE High Density Polyethylene +HFC Hydrofluorocarbon +HHW Household Hazardous Waste +HIPS High Impact Polystyrene +HLW High Level Waste +HSC Health and Safety Commission +HSE Health & Safety Executive +HTI High Temperature Incineration +HW Household waste +HWOL HazWasteOnline (web-based tool for assessing and classifying hazardous waste) +HWR Hazardous Waste Regulations +HWRA Household Waste Recycling Act +HWRC Household Waste Recycling Centre + +== I == +IBA Incinerator Bottom Ash +IBAA Incinerator Bottom Ash Aggregate +ICE Institution of Civil Engineers +ICER Industry Council for Electronic Equipment Recycling +ICW International Catering Waste (catering waste from means of transport operating internationally) +IED Industrial Emissions Directive +ILW Intermediate Level Waste +INCPEN Industry Council for Packaging and the Environment +IPP Integrated Product Policy +IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control +ISRI Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries +ISWA International Solid Waste Association +IVC In-vessel Composting +IWM Integrated Waste Management or Institute of Wastes Management + +== J == +JMWMS Joint Municipal Waste Management Strategy +JWA Joint Waste Authority + +== K == +KAT Kerbside Assessment Tool + +== L == +LA Local Authority +LAAPC Local Authority Air Pollution Control +LACMW Local Authority Collected Municipal Waste (household and commercial waste where collected by the local authority and which is similar in nature and composition as required by the Landfill Directive) +LACW Local Authority Collected Waste (all waste collected by the local authority. This is a slightly broader concept than LACMW as it would include both this and non-municipal fractions such as construction and demolition waste) +LAPC Local Air Pollution Control +LARAC Local Authority Recycling Advisory Committee +LAS Landfill Allowance Scheme +LASU Local Authority Support Unit +LATS Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme +LAWAS Local Authority Waste Arisings Survey +LAWDC Local Authority Waste Disposal Company +LCA Life Cycle Analysis/Assessment +LCF Landfill Communities Fund +LCW Low Carbon Waste +LCPD Large Combustion Plant Directive +LDPE Low Density Polyethylene +LEA Local Enforcement Agency +LEL Lower Explosive Limit +LFD Landfill Directive +LFG Landfill Gas +LFT Landfill Tax +LGA Local Government Association +LHIP Landfill and Hazardous Waste Implementation Programme +LIM Loose Incinerator Metals +LLDPE Linear Low Density Polyethylene e.g. plastic wrap and stretch wrap +LLW Low Level Waste +LOLER Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 +LOW List of Wastes +LPSA Local Public Service Agreement +LTCS Landfill Tax Credit Scheme +LWaRB London Waste and Recycling Board + +== M == +MTD Metric Ton per Day +MAC Maximum Allowable Concentration +MBI Mass Burn Incineration +MBT Mechanical Biological Treatment +MCA Municipal Collection Authority +MCERTS Monitoring Certification Scheme +MCDA Multi Criteria Decision Analysis +MDC Metropolitan District Council +MDR Mixed Dry Recyclables +MEL Maximum Exposure Limit +MHSWR Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations +MHT Mechanical Heat Treatment +MMRCV Multi-Modal Refuse Collection Vehicle +MREC Materials Recovery and Energy Centre +MRF Materials Recovery Facility (or Recycling or Factory) +MRWA Merseyside Recycling and Waste Authority formerly known as Merseyside Waste Disposal Authority +MSW Municipal Solid Waste +MSWI Municipal Solid Waste Incineration +MVDA Motor Vehicle Dismantlers Association +MWDA Merseyside Waste Disposal Authority as of December 2011 renamed as Merseyside Recycling and Waste Authority +MWLP Minerals and Waste Local Plan +MWMS Municipal Waste Management Strategy + +== N == +NAWDO National Association of Waste Disposal Officers +NCAS National Compliance Assessment Service +NCH National Clearing House +NCV Net calorific value +NELVS Natural End of Life Vehicles +NFFO Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation +NGG New Generation Group (CIWM programme renamed New Member Network) +NGO Non-Governmental Organisation +NHHWF National Household Hazardous Waste Forum +NIEA Northern Ireland Environment Agency +NIMBY Not In My Back-Yard +NISP National Industrial Symbiosis Programme +NLWA North London Waste Authority +NOF New Opportunities Fund +NPWD National Packaging Waste Database +NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission (US) +NSIP Nationally significant infrastructure project +NVQ National Vocational Qualification +NWCPO: National Waste Collection Permit Office (in Ireland) +NWMRF National Waste Minimisation & Recycling Fund +NWP National Waste Plan or Norfolk Waste Partnership +NWPA Nuclear Waste Policy Act +NEST Nigerian Environmental Study Action Team \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..88998adca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,209 @@ +--- +title: "List of waste management acronyms" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== O == +OBB Old Boxboard +OCC Old Corrugated Containers +ODPM Office of the Deputy Prime Minister +ODS Ozone Depleting Substance +OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development +OFGEM Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Great Britain) +OFWAT Office of Water Services (England and Wales) +OJEU Official Journal of the European Union +OMA Operator Monitoring Assessment +OPRA Operator Pollution Risk Appraisal +ORA Oil Recycling Association +OWP Oxfordshire Waste Partnership + +== P == +PAFA Packaging and Films Association +pams Periodicals and Magazines +PAS Publicly Available Specification +PAYT Pay As You Throw +PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl +PCS Producer Compliance Scheme +PELVs Premature End of Life Vehicles (relatively new cars which have not survived the expected life span that most vehicle manufacturers build into their vehicles) +PERN Packaging Export Recovery Note +PET Polyethylene Terephthalate +PFI Private Finance Initiative +PIU Performance and Innovation Unit +PM Particulate Matter, airborne (e.g. PM 10 ~ particles under 10 micrometres) +PP Polypropylene +PP Proximity Principle +PPC Pollution Prevention and Control Act +PPE Personal Protective Equipment +PPG Planning Policy Guidance Notes (e.g. PPG 10 for waste management) +PPP Public Private Partnership or Polluter-pays principle +PPS Planning Policy Statement +PR Producer Responsibility +PRF Plastics Reclamation Facility +PRN Packaging Recovery Note +PS Polystyrene +PSA Public Service Agreement +PUWER Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations +PVB Polyvinyl Butyral +PVC Polyvinyl Chloride + +== Q == +QMS Quality Management System +QP Quality Protocol +QUANGO Quasi Autonomous Non-Governmental Organisation +QESH Quality, Environment, Safety and Health +QUENSH QUality, ENvironment, Safety and Health + +== R == +3Rs Reduce, Reuse, Recycle +RAD Rotary Aerobic Digestion +RAG Recycling Advisory Group, Scotland +RCE Regional Centre of Excellence +RCEP Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution +RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (US) +RCV Refuse Collection Vehicle +RDA Regional Development Agency (all abolished in England on 31 March 2012) +RDF Refuse Derived Fuel +REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals +RECAP Recycling in Cambridgeshire and Peterborough +RECOUP Recycling Of Used Plastics +REL Rear End Loader +REMADE Recycled Market Development +REPAC Regional Environmental Protection Advisory Committee +RFID Radio Frequency Identification +RIA Regulatory Impact Assessment +RID Regulations concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail +RIDDOR Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 +RGN Regulatory Guidance Note +RMA U.S. Rubber Manufacturers Association +RO Renewables Obligation +ROC Renewables Obligation Certificates +RoHS Restriction of Hazardous Substances +RoRo Rolonof/Roll-on Roll-off, demountable container system +ROTATE Recycling and Organic Technology Advisory Team +RSA Recycled & Secondary Aggregate +RSA Restoring Sustainable Abstraction +RTAB Regional Technical Advisory Body +RVM Reverse Vending Machine +RWM Recycling and Waste Management Exhibition +RWMO Radioactive Waste Management Organisation + +== S == +SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment +SEI Sustainable Electronics Initiative +SELCHP South East London Combined Heat and Power +SEPA Scottish Environment Protection Agency +SGV Soil Guideline Value +SIG Special Interest Group of CIWM +SLF Secondary Liquid Fuel +SLWP South London Waste Partnership +SMDSA Sanitary Medical Disposal Services Association +SNIFFER Scotland and Northern Ireland Forum for Environmental Research +SNRHW Stable Non-Reactive Hazardous Wastes +SocEnv Society for the Environment +SRB Single Regeneration Budget +SRF Secondary Recovered Fuel or Solid or Specified +SSWAT Site Specific Waste Analysis Tool +STA Source Testing Association +SWA Solid Waste Analysis +SWAG Scottish Waste Advisory Group +SWCN Special Waste Consignment Note +SWDF Solid Waste Disposal Facilities +SWDWP South West Devon Waste Partnership +SWEN Special Waste Explanatory Note +SWF Strategic Waste Fund (Scotland) +SWM Sustainable Waste Management +SWMA Strategic Waste Management Assessment +SWP Shropshire Waste Partnership or Somerset Waste Partnership or Surrey Waste Partnership + +== T == +TAC Technical Adaptation Committee +TAD Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion +TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure +TAN Technical Advice Note (Wales) +TEEP Technically, Environmentally and Economically Practicable +TEF Toxic Equivalent Factor +TFS Transfrontier Shipment +THP Thermal hydrolysis +TLS Transfer Loading Station +tpa tonnes per annum +TRACS Tyre Recovery Activity Compliance Scheme (Ireland) +TRAID Textile Recycling for Aid and International Development +TRF Thermal Recovery Facility +TRIF Technology and Research Innovation Fund +TT Thermal Treatment +TUPE Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) + +== U == +UA Unitary Authority +UASB Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion +UBC Used Beverage Can +UDP Unitary Development Plan +UEL Upper Explosive Limit +UEEE Used Electrical and Electronic Equipment +UKELA UK Environmental Law Association +UKWIN United Kingdom Without Incineration +UNEP United Nations Environment Programme +UROC United Resource Operators Confederation + +== V == +VCU Vertical Composting Units +VLLW Very Low Level Waste +VOC Volatile Organic Compound +VRQ Vocationally Related Qualification + +== W == +WAC Waste Acceptance Criteria +WAG Welsh Assembly Government +WAMITAB Waste Management Industry Training & Advisory Board +WARRAG Waste And Resources Research Advisory Group +WCA Waste Collection Authority +WDA Waste Disposal Authority +WDF WasteDataFlow (web-based system for municipal waste data reporting by UK local authorities) +WEEE Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment +WET Waste and Emissions Trading Act 2003 +WFD Waste Framework Directive +WID Waste Incineration Directive +WIP Waste Implementation Programme +WIPP Waste Isolation Pilot Plant +WISARD Waste Integrated Systems Assessment for Recovery and Disposal +WLP Waste Local Plan +WLWA West London Waste Authority +WM2 Technical Guidance WM2 Hazardous Waste: Interpretation of the definition and classification of hazardous waste +WMF Waste Management Facility +WML Waste Management Licence (replaced by Environmental Permits) +WMP Waste Management Plan +WMPEG Waste Minimisation Performance and Efficiency Grant +WMS Waste Management Strategy +WRAP Waste and Resources Action Programme +WRATE Waste and Resources Assessment Tool for the Environment +WRG Waste Recycling Group +WRWA Western Riverside Waste Authority +WS2007 Waste Strategy for England 2007 (superseded by the Waste Management Plan for England (2013)) +WSA Waste Strategy Area (e.g. 11 WSAs in Scotland) +WtE Waste-to-Energy +WTF Waste Transfer Facility +WTN Waste Transfer Note + +== X == +XRF X-Ray Fluorescence (i.e. checking for the presence of metals in waste plastics) + +== Y == +YNYWMP York and North Yorkshire Waste Management Partnership + +== Z == +ZWS Zero Waste Scotland + +== See also == +Chartered Institution of Wastes Management +List of waste management concepts + +== References == + +== External links == +Waste management acronyms +Waste on All Acronyms \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c35caabe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Minimum viable population" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:46.854078+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Minimum viable population (MVP) is a lower bound on the population of a species, such that it can survive in the wild. This term is commonly used in the fields of biology, ecology, and conservation biology. MVP refers to the smallest possible size at which a biological population can exist without facing extinction from natural disasters or demographic, environmental, or genetic stochasticity. The term "population" is defined as a group of interbreeding individuals in similar geographic area that undergo negligible gene flow with other groups of the species. Typically, MVP is used to refer to a wild population, but can also be used for ex situ conservation (Zoo populations). + + +== Estimation == +There is no unique definition of what constitutes a sufficient population for the continuation of a species, because whether a species survives will depend to some extent on random events. Thus, any calculation of a minimum viable population (MVP) will depend on the population projection model used. A set of random (stochastic) projections might be used to estimate the initial population size needed (based on the assumptions in the model) for there to be, (for example) a 95% or 99% probability of survival 1,000 years into the future. Some models use generations as a unit of time rather than years in order to maintain consistency between taxa. These projections (population viability analyses, or PVA) use computer simulations to model populations using demographic and environmental information to project future population dynamics. The probability assigned to a PVA is arrived at after repeating the environmental simulation thousands of times. + + +== Extinction == + +Small populations are at a greater risk of extinction than larger populations due to small populations having less capacity to recover from adverse stochastic (i.e. random) events. Such events may be divided into four sources: + +Demographic stochasticity +Demographic stochasticity is often only a driving force toward extinction in populations with fewer than 50 individuals. Random events influence the fecundity and survival of individuals in a population, and in larger populations, these events tend to stabilize toward a steady growth rate. However, in small populations there is much more relative variance, which can in turn cause extinction. +Environmental stochasticity +Small, random changes in the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem that a population inhabits fall under environmental stochasticity. Examples are changes in climate over time and the arrival of another species that competes for resources. Unlike demographic and genetic stochasticity, environmental stochasticity tends to affect populations of all sizes. +Natural catastrophes +An extension of environmental stochasticity, natural disasters are random, large scale events such as blizzards, droughts, storms, or fires that directly reduce a population within a short period of time. Natural catastrophes are the hardest events to predict, and MVP models often have difficulty factoring them in. +Genetic stochasticity +Small populations are vulnerable to genetic stochasticity, the random change in allele frequencies over time, also known as genetic drift. Genetic drift can cause alleles to disappear from a population, and this lowers genetic diversity. In small populations, low genetic diversity can increase rates of inbreeding, which can result in inbreeding depression, in which a population made up of genetically similar individuals loses fitness. Inbreeding in a population reduces fitness by causing deleterious recessive alleles to become more common in the population, and also by reducing adaptive potential. The so-called "50/500 rule", where a population needs 50 individuals to prevent inbreeding depression, and 500 individuals to guard against genetic drift at-large, is an oft-used benchmark for an MVP, but 2014 guidance indicates this rule is not applicable across a wide diversity of taxa. + + +== Application == +MVP does not take external intervention into account. Thus, it is useful for conservation managers and environmentalists; a population may be increased above the MVP using a captive breeding program or by bringing other members of the species in from other reserves. +There is naturally some debate on the accuracy of PVAs, since a wide variety of assumptions are generally required for forecasting; however, the important consideration is not absolute accuracy but the promulgation of the concept that each species indeed has an MVP, which at least can be approximated for the sake of conservation biology and Biodiversity Action Plans. +There is a marked trend for insularity, surviving genetic bottlenecks, and r-strategy to allow far lower MVPs than average. Conversely, taxa easily affected by inbreeding depression –having high MVPs – are often decidedly K-strategists, with low population densities occurring over a wide range. An MVP of 500 to 1,000 has often been given as an average for terrestrial vertebrates when inbreeding or genetic variability is ignored. When inbreeding effects are included, estimates of MVP for many species are in the thousands. Based on a meta-analysis of reported values in the literature for many species, Traill et al. reported concerning vertebrates "a cross-species frequency distribution of MVP with a median of 4,169 individuals (95% CI = 3,577–5,129)." + + +== See also == +Effective population size +Inbreeding depression +Human population +Metapopulation +Rescue effect + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f2575b98 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Mycoremediation" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:48.181489+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mycoremediation (from ancient Greek μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus", and the suffix -remedium, in Latin meaning 'restoring balance') is a form of bioremediation in which fungi-based remediation methods are used to decontaminate the environment. Fungi have been proven to be a cheap, effective and environmentally sound way for removing a wide array of contaminants from damaged environments or wastewater. These contaminants include heavy metals, organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning chemicals and wastewater, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicides in land, fresh water, and marine environments. +The byproducts of the remediation can be valuable materials themselves, such as enzymes (like laccase), edible or medicinal mushrooms, making the remediation process even more profitable. Some fungi are useful in the biodegradation of contaminants in extremely cold or radioactive environments where traditional remediation methods prove too costly or are unusable. + +== Pollutants == + +Fungi, thanks to their non-specific enzymes, are able to break down many kinds of substances including pharmaceuticals and fragrances that are normally recalcitrant to bacteria degradation, such as paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen). For example, using Mucor hiemalis, the breakdown of products which are toxic in traditional water treatment, such as phenols and pigments of wine distillery wastewater, X-ray contrast agents, and ingredients of personal care products, can be broken down in a non-toxic way. +Mycoremediation is a cheaper method of remediation, and it doesn't usually require expensive equipment. For this reason, it is often used in small scale applications, such as mycofiltration of domestic wastewater, and industrial effluent filtration. +According to a 2015 study, mycoremediation can even help with the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) soil biodegradation. Soils soaked with creosote contain high concentrations of PAH and in order to stop the spread, mycoremediation has proven to be the most successful strategy. + +=== Metals === +Pollution from metals is very common, as they are used in many industrial processes such as electroplating, textiles, paint and leather. The wastewater from these industries is often used for agricultural purposes, so besides the immediate damage to the ecosystem it is spilled into, the metals can enter creatures and humans far away through the food chain. Mycoremediation is one of the cheapest, most effective and environmental-friendly solutions to this problem. +Many fungi are hyperaccumulators, therefore they are able to concentrate toxins in their fruiting bodies for later removal. This is usually true for populations that have been exposed to contaminants for a long time, and have developed a high tolerance. Hyperaccumulation occurs via biosorption on the cellular surface, where the metals enter the mycelium passively with very little intracellular uptake. +A variety of fungi, such as Pleurotus, Aspergillus, and Trichoderma, have proven to be effective in the removal of lead, cadmium, nickel, chromium, mercury, arsenic, copper, boron, iron and zinc in marine environments, wastewater and on land. +Not all the individuals of a species are effective in the same way in the accumulation of toxins. The single individuals are usually selected from an older polluted environment, such as sludge or wastewater, where they had time to adapt to the circumstances, and the selection is carried on in the laboratory. A dilution of the water can drastically improve the ability of biosorption of the fungi. + +The capacity of certain fungi to extract metals from the ground also can be useful for bioindicator purposes, and can be a problem when the mushroom is of an edible variety. For example, the shaggy ink cap (Coprinus comatus), a common edible mushroom found in the Northern Hemisphere, can be a very good bioindicator of mercury. However, as the shaggy ink cap accumulates mercury in its body, it can be toxic to the consumer. +The capacity of metals uptake of mushroom has also been used to recover precious metals from medium. For example, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland reported an 80% recovery of gold from electronic waste using mycofiltration techniques. + +=== Organic pollutants === + +Fungi are amongst the primary saprotrophic organisms in an ecosystem, as they are efficient in the decomposition of matter. Wood-decay fungi, especially white rot, secrete extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are long-chain organic (carbon-based) compounds, structurally similar to many organic pollutants. They achieve this using a wide array of enzymes. In the case of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), complex organic compounds with fused, highly stable, polycyclic aromatic rings, fungi are very effective in addition to marine environments. The enzymes involved in this degradation are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, general lipase, laccase and sometimes intracellular enzymes, especially the cytochrome P450. +Other toxins fungi are able to degrade into harmless compounds include petroleum fuels, phenols in wastewater, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in contaminated soils using Pleurotus ostreatus, polyurethane in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, such as conditions at the bottom of landfills using two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis, and more. + +The mechanisms of degradation are not always clear, as the mushroom may be a precursor to subsequent microbial activity rather than individually effective in the removal of pollutants. + +=== Pesticides === +Pesticide contamination can be long-term and have a significant impact on decomposition processes and nutrient cycling. Therefore, their degradation can be expensive and difficult. The most commonly used fungi for helping in the degradation of such substances are white rot fungi, which, thanks to their extracellular ligninolytic enzymes like laccase and manganese peroxidase, are able to degrade high quantity of such components. Examples includes the insecticide endosulfan, imazalil, thiophanate methyl, ortho-phenylphenol, diphenylamine, chlorpyrifos in wastewater, and atrazine in clay-loamy soils. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4d93a6ccf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Mycoremediation" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:48.181489+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Dyes === +Dyes are used in many industries, like paper printing or textile. They are often recalcitrant to degradation and in some cases, like some azo dyes, carcinogenic or otherwise toxic. +The mechanism by which the fungi degrade dyes is via their lignolytic enzymes, especially laccase, therefore white rot mushrooms are the most commonly used. +Mycoremediation has proven to be a cheap and effective remediation technology for dyes such as malachite green, nigrosin and basic fuchsin with Aspergillus niger and Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Congo red, a carcinogenic dye recalcitrant to biodegradative processes, direct blue 14 (using Pleurotus). + +=== Pentachlorophenol === +Pentachlorophenol (PCP) has been used worldwide as a wood preservative, biocides and for the bleaching of paper or tissues. PCP toxicity and extensive use has placed it among the worst environmental pollutants, and therefore its microbiological degradation to develop bioremediation techniques has been intensively studied. +Microorganisms play an important role in the field of environmental science by degrading and transforming PCP into non-toxic or less toxic forms. Naturally how completely and efficiently PCP degradation occurs depends by microorganisms and the environmental conditions.There are numerous studies that focus research efforts on degradation of PCP by pure and mixed cultures of aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Conditions that inhibit and enhance degradation, and pathways, intermediates and enzyme systems implicated essentially in PCP degradation especially by bacteria such as Pseudomonas spp., Flavobacterium spp., Nocardioides spp., Novosphingobium spp., Desulfitobacterium spp., Mycobacterium spp., Sphingomonas sp., Kokuria spp., Bacillus spp., Serratia sp. and Acinetobacter spp. and fungi such as Phanerochaete spp., Anthracophyllum spp., Trametes spp., Mucor spp., Byssochlamys spp. and Scopulariopsis spp. + +== Synergy with phytoremediation == +Phytoremediation is the use of plant-based technologies to decontaminate an area. +Most land plants can form a symbiotic relationship with fungi which is advantageous for both organisms. This relationship is called mycorrhiza. Researchers found that phytoremediation is enhanced by mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizal fungi's symbiotic relationships with plant roots help with the uptake of nutrients and the plant's ability to resist biotic and abiotic stress factors such as heavy metals bioavailable in the rhizosphere. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) produce proteins that bind heavy metals and thereby decrease their bioavailability. The removal of soil contaminants by mycorrhizal fungi is called mycorrhizoremediation. +Mycorrhizal fungi, especially AMF, can greatly improve the phytoremediation capacity of some plants. This is mostly due to the stress the plants suffer because of the pollutants is greatly reduced in the presence of AMF, so they can grow more and produce more biomass. The fungi also provide more nutrition, especially phosphorus, and promote the overall health of the plants. The mycelium's quick expansion can also greatly extend the rhizosphere influence zone (hyphosphere), providing the plant with access to more nutrients and contaminants. Increasing the rhizosphere overall health also means a rise in the bacteria population, which can also contribute to the bioremediation process. +This relationship has been proven useful with many pollutants, such as Rhizophagus intraradices and Robinia pseudoacacia in lead contaminated soil, Rhizophagus intraradices with Glomus versiforme inoculated into vetiver grass for lead removal, AMF and Calendula officinalis in cadmium and lead contaminated soil, and in general was effective in increasing the plant bioremediation capacity for metals, petroleum fuels, and PAHs. In wetlands AMF greatly promote the biodegradation of organic pollutants like benzene-, methyl tert-butyl ether- and ammonia from groundwater when inoculated into Phragmites australis. + +== Viability in extreme environments == +Antarctic fungi species such as Metschnikowia sp., Cryptococcus gilvescens, Cryptococcus victoriae, Pichia caribbica and Leucosporidium creatinivorum can withstand extreme cold and still provide efficient biodegradation of contaminants. Due to the nature of colder, remote environments like Antarctica, usual methods of contaminant remediation, such as the physical removal of contaminated media, can prove costly. Most species of psychrophilic Antarctic fungi are resistant to the decreased levels of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production causing reduced energy availability, decreased levels of oxygen due to the low permeability of frozen soil, and nutrient transportation disruption caused by freeze-thaw cycles. These species of fungi are able to assimilate and degrade compounds such as phenols, n-Hexadecane, toluene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in these harsh conditions. These compounds are found in crude oil and refined petroleum. +Some fungi species, like Rhodotorula taiwanensis, are resistant to the extremely low pH (acidic) and radioactive medium found in radioactive waste and can successfully grow in these conditions, unlike most other organisms. They can also thrive in the presence of high concentrations of mercury and chromium. Fungi such as Rhodotorula taiwanensis can possibly be used in the bioremediation of radioactive waste due to their low pH and radiation resistant properties. Certain species of fungi are able to absorb and retain radionuclides such as 137Cs, 121Sr, 152Eu, 239Pu and 241Am. In fact, cell walls of some species of dead fungi can be used as a filter that can adsorb heavy metals and radionuclides present in industrial effluents, preventing them from being released into the environment. + +== Fire management == +Mycoremediation can even be used for fire management with the encapsulation method. This process consists of using fungal spores coated with agarose in a pellet form, which is introduced to a substrate in the burnt forest, breaking down toxins and stimulating growth. + +== See also == +Compost +Mycorestoration +Mycorrhizal bioremediation +Phytoremediation + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_dynamics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_dynamics-0.md index 3c6ed1a16..c2a0ab4fd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_dynamics-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_dynamics-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_dynamics" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:10.796882+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:49.510606+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96d20af71 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Peatland" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A peatland is a type of wetland whose soils consist of organic matter from decaying plants, forming layers of peat. Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent anoxia. Peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning. +The formation of peatlands is primarily controlled by climatic conditions such as precipitation and temperature, although terrain relief is a major factor as waterlogging occurs more easily on flatter ground and in basins. Peat formation typically initiates as a paludification of a mineral soil forest, terrestrialisation of lakes, or primary peat formation on bare soils on previously glaciated areas. A peatland that is actively forming peat is called a mire. All types of mires share the common characteristic of being saturated with water, at least seasonally with actively forming peat, while having their own ecosystem. +Peatlands are the largest natural carbon store on land. Covering around 3 million km2 globally, they sequester 0.37 gigatons (Gt) of carbon dioxide (CO2) a year. Peat soils store over 600 Gt of carbon, more than the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including forests. In their natural state, peatlands provide a range of ecosystem services, including minimising flood risk and erosion, purifying water and regulating climate. +Peatlands are under threat by commercial peat harvesting, drainage and conversion for agriculture (notably palm oil in the tropics) and fires, which are predicted to become more frequent with climate change. The destruction of peatlands results in release of stored greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, further exacerbating climate change. + +== Types == +Botanists and ecologists use the word "peatland" as a general term for any terrain dominated by peat to a depth of at least 30 cm (12 in), even if it has been completely drained (i.e. a peatland can be dry). A peatland that is still capable of forming new peat is called a mire, while drained and converted peatlands might still have a peat layer but are not considered mires as the formation of new peat has ceased. +There are two types of mire: bog and fen. A bog is a mire that, due to its raised location relative to the surrounding landscape, obtains all its water solely from precipitation (ombrotrophic). A fen is located on a slope, flat, or in a depression and gets most of its water from the surrounding mineral soil or from groundwater (minerotrophic). Thus, while a bog is always acidic and nutrient-poor, a fen may be slightly acidic, neutral, or alkaline, and either nutrient-poor or nutrient-rich. All mires are initially fens when the peat starts to form, and may turn into bogs once the height of the peat layer reaches above the surrounding land. A quagmire is a floating (quaking) mire, bog, or any peatland being in a stage of hydrosere or hydrarch (hydroseral) succession; it yields underfoot +(floating mats). Ombrotrophic types of quagmire may be called quaking bogs (quivering bogs); minerotrophic types can be labelled with the term "quagfen". +Some swamps can also be peatlands (e.g. peat swamp forest), while marshes are generally not considered to be peatlands. Swamps are characterized by their forest canopy or by the presence of other tall and dense vegetation like papyrus. Like fens, swamps typically have a higher pH level and higher nutrient availability than bogs. Some bogs and fens can support limited shrub or tree growth on hummocks. A marsh is a type of wetland within which vegetation is rooted in mineral soil. + +== Global distribution == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3d67e033f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Peatland" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Peatlands are found around the globe, although are at their greatest extent at high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Peatlands are estimated to cover around 3% of the globe's surface, although estimating the extent of their cover worldwide is difficult due to the varying accuracy and methodologies of land surveys from many countries. Mires occur wherever conditions are right for peat accumulation: largely where organic matter is constantly waterlogged. Hence the distribution of mires is dependent on topography, climate, parent material, biota and time. The type of mire—bog, fen, marsh or swamp—depends also on each of these factors. +The largest accumulation of mires constitutes around 64% of global peatlands and is found in the temperate, boreal and subarctic zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Mires are usually shallow in polar regions because of the slow rate of accumulation of dead organic matter, and often contain permafrost and palsas. Very large swathes of Canada, northern Europe and northern Russia are covered by boreal mires. In temperate zones mires are typically more scattered due to historical drainage and peat extraction, but can cover large areas. One example is blanket bog where precipitation is very high i.e., in maritime climates inland near the coasts of the north-east and south Pacific, and the north-west and north-east Atlantic. In the sub-tropics, mires are rare and restricted to the wettest areas. +Mires can be extensive in the tropics, typically underlying tropical rainforest (for example, in Kalimantan, the Congo Basin and Amazon basin). Tropical peat formation is known to occur in coastal mangroves as well as in areas of high altitude. Tropical mires largely form where high precipitation is combined with poor conditions for drainage. Tropical mires account for around 11% of peatlands globally (more than half of which can be found in Southeast Asia), and are most commonly found at low altitudes, although they can also be found in mountainous regions, for example in South America, Africa and Papua New Guinea. Indonesia, particularly on the islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua, has one of the largest peatlands in the world, with an area of about 24 million hectares. These peatlands play an important role in global carbon storage and have very high biodiversity. However, peatlands in Indonesia also face major threats from deforestation and forest fires. In the early 21st century, the world's largest tropical mire was found in the Central Congo Basin, covering 145,500 km2 and storing up to 1013 kg of carbon. +The total area of mires has declined globally due to drainage for agriculture, forestry and peat harvesting. For example, more than 50% of the original European mire area which is more than 300,000 km2 has been lost. Some of the largest losses have been in Russia, Finland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Poland and Belarus. A catalog of the peat research collection at the University of Minnesota Duluth provides references to research on worldwide peat and peatlands. + +== Biochemical processes == + +Peatlands have unusual chemistry that influences, among other things, their biota and water outflow. Peat has very high cation-exchange capacity due to its high organic matter content: cations such as Ca2+ are preferentially adsorbed onto the peat in exchange for H+ ions. Water passing through peat declines in nutrients and pH. Therefore, mires are typically nutrient-poor and acidic unless the inflow of groundwater (bringing in supplementary cations) is high. +Generally, whenever the inputs of carbon into the soil from dead organic matter exceed the carbon outputs via organic matter decomposition, peat is formed. This occurs due to the anoxic state of water-logged peat, which slows down decomposition. Peat-forming vegetation is typically also recalcitrant (poorly decomposing) due to high lignin and low nutrient content. Topographically, accumulating peat elevates the ground surface above the original topography. Mires can reach considerable heights above the underlying mineral soil or bedrock: peat depths of above 10 m have been commonly recorded in temperate regions (many temperate and most boreal mires were removed by ice sheets in the last Ice Age), and above 25 m in tropical regions.[7] When the absolute decay rate of peat in the catotelm (the lower, water-saturated zone of the peat layer) matches the rate of input of new peat into the catotelm, the mire will stop growing in height.[8] + +=== Carbon storage and methanogenesis === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c02427263 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Peatland" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Despite accounting for just 3% of Earth's land surfaces, peatlands are collectively a major carbon store containing between 500 and 700 billion tonnes of carbon. Carbon stored within peatlands equates to over half the amount of carbon found in the atmosphere. Peatlands interact with the atmosphere primarily through the exchange of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, and can be damaged by excess nitrogen from agriculture or rainwater. The sequestration of carbon dioxide takes place at the surface via the process of photosynthesis, while losses of carbon dioxide occur through living plants via autotrophic respiration and from the litter and peat via heterotrophic respiration. In their natural state, mires are a small atmospheric carbon dioxide sink through the photosynthesis of peat vegetation, which outweighs their release of greenhouse gases. On the other hand, most mires are generally net emitters of methane and nitrous oxide. Due to the continued CO2 sequestration over millennia, and because of the longer atmospheric lifespan of the CO2 molecules compared with methane and nitrous oxide, peatlands have had a net cooling effect on the atmosphere. +The water table position of a peatland is the main control of its carbon release to the atmosphere. When the water table rises after a rainstorm, the peat and its microbes are submerged under water inhibiting access to oxygen, reducing CO2 release via respiration. Carbon dioxide release increases when the water table falls lower, such as during a drought, as this increases the availability of oxygen to the aerobic microbes thus accelerating peat decomposition. Levels of methane emissions also vary with the water table position and temperature. A water table near the peat surface gives the opportunity for anaerobic microorganisms to flourish. +Methanogens are strictly anaerobic organisms and produce methane from organic matter in anoxic conditions below the water table level, while some of that methane is oxidised by methanotrophs above the water table level. Therefore, changes in water table level influence the size of these methane production and consumption zones. Increased soil temperatures also contribute to increased seasonal methane flux. A study in Alaska found that methane may vary by as much as 300% seasonally with wetter and warmer soil conditions due to climate change. +Peatlands are important for studying past climate because they are sensitive to changes in the environment and can reveal levels of isotopes, pollutants, macrofossils, metals from the atmosphere and pollen. For example, carbon-14 dating can reveal the age of the peat. The dredging and destruction of a peatland will release the carbon dioxide that could reveal irreplaceable information about the past climatic conditions. Many kinds of microorganisms inhabit peatlands, due to the regular supply of water and abundance of peat forming vegetation. These microorganisms include but are not limited to methanogens, algae, bacteria, zoobenthos, of which Sphagnum species are most abundant. + +=== Humic substances === +Peat contains substantial organic matter, where humic acid dominates. Humic materials can store substantial amounts of water, making them an essential component in the peat environment, contributing to increased carbon storage due to the resulting anaerobic condition. If the peatland is dried from long-term cultivation and agricultural use, it will lower the water table, and the increased aeration will release carbon. Upon extreme drying, the ecosystem can undergo a state shift, turning the mire into a barren land with lower biodiversity and richness. Humic acid formation occurs during the biogeochemical degradation of vegetation debris and animal residue. The loads of organic matter in the form of humic acid is a source of precursors of coal. Prematurely exposing the organic matter to the atmosphere promotes the conversion of organics to carbon dioxide to be released in the atmosphere. + +== Use by humans == + +Records of past human behaviour and environments can be contained within peatlands. These may take the form of human artefacts, or palaeoecological and geochemical records. +Peatlands are used by humans in modern times for a range of purposes, the most dominant being agriculture and forestry, which accounts for around a quarter of global peatland area. This involves cutting drainage ditches to lower the water table with the intended purpose of enhancing the productivity of forest cover or for use as pasture or cropland. Agricultural uses for mires include the use of natural vegetation for hay crop or grazing, or the cultivation of crops on a modified surface. In addition, the commercial extraction of peat for energy production is widely practiced in Northern European countries, such as Russia, Sweden, Finland, Ireland and the Baltic states. +Tropical peatlands comprise 0.25% of Earth's terrestrial land surface but store 3% of all soil and forest carbon stocks. The use of this land by humans, including draining and harvesting of tropical peat forests, results in the emission of large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In addition, fires occurring on peatland dried by the draining of peat bogs release even more carbon dioxide. The economic value of a tropical peatland was once derived from raw materials, such as wood, bark, resin and latex, the extraction of which did not contribute to large carbon emissions. In Southeast Asia, peatlands are drained and cleared for human use for a variety of reasons, including the production of palm oil and timber for export in primarily developing nations. This releases stored carbon dioxide and prevents the system from sequestering carbon again. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..da2c0d4d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Peatland" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Tropical peatlands == +The global distribution of tropical peatlands is concentrated in Southeast Asia where agricultural use of peatlands has been increased in recent decades. Large areas of tropical peatland have been cleared and drained for the production of food and cash crops such as palm oil. Large-scale drainage of these plantations often results in subsidence, flooding, fire and deterioration of soil quality. Small-scale encroachment on the other hand, is linked to poverty and is so widespread that it also has negatively impacts these peatlands. +The biotic and abiotic factors controlling Southeast Asian peatlands are interdependent. Its soil, hydrology and morphology are created by the present vegetation through the accumulation of its own organic matter, building a favorable environment for this specific vegetation. This system is therefore vulnerable to changes in hydrology or vegetation cover. These peatlands are mostly located in developing regions with impoverished and rapidly growing populations. These lands have become targets for commercial logging, paper pulp production and conversion to plantations through clear-cutting, drainage and burning. Drainage of tropical peatlands alters the hydrology and increases their susceptibility to fire and soil erosion, as a consequence of changes in physical and chemical compositions. The change in soil strongly affects the sensitive vegetation and forest die-off is common. The short-term effect is a decrease in biodiversity but the long-term effect, since these encroachments are hard to reverse, is a loss of habitat. Poor knowledge about peatlands' sensitive hydrology and lack of nutrients often lead to failing plantations, resulting in increasing pressure on remaining peatlands. + +=== Biology and peat characteristics === +Tropical peatland vegetation varies with climate and location. Three different characterizations are mangrove woodlands present in the littoral zones and deltas of salty water, followed inland by swamp forests. These forests occur on the margin of peatlands with a palm rich flora with trees 70 m tall and 8 m in girth accompanied by ferns and epiphytes. The third, padang, from the Malay and Indonesian word for forest, consists of shrubs and tall thin trees and appear in the center of large peatlands. The diversity of woody species, like trees and shrubs, are far greater in tropical peatlands than in peatlands of other types. Peat in the tropics is therefore dominated by woody material from trunks of trees and shrubs and contain little to none of the sphagnum moss that dominates in boreal peatlands. It's only partly decomposed and the surface consists of a thick layer of leaf litter. Forestry in peatlands leads to drainage and rapid carbon losses since it decreases inputs of organic matter and accelerate the decomposition. In contrast to temperate wetlands, tropical peatlands are home to several species of fish. Many new, often endemic, species have been discovered but many of them are considered threatened. + +=== Greenhouse gases and fires === + +The tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia only cover 0.2% of Earth's land area but CO2 emissions are estimated to be 2 Gt per year, equal to 7% of global fossil fuel emissions. These emissions get bigger with drainage and burning of peatlands and a severe fire can release up to 4,000 t of CO2/ha. Burning events in tropical peatlands are becoming more frequent due to large-scale drainage and land clearance and in the past ten years, more than 2 million hectares was burnt in Southeast Asia alone. These fires last typically for 1–3 months and release large amounts of CO2. + +Indonesia is one of the countries suffering from peatland fires, especially during years with ENSO-related drought, an increasing problem since 1982 as a result of developing land use and agriculture. During the El Niño-event in 1997–1998 more than 24,400 km2 of peatland was lost to fires in Indonesia alone from which 10,000 km2 was burnt in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The output of CO2 was estimated to 0.81–2.57 Gt, equal to 13–40% of that year's global output from fossil fuel burning. Indonesia is now considered the third-biggest contributor to global CO2 emissions, caused primarily by these fires. The 2015 El Niño event further exacerbated the condition of these peatlands, as wildfires burned approximately 3 million hectares of forests and peatlands on the east coast of Sumatra and in Central Kalimantan, emitting 11.3 teragrams of CO2 per day during the months of September and October that year. +With a warming climate, these burnings are expected to increase in intensity and number. This is a result of a dry climate together with an extensive rice farming project, called the Mega Rice Project, started in the 1990s, which converted 1 Mha of peatlands to rice paddies. Forest and land was cleared by burning and 4000 km of channels drained the area. Drought and acidification of the lands led to bad harvest and the project was abandoned in 1999. Similar projects in China have led to immense loss of tropical marshes and fens due to rice production. +Drainage, which also increases the risk of burning, can cause additional emissions of CO2 by 30–100 t/ha/year if the water table is lowered by only 1 m. The draining of peatlands is likely the most important and long-lasting threat to peatlands globally, but is especially prevalent in the tropics. +Peatlands release the greenhouse gas methane which has strong global warming potential. However, subtropical wetlands have shown high CO2 binding per mol of released methane, which is a function that counteracts global warming. Tropical peatlands are suggested to contain about 100 Gt carbon, corresponding to more than 50% of the carbon present as CO2 in the atmosphere. Accumulation rates of carbon during the last millennium were close to 40 g C/m2/yr. + +== Northern peatlands == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..da39a292a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Peatland" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Northern peatlands are associated with boreal and subarctic climates. Northern peatlands were mostly built up during the Holocene after the retreat of Pleistocene glaciers, but in contrast tropical peatlands are much older. Total northern peat carbon stocks are estimated to be 1055 Gt of carbon. +Of all northern circumpolar countries, Russia has the largest area of peatlands, and contains the largest peatland in the world, The Great Vasyugan Mire. Nakaikemi Wetland in southwest Honshu, Japan is more than 50,000 years old and has a depth of 45 m. The Philippi Peatland in Greece has probably one of the deepest peat layers with a depth of 190 m. + +== Impacts on global climate == +According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, the conservation and restoration of wetlands and peatlands has large economic potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, providing benefits for adaptation, mitigation and biodiversity. +Wetlands provide an environment where organic carbon is stored in living plants, dead plants and peat, as well as converted to carbon dioxide and methane. Three main factors give wetlands the ability to sequester and store carbon: high biological productivity, high water table and low decomposition rates. Suitable meteorological and hydrological conditions are necessary to provide an abundant water source for the wetland. Fully water-saturated wetland soils allow anaerobic conditions to manifest, storing carbon but releasing methane. +Wetlands make up about 5-8% of Earth's land surface, but contain about 20-30% of the planet's 2500 Gt soil carbon stores. Peatlands contain the highest amounts of soil organic carbon of all wetland types. Wetlands can become sources of carbon, rather than sinks, as the decomposition occurring within the ecosystem emits methane. Natural peatlands do not always have a measurable cooling effect on the climate in a short time span as the cooling effects of sequestering carbon are offset by the emission of methane, which is a strong greenhouse gas. However, given the short "lifetime" of methane (12 years), it is often said that methane emissions are unimportant within 300 years compared to carbon sequestration in wetlands. Within that time frame or less, most wetlands become both net carbon and radiative sinks. Hence, peatlands do result in cooling of the Earth's climate over a longer time period as methane is oxidised quickly and removed from the atmosphere whereas atmospheric carbon dioxide is continuously absorbed. Throughout the Holocene (the past 12,000 years), peatlands have been persistent terrestrial carbon sinks and have had a net cooling effect, sequestering 5.6 to 38 grams of carbon per square metre per year. On average, it has been estimated that today northern peatlands sequester 20 to 30 grams of carbon per square metre per year. +Peatlands insulate the permafrost in subarctic regions, thus delaying thawing during summer, as well as inducing the formation of permafrost. As the global climate continues to warm, wetlands could become major carbon sources as higher temperatures cause higher carbon dioxide emissions. +Compared with untilled cropland, wetlands can sequester around two times the carbon. Carbon sequestration can occur in constructed wetlands as well as natural ones. Estimates of greenhouse gas fluxes from wetlands indicate that natural wetlands have lower fluxes, but man-made wetlands have a greater carbon sequestration capacity. The carbon sequestration abilities of wetlands can be improved through restoration and protection strategies, but it takes several decades for these restored ecosystems to become comparable in carbon storage to peatlands and other forms of natural wetlands. + +=== Drainage for agriculture and forestry === +The exchange of carbon between the peatlands and the atmosphere has been of current concern globally in the field of ecology and biogeochemical studies. The drainage of peatlands for agriculture and forestry has resulted in the emission of extensive greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, most notably carbon dioxide and methane. By allowing oxygen to enter the peat column within a mire, drainage disrupts the balance between peat accumulation and decomposition, and the subsequent oxidative degradation results in the release of carbon into the atmosphere. As such, drainage of mires for agriculture transforms them from net carbon sinks to net carbon emitters. Although the emission of methane from mires has been observed to decrease following drainage, the total magnitude of emissions from peatland drainage is often greater as rates of peat accumulation are low. Peatland carbon has been described as "irrecoverable" meaning that, if lost due to drainage, it could not be recovered within time scales relevant to climate mitigation. +When undertaken in such a way that preserves the hydrological state of a mire, the anthropogenic use of mires' resources can avoid significant greenhouse gas emissions. However, continued drainage will result in increased release of carbon, contributing to global warming. As of 2016, it was estimated that drained peatlands account for around 10% of all greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and forestry. + +==== Palm oil plantations ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c48fae43f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Peatland" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peatland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:50.804774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Palm oil has increasingly become one of the world's largest crops. In comparison to alternatives, palm oil is considered to be among the most efficient sources of vegetable oil and biofuel, requiring only 0.26 hectares of land to produce 1 ton of oil. Palm oil has therefore become a popular cash crop in many low-income countries and has provided economic opportunities for communities. With palm oil as a leading export in countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia, many smallholders have found economic success in palm oil plantations. However, the land selected for plantations are typically substantial carbon stores that promote biodiverse ecosystems. +Palm oil plantations have replaced much of the forested peatlands in Southeast Asia. Estimates now state that 12.9 Mha or about 47% of peatlands in Southeast Asia were deforested by 2006. In their natural state, peatlands are waterlogged with high water tables making for an inefficient soil. To create viable soil for plantation, the mires in tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia are drained and cleared. +The peatland forests harvested for palm oil production serve as above- and below-ground carbon stores, containing at least 42,069 million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Exploitation of this land raises many environmental concerns, namely increased greenhouse gas emissions, risk of fires and a decrease in biodiversity. Greenhouse gas emissions for palm oil planted on peatlands is estimated to be between the equivalent of 12.4 (best case) to 76.6 t CO2/ha (worst case). Tropical peatland converted to palm oil plantation can remain a net source of carbon to the atmosphere after 12 years. +In their natural state, peatlands are resistant to fire. Drainage of peatlands for palm oil plantations creates a dry layer of flammable peat. As peat is carbon dense, fires occurring in compromised peatlands release extreme amounts of both carbon dioxide and toxic smoke into the air. These fires add to greenhouse gas emissions while also causing thousands of deaths every year. +Decreased biodiversity due to deforestation and drainage makes these ecosystem more vulnerable and less resilient to change. Homogenous ecosystems are at an increased risk to extreme climate conditions and are less likely to recover from fires. + +=== Fires === +Some peatlands are being dried out by climate change. Drainage of peatlands due to climatic factors may also increase the risk of fires, presenting further risk of carbon and methane to release into the atmosphere. Due to their naturally high moisture content, pristine mires have a generally low risk of fire ignition. The drying of this waterlogged state means that the carbon-dense vegetation becomes vulnerable to fire. In addition, due to the oxygen deficient nature of the vegetation, the peat fires can smolder beneath the surface causing incomplete combustion of the organic matter and resulting in extreme emissions events. +In recent years, the occurrence of wildfires in peatlands has increased significantly worldwide particularly in the tropical regions. This can be attributed to a combination of drier weather and changes in land use which involve the drainage of water from the landscape. This resulting loss of biomass through combustion has led to significant emissions of greenhouse gasses both in tropical and boreal/temperate peatlands. Fire events are predicted to become more frequent with the warming and drying of the global climate. + +== Management and rehabilitation == + +The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity highlights peatlands as key ecosystems to be conserved and protected. The convention requires governments at all levels to present action plans for the conservation and management of wetland environments. Wetlands are also protected under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. +Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover. Rehabilitation projects undertaken in North America and Europe usually focus on the rewetting of peatlands and revegetation of native species. This acts to mitigate carbon release in the short term before the new growth of vegetation provides a new source of organic litter to fuel the peat formation in the long term. UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia. +Peat extraction is forbidden in Chile since April 2024. + +=== Global Peatlands Initiative === + +== References == + +== External links == + +"Quagmire" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 703. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_trap-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_trap-0.md index f3a566a4b..0925f19cd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_trap-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_trap-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_trap" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:12.018213+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:52.183915+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_vegetative_cover-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_vegetative_cover-0.md index 57519f4e2..f7d383e2d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_vegetative_cover-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_vegetative_cover-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_vegetative_cover" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:14.512123+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:53.489052+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..94a9ac862 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Phytoremediation" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:54.822609+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Phytoremediation technologies use living plants to clean up soil, air and water contaminated with hazardous contaminants. The term is an amalgam of the Greek phyto (plant) and Latin remedium (restoring balance). Bioremediation on the other hand, has proven useful. +Phytoremediation is proposed as a sustainable alternative to conventional remediation methods, although it has never been used on scale. Phytoremediation is one form of bioremediation, however bioremediation usually refers to employing microorganisms. + +== Processes == + +Major phytoremediation mechanisms include phytoextraction, phytostabilization, phytovolatilization, and phytofiltration. + +=== Phytoextraction === + +Phytoextraction (or phytoaccumulation or phytosequestration) aims to exploit the ability of some plants to absorb certain contaminants from soil or water. In principle, the roots take up substances from the soil or water and concentrate them above ground in the plant biomass. +Organisms that can uptake high amounts of particular metal-containing compounds are called hyperaccumulators. +Phytoextraction could also be performed by non-hyperaccumulating plants (e.g. Populus and Salix). Although they take up only low levels of pollutants, owing to their high growth rate, such plants could in principle remove a considerable amount of contaminants from the soil. +Hyperaccumulating plants are often metallophytes, i.e. they hyperaccumulate metals. Netallophytes are the basis of phytomining, a proposed technology for collecting valuable metals without excavating. +One challenge to phytoremediation is that heavy metals are often insufficiently mobile to be taken up by the plants, hyperaccumulators or otherwise. This challenge prompted the invention of assisted phytoextraction, whereby a chelator is added to soil to increase metal solubility or mobilization so that the plants can absorb them more easily. A typical chelator is edta. + +=== Phytostabilization === +Phytostabilization lowers the mobility of substances in the soil, for example, by limiting the leaching of substances from the soil. It focuses on the long term stabilization and containment of the pollutant. Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on sequestering pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues. Pollutants become less bioavailable. Stabilization results in reduced erosion, runoff, leaching, in addition to reducing the bioavailability of the contaminant. +Phytostabilization involving a vegetative cap has been used to stabilize and contain mine tailings. Some soil amendments decrease radiosource mobility – while at some concentrations the same amendments will increase mobility. Root mats of meadow grasses are possibly effective at demobilising radiosource materials especially with certain combinations of other agricultural practices. The particular grasses are proposed makes a significant difference. + +=== Phytodegradation === + +Phytodegradation (also called phytotransformation) is the use of plants to degrade organic pollutants. This process has been proposed to deal with herbicides, trichloroethylene, and methyl tert-butyl ether. +Phytotransformation, which is closely related to phytodegradation, is defined as the chemical modification of substances by plants, ideally with beneficial effects. The term "Green Liver" has bee used to describe phytotransformation, as plants can be thought to behave analogously to the human liver when dealing with these xenobiotic compounds (foreign compound/pollutant). +Trinitrotoluene phytotransformation has been extensively researched and a transformation pathway has been proposed. + +=== Phytostimulation === +Phytostimulation (or rhizodegradation) is the enhancement of soil microbial activity for the degradation of organic contaminants, typically by organisms that associate with roots. This process occurs within the rhizosphere, which is the layer of soil that surrounds the roots. Plants release carbohydrates and acids that stimulate microorganism activity which results in the biodegradation of the organic contaminants. In the ideal case, the microorganisms detoxify pollutants. +Leaf litter and organic matter from plants can stabilize microbial soil biosiversity and minimize further loss of microogranisms from contaminants. Phytostimulation has been tested with petroleum, PCBs, and PAHs. Phytostimulation might also be applicable to atrazine degradation by hornwort. + +=== Phytovolatilization === + +Phytovolatilization is the removal of substances from soil or water with release into the air, as a result of phytotransformation to more volatile and/or less polluting substances. Additionally, contaminants can be volatilized from the root zone. Evidence has been presented that selenium (Se) and mercury (Hg) can removed from soil through phytovolatilization. Selenium is volatilized as dimethyl selenide and mercury as the element. Poplar trees have been touted for removing VOCs, exploiting the high rate of transpiration for this tree species. + +=== Rhizofiltration === +Rhizofiltration is a process that filters water through a mass of roots to remove toxic substances or excess nutrients. The pollutants remain absorbed in or adsorbed to the roots. This process is often used to clean up contaminated groundwater through planting directly in the contaminated site or through removing the contaminated water and providing it to these plants in an off-site location. In either case though, typically plants are first grown in a greenhouse under precise conditions. + +=== Biological hydraulic containment === +Biological hydraulic containment occurs when some plants, like poplars, draw water upwards through the soil into the roots and out through the plant, which decreases the movement of soluble contaminants downwards, deeper into the site and into the groundwater. + +=== Phytodesalination === +Phytodesalination uses halophytes (plants adapted to saline soil) to extract salt from the soil to improve its fertility. + +== Role of genetics == +Breeding programs and genetic engineering are powerful methods for enhancing natural phytoremediation capabilities, or for introducing new capabilities into plants. Genes for phytoremediation may originate from a micro-organism or may be transferred from one plant to another variety better adapted to the environmental conditions at the cleanup site. For example, genes encoding a nitroreductase from a bacterium were inserted into tobacco and showed faster removal of TNT and enhanced resistance to the toxic effects of TNT. +Researchers have also discovered a mechanism in plants that allows them to grow even when the pollution concentration in the soil is lethal for non-treated plants. Some natural, biodegradable compounds, such as exogenous polyamines, allow plants to tolerate higher concentrations of pollutants and increase pollutant uptake. + +== Hyperaccumulators and biotic interactions == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..759c67b27 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Phytoremediation" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoremediation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:54.822609+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A plant is said to be a hyperaccumulator if it can concentrate the pollutants in a minimum percentage which varies according to the pollutant involved (for example: more than 1000 mg/kg of dry weight for nickel, copper, cobalt, chromium or lead; or more than 10,000 mg/kg for zinc or manganese). This capacity for accumulation is due to hypertolerance, or phytotolerance: the result of adaptative evolution from the plants to hostile environments through many generations. A number of interactions may be affected by metal hyperaccumulation, including protection, interferences with neighbour plants of different species, mutualism (including mycorrhizae, pollen and seed dispersal), commensalism, and biofilm. +Plant growth-promoting bacteria, or PGPB, are soil bacteria in the rhizosphere that enhance plant productivity by increasing nutrient bioavailability, secreting metabolites and hormones that stimulate increased plant growth, and secreting antibiotics that prevent pathogenic infection. PGPB have been shown to assist heavily with enhancing the transport of soil pollutants like heavy metals from the soil into the roots of hyperaccumulators via phytostimulation. PGPB increase transport speed by improving plant metabolic processes and biomass production, and by producing chelating or solubilizing agents that mobilize heavy metals, overall improving phytoremediation efficiency. + +=== Tables of hyperaccumulators === +Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Al, Ag, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Mn, Hg, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Pt, Se, Zn +Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel +Hyperaccumulators table – 3 : Radionuclides (Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U), Hydrocarbons, Organic Solvents. + +== Phytoscreening == +As plants can translocate and accumulate particular contaminants, plants can be used as biosensors of subsurface contamination, thereby allowing investigators to delineate contaminant plumes. Chlorinated solvents, such as trichloroethylene, have been observed in tree trunks at concentrations related to groundwater concentrations. To ease field implementation of phytoscreening, standard methods have been developed to extract a section of the tree trunk for later laboratory analysis, often by using an increment borer. Phytoscreening could lead to more optimized site investigations and lower site cleanup costs. This concept is yet another example of phytoremediation that has achieved no practical application. + +== See also == + +Bioaugmentation +Biodegradation +Bioremediation +Constructed wetland +De Ceuvel +Mycorrhizal bioremediation +Mycoremediation + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +"Phytoremediation Website" — Includes reviews, conference announcements, lists of companies doing phytoremediation, and bibliographies. Archived 2010-10-17 at the Wayback Machine +"An Overview of Phytoremediation of Lead and Mercury" June 6 2000. The Hazardous Waste Clean-Up Information Web Site. Archived 2011-07-25 at the Wayback Machine +"Enhanced phytoextraction of arsenic from contaminated soil using sunflower" September 22 2004. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. +"Phytoextraction", February 2000. Brookhaven National Laboratory 2000. +"Phytoextraction of Metals from Contaminated Soil" April 18, 2001. M.M. Lasat +July 2002. Donald Bren School of Environment Science & Management. +"Phytoremediation" October 1997. Department of Civil Environmental Engineering. Archived 2006-06-22 at the Wayback Machine +"Phytoremediation" June 2001, Todd Zynda. +"Phytoremediation of Lead in Residential Soils in Dorchester, MA" May, 2002. Amy Donovan Palmer, Boston Public Health Commission. +"Technology Profile: Phytoextraction" 1997. Environmental Business Association. +Vassil AD, Kapulnik Y, Raskin I, Salt DE (June 1998), "The Role of EDTA in Lead Transport and Accumulation by Indian Mustard", Plant Physiol., 117 (2): 447–53, doi:10.1104/pp.117.2.447, PMC 34964, PMID 9625697. +Salt, D. E.; Smith, R. D.; Raskin, I. (1998). "Phytoremediation". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 49: 643–668. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.643. PMID 15012249. S2CID 241195507. +Wang, X. J.; Li, F. Y.; Okazaki, M.; Sugisaki, M. (2003). "Phytoremediation of contaminated soil". Annual Report CESS. 3: 114–123. +Ancona, V; Barra Caracciolo, A; Grenni, P; Di Lenola, M; Campanale, C; Calabrese, A; Uricchio, VF; Mascolo, G; Massacci, A (2017). "Plant-assisted bioremediation of a historically PCB and heavy metal-contaminated area in Southern Italy". New Biotechnology. 38 (Pt B): 65–73. Bibcode:2017NBiot..38...65A. doi:10.1016/j.nbt.2016.09.006. PMID 27686395. +"Ancona V, Barra Caracciolo A, Campanale C, De Caprariis B, Grenni P, Uricchio VF, Borello D, 2019. Gasification Treatment of Poplar Biomass Produced in a Contaminated Area Restored using Plant Assisted Bioremediation. Journal of Environmental Management" + +== External links == + +Missouri Botanical Garden (host): Phytoremediation website Archived 2010-10-17 at the Wayback Machine — Review Articles, Conferences, Phytoremediation Links, Research Sponsors, Books and Journals, and Recent Research. +International Journal of Phytoremediation — devoted to the publication of current laboratory and field research describing the use of plant systems to remediate contaminated environments. +Using Plants To Clean Up Soils — from Agricultural Research magazine +New Alchemy Institute — co-founded by John Todd (Canadian biologist) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-0.md index 1c7c0c17c..a5553d06f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:25.712317+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:56.129896+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-1.md index 80bcf12ce..03debc8b5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:25.712317+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:56.129896+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-2.md index 2bf2fed14..fbccab6b9 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_litter" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:25.712317+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:56.129896+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ff2e63fbe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Pledge and review" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:57.646150+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Pledge and review is a method for facilitating international action against climate change. It involves nations each making a self-determined pledge relating to actions they expect to take in response to global warming, which they submit to the United Nations. Some time after the pledges have been submitted, there is a review process where nations assess each other's progress towards meeting the pledges. Then a further round of enhanced pledges can be made, and the process can further iterate. +Pledge and review is sometimes referred to as a bargaining approach; when nations first announce their pledges they may not be set in stone. A nation might strengthen its pledge in response to pledges by its competitors, which can encourage it to increase its climate ambition if it feels it can do so without losing ground to trading rivals. Additionally, sometimes a nation that feels especially threatened by climate change can make non-climate related concessions to a trading partner, in return for them making a stronger pledge. The main way to increase pledges, however, is when the process iterates after the review phase. Each subsequent round of pledges is supposed to involve an increased level of commitment to combat climate change. Hence the ratcheting up metaphor is often used, as the strengthening of pledges is supposed to be a one-way process. +Pledge-and-review was introduced as a possible way to facilitate global action on climate change in 1991, yet it was little used in the early 1990s. In 1995, it was rejected by the international community, who instead favoured aiming for legally binding emission reduction targets. Due to challenges in securing international agreement to strengthen the only partially successful Kyoto Protocol, pledge-and-review was re-introduced as part of the 2009 Copenhagen Accord. Initially seen as an interim measure, by 2015 it had become the central approach of international efforts to encourage climate mitigation. Though in negotiations leading to the 2015 Paris Agreement, the name pledge-and-review was dropped; pledges are now formally called Nationally Determined Contributions. + +== Mechanism == + +=== Pledges === +The expected content for pledges depends on the specific implementation of pledge-and-review. Commitments to GHG emissions reduction targets are generally a core feature, though states have full freedom to set where that target lies. States can choose to express their reductions target in different ways. For example, in terms of absolute reductions in the volume of GHG emitted; for the Paris implementation, most developed nations included such a pledge. Yet states can instead commit to reducing GHG emissions in other ways, such as a percentage of GDP growth. As well as emissions reductions targets, the pledges can include intentions to implement climate adaptation measures, as well as specific industry level climate friendly policy, like support for various types of sustainable energy production. States are never legally required to meet the commitments in their pledges, but their progress is subject to review. + +=== Reviews === +The exact mechanism for reviews also varies depending on the specific implementation, and the review concept applies at several levels. Nations periodically review their own pledges, with a view to a one way increase in ambition. Pledges, both the level of commitment they contain, and actual progress in achieving the same, are also reviewed internationally, under the auspices of the UNFCCC. While the formal review processes run by the United Nations aim to be non adversarial, states can also be subject to informal reviews from NGOs, which can take a name and shame approach, though may also choose to "praise and encourage" nations that are doing more than comparable peers to limit climate change. In the implementation of pledge-and-review agreed at Paris in 2015, another level of review is the Global stocktake, where the pledges made by the world's nations are evaluated collectively. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5c425b133 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Pledge and review" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:57.646150+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== History == +The pledge-and-review system was first proposed by Japan in 1991. In December 1990, in response to the threat of climate change, the United Nations established the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change. It had become apparent that getting nations to commit to legally binding emissions targets would be more challenging for greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) than it had been for emissions relating to sulphur pollution and depletion of the ozone layer. With the support of Britain and France, Japan made a proposal for a pledge-and-review system as an alternative. Various nations objected to the idea, however, so only a weakened form of pledge-and-review was included in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) by the time it was signed at the 1992 Earth Summit. The pledge-and-review system was formally rejected at the first Conference of the Parties (COP) which took place in Berlin, 1995. The focus switched to negotiations aimed at legally binding emission reduction targets, as embodied by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. +The Kyoto protocol has only aimed to impose emissions reduction targets on Annex parties (largely corresponding to advanced industrialised nations as of the late 20th century, plus some of the economies in transition). The non-Annex countries, including large emitters such as China, did not have targets at all. Even the Annex countries did not all accept the reduction targets, most notably the United States. At the 2009 Copenhagen Summit, the main focus was on strengthening the emission reduction targets. This failed. As a backstop measure, a revival of the voluntary pledge-and-review system was proposed by Australia. While the system was formally rejected for general adoption, 89 countries submitted such a pledge, including the 27 EU member states who issued a combined pledge. 47 of these nations were non-Annex countries. The nations which had made a Copenhagen pledge were collectively responsible for about 80% of global GHG emissions, much more than the 25% covered by Kyoto targets in the first commitment period or the 15% covered by the commitment period later agreed at the 2012 Doha summit. +The pledge-and-review system established at Copenhagen was formalised at the 2010 Cancún Summit. The system was further strengthened in the years leading up to the 2015 Paris Conference, though it was no longer called "pledge-and-review", with pledges instead formally labelled Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). + +=== Relationship with other climate change mitigation methods === +There are three broad approaches to coordinating mitigation efforts that nations can attempt to negotiate at international conferences. Setting a carbon price. The acceptance of legally binding emissions reductions targets imposed in a "top down" way by a central body such a United Nations agency. And the "bottom up" pledge-and-review system where each party autonomously decides its own contribution. These approaches can be complementary, though at various periods there have been disagreements as to whether the world's primary method ought to be pledge-and-review or emissions targets. Until about 2010, international negotiations focused largely on emissions targets. Previous environmental successes like the reduction of emissions causing acid rain, and especially the Montreal treaty which led to reduced emissions damaging the ozone layer, suggested that targets could be effective. In practice however, it has been much more challenging to get nations to agree to binding targets relating to GHG. And even when they had signed up to a legally binding target, there is no reliable way to enforce such international law on a powerful nation. So after the relative failure of the Kyoto protocol and attempts to establish a more effective set of targets at Copenhagen, the pledge-and-review system became the dominant approach. As of 2020, international efforts to improve carbon price related mechanisms are still underway. Except at regional level in the EU, actual implementations have so far mostly occurred only at national and sub-national levels (e.g. in China, or in some U.S. states). + +Progress towards settling on pledge-and-review can be seen in the light of a decades long attempt to harmonise views between the US led Umbrella Group and the rest of the world, concerning which mitigation method should be central to global agreements on climate change. The other two big climate negotiating groups were the EU and G77+China. During the 1990s, the Umbrella Group was in favour of both pledge-and-review and carbon price. But much of the EU and G77+China preferred to focus solely on legally binding emissions reduction targets, and they largely got their way during the nineties. The Kyoto protocol agreed in 1997 was focussed largely on emissions targets, with only a limited role for carbon price and no place for pledge-and-review. US engagement on global climate negotiations have tended to vary depending on who has been president. There was cautious engagement with Bush Sr, leadership with Clinton, dis-engagement with Bush Jr and enthusiastic leadership with Obama. The two years (2009 & 2015) where there was most progress towards pledge-and-review coincided with the two years where there was the highest apparent recognition for US leadership among climate delegates from the rest of the world. In 2009, there was much enthusiasm for President Obama, which may have been a partial reason why it was possible to get pledge-and-review back on the table at the 2009 Copenhagen summit. Overall though, Copenhagen was seen as a failure, denting faith in Obama's climate leadership. After being relatively quiet on climate for two years, major domestic climate initiatives first announced in 2012 and talked up at the 2013 Warsaw and 2014 Lima CoPs, saw faith in Obama's climate leadership reach a new peak just before the 2015 Paris conference, where pledge-and-review became the central method for coordinating climate mitigation efforts. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b1d67b2d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Pledge and review" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pledge_and_review" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:57.646150+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Criticism == +In the early 1990s, the pledge-and-review system was heavily criticised by environmental groups; for example, Climate Action Network labelled it "hedge and retreat". It has also been criticised by academics, especially after the system was revived at Copenhagen with some calling it "scientifically inadequate" or "second best". However, other academics described pledge-and-review as an "essential pillar for climate change mitigation". A survey of participants at the 2011 Durban summit found that the biggest concern over pledge-and-review was the gap between what has been pledged and the level of action needed to meet the 2 degree target (limiting global warming to only 2 °C above pre industrial temperatures.). Participants were least concerned about the voluntary nature of the pledges, suggesting that a system that lacked legally binding commitments could still have international legitimacy. Comparing NGOs with actual negotiators, the study found that in the case of Annex 1 NGOs, they were much more critical of pledge-and-review than negotiators from Annex 1 nations. Whereas with non Annex nations (mostly those in the global south), the opposite pattern emerged. Non annex NGOs were less critical about pledge-and-review compared to non Annex negotiators. Economic analyses of pledge-and-review bargaining suggests that the procedure can explain the successful development from Kyoto to Paris. + +== Notes == + +== Citations == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..14db54fb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The politics of climate change results from different perspectives on how to respond to climate change. Global warming is driven largely by the emissions of greenhouse gases due to human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels, certain industries like cement and steel production, and land use for agriculture and forestry. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have provided the main source of energy for economic and technological development. The centrality of fossil fuels and other carbon-intensive industries has resulted in much resistance to climate policy, despite widespread scientific consensus that such policy is necessary. +Climate change first emerged as a political issue in the 1970s. Efforts to mitigate climate change have been prominent on the international political agenda since the 1990s, and are also increasingly addressed at national and local level. Climate change is a complex global problem. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions contribute to global warming across the world, regardless of where the emissions originate. Yet the impact of global warming varies widely depending on how vulnerable a location or economy is to its effects. Global warming is on the whole having negative impact, which is predicted to worsen as heating increases. Ability to benefit from both fossil fuels and renewable energy vary substantially from nation to nation. +Early international climate talks made little progress because countries disagreed on who should reduce emissions, who benefited, and who faced the biggest risks. In the 21st century, there has been increased attention to mechanisms like climate finance in order for vulnerable nations to adapt to climate change. In some nations and local jurisdictions, climate friendly policies have been adopted that go well beyond what was committed to at international level. Yet local reductions in GHG emission that such policies achieve have limited ability to slow global warming unless the overall volume of GHG emission declines across the planet. +Since the 2020s, the feasibility of replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources has significantly increased, with some countries now generating almost all their electricity from renewables. Public awareness of the climate change threat has risen, in large part due to social movement led by youth and visibility of the impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather events and flooding caused by sea level rise. Many surveys show a growing proportion of voters support tackling climate change as a high priority, making it easier for politicians to commit to policies that include climate action. The COVID-19 pandemic and economic recession lead to widespread calls for a "green recovery", with some polities like the European Union successfully integrating climate action into policy change. Outright climate change denial had become a much less influential force by 2019, and opposition has pivoted to strategies of encouraging delay or inaction. + +== Climate policy == + +Climate policy or climate change policy is policy about climate change. It is often decided by national governments - for example the climate policy of China. It may include policy on reducing greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change, and also adapting to climate change. National climate policy sometimes conflicts with sub-national or bloc policy, for example the climate change policy of Washington (state) diverges from the climate change policy of the United States, and EU climate policy can conflict with other national policies. +Climate policies may have co-benefits for health policy such as by: reducing air pollution, and increasing walking and cycling; they may also help energy policy by reducing oil imports. Public support for policies depends on: how effective people think they are in reducing emissions, their impact on poor people, their effect on respondents' households, and how well they understand them. Climate-economy modelling may help when deciding policy. Policy, such as target dates for net-zero emissions, may be put into law. +The usage of military termes in climate policy is dangerous and can lead to unintended consequences. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4ff1a5194 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Policy debate == +Like all policy debates, the political debate on climate change is fundamentally about action. Various distinct arguments underpin the politics of climate change - such as different assessments of the urgency of the threat, and on the feasibility, advantages and disadvantages of various responses. But essentially, these all relate to potential responses to climate change. +The statements that form political arguments can be divided into two types: positive and normative statements. Positive statements can generally be clarified or refuted by careful definition of terms, and scientific evidence. Whereas normative statements about what one "ought" to do often relate at least partly to morality, and are essentially a matter of judgement. Experience has indicated that better progress is often made at debates if participants attempt to disentangle the positive and normative parts of their arguments, reaching agreement on the positive statements first. In the early stages of a debate, the normative positions of participants can be strongly influenced by perceptions of the best interests of whatever constituency they represent. In achieving exceptional progress at the 2015 Paris conference, Christiana Figueres and others noted it was helpful that key participants were able to move beyond a competitive mindset concerning competing interests, to normative statements that reflected a shared abundance based collaborative mindset. +Actions in response to climate change can be divided into three classes: mitigation – actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance carbon sinks, adaptation – actions to defend against the negative results of global warming, and solar geoengineering – a technology in which sunlight would be reflected back to outer space. +Most 20th century international debate on climate change focused almost entirely on mitigation. It was sometimes considered defeatist to pay much attention to adaptation. Also, compared to mitigation, adaptation is more a local matter, with different parts of the world facing vastly different threats and opportunities from climate change. By the early 21st century, while mitigation still receives most attention in political debates, it is no longer the sole focus. Some degree of adaptation is now widely considered essential, and is discussed internationally at least at high level, though which specific actions to take remain mostly a local matter. A commitment to provide $100 billion per year worth of funding to developing countries was made at the 2009 Copenhagen Summit. At Paris, it was clarified that allocation of the funding should involve a balanced split between adaptation and mitigation, though as of December 2020, not all funding had been provided, and what had been delivered was going mainly to mitigation projects. By 2019, possibilities for geoengineering were also increasingly being discussed, and were expected to become more prominent in future debates. +Political debate on how to mitigate tends to vary depending on the scale of governance concerned. Different considerations apply for international debate, compared with national and municipal level discussion. In the 1990s, when climate change first became prominent on the political agenda, there was optimism that the problem could be successfully tackled. The then recent signing of the 1987 Montreal Protocol to protect the ozone layer had indicated that the world was able to act collectively to address a threat warned about by scientists, even when it was not yet causing significant harm to humans. Yet by the early 2000s GHG emissions had continued to rise, with little sign of agreement to penalise emitters or reward climate friendly behaviour. It had become clear that achieving global agreement for effective action to limit global warming would be much more challenging. Some politicians, such as Arnold Schwarzenegger with his slogan "terminate pollution", say that activists should generate optimism by focusing on the health co-benefits of climate action. +The EU's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) is among the trade-related measures introduced to address climate concerns. A proposed enhancement—known as "CBAM-plus"—aims to channel CBAM revenues towards decarbonisation initiatives in developing exporting countries. By also recognising non-pricing climate policies, CBAM-plus could promote more comprehensive global mitigation efforts. + +=== Multilateral === + +Climate change became a fixture on the global political agenda in the early 1990s, with United Nations Climate Change conferences set to run yearly. These annual events are also called Conferences of the Parties (COPs). Major landmark COPs were the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the 2009 Copenhagen Summit and the 2015 Paris conference. Kyoto was initially considered promising, yet by the early 2000s its results had proved disappointing. Copenhagen saw a major attempt to move beyond Kyoto with a much stronger package of commitments, yet largely failed. Paris was widely considered successful, yet how effective it will be at reducing long term global warming remains to be seen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a30216da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +At international level, there are three broad approaches to emissions reduction that nations can attempt to negotiate. Firstly, the adoption of emissions reductions targets. Secondly, setting a carbon price. Lastly, creating a largely voluntary set of processes to encourage emission reduction, which include the sharing of information and progress reviews. These approaches are largely complementary, though at various conferences much of the focus has often been on a single approach. Until about 2010, international negotiations focused largely on emissions targets. The success of the Montreal treaty in reducing emissions that damaged the ozone layer suggested that targets could be effective. Yet in the case of greenhouse gas reductions, targets have not in general led to substantial cuts in emissions. Ambitious targets have usually not been met. Attempts to impose severe penalties that would incentivize more determined efforts to meet challenging targets, have always been blocked by at least one or two nations. +In the 21st century, there is widespread agreement that a carbon price is the most effective way to reduce emissions, at least in theory. Generally though, nations have been reluctant to adopt a high carbon price, or in most cases any price at all. One of the main reasons for this reluctance is the problem of carbon leakage – the phenomena where activities producing GHG emissions are moved out of the jurisdiction that imposes the carbon price thus depriving the jurisdiction of jobs & revenue, and to no benefit, as the emissions will be released elsewhere. Nonetheless, the percentage of the worlds' emissions that are covered by a carbon price rose from 5% in 2005, to 15% by 2019, and should reach over 40% once China's carbon price comes fully into force. Existing carbon price regimes have been implemented mostly independently by the European Union, nations and sub national jurisdictions acting autonomously. +The largely voluntary pledge and review system where states make their own plans for emissions reduction was introduced in 1991, but abandoned before the 1997 Kyoto treaty, where the focus was on securing agreement for "top down" emissions targets. The approach was revived at Copenhagen, and gained further prominence with the 2015 Paris Agreement, though pledges came to be called nationally determined contributions (NDCs). These are meant to be re-submitted in enhanced form every 5 years. How effective this approach is remains to be seen. Some countries submitted elevated NDCs in 2021, around the time of the Glasgow conference. Accounting rules for carbon trading were agreed at the 2021 Glasgow COP meeting. +In 2025 the agreement of the European Union and China about joint climate action is considered as very important for uphold multilateralism and global governance on climate issues. The agreement came at time of global instability, tensions and withdrawal of the Donald Trump government from the Paris agreement. + +=== Regional, national and sub-national === + +Policies to reduce GHG emissions are set by either national or sub national jurisdictions, or at regional level in the case of the European Union. Much of the emission reduction policies that have been put into place have been beyond those required by international agreements. Examples include the introduction of a carbon price by some individual US states, or Costa Rica reaching 99% electrical power generation by renewables in the 2010s. +Actual decisions to reduce emissions or deploy clean technologies are mostly not made by governments themselves, but by individuals, businesses and other organizations. Yet it is national and local governments that set policies to encourage climate friendly activity. Broadly these policies can be divided into four types: firstly, the implementation of a carbon price mechanism and other financial incentives; secondly prescriptive regulations, for example mandating that a certain percentage of electricity generation must be from renewables; thirdly, direct government spending on climate friendly activity or research; and fourthly, approaches based on information sharing, education and encouraging voluntary climate friendly behavior. Local politics is sometimes combined with air pollution, for example the politics of creating low emission zones in cities may also aim to reduce carbon emissions from road transport. + +=== Non-governmental actors === +Individuals, businesses and NGOs can affect the politics of climate change both directly and indirectly. Mechanisms include individual rhetoric, aggregate expression of opinion by means of polls, and mass protests. Historically, a significant proportion of these protests have been against climate friendly policies. Since the 2000 UK fuel protests there have been dozens of protests across the world against fuel taxes or the ending of fuel subsidies. Since 2019 and the advent of the school strike and Extinction Rebellion, pro climate protests have become more prominent. Indirect channels for apolitical actors to effect the politics of climate change include funding or working on green technologies, and the fossil fuel divestment movement. + +==== Special interests and lobbying by non-country actors ==== + +There are numerous special interest groups, organizations, and corporations who have public and private positions on the multifaceted topic of global warming. The following is a partial list of the types of special interest parties that have shown an interest in the politics of global warming: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3eaa1710c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fossil fuel companies: Traditional fossil fuel corporations stand to lose from stricter global warming regulations, though there are exceptions. The fact fossil fuel companies are engaged in energy trading might mean that their participation in trading schemes and other such mechanisms could give them a unique advantage, so it is unclear whether every traditional fossil fuel companies would always be against stricter global warming policies. As an example, Enron, a traditional gas pipeline company with a large trading desk heavily lobbied the United States government to regulate CO2: they thought that they would dominate the energy industry if they could be at the center of energy trading. +Farmers and agribusiness are an important lobby but vary in their views on effects of climate change on agriculture and greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and, for example, the role of the EU Common Agricultural Policy. +Financial Institutions: Financial institutions generally support policies against global warming, particularly the implementation of carbon trading schemes and the creation of market mechanisms that associate a price with carbon. These new markets require trading infrastructures, which banking institutions can provide. Financial institutions are also well positioned to invest, trade and develop various financial instruments that they could profit from through speculative positions on carbon prices and the use of brokerage and other financial functions like insurance and derivative instruments. +Environmental groups: Environmental advocacy groups generally favor strict restrictions on CO2 emissions. Environmental groups, as activists, engage in raising awareness. +Renewable energy and energy efficiency companies: companies in wind, solar and energy efficiency generally support stricter global warming policies. They expect their share of the energy market to expand as fossil fuels are made more expensive through trading schemes or taxes. +Nuclear power companies: support and benefit from carbon pricing or subsidies of low-carbon energy production, as nuclear power produces minimal greenhouse gas emissions. +Electricity distribution companies: may lose from solar panels but benefit from electric vehicles. +Traditional retailers and marketers: traditional retailers, marketers, and the general corporations respond by adopting policies that resonate with their customers. If "being green" provides customer appeal, then they could undertake modest programs to please and better align with their customers. However, since the general corporation does not make a profit from their particular position, it is unlikely that they would strongly lobby either for or against a stricter global warming policy position. +Medics: often say that climate change and air pollution can be tackled together and so save millions of lives. +Information and communications technology companies: say their products help others combat climate change, tend to benefit from reductions in travel, and many purchase green electricity. +The various interested parties sometimes align with one another to reinforce their message, for example electricity companies fund the purchase of electric school buses to benefit medics by reducing the load on the health service whilst at the same time selling more electricity. Sometimes industries will fund specialty nonprofit organizations to raise awareness and lobby on their behest. + +== Collective action == + +Current climate politics are influenced by a number of social and political movements focused on different parts of building political will for climate action. This includes the climate justice movement, youth climate movement and movements to divest from fossil fuel industries. + +=== Divestment movement === + +=== Youth movement === + +== Outlook == + +Historical political attempts to agree on policies to limit global warming have largely failed to mitigate climate change. Commentators have expressed optimism that the 2020s can be more successful, due to various recent developments and opportunities that were not present during earlier periods. Other commentators have expressed warnings that there is now very little time to act in order to have any chance of keeping warming below 1.5 °C, or even to have a good chance of keeping global heating under 2 °C. +According to Torsten Lichtenau, leading expert in global carbon transition, there was a huge peak on corporate climate action in 2021 – 2022 at the time of COP26, but in 2024 "it's dropped back to 2019 levels." As for 2024 issues like geopolitics, inflation and artificial intelligence became more important for corporations even though the number of climate concerned consumers rose. 2024 was the first year in which the amount of money given to ESG declined. + +=== Opportunities === +In the late 2010s, various developments conducive to climate friendly politics saw commentators express optimism that the 2020s might see good progress in addressing the threat of global heating. + +==== Tipping point in public opinion ==== + +The year 2019 has been described as "the year the world woke up to climate change", driven by factors such growing recognition of the global warming threat resulting from recent extreme weather events, the Greta effect and the IPPC 1.5 °C report. +In 2019, the secretary general of OPEC recognized the school strike movement as the greatest threat faced by the fossil fuel industry. According to Christiana Figueres, once about 3.5% of a population start participating in non violent protest, they are always successful in sparking political change, with the success of Greta Thunberg's Fridays for Future movement suggesting that reaching this threshold may be obtainable. +A 2023 review study published in One Earth stated that opinion polls show that most people perceive climate change as occurring now and close by. The study concluded that seeing climate change as more distant does not necessarily result in less climate action, and reducing psychological distancing does not reliably increase climate action. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8c98429e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Reduced influence of climate change denial ==== +By 2019, outright climate change denial had become a much less influential force than it had been in previous years. Reasons for this include the increasing frequency of extreme weather events, more effective communication on the part of climate scientists, and the Greta effect. As an example, in 2019 the Cato Institute closed down its program seeking to raise uncertainty about climate science. Studies show that conservatives and liberals are not significantly different in their support for climate solutions; however, the way these solutions are framed can greatly influence their effectiveness. For example, conservatives respond more positively to messages about actions like tree planting when the language avoids explicit references to climate change. + +==== Growth of renewable energy ==== + +Renewable energy is an inexhaustible source of naturally replenishing energy. The major renewable energy sources are wind, hydropower, solar, geothermal, and biomass. In 2020, renewable energy generated 29% of world electricity. +In the wake of the Paris Agreement, adopted by 196 Parties, 194 of these Parties have submitted their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), i.e., climate pledges, as of November 2021. There are many different efforts used by these countries to help include renewable energy investments such as 102 countries have implemented tax credits, 101 countries include some sort of public investment, and 100 countries currently use tax reductions. The largest CO2 emitters tend to be industrialized countries like the US, China, UK, and India. These countries aren't implementing enough industrial policies (188) compared to deployment policies (more than 1,000). + +In November 2021, the 26th United Nation Conference of the Parties (COP26) took place in Glasgow, Scotland. Almost 200 nations agreed to accelerate the fight against climate change and commit to more effective climate pledges. Some of the new pledges included reforms on methane gas pollution, deforestation, and coal financing. Surprisingly, the US and China (the two largest carbon emitters) also both agreed to work together on efforts to prevent global warming from surpassing 1.5 degrees Celsius. Some scientists, politicians, and activist say that not enough was done at this summit and that we will still reach that 1.5 degree tipping point. An Independent report by Climate Action Tracker said the commitments were "lip service" and "we will emit roughly twice as much in 2030 as required for 1.5 degrees." +As of 2020, the feasibility of replacing energy from fossil fuel with nuclear and especially renewable energy has much increased, with dozens of countries now generating more than half of their electricity from renewable sources. + +==== Green recovery ==== + +=== Challenges === +Despite various promising conditions, commentators tend to warn that several difficult challenges remain, which need to be overcome if climate change politics is to result in a substantial reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. For example, increasing tax on meat can be politically difficult. + +==== Urgency ==== + +As of 2021, CO2 levels have already increased by about 50% since the pre-industrial era, with billions of tons more being released each year. Global warming has already passed the point where it is beginning to have a catastrophic impact in some localities. So major policy changes need to be implemented very soon if the risk of escalating environmental impact is to be avoided. + +==== Centrality of fossil fuel ==== + +Energy from fossil fuels remains central to the worlds economy, accounting for about 80% of its energy generation as of 2019. Suddenly removing fossil fuel subsidies from consumers has often been found to cause riots. While clean energy can sometimes be cheaper, provisioning large amounts of renewable energy in a short period of time tends to be challenging. According to a 2023 report by the International Energy Agency, coal emissions grew 243 Mt to a new all-time high of almost 15.5 Gt. This 1.6% increase was faster than the 0.4% annual average growth over the past decade. In 2022 the European Central Bank argued that high energy prices were accelerating the energy transition away from fossil fuel, but that governments should take steps to prevent energy poverty without hindering the move to low carbon energy. + +==== Inactivism ==== +While outright denial of climate change is much less prevalent in the 2020s compared to the preceding decades, many arguments continue to be made against taking action to limit GHG emissions. Such arguments include the view that there are better ways to spend available funds (such as adaptation), that it would be better to wait until new technology is developed as that would make mitigation cheaper, that technology and innovation will render climate change moot or resolve certain aspects, and that the future negative effects of climate change should be heavily discounted compared to current needs. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b9c8b5bb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Fossil fuel lobby and political spending ==== +The largest oil and gas corporations that comprise Big Oil and their industry lobbyist arm, the American Petroleum Institute (API), spend large amounts of money on lobbying and political campaigns, and employ hundreds of lobbyists, to obstruct and delay government action to address climate change. The fossil fuel lobby has considerable clout in Washington, D.C. and in other political centers, including the European Union and the United Kingdom. Fossil fuel industry interests spend many times as much on advancing their agenda in the halls of power than do ordinary citizens and environmental activists, with the former spending $2 billion in the years 2000–2016 on climate change lobbying in the United States. The five largest Big Oil corporations spent hundreds of millions of euros to lobby for its agenda in Brussels. +Big Oil companies often adopt "sustainability principles" that are at odds with the policy agenda their lobbyists advocate, which often entails sowing doubt about the reality and impacts of climate change and forestalling government efforts to address them. API launched a public relations disinformation campaign with the aim of creating doubt in the public mind so that "climate change becomes a non-issue." This industry also spends lavishly on American political campaigns, with approximately 2/3 of its political contributions over the past several decades fueling Republican Party politicians, and outspending many-fold political contributions from renewable energy advocates. Fossil fuel industry political contributions reward politicians who vote against environmental protections. According to a study published by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, as voting by a member of United States Congress turned more anti-environment, as measured by his/her voting record as scored by the League of Conservation Voters (LCV), the fossil fuel industry contributions that this member of Congress received increased. On average, a 10% decrease in the LCV score was correlated with an increase of $1,700 in campaign contributions from the fossil fuel industry for the campaign following the Congressional term. + +==== Suppression of climate science ==== +Big Oil companies, starting as early as the 1970s, suppressed their own scientists' reports of major climate impacts of the combustion of fossil fuels. ExxonMobil launched a corporate propaganda campaign promoting false information about the issue of climate change, a tactic that has been compared to Big Tobacco's public relations efforts to hoodwink the public about the dangers of smoking. Fossil fuel industry-funded think tanks harassed climate scientists who were publicly discussing the dire threat of climate change. As early as the 1980s when larger segments of the American public began to become aware of the climate change issue, the administrations of some United States presidents scorned scientists who spoke publicly of the threat fossil fuels posed for the climate. Other U.S. administrations have silenced climate scientists and muzzled government whistleblowers. Political appointees at a number of federal agencies prevented scientists from reporting their findings regarding aspects of the climate crisis, changed data modeling to arrive at conclusions they had set out a prior to prove, and shut out the input of career scientists of the agencies. + +==== Targeting of climate activists ==== +Climate and environmental activists, including, increasingly, those defending woodlands against the logging industry, have been killed in several countries, such as Colombia, Brazil and the Philippines. The perpetrators of most such killings have not been punished. A record number of such killings was recorded for the year 2019. Indigenous environmental activists are disproportionately targeted, comprising as many as 40% of fatalities worldwide. Domestic intelligence services of several governments, such as those of the U.S. government, have targeted environmental activists and climate change organizations as "domestic terrorists," surveilling them, investigating them, questioning them, and placing them on national "watchlists" that could make it more difficult for them to board airplanes and could instigate local law enforcement monitoring. Other U.S. tactics have included preventing media coverage of American citizen assemblies and protests against climate change, and partnering with private security companies to monitor activists. + +==== Doomism ==== + +In the context of climate change politics, doomism refers to pessimistic narratives that claim that it is now too late to do anything about climate change. Doomism can include exaggeration of the probability of cascading climate tipping points, and their likelihood in triggering runaway global heating beyond human ability to control, even if humanity was able to immediately stop all burning of fossil fuels. In the US, polls found that for people who did not support further action to limit global warming, a belief that it is too late to do so was given as a more common reason than skepticism about man made climate change. + +==== Lack of compromise ==== +Several climate friendly policies have been blocked in the legislative process by environmental and/or left leaning pressure groups and parties. For example, in 2009, the Australian green party voted against the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, as they felt it did not impose a high enough carbon price. In the US, the Sierra Club helped defeat a 2016 climate tax bill which they saw as lacking in social justice. Some of the attempts to impose a carbon price in US states have been blocked by left wing politicians because they were to be implemented by a cap and trade mechanism, rather than a tax. + +==== Multi-sector governance ==== +The issue of climate change usually fits into various sectors, which means that the integration of climate change policies into other policy areas is frequently called for. Thus the problem is difficult, as it needs to be addressed at multiple scales with diverse actors involved in the complex governance process. + +==== Maladaptation ==== +Successful adaptation to climate change requires balancing competing economic, social, and political interests. In the absence of such balancing, harmful unintended consequences can undo the benefits of adaptation initiatives. For example, efforts to protect coral reefs in Tanzania forced local villagers to shift from traditional fishing activities to farming that produced higher greenhouse gas emissions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..65280e009 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Wars and tensions ==== + +"Conflict sensitivity and peacebuilding" are a "key for climate policy-making." Wars and geopolitical tensions harm climate action, including by preventing just distribution of needed resources. Climate change can increase conflicts, creating a vicious cycle. The war in Ukraine seriously disturbed climate action. Military forces are responsible for 5.5% of global emissions and wars diverte resources from climate action. On the other hand, climate policy itself can also function as an arena for positive competition among states engaged in a race to the top. + +=== Technology === +The promise of technology is seen as both a threat and a potential boon. New technologies can open up possibilities for new and more effective climate policies. Most models that indicate a path to limiting warming to 2 °C have a big role for carbon dioxide removal, one of the approaches of climate change mitigation. Commentators from across the political spectrum tend to welcome CO2 removal. But some are skeptical that it will be ever be able to remove enough CO2 to slow global warming without there also being rapid cuts in emissions, and they warn that too much optimism about such technology may make it harder for mitigation policies to be enacted. +Solar radiation management is another technology aiming to reduce global warming. At least with stratospheric aerosol injection, there is broad agreement that it would be effective in bringing down average global temperatures. Yet the prospect is considered unwelcome by many climate scientists. They warn that side effects would include possible reductions in agricultural yields due to reduced sunlight and rainfall, and possible localized temperature rises and other weather disruptions. According to Michael Mann, the prospect of using solar management to reduce temperatures is another argument used to reduce willingness to enact emissions reduction policy. + +== Just transition == + +Economic disruption due to phase out of carbon-intensive activities, such as coal mining, cattle farming or bottom trawling, can be politically sensitive due to the high political profile of coal miners, farmers and fishers in some countries. Many labor and environmental groups advocate for a just transition that minimizes the harm and maximizes the benefits associated with climate-related changes to society, for example by providing job training. + +== Different responses on the political spectrum == + +Climate friendly policies are generally supported across the political spectrum, though there have been many exceptions among voters and politicians leaning towards the right, and even politicians on the left have rarely made addressing climate change a top priority. In the 20th century, right wing politicians led much significant action against climate change, both internationally and domestically, with Richard Nixon and Margaret Thatcher being prominent examples. Yet by the 1990s, especially in some English speaking countries and most especially in the US, the issue began to be polarized. Right wing media started arguing that climate change was being invented or at least exaggerated by the left to justify an expansion in the size of government. As of 2020, some right wing governments have enacted increased climate friendly policies. Various surveys indicated a slight trend for even U.S. right wing voters to become less skeptical of global warming, and groups like American Conservation Coalition indicate young Republican voters embrace climate as a central policy field. Though in the view of Anatol Lieven, for some right wing US voters, being skeptical of climate change has become part of their identity, so their position on the matter cannot easily be shifted by rational argument. + +A 2014 study from the University of Dortmund concluded that countries with center and left-wing governments had higher emission reductions than right-wing governments in OECD countries during 1992–2008. Historically, nationalist governments have been among the worst performers in enacting policies. Though according to Lieven, as climate change is increasingly seen as a threat to the ongoing existence of nation states, nationalism is likely to become one of the most effective forces to drive determined mitigation efforts. The growing trend to securitize the climate change threat may be especially effective for increasing support among nationalist and conservatives. +A 2024 analysis found 100 U.S. representatives and 23 U.S. senators—23% of the 535 members of Congress—to be climate change deniers, all the deniers being Republicans. + +== History == + +== Relationship to climate science == + +In the scientific literature, there is an overwhelming consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused primarily by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..08ed27a5f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The politicization of science in the sense of a manipulation of science for political gains is a part of the political process. It is part of the controversies about intelligent design (compare the Wedge strategy) or Merchants of Doubt, scientists that are under suspicion to willingly obscure findings. e.g. about issues like tobacco smoke, ozone depletion, global warming or acid rain. However, e.g. in case of ozone depletion, global regulation based on the Montreal Protocol was successful, in a climate of high uncertainty and against strong resistance while in case of climate change, the Kyoto Protocol failed. +While the IPCC process tries to find and orchestrate the findings of global climate change research to shape a worldwide consensus on the matter it has itself been the object of a strong politicization. Anthropogenic climate change evolved from a mere science issue to a top global policy topic. +The IPCC process having built a broad science consensus does not stop governments following different, if not opposing goals. For ozone depletion, global regulation was already being put into place before a scientific consensus was established. So a linear model of policy-making, based on a the more knowledge we have, the better the political response will be view is not necessarily accurate. Instead knowledge policy, successfully managing knowledge and uncertainties as a foundation for political decision making; requires a better understanding of the relation between science, public (lack of) understanding and policy. +Most of the policy debate concerning climate change mitigation has been framed by projections for the twenty-first century. Academics have criticized this as short term thinking, as decisions made in the next few decades will have environmental consequences that will last for many millennia. +It has been estimated that only 0.12% of all funding for climate-related research is spent on the social science of climate change mitigation. Vastly more funding is spent on natural science studies of climate change and considerable sums are also spent on studies of the impact of and adaptation to climate change. It has been argued that this is a misallocation of resources, as the most urgent challenge is to work out how to change human behavior to mitigate climate change, whereas the natural science of climate change is already well established and there will be decades and centuries to handle adaptation. + +== Political economy of climate change == + +Political economy of climate change is an approach that applies the political economy thinking concerning social and political processes to study the critical issues surrounding decision-making on climate change. +The ever-increasing awareness and urgency of climate change had led scholars to explore a better understanding of the multiple actors and influencing factors that affect climate change negotiation, and to seek more effective solutions to tackle climate change. Analyzing these complex issues from a political economy perspective helps to explain the interactions between different stakeholders in response to climate change impacts, and provides opportunities to achieve better implementation of climate change policies. + +=== Introduction === + +==== Background ==== +Climate change has become one of the most pressing environmental concerns and global challenges in society today. As the issue rises in prominence the international agenda, researchers from different academic sectors have for long been devoting great efforts to explore effective solutions to climate change. Technologists and planners have been devising ways of mitigating and adapting to climate change; economists estimating the cost of climate change and the cost of tackling it; development experts exploring the impact of climate change on social services and public goods. However, Cammack (2007) points out two problems with many of the above discussions, namely the disconnection between the proposed solutions to climate change from different disciplines; and the devoid of politics in addressing climate change at the local level. Further, the issue of climate change is facing various other challenges, such as the problem of elite-resource capture, the resource constraints in developing countries and the conflicts that frequently result from such constraints, which have often been less concerned and stressed in suggested solutions. In recognition of these problems, it is advocated that "understanding the political economy of climate change is vital to tackling it". +Meanwhile, the unequal distribution of the impacts of climate change and the resulting inequity and unfairness on the poor who contribute least to the problem have linked the issue of climate change with development study, which has given rise to various programs and policies that aim at addressing climate change and promoting development. Although great efforts have been made on international negotiations concerning the issue of climate change, it is argued that much of the theory, debate, evidence-gathering and implementation linking climate change and development assume a largely apolitical and linear policy process. In this context, Tanner and Allouche (2011) suggest that climate change initiatives must explicitly recognize the political economy of their inputs, processes and outcomes so as to find a balance between effectiveness, efficiency and equity. + +==== Definition ==== +In its earliest manifestations, the term "political economy" was basically a synonym of economics, while it is now a rather elusive term that typically refers to the study of the collective or political processes through which public economic decisions are made. In the climate change domain, Tanner and Allouche (2011) define the political economy as "the processes by which ideas, power and resources are conceptualized, negotiated and implemented by different groups at different scales". While there have emerged a substantial literature on the political economy of environmental policy, which explains the "political failure" of the environmental programmes to efficiently and effectively protect the environment, systematic analysis on the specific issue of climate change using the political economy framework is relatively limited. + +=== Characteristics of climate change === +The urgent need to consider and understand the political economy of climate change is based on the specific characteristics of the problem. +The key issues include: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..27b43349f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The cross-sectoral nature of climate change: The issue of climate change usually fits into various sectors, which means that the integration of climate change policies into other policy areas is frequently called for. Thus the problem is complicated as it needs to be tackled at multiple scales, with diverse actors involved in the complex governance process. The interaction of these facets leads to political processes with multiple and overlapping conceptualizations, negotiation and governance issues, which requires the understanding of political economy processes. +The problematic perception of climate change as simply a "global" issue: Climate change initiatives and governance approaches have tended to be driven from a global scale. While the development of international agreements has witnessed a progressive step of global political action, this globally-led governance of climate change issue may be unable to provide adequate flexibility for specific national or sub-national conditions. Besides, from the development point of view, the issue of equity and global environmental justice would require a fair international regime within which the impact of climate change and poverty could be simultaneously prevented. In this context, climate change is not only a global crisis that needs the presence of international politics, but also a challenge for national or sub-national governments. The understanding of the political economy of climate change could explain the formulation and translation of international initiatives to specific national and sub-national policy context, which provides an important perspective to tackle climate change and achieve environmental justice. +The growth of climate change finance: Recent years have witnessed a growing number of financial flows and the development of financing mechanisms in the climate change arena. The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Cancún, Mexico committed a significant amount of money from developed countries to developing a world in supportive of the adaptation and mitigation technologies. In short terms, the fast start finance will be transferred through various channels including bilateral and multilateral official development assistance, the Global Environment Facility, and the UNFCCC. Besides, a growing number of public funds have provided greater incentives to tackle climate change in developing countries. For instance, the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience aims at creating an integrated and scaled-up approach of climate change adaptation in some low-income countries and preparing for future finance flows. In addition, climate change finance in developing countries could potentially change the traditional aid mechanisms, through the differential interpretations of 'common but differentiated responsibilities' by developing and developed countries. As a result, it is inevitable to change the governance structures so as for developing countries to break the traditional donor-recipient relationships. Within these contexts, the understanding of the political economy processes of financial flows in the climate change arena would be crucial to effectively govern the resource transfer and to tackling climate change. +Different ideological worldviews of responding to climate change: Nowadays, because of the perception of science as a dominant policy driver, much of the policy prescription and action in climate change arena have concentrated on assumptions around standardized governance and planning systems, linear policy processes, readily transferable technology, economic rationality, and the ability of science and technology to overcome resource gaps. As a result, there tends to be a bias towards technology-led and managerial approaches to address climate change in apolitical terms. Besides, a wide range of different ideological worldviews would lead to a high divergence of the perception of climate change solutions, which also has a great influence on decisions made in response to climate change. Exploring these issues from a political economy perspective provides the opportunity to better understand the "complexity of politic and decision-making processes in tackling climate change, the power relations mediating competing claims over resources, and the contextual conditions for enabling the adoption of technology". +Unintended negative consequences of adaptation policies that fail to factor in environmental-economic trade-offs: Successful adaptation to climate change requires balancing competing economic, social, and political interests. In the absence of such balancing, harmful unintended consequences can undo the benefits of adaptation initiatives. For example, efforts to protect coral reefs in Tanzania forced local villagers to shift from traditional fishing activities to farming that produced higher greenhouse gas emissions. + +=== Socio-political constraints === +The role of political economy in understanding and tackling climate change is also founded upon the key issues surrounding the domestic socio-political constraints: + +The problems of fragile states: Fragile states—defined as poor performers, conflict and/or post-conflict states—are usually incapable of using the aid for climate change effectively. The issues of power and social equity have exacerbated the climate change impacts, while insufficient attention has been paid to the dysfunction of fragile states. Considering the problems of fragile states, the political economy approach could improve the understanding of the long-standing constraints upon capacity and resilience, through which the problems associated with weak capacity, state-building and conflicts could be better addressed in the context of climate change. + Informal governance: In many poorly performing states, decision-making around the distribution and use of state resources is driven by informal relations and private incentives rather than formal state institutions that are based on equity and law. This informal governance nature that underlies in the domestic social structures prevents the political systems and structures from rational functioning and thus hinders the effective response towards climate change. Therefore, domestic institutions and incentives are critical to the adoption of reforms. +The difficulty of social change: Developmental change in underdeveloped countries is painfully slow because of a series of long-term collective problems, including the societies' incapacity of working collectively to improve wellbeing, the lack of technical and social ingenuity, the resistance and rejection to innovation and change. In the context of climate change, these problems significantly hinder the promotion of climate change agenda. Taking a political economy view in the underdeveloped countries could help to understand and create incentives to promote transformation and development, which lays a foundation for the expectation of implementing a climate change adaptation agenda. + +=== Research focuses and approaches === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..24ce847ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Politics of climate change" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:58.963513+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Brandt and Svendsen (2003) introduce a political economy framework that is based on the political support function model by Hillman (1982) into the analysis of the choice of instruments to control climate change in the European Union policy to implement its Kyoto Protocol target level. In this political economy framework, the climate change policy is determined by the relative strength of stakeholder groups. By examining the different objective of different interest groups, namely industry groups, consumer groups and environmental groups, the authors explain the complex interaction between the choices of an instrument for the EU climate change policy, specifically the shift from the green taxation to a grandfathered permit system. +A report by the Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) (2011) takes a political economy approach to explain why some countries adopt climate change policies while others do not, specifically among the countries in the transition region. This work analyzes the different political economy aspects of the characteristics of climate change policies so as to understand the likely factors driving climate change mitigation outcomes in many transition countries. The main conclusions are listed below: + +The level of democracy alone is not a major driver of climate change policy adoption, which means that the expectations of contribution to global climate change mitigation are not necessarily limited by the political regime of a given country. +Public knowledge, shaped by various factors including the threat of climate change in a particular country, the national level of education and existence of free media, is a critical element in climate change policy adoption, as countries with the public more aware of the climate change causes are significantly more likely to adopt climate change policies. The focus should, therefore, be on promoting public awareness of the urgent threat of climate change and prevent information asymmetries in many transition countries. +The relative strength of the carbon-intensive industry is a major deterrent to the adoption of climate change policies, as it partly accounts for the information asymmetries. However, the carbon-intensive industries often influence government's decision-making on climate change policy, which thus calls for a change of the incentives perceived by these industries and a transition of them to a low-carbon production pattern. Efficient means include the energy price reform and the introduction of international carbon trading mechanisms. +The competitive edge gained national economies in the transition region in a global economy, where increasing international pressure is put to reduce emissions, would enhance their political regime's domestic legitimacy, which could help to address the inherent economic weaknesses underlying the lack of economic diversification and global economic crisis. +Tanner and Allouche (2011) propose a new conceptual and methodological framework for analyzing the political economy of climate change in their latest work, which focuses on the climate change policy processes and outcomes in terms of ideas, power and resources. The new political economy approach is expected to go beyond the dominant political economy tools formulated by international development agencies to analyze climate change initiatives that have ignored the way that ideas and ideologies determine the policy outcomes (see table). The authors assume that each of the three lenses, namely ideas, power and resources, tends to be predominant at one stage of the policy process of the political economy of climate change, with "ideas and ideologies predominant in the conceptualization phase, power in the negotiation phase and resource, institutional capacity and governance in the implementation phase". It is argued that these elements are critical in the formulation of international climate change initiatives and their translation to national and sub-national policy context. + +== See also == + +Business action on climate change – Range of activities by businesses relating to climate change +Climate target – Policy for emissions reductions +Clean Development Mechanism – UN-run carbon offset scheme +Energy policy – How a government or business deals with energy +Environmental policy – Government efforts protecting the natural environment +Green industrial policy – Strategic government policy +List of international environmental agreements +Climate Policy (journal) + +== Notes == + +== References == +Dryzek, John; Norgaard, Richard; Schlosberg, David, eds. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956660-0. +Andrew Dessler; Edward A Parson (2020). The Science and Politics of Global Climate Change: A Guide to the Debate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-63132-4. +Christiana Figueres; Tom Rivett-Carnac (2020). The Future We Choose: Surviving the Climate Crisis. Manilla Press. ISBN 978-1-838-770-82-2. +Anatol Lieven (2020). Climate Change and the Nation State. Penguin Random House. ISBN 978-0-241-39407-6. +Michael E. Mann (2021). The New Climate War: The Fight to Take Back Our Planet. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-541-75822-3. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheanism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheanism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2950d5d7e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheanism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Prometheanism" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheanism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:00.232981+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Prometheanism is an environmentalist term popularized by the political theorist John Dryzek to describe a perspective which perceives the Earth as a resource whose utility is determined primarily by human needs and interests and whose environmental problems are overcome through human innovation. The term was introduced in Dryzek's work, The Politics of the Earth: Environmental Discourses (1997). In contrast with other environmental perspectives, Prometheanism prioritizes human interests and needs over those of ecosystems (as with deep ecology) or the individual needs of creatures (as in eco-feminism). +In his 1992 book Green Delusions: An Environmentalist Critique of Radical Environmentalism, Martin Lewis offered one of the first systematic comparisons of how Promethean environmentalism differs from traditional Arcadian forms of environmentalism such as deep ecology. + + +== See also == +Bright green environmentalism +Technogaianism + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c91ee155e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Psychology of climate change denial" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The psychology of climate change denial is the study of why people deny climate change, despite the scientific consensus on climate change. A study assessed public perception and action on climate change on grounds of belief systems, and identified seven psychological barriers affecting behavior that otherwise would facilitate mitigation, adaptation, and environmental stewardship: cognition, ideological worldviews, comparisons to key people, costs and momentum, disbelief in experts and authorities, perceived risks of change, and inadequate behavioral changes. Other factors include distance in time, space, and influence. +Reactions to climate change may include anxiety, depression, despair, dissonance, uncertainty, insecurity, and distress, with one psychologist suggesting that "despair about our changing climate may get in the way of fixing it." The American Psychological Association has urged psychologists and other social scientists to work on psychological barriers to taking action on climate change. The immediacy of a growing number of extreme weather events are thought to motivate people to deal with climate change. + +== Types of denial == + +=== Expanding the meaning of "denial" === + +The idea of "soft" or implicit climate change denial became prominent in the mid-2010s, but variations of the same concept originated earlier. An article published by National Center for Science Education referred to "implicit" denial: + +Climate change denial is most conspicuous when it is explicit, as it is in controversies over climate education. The idea of implicit (or "implicatory") denial, however, is increasingly discussed among those who study the controversies over climate change. Implicit denial occurs when people who accept the scientific community's consensus on the answers to the central questions of climate change on the intellectual level fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action. Such people are in denial, so to speak, about climate change. +In May 2015, environmentalist Bill McKibben penned an op-ed criticizing Barack Obama's policies of approving petroleum exploration in the Arctic, expanding coal mining, and remaining indecisive on the Keystone XL pipeline. McKibben wrote: + +This is not climate denial of the Republican sort, where people simply pretend the science isn't real. This is climate denial of the status quo sort, where people accept the science, and indeed make long speeches about the immorality of passing on a ruined world to our children. They just deny the meaning of the science, which is that we must keep carbon in the ground. +McKibben's use of the word "denial" was an early expansion of the term's meaning in environmental discourse to include "denial of the significance or logical consequences of a fact or problem; in this case, what advocates see as the necessary policies that flow from the dangers of global warming." + +=== Analysis of soft climate change denial === +Michael Hoexter, a scholar and sustainability advocate, analyzed the phenomenon of "soft climate change denial" in a September 2016 article for the blog New Economic Perspectives and expanded on the idea in a follow-up article published the next month. Despite the term's earlier, informal usage, Hoexter has been credited with formally defining the concept. In Hoexter's terms, "soft" climate denial "means that one acknowledges in some parts of one's life that climate change is real, disastrous and happening now but in most other parts of one's life, one ignores that anthropogenic global warming is, in fact, a real existential emergency and catastrophic." According to Hoexter, "soft climate denial and the thin gruel of climate action policies that accompany it may be functioning as a 'face-saving' device to mask fundamental inertia or a deep manifest preference for inaction while continuing fossil-fueled business as usual." +He also applied the term to "more 'radical' groups" that pushed for more responsive measures, but "often either miss the mark in terms of the climate challenge facing us or wrap themselves in communication strategies and 'memes' that limit their potential influence on politics and policy." In Hoexter's view, soft denial can only be escaped through collective action, not individual action or realization. +Soft climate change denial (also called implicit or implicatory climate change denial) is a state of mind acknowledging the existence of global warming in the abstract while remaining, to some extent, in partial psychological or intellectual denialism about its reality or impact. It is contrasted with conventional "hard" climate change denial, which refers to explicit disavowal of the consensus on global warming's existence, causes, or effects (including its effects on human society). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..724c36459 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Psychology of climate change denial" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Psychological reasons for denial == +Various psychological factors can impact the effectiveness of communication about climate change, driving potential climate change denial. Psychological barriers, such as emotions, opinions and morals refer to the internal beliefs that a person has which stop them from completing a certain action. Psychologist Robert Gifford wrote in 2011 "we are hindered by seven categories of psychological barriers, also known as dragons of inaction: limited cognition about the problem, ideological worldviews that tend to preclude pro-environmental attitudes and behavior, comparisons with other key people, sunk costs and behavioral momentum, discordance toward experts and authorities, perceived risk of change, and positive but inadequate behavior change". +A study published in PLOS One in 2024 found that even a single repetition of a claim was sufficient to increase the perceived truth of both climate science-aligned claims and climate change skeptic/denial claims—"highlighting the insidious effect of repetition". This effect was found even among climate science endorsers. +Polarization in the climate change debate, with skeptics labeling proponents ‘catastrophists’ and proponents calling skeptics ‘deniers,’ reflects psychological barriers like in-group/out-group bias and confirmation bias, which entrench denial by reinforcing group identities. Skeptics often exhibit confirmation bias by distrusting climate science, while proponents may show overconfidence in social science predictions, both hindering balanced understanding of climate change. A further cognitive barrier is the assumption that climate change impacts society in a linear, negative way, oversimplifying the complex, pluralistic nature of societal responses and contributing to denialist narratives. For example, the 1970 Ancash Earthquake in Peru, which killed 70,000 due to societal factors like maladaptive building practices, illustrates a cognitive bias where denialists misattribute climate risks to natural causes, ignoring societal influences. + +=== Distance in time, space, and influence === +Climate change is often portrayed as occurring in the future, whether that be the near or distant future. Many estimations portray climate change effects as occurring by 2050 or 2100, which both seem much more distant in time than they really are, which can create a barrier to acceptance. There is also a barrier created by the distance portrayed in climate change discussions. Effects caused by climate change across the planet do not seem concrete to people living thousands of miles away, especially if they are not experiencing any effects. Climate change is also a complex, abstract concept to many, which can create barriers to understanding. Carbon dioxide is an invisible gas, and it causes changes in overall average global temperatures, both of which are difficult, if not impossible, for one single person to discern. Due to these distances in time, space, and influence, climate change becomes a far-away, abstract issue that does not demand immediate attention. +Anthony Leiserowitz, the director of the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication said that one "almost couldn't design a worse fit for our underlying psychology or our institutions of decision-making" than dealing with climate change—owing primarily to the short-term focus of humans and their institutions. + +=== Cognitive dissonance === + +Cognitive dissonance refers to the psychological discomfort arising from holding conflicting beliefs or engaging in actions inconsistent with one’s values.In the context of climate change, individuals often experience dissonance when their acknowledgment of the climate crisis conflicts with their everyday behaviors or perceived self-interest. Because there is little solid action that people can take on a daily basis to combat climate change, then some believe climate change must not be as pressing an issue as it is made out to be. An example of this phenomenon is that most people know smoking cigarettes is not healthy, yet people continue to smoke cigarettes, and so an inner discomfort is elicited by the contradiction in ‘thinking’ and ‘doing’. A similar cognitive dissonance is created when people know that things like driving, flying, and eating meat are causing climate change, but the infrastructure is not in place to change those behaviors effectively. + +In order to address this dissonance, climate change is rejected or downplayed. This dissonance also fuels denial, wherein people cannot find a solution to an anxiety-inducing problem, and so the problem is denied outright. Creating stories that climate change is actually caused by something out of humans’ control, such as sunspots or natural weather patterns, or suggesting that we must wait until we are certain of all of the facts about climate change before any action be taken, are manifestations of this fear and consequent denial of climate change."It seems as if people stop paying attention to global climate change when they realise that there are no easy solutions for it. Many people instead judge as serious only those problems for which they think action can be found."Individuals are alarmed about the dangerous potential futures resulting from a high-energy world in which climate change was occurring, but simultaneously create denial mechanisms to overcome the dissonance of knowing these futures, yet not wanting to change their convenient lifestyles. These denial mechanisms include things like overestimating the costs of changing their lifestyles, blaming others, including government or corporations, rather than their own inaction, and emphasizing the doubt that individual action could make a difference within a problem so large. + +=== Cognitive barriers === + +Cognitive barriers to climate change acceptance include: + +Limited cognition of the human brain, caused by things like the fact that the human brain has not evolved much in thousands of years, and so has not transitioned to caring about the future rather than immediate danger, +ignorance, the idea that environments are composed of more elements than humans can monitor, so we only attend to things causing immediate difficulty, which climate change does not seem to do +uncertainty, undervaluing of distant or future risk, optimism bias, +the belief that an individual can do nothing against climate change are all cognitive barriers to climate change acceptance. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8ef015863 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Psychology of climate change denial" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Conspiratorial beliefs === +Climate change denial is commonly rooted in a phenomenon commonly known as conspiracy theory, in which people misattribute events to a secret plot or plan by a powerful group of individuals. The development of conspiracy theories is further prompted by the proportionality bias that results from climate change — an event of mass scale and a great deal of significance — being frequently presented as a result of daily small-scale human behavior; often, individuals are less likely to believe large events of this scale can be so easily explained by ordinary details. +This inclination is furthered by a variety of possible strong individually and socially grounded reasons to believe in these conspiracy theories. The social nature of being a human holds influential merit when it comes to information evaluation. Conspiracy theories reaffirm the idea that people are part of moral social groups that have the ability to remain firm in the face of deep-seated threats. Conspiracy theories also feed into the human desire and motivation to maintain one's level of self-esteem, a concept known as self-enhancement. With climate change in particular, one possibility for the popularity of climate change conspiracy theories is that these theories knee-cap the reasoning that humans are culpable for the degradation of their own world and environment. This allows for maintenance of one's own self-esteem, and provides strong backing for belief in conspiracy theories. These climate change conspiracy theories pass the social blame to others, which upholds both the self and the in-group as moral and legitimate, making them highly appealing to those who perceive a threat to the esteem of themselves or their group. In a similar vein, much like how conspiracy belief is linked with narcissism, it is also predicted by collective narcissism. Collective narcissism is a belief in the distinction of one's own group whilst believing that those outside the group do not give the group enough recognition. +A variety of factors related to the nature of climate change science itself also enable the proliferation of conspiratorial beliefs. Climate change is a complicated field of science for lay people to make sense of. Research has experimentally indicated that people are used to creating patterns where there are none when they perceive a loss of control in order to return the world to one they can make sense of. Research indicates that people hold stronger beliefs about conspiracies when they exhibit distress as a consequence of uncertainty, which are both prominent when it comes to climate change science. Additionally, in order to meet the psychological desire for clear, cognitive closure, the likes of which is not consistently accessible to lay people regarding climate change, people often lean on conspiracy theories. Bearing this in mind, it is also crucial to note that conspiracy belief is conversely lessened in intensity when individuals have their sense of control affirmed. +People with certain cognitive tendencies are also more drawn to conspiracy theories about climate change as compared to others. Aside from narcissism as previously mentioned, conspiratorial beliefs are more predominantly found in those who consistently look for meanings or patterns in their world, which often includes those who believe in paranormal activities. Climate change conspiracy disbelief is also linked with lower levels of education and analytic thinking. If a person has a predisposed inclination towards perceiving others’ actions as having been actively done willfully even when no such thing is happening, they are more likely to buy into conspiratorial thinking. +The global COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to the increase of conspiratorial beliefs, contested science, skepticism, and overall denial of climate science. Researchers studying science skepticism of vaccination for COVID-19 see direct linkages between this and science skepticism for other large-scale domain issues like that of climate science. + +=== Threat to self-interest === +The realisation that an individual's actions contribute to climate change can threaten their self-interest and compromise their psychological integrity. The threat to self-interest can often result in ‘denialism’ – a refusal to accept and even deny the scientific evidence- manifested across all levels of society. Large organisations that have a strong vested interest in activities directly responsible for climate change, such as fossil fuel companies, may even promote climate change denial through the spread of misinformation. +Denial is manifested at the individual level where it is used to protect the self from overwhelming emotional responses to climate change. This is often referred to as ‘soft denial’ or ‘disavowal’ in the relevant literature. Here the dangers of climate change are experienced in a purely intellectual way, resulting in no psychological disturbance: cognition is split off from feeling. Disavowal can be induced by a wide variety of psychological processes including: the diffusion of responsibility, rationalisation, perceptual distortion, wishful thinking and projection. These are all avoidant ways of coping. + +=== Framing === +In popular climate discourse framing, the three dominant framing ideas have been apocalypse, uncertainty and high costs/losses. These framings create intense feelings of fear and doom and helplessness. Framing climate change in these ways creates thoughts that nothing can be done to change the trajectory, that any solution will be too expensive and do too little, or that it is not worth trying to find a solution to something we are unsure is happening. Climate change has been framed this way for years, and so these messages are instilled in peoples’ minds, elicited whenever the words "climate change" are brought up. + +=== Ideology and religion === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4e2a2e0ac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Psychology of climate change denial" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ideologies, including suprahuman powers, technosalvation, and system justification, are all psychological barriers to climate change acceptance. Suprahuman powers describes the belief that humans cannot or should not interfere because they believe a religious deity will not turn on them or will do what it wants to do regardless of their intervention. Technosalvation is the ideology that technologies such as geoengineering will save us from climate change, and so mitigation behavior is not necessary. Another ideological barrier is the ideology of system justification, or the defense and justification of the status quo, so as to not "rock the boat" on a comfortable lifestyle. + +=== Own behaviors, habits, aspirations === +People are also very invested in their own behavior. Behavioral momentum, or daily habits, are one of the most important barriers to remove for climate change mitigation. Lastly, conflicting values, goals, and aspirations can interfere with the acceptance of climate change mitigation. Because many of the goals held by individuals directly conflict with climate change mitigation strategies, climate change gets pushed to the bottom of their list of values, so as to minimize the extent of its conflict. +One type of limited behavior is tokenism, where after completing one small task or engaging in one small behavior, the individual feels they have done their part to mitigate climate change, when in reality they could be doing much more. Individuals could also experience the rebound effect, where one positive activity is diminished or erased by a subsequent activity (like walking to work all week because you are flying across the country every weekend). +Financial investment in fossil fuels and other climate change inducing industries (sunk costs) is often a reason for denial of climate change. If one accepts that these things cause climate change, they would have to lose their investment, and so continued denial is more acceptable. +The difficulty of comprehending the sheer scale of global warming and its effects can result in sincere (albeit ill-founded) belief that individual changes in behavior will suffice to address the problem without requiring more fundamental structural changes. + +=== Views of others and perceived risk === +If someone is held in a negative light, it is not likely others will take guidance from them due to feelings of mistrust, inadequacy, denial of their beliefs, and reactance against statements they believe threaten their freedom. +Several types of perceived risk can occur when an individual is considering changing their behavior to accept and mitigate climate change: functional risk, physical risk, financial risk, social risk, psychological risk, and temporal risk. Due to the perception of all of these risks, the individual may just reject climate change altogether to avoid potential risks completely. +Social comparisons between individuals build social norms. These social norms then dictate how someone "should" behave in order to align with society's ideas of "proper" behavior. This barrier also includes perceived inequity, where an individual feels they should not or do not have to act a certain way because they believe no one else acts that way. + +== Psychological reasons for soft denial == +There are several beliefs or thought patterns that tend to contribute to soft climate denial: + +Psychological isolation and compartmentalization – Events of everyday life usually lack an obvious connection to global warming. As such, people compartmentalize their awareness of global warming as abstract knowledge without taking any practical action. Hoexter identifies isolation/compartmentalization as the most common facet of soft denial. +"Climate providentialism" – In post-industrial society, modern comforts and disconnection from nature lead to an assumption that the climate "will provide" for humans, regardless of drastic changes. Though named for a belief found in some forms of Christianity, Hoexter uses the term in a secular context and relates it to anthropocentrism. +"Carbon gradualism" – An assumption that global warming can be addressed though minor "tweaks" conducted over extended periods of time. Proposals for more drastic change may be more realistic, but appear "radical" by comparison. +Substitutionism – A tendency among politically engaged people to "substitute a high-minded pre-existing activist cause" in place of the more immediate challenge of fossil fuel phase-out. Hoexter associates substitutionism with eco-socialism, green anarchism, and the climate justice movement, which he said tends to prioritize "laudable and important concerns about environmental justice and inequality" at the expense of "the future-looking fight to stabilize the climate." +Intellectualization – Engaging with climate change in a primarily academic context makes the issue an abstraction, lacking the visceral stimuli that prompt people to take concrete action. +Localism – Emphasis on "small" changes to improve one's local environment is a well-intentioned but limited response to a problem on the scale of global warming. +"Moral or intellectual narcissism" – Deriving a misplaced sense of superiority over "hard" climate deniers, soft deniers may come to believe that simply acknowledging the existence of climate change or expressing concern is sufficient by itself. +"Confirmation of pre-existing worldview" – Because of cognitive inertia, people may fail to integrate the significance or scale of climate change the framework of their existing beliefs, knowledge, and priorities. +Millenarianism – Activists become transfixed with a grand vision of an eventual, fundamental transformation of society, supplanting meaningful concrete action at the day-to-day level. +Sectarianism – Activists may become preoccupied with a particular vision of climate policy and become caught up in the narcissism of small differences, tedious debates, and far-flung hypotheticals to the detriment of more productive activity. +"Commitment to Hedonism" – The looming dread of climate change can emotionally overwhelm a person and may prompt a retreat into pleasure for its own sake. Alternately, people may indulge in pleasurable activities that they worry may not be readily accessible in a future society adapted to climate change. +"Entente with nihilism, defeatism, and depression" – In Hoexter's view, genuine nihilism remains a tendency within "hard" denialism; however, people who feel disempowered or overwhelmed about climate change may come to accept an uneasy coexistence with such nihilism. + +== Examples == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cbde3239c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Psychology of climate change denial" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_climate_change_denial" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:01.692946+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soft climate denial has been ascribed to both liberals and conservatives, as well as proponents of market-based environmental policy instruments. It has also been used in self-criticism against tendencies toward complacency and inaction. Depending on perspective, sources may differ on whether a person engages in "soft" or "hard" denial (or neither). For example, the environmental policy of the Trump administration has been described as both "soft" and "hard" climate denial. + +In Scientific American, Robert N. Proctor and Steve Lyons described Bret Stephens, a conservative New York Times opinion columnist and self-described "climate agnostic", as a soft denialist: The irony is that Stephens himself seems to presume that climate science must be understood in political terms—as part of a larger struggle between liberals and conservatives. But the reality of climate change has nothing to do with politics: it's an atmospheric fact, not a political fact. And the whole idea of needing to keep 'an open mind' to a legitimate 'controversy' is the very essence of modern 'soft' denialism. +It was pointed out in 2017 that all the other current opinion columnists at the New York Times expressed varying degrees of soft denial in their work: "Like many liberals, every current liberal NYT columnist remains stuck in various states of 'soft' climate denial". This applied to the writing of Stephens's fellow conservatives (Ross Douthat and David Brooks) as well as his liberal colleagues (Maureen Dowd, David Leonhardt, Frank Bruni, Gail Collins, Charles Blow, Paul Krugman, Nicholas Kristof, Thomas Friedman, and Roger Cohen). + +== See also == + +Anti-environmentalism +Barriers to pro-environmental behavior +Environmental skepticism +False consciousness +Fear, uncertainty, and doubt +Individual action on climate change +Inoculation theory +Motivated reasoning +Pluralistic ignorance +Status quo bias + +== References == + +=== Sources === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_species-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_species-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..106eb2fde --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_species-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Rare species" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_species" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:03.055184+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A rare species is a group of organisms that are very uncommon, scarce, or infrequently encountered. This designation may be applied to either a plant or animal taxon, and is distinct from the term endangered or threatened. Designation of a rare species may be made by an official body, such as a national government, state, or province. The term more commonly appears without reference to specific criteria. The International Union for Conservation of Nature does not normally make such designations, but may use the term in scientific discussion. +Rarity rests on a specific species being represented by a small number of organisms worldwide, usually fewer than 10,000. However, a species having a very narrow endemic range or fragmented habitat also influences the concept. Almost 75% of known species can be classified as "rare". +Rare species are species with small populations. Many will move into the endangered or vulnerable category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. Well-known examples of rare species - because these are large terrestrial animals - include the Himalayan brown bear, Fennec fox, Wild Asiatic buffalo, or the Hornbill. +They are not endangered yet, but classified as "at risk", although the frontier between these categories is increasingly difficult to draw given the general paucity of data on rare species. This is especially the case in the ocean where many 'rare' species not seen for decades may well have gone extinct unnoticed, if they are not already on the verge of extinction like the Mexican Vaquita. +A species may be endangered or vulnerable, but not considered rare if it has a large, dispersed population. IUCN uses the term "rare" as a designation for species found in isolated geographical locations. Rare species are generally considered threatened because a small population size is less likely to recover from ecological disasters. +Rare plants can be classified based on the size and distribution of their populations. Some species may be rare because they consist of only a few individuals, are confined to a limited geographic area, or both. Certain rare plants are found sparsely distributed across a wide area. Others might have a large number of individuals that are concentrated in a very small area, such as a single county or canyon. The rarest plants typically have both a small number of individuals and a very limited geographic range. +Assessments of the status of rare plants are conducted using the best available data and consider various factors, including: + +Total number of occurrences and the condition of these populations +Population size +Extent of range and area occupied +Trends in population size and distribution over the short and long term +Nature, severity, and urgency of threats +Number of occurrences that are protected and actively managed +Intrinsic vulnerability of the species +Specificity to environmental conditions +A rare plant's legal status can be observed through the USDA's Plants Database. + + +== Critically Endangered, Possibly Extinct == + + +== Critically Endangered / Extinct in the Wild == + + +== See also == +Abundance (ecology) +Biodiversity Action Plan +Common species +Critical depensation +Endangered Species Recovery Plan +Endling – What some of the species on this list are categorised as such as the Fernandina island tortoise and loneliest palm. +List of cryptids – For species officially declared extinct with unconfirmed sightings such as the thylacine and megalodon +Rare Species Conservation Centre + + +== References == + + +== External links == +USDA Plant Database + + +== Further reading == +Gorbunov, Y. N., Dzybov, D. S., Kuzmin, Z. E. and Smirnov, I. A. 2008. Methodological recommendations for botanic gardens on the reintroduction of rare and threatened plants. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(sustainability)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(sustainability)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..de9d47e9f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(sustainability)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Regeneration (sustainability)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(sustainability)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:04.402988+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Regeneration refers to rethinking and reinventing business models, supply chains, and lifestyles to sustain and improve the earth's natural environment and avoid the depletion of natural resources. Regeneration includes widespread environmental practices such as reusing, recycling, restoring, and the use of renewable resources. + + +== History == +The modern environmental movement gained traction in the early 1970s following the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, the first time multiple nations joined to discuss the state of the world's environment. +On World Environment Day 2007, Dell Inc. chief executive Michael Dell launched a corporate campaign centred on the idea of a “ReGeneration” – consumers committed to recycling, renewable energy, and broader environmental stewardship. Many of the original theories of change came from writers, thinkers, and designers such as Wendell Berry, Buckminster Fuller, David Orr and Frank Lloyd Wright. These individuals saw a shift happening in humanity toward a rekindled connection with nature and inspired monumental changes in our approach and perspectives on topics such as building community, our relationship with agriculture and architecture, as well as the disconnect between modern economics on a finite planet. +Thought leaders like Paul Hawken, Kate Raworth, Naomi Klein, David Suzuki, and Bill McKibben have modernized the discourse and given the environmental movement a new set of tools in the form of conscious capitalism and positive climate communication. + + +== See also == +2007 in the environment +Biomimicry +Ecological design +Environmental design +Permaculture +Sustainable design + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Sustainable Design Guide Loughborough University, November 2019 +Exploring Characteristics of Regenerative Business Models \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8786d6273 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Riparian buffer" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:05.774949+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A riparian buffer or stream buffer is a vegetated area (a "buffer strip") near a stream, usually forested, which helps shade and partially protect the stream from the impact of adjacent land uses. It plays a key role in increasing water quality in associated streams, rivers, and lakes, thus providing environmental benefits. With the decline of many aquatic ecosystems due to agriculture, riparian buffers have become a very common conservation practice aimed at increasing water quality and reducing pollution. + +== Benefits == +Riparian buffers act to intercept sediment, nutrients, pesticides, and other materials in surface runoff and reduce nutrients and other pollutants in shallow subsurface water flow. They also serve to provide habitat and wildlife corridors in primarily agricultural areas. They can also be key in reducing erosion by providing stream bank stabilization. Large scale results have demonstrated that the expansion of riparian buffers through the deployment of plantations systems can effectively reduce nitrogen emissions to water and soil loss by wind erosion, while simultaneously providing substantial environmental co-benefits, having limited negative effects on current agricultural production. + +=== Water quality benefits === +Riparian buffers intercept sediment and nutrients. They counteract eutrophication in downstream lakes and ponds which can be detrimental to aquatic habitats because of large fish kills that occur upon large-scale eutrophication. Riparian buffers keep chemicals, like pesticides, that can be harmful to aquatic life out of the water. Some pesticides can be especially harmful if they bioaccumulate in the organism, with the chemicals reaching harmful levels once they are ready for human consumption. Riparian buffers also stabilise the bank surrounding the water body which is important since erosion can be a major problem in agricultural regions when cut (eroded) banks can take land out of production. Erosion can also lead to sedimentation and siltation of downstream lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. Siltation can greatly reduce the life span of reservoirs and the dams that create the reservoirs. + +=== Habitat benefits === +Riparian buffers can act as crucial habitat for a large number of species, especially those who have lost habitat due to agricultural land being put into production. The habitat provided by the buffers also double as corridors for species that have had their habitat fragmented by various land uses. By adding this vegetated area of land near a water source, it increases biodiversity by allowing species an area to re-establish after being displaced due to non-conservation land use. With this re-establishment, the number of native species and biodiversity in general can be increased. The large trees in the first zone of the riparian buffer provide shade and therefore cooling for the water, increasing productivity and increasing habitat quality for aquatic species. When branches and stumps (large woody debris) fall into the stream from the riparian zone, more stream habitat features are created. Carbon is added as an energy source for biota in the stream. + +=== Economic benefits === +Buffers increase land value and allow for the production of profitable alternative crops. Vegetation such as black walnut and hazelnut, which can be profitably harvested, can be incorporated into the riparian buffer. Lease fees for hunting can also be increased as the larger habitat means that the land will be more sought after for hunting purposes. Designing buffer zones based on their hydrological function instead of a traditionally used fixed width method, can be economically beneficial in forestry practices. + +== Design == + +A riparian buffer is usually split into three different zones, each having its own specific purpose for filtering runoff and interacting with the adjacent aquatic system. Buffer design is a key element in the effectiveness of the buffer. It is generally recommended that native species be chosen to plant in these three zones, with the general width of the buffer being 50 feet (15 m) on each side of the stream. + +Zone 1 +This zone should function mainly to shade the water source and act as a bank stabilizer. The zone should include large native tree species that grow fast and can quickly act to perform these tasks. Although this is usually the smallest of the three zones and absorbs the fewest contaminants, most of the contaminants have been eliminated by Zone 2 and Zone 3. +Zone 2 +Usually made up of native shrubs, this zone provides a habitat for wildlife, including nesting areas for bird species. This zone also acts to slow and absorb contaminants that Zone 3 has missed. The zone is an important transition between grassland and forest. +Zone 3 +This zone is important as the first line of defense against contaminants. It consists mostly of native grasses and serves primarily to slow water runoff and begin to absorb contaminants before they reach the other zones. Although these grass strips should be one of the widest zones, they are also the easiest to install. +Streambed Zone +The streambed zone of the riparian area is linked closely to Zone 1. Zone 1 provides fallen limbs, trees, and tree roots that in turn slow water flow, reducing erosional processes associated with increased water flow and flooding. This woody debris also increases habitat and cover for various aquatic species. +The US National Agroforestry Center has developed a filter strip design tool called AgBufferBuilder, which is a GIS-based computer program for designing vegetative filter strips around agricultural fields that utilizes terrain analysis to account for spatially non-uniform runoff. + +== Forest management == +Logging is sometimes recommended as a management practice in riparian buffers, usually to provide economic incentive. However, some studies have shown that logging can harm wildlife populations, especially birds. A study by the University of Minnesota found that there was a correlation between the harvesting of timber in riparian buffers and a decline in bird populations. Therefore, logging is generally discouraged as an environmental practice, and left to be done in designated logging areas. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3cc402c1b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Riparian buffer" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_buffer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:05.774949+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Conservation incentives == +The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), a farming assistance program in the United States, provides many incentives to landowners to encourage them to install riparian buffers around water systems that have a high chance of non-point water pollution and are highly erodible. For example, the Nebraska system of Riparian Buffer Payments offers payments for the cost of setup, a sign up bonus, and annual rental payments. +These incentives are offered to agriculturists to compensate them for their economic loss of taking this land out of production. If the land is highly erodible and produces little economic gain, it can sometimes be more economic to take advantage of these CRP programs. + +== Effectiveness == +Riparian buffers have undergone much scrutiny about their effectiveness, resulting in thorough testing and monitoring. A study done by the University of Georgia, conducted over a nine-year period, monitored the amounts of fertilizers that reached the watershed from the source of the application. It found that these buffers removed at least 60% of the nitrogen in the runoff, and at least 65% of the phosphorus from the fertilizer application. The same study showed that the effectiveness of the Zone 3 was much greater than that of both Zone 1 and 2 at removing contaminants. But another study in 2017 did not find efficiency (or a very limiting capacity) for reducing glyphosate and AMPA leaching to streams; spontaneous herbaceous vegetation RBS is as efficient as Salix plantations and measures of glyphosate in runoff after a year, suggest an unexpected persistence and even a capacity of RBS to potentially favor glyphosate infiltration up to 70 cm depth in the soil. + +== Long-term sustainability == +After the initial installation of the riparian buffer, relatively little maintenance is needed to keep the buffer in good condition. Once the trees and grasses mature, they regenerate naturally and make a more effective buffer. The sustainability of the riparian buffer makes it extremely attractive to landowners since they do relatively little work and still receive payments. Riparian buffers have the potential to be the most effective way to protect aquatic biodiversity and water quality and manage water resources in developing countries that lack the funds to install water treatment and supply systems in midsize and small towns. + +== Species selection == +Species selection based on an area in Nebraska, as an example: + +In Zone 1 +Cottonwood, Bur Oak, Hackberry, Swamp White Oak, Siberian Elm, Honeylocust, Silver Maple, Black Walnut, and Northern Red Oak. +In Zone 2 +Manchurian apricot, Silver Buffaloberry, Caragana, Black Cherry, Chokecherry, Sandcherry, Peking Cotoneaster, Midwest Crabapple, Golden Currant, Elderberry, Washington Hawthorn, American Hazel, Amur Honeysuckle, Common Lilac, Amur Maple, American Plum, and Skunkbush Sumac. +In Zone 3 +Western Wheatgrass, Big Bluestem, Sand Bluestem, Sideoats Grama, Blue Grama, Hairy Grama, Buffalo Grass, Sand Lovegrass, Switchgrass, Little Bluestem, Indiangrass, Prairie Cordgrass, Prairie Dropseed, Tall Dropseed, Needleandthread, Green Needlegrass. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == + +National Agroforestry Center (USDA) +Filter Strip Design Tool (AgBufferBuilder; USDA) +Extensive Riparian Buffer bibliography \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_succession-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_succession-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..48228a865 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_succession-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Secondary succession" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_succession" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:07.069042+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Secondary succession is the secondary ecological succession of a plant's life. As opposed to the first, primary succession, secondary succession is a process started by an event (e.g. forest fire, harvesting, hurricane, etc.) that reduces an already established ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a wheat field) to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil. Many factors can affect secondary succession, such as trophic interaction, initial composition, and competition-colonization trade-offs. The factors that control the increase in abundance of a species during succession may be determined mainly by seed production and dispersal, micro climate; landscape structure (habitat patch size and distance to outside seed sources); bulk density, pH, and soil texture (sand and clay). +Secondary succession is the ecological succession that occurs after the initial succession has been disrupted and some plants and animals still exist. It is usually faster than primary succession as soil is already present, and seeds, roots, and the underground vegetative organs of plants may still survive in the soil. + + +== Examples == + + +=== Imperata === +Imperata grasslands are caused by human activities such as logging, forest clearing for shifting cultivation, agriculture and grazing, and also by frequent fires. The latter is a frequent result of human interference. However, when not maintained by frequent fires and human disturbances, they regenerate naturally and speedily to secondary young forest. The time of succession in Imperata grassland (for example in Samboja Lestari area), Imperata cylindrica has the highest coverage but it becomes less dominant from the fourth year onwards. While Imperata decreases, the percentage of shrubs and young trees clearly increases with time. In the burned plots, Melastoma malabathricum, Eupatorium inulaefolium, Ficus sp., and Vitex pinnata. strongly increase with the age of regeneration, but these species are commonly found in the secondary forest. +Soil properties change during secondary succession in Imperata grassland area. The effects of secondary succession on soil are strongest in the A-horizon (0–10 cm (0.0–3.9 in)), where an increase in carbon stock, N, and C/N ratio, and a decrease in bulk density and pH are observed. Soil carbon stocks also increase upon secondary succession from Imperata grassland to secondary forest. + + +=== Oak and hickory forest === +A classic example of secondary succession occurs in oak and hickory forests cleared by wildfire. Wildfires will burn most vegetation and kill those animals unable to flee the area. Their nutrients, however, are returned to the ground in the form of ash. Thus, even when areas are devoid of life due to severe fires, the area will soon be ready for new life to take hold. Before the fire, the vegetation was dominated by tall trees with access to the major plant energy resource: sunlight. Their height gave them access to sunlight while also shading the ground and other low-lying species. After the fire, though, these trees are no longer dominant. Thus, the first plants to grow back are usually annual plants followed within a few years by quickly growing and spreading grasses and other pioneer species. Due to, at least in part, changes in the environment brought on by the growth of the grasses and other species, over many years, shrubs will emerge along with small pine, oak, and hickory trees. These organisms are called intermediate species. Eventually, over 150 years, the forest will reach its equilibrium point where species composition is no longer changing and resembles the community before the fire. This equilibrium state is referred to as the climax community, which will remain stable until the next disturbance. + + +== Post-fire succession == + + +=== Soil === +Generation of carbonates from burnt plant material following fire disturbance causes an initial increase in soil pH that can affect the rate of secondary succession, as well as what types of organisms will be able to thrive. Soil composition prior to fire disturbance also influences secondary succession, both in rate and type of dominant species growth. For example, high sand concentration was found to increase the chances of primary Pteridium over Imperata growth in Imperata grassland. The byproducts of combustion have been shown to affect secondary succession by soil microorganisms. For example, certain fungal species such as Trichoderma polysporum and Penicillium janthinellum have a significantly decreased success rate in spore germination within fire-affected areas, reducing their ability to recolonize. + + +=== Vegetation === +Vegetation structure is affected by fire. In some types of ecosystems this creates a process of renewal. Following a fire, early successional species disperse and establish first. This is followed by late-successional species. Species that are fire intolerant are those that are more flammable and are desolated by fire. More tolerant species are able to survive or disperse in the event of fire. The occurrence of fire leads to the establishment of deadwood and snags in forests. This creates habitat and resources for a variety of species. +Fire can act as a seed-dispersing stimulant. Many species require fire events to reproduce, disperse, and establish. For example, the knobcone pine has closed cones that open for dispersal when exposed to heat caused by forest fires. It grows in clusters because of this limited method of seed dispersal. A tough fire resistant outer bark and lack of low branches help the knobcone pine survive fire with minimal damage. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_baseline-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_baseline-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a18c7c60 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_baseline-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Shifting baseline" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_baseline" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:08.501735+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A shifting baseline (also known as a sliding baseline) is a type of change to how a system is measured, usually against previous reference points (baselines), which themselves may represent significant changes from an even earlier state of the system that fails to be considered or remembered. +The concept arose in landscape architect Ian McHarg's 1969 manifesto Design With Nature  in which the modern landscape is compared to that on which ancient people once lived. +The concept was then considered by the fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly in his paper "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries". Pauly developed the concept in reference to fisheries management where fisheries scientists sometimes fail to identify the correct "baseline" population size (e.g. how abundant a fish species population was before human exploitation) and thus, wind up working with a shifted baseline. He describes the way that radically depleted fisheries were evaluated by experts who used the state of the fishery at the start of their careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its untouched natural state. Areas that swarmed with a particular species hundreds of years ago, may have experienced long term decline, but it is the level of decades previously that is considered the appropriate reference point for current populations. In this way large declines in ecosystems or species over long periods of time were, and are, masked. There is a loss of perception of change that occurs when each generation redefines what is "natural". +Stock assessments by most modern fisheries do not ignore historical fishing and account for it by either including the historical catch or use other techniques to reconstruct the depletion level of the population at the start of the period for which adequate data is available. Anecdotes about historical population levels may be highly unreliable and result in severe mismanagement of the fishery. +The concept was further refined and applied to the ecology of kelp forests by Paul Dayton and others from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. They used a slightly different version of the term in their paper, "Sliding baselines, ghosts, and reduced expectations in kelp forest communities". Both terms refer to a shift over time in the expectation of what a healthy ecosystem baseline looks like. + + +== Broadened meaning == +In 2002, filmmaker and former marine biologist Randy Olson broadened the definition of shifting baselines with an op-ed in the Los Angeles Times. He explained the relevance of the concept to all aspects of change and the failure to notice change in the world today. He and Jeremy Jackson, a coral reef ecologist, co-founded The Shifting Baselines Ocean Media Project in 2003 to help promote a wider understanding and use of the concept in conservation policy. +The Shifting Baselines Ocean Media Project grew from its three founding partners (Scripps Institution of Oceanography, The Ocean Conservancy, and Surfrider Foundation) to more than twenty conservation groups and science organizations. The project has produced dozens of short films, public service announcements, and Flash videos along with photography, video, and stand-up comedy contests, all intended to promote understanding of the term to a broader audience. The Shifting Baselines Blog, "the cure for planetary amnesia" is run by the Shifting Baselines Ocean Media Project on the Seed (magazine) Science Blogs. +In 2024, Nautilus Quarterly published an article exemplifying that this effect may occur with each human generational advancement when knowledge of changes to nature that have occurred before their personal perceptions, is forgotten or lost and an inaccurate baseline is adopted. +The concept has been broadened further, to apply also to underappreciated, slowly-occurring positive change by Mark Henry who labelled it "Progress Attention Deficit", having the potential for application to both negative and positive differences between incorrectly perceived baselines and accurately perceived baselines. + + +== See also == +Bias of an estimator – Statistical property +Flynn effect +Observer bias – Cognitive bias +Observer-expectancy effect – Cognitive bias of experimental subject +Overton window – Range of ideas tolerated in public discourse +Normalization of deviance – Sociological phenomenon + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Dayton PK, Tegner MJ, Edwards PB and Riser KL (1998) "Sliding baselines, ghosts, and reduced expectations in kelp forest communities." Ecological Applications, 8(2):309-322. +Papworth SK, Rist J, Coad L and Milner-Gulland EJ (2008) "Evidence for shifting baseline syndrome in conservation" Conservation Letters, 2(2):93-100. +Pauly, Daniel (1995) "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries." Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 10(10):430. +Pauly, Daniel (2001) "Importance of historical dimension policy management in natural resource systems." Archived 2008-04-19 at the Wayback Machine ACP-EU Fisheries: Research Report No 8. + + +== External links == +Shifting Baselines website +Shifting Baselines Blog +Shifting baseline - Conservation Science Institute +Anne Canright. "California Coast & Ocean: Shifting Baselines" (PDF). seaaroundus.org. Sea Around Us (organization). Retrieved September 12, 2016. Volume 22, No.3, 2006 +Puget Sound Partnership Archived 2012-02-20 at the Wayback Machine _ A 10-minute clip of the effect of shifting baseline on the health of the Puget Sound. +Proving the ‘shifting baselines’ theory: how humans consistently misperceive nature Mongabay.com, June 24, 2009. +Daniel Pauly: The ocean's shifting baseline TED, 2010. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank-0.md index 31e5b9f16..d72d8c48d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:47.335699+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:09.842744+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_canopy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_canopy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..839a0cede --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_canopy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Solar canopy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_canopy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:11.354967+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Solar canopies are solar arrays installed on canopies, which could be a parking lot canopy, carport, gazebo, Pergola, or patio cover. + + +== Solar canopy parking lots == + +The mounting structure makes solar canopy parking lots 50% to twice as expensive to build as traditional grass field solar arrays, but as distributed energy resources they avoid transmission congestion and losses. The canopies can protect the cars and asphalt from extreme weather. +A French law passed in 2023 will require parking lots larger than 50,000 square feet (4,600 m2) to build solar canopies covering half their area. This could result in installed capacity of 6.75–11.25 gigawatts, at a cost of $8.7–14.6 billion. +In 2022, the world's largest solar car park canopy opened in the Netherlands with 35 MW capacity. A 17 MW car park canopy opened in Germany in 2025. +Rutgers University built 14.5 MW of solar canopies on parking lots in 2023, which will generate 18 GWh annually, in addition to the 32-acre 8.8 MW solar canopy parking lot already installed there in 2013. +If Walmart Supercenters installed Solar canopies on their 3,500+ parking lots it would generate 11.1 gigawatts of solar power nameplate capacity. +Many canopy projects may use the community solar mechanism for electricity sales. + + +== Gazebos == +At parks or backyard patios, gazebos can be installed as a solar canopy. Some studies have looked into the development solar gazebos that rotate in order to follow sunlight as another option for solar energy. These solar panels operate on a rotating roof gazebo system which allows the solar panels to turn towards the sun as it moves throughout the day. This allows for the solar panels to have direct sunlight throughout most of the day unlike stationary solar panels that will only receive full sunlight for a limited period of time. Due to this, rotating solar gazebos can produce a higher percent of solar energy. + + +== Rooftop canopies == +Small rooftops and rooftop decks can support solar canopy structures that share space with usable areas. + + +== Electric vehicle charging stations with solar canopies == +Some Tesla Supercharger stations have solar canopies installed to protect drivers and vehicles from the elements while recharging. Tesla Megapacks are also installed at some of these locations to store that energy locally. + + +== See also == +Solar landfill +Balcony solar power + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_landfill-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_landfill-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..636f5fc20 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_landfill-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Solar landfill" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_landfill" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:12.662444+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A solar landfill, also referred to as a brightfield, is a former landfill site that has been transformed into a solar array or solar farm. Landfills that are no longer in use are often called brownfields due to potential environmental concerns. By repurposing these brownfields into solar fields, they then become brightfields. In the United States, there are more than 10,000 closed or inactive landfills, which have the potential to accommodate over 60 gigawatts of solar installations. + + +== Development == + +Landfill sites are often suitable locations for solar farms due to their existing infrastructure, including access roads, electric utilities, and systems for using landfill gas. Additionally, these sites are elevated and devoid of objects that could obstruct solar irradiance. Constructing solar projects on landfills may have the added benefit of not requiring the developer to build on or disrupt existing ecosystems, such as would be the case if the project were to be sited on an area that requires clear-cutting. +In order to be approved to site a solar project on a brownfield, most states require a measure of rehabilitation to be conducted on the land, including the disposal of on-site hazardous materials as well as ecological restoration such as the introduction of native species, improving the resiliency of the land and ensuring that a stable ecosystem is maintained. +The largest solar landfill in the US was completed in Houston, Texas in 2023; a 50 MW solar array was installed on a 240-acre site that was previously an incinerator and landfill decommissioned by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1974. + + +== Environmental impact == +Solar projects sited on brownfields can help mitigate environmental hazards associated with landfill sites by covering and sealing the waste, preventing further contamination of soil and groundwater, and reducing methane emissions through the capture of landfill gas. By repurposing landfills for solar development, previously unusable land can be reclaimed for a productive purpose, reducing the need for new land development and preserving natural habitats. +Prior to development, landfills may require extensive site preparation, including capping, grading, and soil remediation, to ensure the stability and suitability of the land for solar installation. This work has the added benefit of protecting the surrounding ecosystem from the potentially harmful materials within the landfill. +While solar farms' impact on wildlife remains debated, in many cases, the benefits provided by rehabilitating a landfill in order to site a solar landfill may outweigh the negative effects posed by the existence of a solar farm. Not only does the conversion of landfills into solar farms reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to renewable energy generation, but such development also repurposes previously unusable land and mitigates environmental hazards associated with abandoned landfill sites. +While capping a landfill serves to mitigate exposure to waste products, there are some potential downsides to this process. One issue is that capping the landfill may seal off microbiomes in the soil, which are often home to diverse species of fungi and bacteria that thrive in the landfill environment, potentially leading to biodiversity loss through the partitioning of the two ecosystems. +A potential route to combat biodiversity loss is to utilize the mitigation hierarchy to ensure that proper measures are taken to offset any impacts caused by development. + + +== See also == +Community solar +Solar canopy +Coal ash pond landfill + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +"Re-Powering America's Land Initiative" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. November 2023. Retrieved 2024-07-24. +"Transitioning Underused Spaces". New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. Retrieved 2024-07-24. +"Supporting Brownfields Redevelopment Using Tax Incentives and Credits". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2023-07-17. Archived from the original on 2023-08-27. Retrieved 2024-07-24. +Proctor, Darrell (2023-09-01). "Solar Farm at a Landfill Site Brings New Meaning for Waste to Energy". powermag.com. Retrieved 2024-07-24. +"Brownfields Redevelopment: Solar on Contaminated Sites". Encore Renewable Energy. Retrieved 2024-07-24. +Spiess, Thierry; De Sousa, Christopher (7 August 2016). "Barriers to Renewable Energy Development on Brownfields". Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning. 18 (4): 507–534. Bibcode:2016JEPP...18..507S. doi:10.1080/1523908X.2016.1146986. S2CID 155310511. +"2019 Brownfields Federal Programs Guide". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on October 13, 2019. Retrieved 2024-07-24. +"Landfill solar projects still have bright future, but face practical limitations". Wastedive. Retrieved 2026-02-03. +"RMI Projects a Bright Future for Landfill Solar". RMI. Retrieved 2026-02-03. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversity-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9973896d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversity-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,302 @@ +--- +title: "Species diversity" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversity" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:14.044811+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Species diversity is the number of different species that are represented in a given community (a dataset). The effective number of species refers to the number of equally abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Meanings of species diversity may include species richness, taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity, and/or species evenness. Species richness is a simple count of species. Taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity is the genetic relationship between different groups of species. Species evenness quantifies how equal the abundances of the species are. + + +== Calculation of diversity == +Species diversity in a dataset can be calculated by first taking the weighted average of species proportional abundances in the dataset, and then taking the inverse of this. The equation is: + + + + + + + + + + q + + + + D + = + + + 1 + + + + + ∑ + + i + = + 1 + + + S + + + + p + + i + + + + p + + i + + + q + − + 1 + + + + + q + − + 1 + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle {}^{q}\!D={1 \over {\sqrt[{q-1}]{\sum _{i=1}^{S}p_{i}p_{i}^{q-1}}}}} + + +The denominator equals mean proportional species abundance in the dataset as calculated with the weighted generalized mean with exponent q - 1. In the equation, S is the total number of species (species richness) in the dataset, and the proportional abundance of the ith species is + + + + + p + + i + + + + + {\displaystyle p_{i}} + +. The proportional abundances themselves are used as weights. +The equation is often written in the equivalent form: + + + + + + + + + + q + + + + D + = + + + ( + + + ∑ + + i + = + 1 + + + S + + + + p + + i + + + q + + + + ) + + + 1 + + / + + ( + 1 + − + q + ) + + + + + {\displaystyle {}^{q}\!D=\left({\sum _{i=1}^{S}p_{i}^{q}}\right)^{1/(1-q)}} + + +The value of q determines which mean is used. q = 0 corresponds to the weighted harmonic mean, which is 1/S because the + + + + + p + + i + + + + + {\displaystyle p_{i}} + + values cancel out, with the result that 0D is equal to the number of species or species richness, S. q = 1 is undefined, except that the limit as q approaches 1 is well defined: + + + + + + lim + + q + → + 1 + + + + + + + + q + + + + D + = + exp + ⁡ + + ( + + − + + ∑ + + i + = + 1 + + + S + + + + p + + i + + + ln + ⁡ + + p + + i + + + + ) + + , + + + {\displaystyle \lim _{q\rightarrow 1}{}^{q}\!D=\exp \left(-\sum _{i=1}^{S}p_{i}\ln p_{i}\right),} + + +which is the exponential of the Shannon entropy. +q = 2 corresponds to the arithmetic mean. As q approaches infinity, the generalized mean approaches the maximum + + + + + p + + i + + + + + {\displaystyle p_{i}} + + value. In practice, q modifies species weighting, such that increasing q increases the weight given to the most abundant species, and fewer equally abundant species are hence needed to reach mean proportional abundance. Consequently, large values of q lead to smaller species diversity than small values of q for the same dataset. If all species are equally abundant in the dataset, changing the value of q has no effect, but species diversity at any value of q equals species richness. +Negative values of q are not used, because then the effective number of species (diversity) would exceed the actual number of species (richness). As q approaches negative infinity, the generalized mean approaches the minimum + + + + + p + + i + + + + + {\displaystyle p_{i}} + + value. In many real datasets, the least abundant species is represented by a single individual, and then the effective number of species would equal the number of individuals in the dataset. +The same equation can be used to calculate the diversity in relation to any classification, not only species. If the individuals are classified into genera or functional types, + + + + + p + + i + + + + + {\displaystyle p_{i}} + + represents the proportional abundance of the ith genus or functional type, and qD equals genus diversity or functional type diversity, respectively. + + +== Diversity indices == +Often researchers have used the values given by one or more diversity indices to quantify species diversity. Such indices include species richness, the Shannon index, the Simpson index, and the complement of the Simpson index (also known as the Gini-Simpson index). +When interpreted in ecological terms, each one of these indices corresponds to a different thing, and their values are therefore not directly comparable. Species richness quantifies the actual rather than effective number of species. The Shannon index equals log(1D), that is, q approaching 1, and in practice quantifies the uncertainty in the species identity of an individual that is taken at random from the dataset. The Simpson index equals 1/2D, q = 2, and quantifies the probability that two individuals taken at random from the dataset (with replacement of the first individual before taking the second) represent the same species. The Gini-Simpson index equals 1 - 1/2D and quantifies the probability that the two randomly taken individuals represent different species. + + +== Sampling considerations == +Depending on the purposes of quantifying species diversity, the data set used for the calculations can be obtained in different ways. Although species diversity can be calculated for any data-set where individuals have been identified to species, meaningful ecological interpretations require that the dataset is appropriate for the questions at hand. In practice, the interest is usually in the species diversity of areas so large that not all individuals in them can be observed and identified to species, but a sample of the relevant individuals has to be obtained. Extrapolation from the sample to the underlying population of interest is not straightforward, because the species diversity of the available sample generally gives an underestimation of the species diversity in the entire population. Applying different sampling methods will lead to different sets of individuals being observed for the same area of interest, and the species diversity of each set may be different. When a new individual is added to a dataset, it may introduce a species that was not yet represented. How much this increases species diversity depends on the value of q: when q = 0, each new actual species causes species diversity to increase by one effective species, but when q is large, adding a rare species to a dataset has little effect on its species diversity. +In general, sets with many individuals can be expected to have higher species diversity than sets with fewer individuals. When species diversity values are compared among sets, sampling efforts need to be standardised in an appropriate way for the comparisons to yield ecologically meaningful results. Resampling methods can be used to bring samples of different sizes to a common footing. Species discovery curves and the number of species only represented by one or a few individuals can be used to help in estimating how representative the available sample is of the population from which it was drawn. + + +== Trends == +The observed species diversity is affected not only by the number of individuals but also by the heterogeneity of the sample. If individuals are drawn from different environmental conditions (or different habitats), the species diversity of the resulting set can be expected to be higher than if all individuals are drawn from a similar environment. Increasing the area sampled increases observed species diversity both because more individuals get included in the sample and because large areas are environmentally more heterogeneous than small areas. + + +== See also == + + +== Notes == + + +== External links == +Harrison, Ian; Laverty, Melina; Sterling, Eleanor. "Species Diversity". Connexions (cnx.org). William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, the Maxfield Foundation, and the Connexions Consortium. Retrieved 1 February 2011. (Licensed under Creative Commons 1.0 Attribution Generic). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..097dc33b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Stream restoration" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:15.406052+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Stream restoration or river restoration, also sometimes referred to as river reclamation, is work conducted to improve the environmental health of a river or stream, in support of biodiversity, recreation, flood management and/or landscape development. +Stream restoration approaches can be divided into two broad categories: form-based restoration, which relies on physical interventions in a stream to improve its conditions; and process-based restoration, which advocates the restoration of hydrological and geomorphological processes (such as sediment transport or connectivity between the channel and the floodplain) to ensure a stream's resilience and ecological health. Form-based restoration techniques include deflectors; cross-vanes; weirs, step-pools and other grade-control structures; engineered log jams; bank stabilization methods and other channel-reconfiguration efforts. These induce immediate change in a stream, but sometimes fail to achieve the desired effects if degradation originates at a wider scale. Process-based restoration includes restoring lateral or longitudinal connectivity of water and sediment fluxes and limiting interventions within a corridor defined based on the stream's hydrology and geomorphology. The beneficial effects of process-based restoration projects may sometimes take time to be felt since changes in the stream will occur at a pace that depends on the stream dynamics. +Despite the significant number of stream-restoration projects worldwide, the effectiveness of stream restoration remains poorly quantified, partly due to insufficient monitoring. However, in response to growing environmental awareness, stream-restoration requirements are increasingly adopted in legislation in different parts of the world. + +== Definition, objectives and popularity == +Stream restoration or river restoration, sometimes called river reclamation in the United Kingdom, is a set of activities that aim to improve the environmental health of a river or stream. These activities aim to restore rivers and streams to their original states or to a reference state, in support of biodiversity, recreation, flood management, landscape development, or a combination of these phenomena. Stream restoration is generally associated with environmental restoration and ecological restoration. In that sense, stream restoration differs from: + +river engineering, a term which typically refers to physical alterations of a water body, for purposes that include navigation, flood control or water supply diversion and are not necessarily related to ecological restoration; +waterway restoration, a term used in the United Kingdom describing alterations to a canal or river to improve navigability and related recreational amenities. +Improved stream health may be indicated by expanded habitat for diverse species (e.g. fish, aquatic insects, other wildlife) and reduced stream bank erosion, although bank erosion is increasingly generally recognized as contributing to the ecological health of streams. Enhancements may also include improved water quality (i.e., reduction of pollutant levels and increase of dissolved oxygen levels) and achieving a self-sustaining, resilient stream system that does not require periodic human intervention, such as dredging or construction of flood or erosion control structures. Stream restoration projects can also yield increased property values in adjacent areas. +In the past decades, stream restoration has emerged as a significant discipline in the field of water-resources management, due to the degradation of many aquatic and riparian ecosystems related to human activities. In the U.S. alone, it was estimated in the early 2000s that more than one billion U.S. dollars were spent each year to restore rivers and that close to 40,000 restoration projects had been conducted in the continental part of the country. + +== Restoration approaches and techniques == + Stream restoration activities may range from the simple improvement or removal of a structure that inhibits natural stream functions (e.g. repairing or replacing a culvert, or removing barriers to fish passage such as weirs), to the stabilization of stream banks, or other interventions such as riparian zone restoration or the installation of stormwater-management facilities like constructed wetlands. The use of recycled water to augment stream flows that have been depleted as a result of human activities can also be considered a form of stream restoration. When present, navigation locks have a potential to be operated as vertical slot fishways to restore fish passage to some extent for a wide range of fish, including poor swimmers. +Stream-restoration projects normally begin with an assessment of a focal stream system, including climatic data, geology, watershed hydrology, stream hydraulics, sediment transport patterns, channel geometry, historical channel mobility, and flood records. Numerous systems exist to classify streams according to their geomorphology. This preliminary assessment helps to understand the stream dynamics and determining the cause of the observed degradation to be addressed; it can also be used to determine the target state for the intended restoration work, especially since the "natural" or undisturbed state is sometimes no longer achievable due to various constraints. +Two broad approaches to stream restoration have been defined in the past decades: form-based restoration and process-based restoration. Whereas the former focuses on the restoration of structural features and/or patterns considered to be characteristic of the target stream system, the latter is based on the restoration of hydrological and geomorphological processes (such as sediment transport or connectivity between the channel and the floodplain) to ensure a stream's resilience and ecological health. + +=== Form-based restoration === +Form-based stream restoration promotes the modification of a stream channel to improve stream conditions. Targeted outcomes can include improved water quality, enhanced fish habitat and abundance, as well as increased bank and channel stability. This approach is widely used worldwide, and is supported by various government agencies, including the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). +Form-based restoration projects can be carried out at various scales, including the reach scale. They can include measures such as the installation of in-stream structures, bank stabilization and more significant channel reconfiguration efforts. Reconfiguration work may focus on channel shape (in terms of sinuosity and meander characteristics), cross-section or channel profile (slope along the channel bed). These alterations affect the dissipation of energy through a channel, which impacts flow velocity and turbulence, water-surface elevations, sediment transport, and scour, among other characteristics. + +==== Installation of in-stream structures ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..88e13f2b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Stream restoration" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:15.406052+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== Deflectors ===== +Deflectors are generally wooden or rock structures installed at a bank toe and extending towards the center of a stream, in order to concentrate stream flow away from its banks. They can limit bank erosion and generate varying flow conditions in terms of depth and velocity, which can positively impact fish habitat. + +===== Cross-vanes and related structures ===== + +Cross-vanes are U-shaped structures made of boulders or logs, built across the channel to concentrate stream flow in the center of the channel and thereby reduce bank erosion. They do not impact channel capacity and provides other benefits such as improved habitat for aquatic species. Similar structures used to dissipate stream energy include the W-weirs and J-Hook vanes. + +===== Weirs, step pools and grade-control structures ===== + +These structures, which can be built with rocks or wood (logs or woody debris), gradually lower the elevation of the stream and dissipate flow energy, thereby reducing flow velocity. They can help limit bed degradation. They generate water accumulation upstream from them and fast flowing conditions downstream from them, which can improve fish habitat. However, they can limit fish passage if they are too high. + +===== Engineered log jams ===== +An emerging stream restoration technique is the installation of engineered log jams. Because of channelization and removal of beaver dams and woody debris, many streams lack the hydraulic complexity that is necessary to maintain bank stabilization and healthy aquatic habitats. Reintroduction of large woody debris into streams is a method that is being experimented in streams such as Lagunitas Creek in Marin County, California and Thornton Creek, in Seattle, Washington. Log jams add diversity to the water flow by creating riffles, pools, and temperature variations. Large wood pieces, both living and dead, play an important role in the long-term stability of engineered log jams. However, individual pieces of wood in log jams are rarely stable over long periods and are naturally transported downstream, where they can get trapped in further log jams, other stream features or human infrastructures, which can generate nuisances for human use. + +==== Bank stabilization ==== +Bank stabilization is a common objective for stream-restoration projects, although bank erosion is generally viewed as favorable for the sustainability and diversity of aquatic and riparian habitats. This technique may be employed where a stream reach is highly confined, or where infrastructure is threatened. + +Bank stabilization is achieved through the installation of riprap, gabions or through the use of revegetation and/or bioengineering methods, which relies on the use of live plants to build bank stabilizing structures. As new plants sprout from the live branches, the roots anchor the soil and prevent erosion. This makes bioengineering structures more natural and more adaptable to evolving conditions than "hard" engineering structures. Bioengineering structures include fascines, brush mattresses, brush layer, and vegetated geogrids. + +==== Other channel-reconfiguration techniques ==== +Channel reconfiguration involves the physical modification of the stream. Depending on the scale of a project, a channel's cross-section can be modified, and meanders can be constructed through earthworks to achieve the target stream morphology. In the U.S., such work is frequently based on the Natural Channel Design (NCD), a method developed in the 1990s. This method involves a classification of the stream to be restored based on parameters such as channel pattern and geometry, topography, slope, and bed material. This classification is followed by a design phase based on the NCD method, which includes 8 phases and 40 steps. The method relies on the construction of the desired morphology, and its stabilization with natural materials such as boulders and vegetation to limit erosion and channel mobility. + +==== Criticisms to form-based restoration ==== +Despite its popularity, form-based restoration has been criticized by the scientific community. Common criticisms are that the scale at which form-based restoration is often much smaller than the spatial and temporal scales of the processes that cause the observed problems and that the target state is frequently influenced by the social conception of what a stream should look like and does not necessarily take into account the stream's geomorphological context (e.g., meandering rivers tend to be viewed as more "natural" and more beautiful, whereas local conditions sometimes favour other patterns such as braided rivers). Numerous criticisms have also been directed at the NCD method by fluvial geomorphologists, who claim that the method is a "cookbook" approach sometimes used by practitioners that do not have sufficient knowledge of fluvial geomorphology, resulting in project failures. Another criticism is the importance given to channel stability in the NCD method (and with some other form-based restoration methods), which can limit the streams' alluvial dynamic and adaptability to evolving conditions. The NCD method has been criticized for its improper application in the Washington, D.C. area to small-order, interior-forested, upper-headwater streams and wetlands, leading to loss of natural forest ecosystems. + +=== Process-based restoration === +Contrary to form-based restoration, which consists of improving a stream's conditions by modifying its structure, process-based restoration focuses on restoring the hydrological and geomorphological processes (or functions) that contribute to the stream's alluvial and ecological dynamics. This type of stream restoration has gained in popularity since the mid-1990s, as a more ecosystem-centered approach. Process-based restoration includes restoring lateral connectivity (between the stream and its floodplain), longitudinal connectivity (along the stream) and water and/or sediment fluxes, which might be impacted by hydro-power dams, grade control structures, erosion control structures and flood protection structures. Valley Floor Resetting epitomises process-based restoration by infilling the river channel and allowing the stream to carve its anastomosed channel anew, matching 'Stage Zero' on the Stream Evolution Model. In general, process-based restoration aims to maximize the resilience of the system and minimize maintenance requirements. In some instances, form-based restoration methods might be coupled with process-based restoration to restore key structures and achieve quicker results while waiting for restored processes to ensure adequate conditions in the long term. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ddb33faed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Stream restoration" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_restoration" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:15.406052+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Improving connectivity ==== +The connectivity of streams to their adjacent floodplain along their entire length plays an important role in the equilibrium of the river system. Streams are shaped by the water and sediment fluxes from their watershed, and any alteration of these fluxes (either in quantity, intensity or timing) will result in changes in equilibrium planform and cross-sectional geometry, as well as modifications of the aquatic and riparian ecosystem. Removal or modification of levees can allow a better connection between streams and their floodplain. Similarly, removing dams and grade control structures can restore water and sediment fluxes and result in more diversified habitats, although impacts on fish communities can be difficult to assess. +In streams where existing infrastructures cannot be removed or modified, it is also possible to optimize sediment and water management in order to maximize connectivity and achieve flow patterns that ensure minimum ecosystem requirements. This can include releases from dams, but also delaying and/or treating water from agricultural and urban sources. + +==== Implementing a minimum stream corridor width ==== +Another method of ensuring the ecological health of streams while limiting impacts on human infrastructures is to delineate a corridor within which the stream is expected to migrate over time. This method is based on the concept of minimum intervention within this corridor, whose limits should be determined based on the stream's hydrology and geomorphology. Although this concept is often restricted to the lateral mobility of streams (related to bank erosion), some systems also integrate the space necessary for floods of various return periods. This concept has been developed and adapted in various countries around the world, resulting in the notion of "stream corridor" or "river corridor" in the U.S., "room for the river" in the Netherlands, "espace de liberté" ("freedom space") in France (where the concept of "erodible corridor" is also used) and Québec (Canada), "espace réservé aux eaux" ("space reserved for water(courses)") in Switzerland, "fascia di pertinenza fluviale" in Italy, "fluvial territory" in Spain and "making space for water" in the United Kingdom. A cost-benefit analysis has shown that this approach could be beneficial in the long term due to lower stream stabilization and maintenance costs, lower damages resulting from erosion and flooding, and ecological services rendered by the restored streams. However, this approach cannot be implemented alone if watershed-scale stressors contribute to stream degradation. + +=== Additional practices === +In addition to the aforementioned restoration approaches and methods, additional measures can be implemented if stream degradation factors occur at the watershed scale. First, high-quality areas should also be protected. Additional measures include revegetation/reforestation efforts (ideally with native species); the adoption of agricultural best management practices that minimize erosion and runoff; adequate treatment of sewage water and industrial discharge across the watershed; and improved stormwater management to delay/minimize the transport of water to the stream and minimize pollutant migration. Alternative stormwater management facilities include the following options: +Bioretention systems and rain gardens +Constructed wetlands +Infiltration basins +Retention basins + +== Effectiveness of stream restoration projects == +In the 2000s, a study of stream restoration efforts in the U.S. led to the creation of the National River Restoration Science Synthesis (NRRSS) database, which included information on over 35,000 stream restoration projects carried out in the U.S. Synthesizing efforts are also carried out in other parts of the world, such as Europe. However, despite the large number of stream restoration projects carried out each year worldwide, the effectiveness of stream restoration projects remains poorly quantified. This situation appears to result from limited data on the restored streams' biophysical and geochemical contexts, to insufficient post-monitoring work and to the varying metrics used to evaluate project effectiveness. Depending on the objectives of the restoration project, the goals (restoration of fish populations, of alluvial dynamics, etc.) may take considerable time to be fully achieved. Therefore, whereas monitoring efforts should be proportional to the scale of the situation to be addressed, long-term is often necessary in order to fully evaluate a project's effectiveness. +In general, project effectiveness has been found to be dependent on selection of an appropriate restoration method considering the nature, cause and scale of the degradation problem. As such, reach-scale projects generally fail at restoring conditions whose root cause lies at the watershed scale, such as water quality issues. Furthermore, project failures have sometimes been attributed to design based on insufficient scientific bases; in some cases, restoration techniques may have been selected mainly for aesthetic reasons. Additional factors that can influence the effectiveness of river restoration projects include the selection of sites to be restored (for example, sites located near undisturbed reaches could be recolonized more effectively) and the amount of tree cutting and other destructive work necessary to carry out the restoration work (which can have long-lasting detrimental effects on the quality of the habitat). Although often viewed as a challenge, public involvement is generally considered to be a positive factor for the long-term success of stream restoration projects. + +== Introduction in legislation == +Stream restoration is gradually being introduced in the legislative framework of various states. Examples include the European water framework's commitment to restoring surface water bodies, the adoption of the concept of freedom space in the French legislation, the inclusion in the Swiss legislation of the notion of space reserved for watercourses and of the requirement to restore streams to a state close to their natural state, and the inclusion of river corridors in land use planning in the American states of Vermont and Washington. Although this evolution is generally viewed positively by the scientific community, a concern expressed by some is that it could lead to less flexibility and less room for innovation in a field that is still in development. + +== Informational resources == +The River Restoration Centre, based at Cranfield University, is responsible for the National River Restoration Inventory, which is used to document best practice in river watercourse and floodplain restoration, enhancement and management efforts in the United Kingdom. Other established sources for information on stream restoration include the NRRSS in the U.S. and the European Centre for River Restoration (ECRR), which holds details of projects across Europe. ECRR and the LIFE+ RESTORE project have developed a wiki-based inventory of river restoration case studies. + +== See also == +Daylighting (streams) +Environmental restoration +Land rehabilitation +Retrofit (environmental management) +Restoration ecology +Riparian zone restoration +Subterranean river + +== References == + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e66963d08 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +--- +title: "Surfactant" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:16.757055+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A surfactant is a chemical compound that decreases the surface tension or interfacial tension between two liquids, a liquid and a gas, or a liquid and a solid. The word surfactant is a blend of "surface-active agent", coined in 1950. As they consist of a water-repellent and a water-attracting part, they are emulsifiers, enabling water and oil to mix. They can also form foam, and facilitate the detachment of dirt. +Surfactants are among the most widespread and commercially important chemicals. Private households as well as many industries use them in large quantities as detergents and cleaning agents, but also as emulsifiers, wetting agents, foaming agents, antistatic additives, and dispersants. +Surfactants occur naturally in traditional plant-based detergents, e.g. horse chestnuts or soap nuts; they can also be found in the secretions of some caterpillars. Some of the most commonly used anionic surfactants, linear alkylbenzene sulfates (LAS), are produced from petroleum products. However, surfactants are increasingly produced in whole or in part from renewable biomass, like sugar, fatty alcohol from vegetable oils, by-products of biofuel production, and other biogenic material. + +== Classification == +Surfactants are compounds with hydrophilic "heads" and hydrophobic "tails." The "heads" of surfactants are polar and may or may not carry an electrical charge. The "tails" of most surfactants are fairly similar, often consisting of a hydrocarbon chain (linear or branched) and may comprise aromatic units. Most commonly, surfactants are classified according to the polarity of their head group: A non-ionic surfactant has no charged groups in its head. The head of an ionic surfactant carries a net positive, or negative, charge. If the charge is negative, the surfactant is more specifically called anionic; if the charge is positive, it is called cationic. If a surfactant contains a head with two oppositely charged groups, it is termed zwitterionic, or amphoteric. + +However, surfactants may also be classified based on chemical structure or based on their properties / their application. + +=== Classification according to charge / polarity === + +==== Anionic: sulfate, sulfonate, and phosphate, carboxylate derivatives ==== +Anionic surfactants contain anionic functional groups at their head, such as sulfate, sulfonate, phosphate, and carboxylates. +Prominent alkyl sulfates include ammonium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SLS, or SDS), and the related alkyl-ether sulfates sodium laureth sulfate (sodium lauryl ether sulfate or SLES), and sodium myreth sulfate. + +Others include: + +Alkylbenzene sulfonates +Docusate (dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate) +Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) +Perfluorobutanesulfonate +Alkyl-aryl ether phosphates +Alkyl ether phosphates + +Carboxylates are the most common surfactants and comprise the carboxylate salts (soaps), such as sodium stearate. More specialized species include sodium lauroyl sarcosinate and carboxylate-based fluorosurfactants such as perfluorononanoate, perfluorooctanoate (PFOA or PFO). + +==== Cationic head groups ==== +Cationic surfactants are extensively described in this review. +pH-dependent primary, secondary, or tertiary amines; primary and secondary amines become positively charged at pH < 10: octenidine dihydrochloride. +Permanently charged quaternary ammonium salts: cetrimonium bromide (CTAB), cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), benzalkonium chloride (BAC), benzethonium chloride (BZT), dimethyldioctadecylammonium chloride, and dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB). + +==== Zwitterionic surfactants ==== +Zwitterionic (ampholytic) surfactants have both cationic and anionic centers attached to the same molecule. The cationic part is based on primary, secondary, or tertiary amines or quaternary ammonium cations. The anionic part can be more variable and include sulfonates, as in the sultaines CHAPS (3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate) and cocamidopropyl hydroxysultaine. Betaines such as cocamidopropyl betaine have a carboxylate with the ammonium. The most common biological zwitterionic surfactants have a phosphate anion with an amine or ammonium, such as the phospholipids phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, and sphingomyelins. +Lauryldimethylamine oxide and myristamine oxide are two commonly used zwitterionic surfactants of the tertiary amine oxides structural type. + +==== Non-ionic ==== +Non-ionic surfactants have covalently bonded oxygen-containing hydrophilic groups, which are bonded to hydrophobic parent structures. The water-solubility of the oxygen groups is the result of hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding decreases with increasing temperature, and the water solubility of non-ionic surfactants therefore decreases with increasing temperature. +Non-ionic surfactants are less sensitive to water hardness than anionic surfactants, and they foam less strongly. The differences between the individual types of non-ionic surfactants are slight, and the choice is primarily governed having regard to the costs of special properties (e.g., effectiveness and efficiency, toxicity, dermatological compatibility, biodegradability) or permission for use in food. + +===== Ethoxylates ===== +Many important surfactants include a polyether chain terminating in a highly polar anionic group. The polyether groups often comprise ethoxylated (polyethylene oxide-like) sequences inserted to increase the hydrophilic character of a surfactant. Polypropylene oxides conversely, may be inserted to increase the lipophilic character of a surfactant, see also poloxamers. + +====== Fatty alcohol ethoxylates ====== +Narrow-range ethoxylate +Octaethylene glycol monododecyl ether +Pentaethylene glycol monododecyl ether + +====== Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs or APEOs) ====== +Nonoxynols +Triton X-100 + +====== Fatty acid ethoxylates ====== +Fatty acid ethoxylates are a class of very versatile surfactants, which combine in a single molecule the characteristic of a weakly anionic, pH-responsive head group with the presence of stabilizing and temperature responsive ethyleneoxide units. + +====== Special ethoxylated fatty esters and oils ====== + +====== Ethoxylated amines and/or fatty acid amides ====== +Polyethoxylated tallow amine +Cocamide monoethanolamine +Cocamide diethanolamine + +===== Fatty acid esters of polyhydroxy compounds ===== + +====== Fatty acid esters of glycerol ====== +Glycerol monostearate +Glycerol monolaurate + +====== Fatty acid esters of sorbitol ====== +Spans: + +Sorbitan monolaurate +Sorbitan monostearate +Sorbitan tristearate +Tweens: + +Tween 20 +Tween 40 +Tween 60 +Tween 80 + +====== Fatty acid esters of sucrose ====== + +===== Alkyl polyglucosides ===== +Alkyl polyglycosides (APGs) are a class of non-ionic surfactants made from a sugar (like glucose) and a fatty alcohol. They are produced from renewable resources, possess a high biodegradability and mildness. For these reasons, they are widely used in detergents, cosmetics, and other applications. +Decyl glucoside +Lauryl glucoside +Octyl glucoside + +=== Classification according to chemical structure === +Most surfactants comprise "tails" based on saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons. Fluorosurfactants have fluorocarbon chains. Siloxane surfactants have siloxane chains. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..15952d5d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Surfactant" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:16.757055+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Surfactant molecules have either one tail or two; those with two tails are said to be double-chained. +Amino acid-based surfactants are surfactants derived from an amino acid. Their properties vary and can be either anionic, cationic, or zwitterionic, depending on the amino acid used and which part of the amino acid is condensed with the alkyl/aryl chain. +Gemini surfactants consist of two surfactant molecules linked together at or near their head groups. Compared to monomeric surfactants, they have much lower critical micelle concentrations. + +=== Classification according to properties / application === + +== Composition and structure == + +Surfactants are (usually organic) compounds that are amphiphilic, which means that this molecule each contains a hydrophilic "water-seeking" group (the head), and a hydrophobic "water-avoiding" group (the tail). As a result, a surfactant contains both a water-soluble component and a water-insoluble component. Surfactants diffuse in water and get adsorbed at interfaces between air and water, or at the interface between oil and water in the case where water is mixed with oil. The water-insoluble hydrophobic group may extend out of the bulk water phase into a non-water phase such as air or oil phase, while the water-soluble head group remains bound in the water phase. +The hydrophobic tail may be either lipophilic ("oil-seeking") or lipophobic ("oil-avoiding") depending on its chemistry. Hydrocarbon groups are usually lipophilic, for use in soaps and detergents, while fluorocarbon groups are lipophobic, for use in repelling stains or reducing surface tension. +World production of surfactants is estimated at 15 million tons per year, of which about half are soaps. Other surfactants produced on a particularly large scale are linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (1.7 million tons/y), lignin sulfonates (600,000 tons/y), fatty alcohol ethoxylates (700,000 tons/y), and alkylphenol ethoxylates (500,000 tons/y). + +=== Structure of surfactant phases in water === + +In the bulk aqueous phase, surfactants form aggregates, such as micelles, where the hydrophobic tails form the core of the aggregate and the hydrophilic heads are in contact with the surrounding liquid. Other types of aggregates can also be formed, such as spherical or cylindrical micelles or lipid bilayers. The shape of the aggregates depends on the chemical structure of the surfactants, namely the balance in size between the hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. A measure of this is the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB). Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-air interface. The relation that links the surface tension and the surface excess is known as the Gibbs isotherm. + +=== Dynamics of surfactants at interfaces === +The dynamics of surfactant adsorption is of great importance for practical applications such as in foaming, emulsifying or coating processes, where bubbles or drops are rapidly generated and need to be stabilized. The dynamics of absorption depend on the diffusion coefficient of the surfactant. As the interface is created, the adsorption is limited by the diffusion of the surfactant to the interface. In some cases, there can exist an energetic barrier to adsorption or desorption of the surfactant. If such a barrier limits the adsorption rate, the dynamics are said to be ‘kinetically limited'. Such energy barriers can be due to steric or electrostatic repulsions. +The surface rheology of surfactant layers, including the elasticity and viscosity of the layer, play an important role in the stability of foams and emulsions. + +=== Characterization of interfaces and surfactant layers === +Interfacial and surface tension can be characterized by classical methods such as the +-pendant or spinning drop method. +Dynamic surface tensions, i.e. surface tension as a function of time, can be obtained by the maximum bubble pressure apparatus +The structure of surfactant layers can be studied by ellipsometry or X-ray reflectivity. +Surface rheology can be characterized by the oscillating drop method or shear surface rheometers such as double-cone, double-ring or magnetic rod shear surface rheometer. + +== Applications == +Surfactants are widely used due to their ability to modify surface and interfacial properties, making them relevant in processes involving the interaction of hydrophobic and hydrophilic substances. Their amphiphilic nature—containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts—enables them to bridge these otherwise immiscible components, thereby facilitating mixing and enhancing the efficiency of various physical and chemical transformations. This makes surfactants useful in numerous fields where control over interfacial interactions is relevant. +Surfactants play an important role as cleaning, wetting, dispersing, emulsifying, foaming and anti-foaming agents in many practical applications and products, including detergents, fabric softeners, motor oils, emulsions, soaps, paints, adhesives, inks, anti-fogs, ski waxes, snowboard wax, in flotation, washing and enzymatic processes, and laxatives. + +=== Food industry === +Certain surfactants are used as emulsifiers or foaming agents in food. Examples can be found in the List of food additives. +The alkalization (saponification) of cocoa fat in drinking cocoa powder serves to reduce the surface tension of the milk and to enable faster wetting or suspension of the semi-fat cocoa powder. + +=== Personal care and homecare === +Surfactants are used in detergents, washing-up liquids, shampoos, shower gels, and similar products to increase the “solubility” of fat and dirt particles that adhere to laundry or the body in water. +Fabric softeners can consist of cationic surfactants that prevent laundry from becoming stiff when dry. + +=== Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics === +Emulsifiers are essential for producing water-in-oil emulsions, e.g. for skin creams. They are also necessary for a wide range of suspensions to maintain liquid drug formulations. + +=== Plant protection products === +Plant protection products contain surfactants to improve wetting (spreading) on plants. The most common wetting agent is ethoxylated tallow amine. Trisiloxanes or polyoxyethylated fatty alcohols are also used. Agrochemical formulations that use surfactants include herbicides (some), insecticides, biocides (sanitizers). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..140657d3b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Surfactant" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:16.757055+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Medicine === +Surfactants act to cause the displacement of air from the matrix of cotton pads and bandages so that medicinal solutions can be absorbed for application to various body areas. They also act to displace dirt and debris by the use of detergents in the washing of wounds and via the application of medicinal lotions and sprays to surface of skin and mucous membranes. Surfactants enhance remediation via soil washing, bioremediation, and phytoremediation. +Many spermicides contain surfactants (such as nonoxynol-9). + +=== Biochemistry === +In solution, detergents help solubilize a variety of chemical species by dissociating aggregates and unfolding proteins. Popular surfactants in the biochemistry laboratory are sodium lauryl sulfate (SDS) and cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). Detergents are key reagents to extract protein by lysis of the cells and tissues: they disorganize the membrane's lipid bilayer (SDS, Triton X-100, X-114, CHAPS, DOC, and NP-40), and solubilize proteins. Milder detergents such as octyl thioglucoside, octyl glucoside or dodecyl maltoside are used to solubilize membrane proteins such as enzymes and receptors without denaturing them. Non-solubilized material is harvested by centrifugation or other means. For electrophoresis, for example, proteins are classically treated with SDS to denature the native tertiary and quaternary structures, allowing the separation of proteins according to their molecular weight. +Detergents have also been used to decellularise organs. This process maintains a matrix of proteins that preserves the structure of the organ and often the microvascular network. The process has been successfully used to prepare organs such as the liver and heart for transplant in rats. Pulmonary surfactants are also naturally secreted by type II cells of the lung alveoli in mammals. + +=== Technology === + +==== Antistatic agents ==== +Ionic surfactants also function as external antistatic agents to prevent electrostatic charging of plastic surfaces (ESD protection). Both anionic and cationic surfactants are used for this purpose[9]. + +==== Textile finishing ==== +Perfluorinated surfactants, such as fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOH), are used as coating agents for textiles, carpets, and construction products to impart or enhance water and grease repellency. As members of the PFC group, however, they are subject to criticism because they are persistent and practically non-degradable in nature. + +==== Cooling lubricants ==== +Surfactants are employed in water-mixed cooling lubricants (water-in-oil emulsions) to provide effective cooling and lubrication during metal cutting operations. + +==== Printer ink ==== +Surfactants regulate the consistency of ink in inkjet printers. An insufficient amount of surfactants results in clumping of the color pigments, whereas an excessive amount renders the ink overly fluid during printing. + +==== Paper recycling ==== +In paper recycling, surfactants facilitate the detachment of ink particles from paper fibers (deinking) and assist in transporting the ink to the surface. + +==== Oil and mining industry ==== +Alkali surfactant polymers are used to mobilize oil in oil wells. Surfactants also play a key role in froth flotation processes for separating copper and other minerals from ores. + +=== Fire fighting === +Surfactants are used in firefighting (to make "wet water" that more quickly soaks into flammable materials) and pipelines (liquid drag reducing agents). +"Wet water" provides the advantage of allowing the extinguishing water to penetrate burning materials such as wood or fabric more effectively, thereby enhancing its cooling capacity. Additionally, extinguishing water mixed with surface-active agents can be sprayed over greater distances at the same pumping capacity due to their flow-improving properties. Special foaming agents (Aqueous Film Forming Foam, AFFF) for combating liquid fires contain perfluorinated surfactants that form a gas-tight liquid film between the burning material and the foam. This simultaneously imparts superior sliding properties to the foam blanket, thereby enabling the effective extinguishment of larger liquid fires. + +=== Surfactants in droplet-based microfluidics === +Surfactants play an important role in droplet-based microfluidics in the stabilization of the droplets, and the prevention of the fusion of droplets during incubation. + +=== Human body and nature === + +The human body produces diverse surfactants. Pulmonary surfactant is produced in the lungs in order to facilitate breathing by increasing total lung capacity, and lung compliance. In respiratory distress syndrome or RDS, surfactant replacement therapy helps patients have normal respiration by using pharmaceutical forms of the surfactants. One example of a pharmaceutical pulmonary surfactant is Survanta (beractant) or its generic form Beraksurf, produced by Abbvie and Tekzima respectively. Bile salts, a surfactant produced in the liver, play an important role in digestion. +Certain caterpillars (of the moth species Spodoptera exigua, South East Asia) spit a surfactant-containing secretion at predators. This deters attacking ants, allowing the caterpillars to escape. The surfactants in the caterpillars' oral secretions reduce its surface tension. Instead of rolling off the ants' water-repellent skin like normal water, the secretion soaks the attackers. The affected ants then clean themselves, which gives the caterpillar enough time to escape. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d3bbe667 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Surfactant" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfactant" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:16.757055+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Safety and environmental risks == +Most anionic and non-ionic surfactants are non-toxic, having LD50 comparable to table salt. The toxicity of quaternary ammonium compounds, which are antibacterial and antifungal, varies. Dialkyldimethylammonium chlorides (DDAC, DSDMAC) used as fabric softeners have high LD50 (5 g/kg) and are essentially non-toxic, while the disinfectant alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chloride has an LD50 of 0.35 g/kg. Prolonged exposure to surfactants can irritate and damage the skin because surfactants disrupt the lipid membrane that protects skin and other cells. Skin irritancy generally increases in the series non-ionic, amphoteric, anionic, cationic surfactants. +Surfactants are routinely deposited in numerous ways on land and into water systems, whether as part of an intended process or as industrial and household waste. +Anionic surfactants can be found in soils as the result of sewage sludge application, wastewater irrigation, and remediation processes. Relatively high concentrations of surfactants together with multimetals can represent an environmental risk. At low concentrations, surfactant application is unlikely to have a significant effect on trace metal mobility. +In the case of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, unprecedented amounts of Corexit were sprayed directly into the ocean at the leak and on the sea-water's surface. The apparent theory was that the surfactants isolate droplets of oil, making it easier for petroleum-consuming microbes to digest the oil. The active ingredient in Corexit is dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate (DOSS), sorbitan monooleate (Span 80), and polyoxyethylenated sorbitan monooleate (Tween-80). + +=== Biodegradation === +Because of the volume of surfactants released into the environment, for example laundry detergents in waters, their biodegradation is of great interest. Attracting much attention is the non-biodegradability and extreme persistence of fluorosurfactant, e.g. perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Strategies to enhance degradation include ozone treatment and biodegradation. Two major surfactants, linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) and the alkyl phenol ethoxylates (APE) break down under aerobic conditions found in sewage treatment plants and in soil to nonylphenol, which is thought to be an endocrine disruptor. Interest in biodegradable surfactants has led to much interest in "biosurfactants" such as those derived from amino acids. Biobased surfactants can offer improved biodegradation. However, whether surfactants damage the cells of fish or cause foam mountains on bodies of water depends primarily on their chemical structure and not on whether the carbon originally used came from fossil sources, carbon dioxide or biomass. + +== See also == + +Anti-fog – Chemicals that prevent the condensation of water as small droplets on a surface +Cleavable detergent +Disodium cocoamphodiacetate +Emulsion – Mixture of two or more immiscible liquids +Hydrotrope – Chemical substance +MBAS assay – Scientific testing method, an assay that indicates anionic surfactants in water with a bluing reaction. +Niosome – Non-ionic surfactant-based vesicle +Oil dispersants – Mixture of emulsifiers and solvents used to treat oil spillsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Surfactant leaching +Surfactants in paint + +== References == + +== External links == + + The dictionary definition of surfactant at Wiktionary \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..00740e0fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainability" +chunk: 1/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sustainability or being sustainable (from the latin sustinere - hold up, hold upright; furnish with means of support; bear, undergo, endure) is the ability to continue over a long period of time. In modern usage it generally refers to a state in which the environment, economy, and society will continue to exist over a long period of time. Many definitions emphasize the environmental dimension. This can include addressing key environmental problems, such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, organizational, and individual levels. A related concept is that of sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing. "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it." +Details around the economic dimension of sustainability are controversial. Scholars have discussed this under the concept of weak and strong sustainability. For example, there will always be tension between the ideas of "welfare and prosperity for all" and environmental conservation, so trade-offs are necessary. It would be desirable to find ways that separate economic growth from harming the environment. This means using fewer resources per unit of output even while growing the economy. This decoupling reduces the environmental impact of economic growth, such as pollution. Doing this is difficult. +It is challenging to measure sustainability as the concept is complex, contextual, and dynamic. Indicators have been developed to cover the environment, society, or the economy but there is no fixed definition of sustainability indicators. The metrics are evolving and include indicators, benchmarks, and audits. They include sustainability standards and certification systems, like Fairtrade and Organic. They also involve indices and accounting systems, such as corporate sustainability reporting and triple Bottom Line accounting. +It is necessary to address many barriers to sustainability to achieve a sustainability transition or sustainability transformation. Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity while others are extrinsic to the concept of sustainability. For example, they can result from the dominant institutional frameworks in countries. +Global issues of sustainability are difficult to tackle because they need global solutions. Existing global organizations such as the UN and WTO are seen as inefficient in enforcing current global regulations. One reason for this is the lack of suitable sanctioning mechanisms. Governments are not the only sources of action for sustainability. For example, business groups have tried to integrate ecological concerns with economic activity, seeking sustainable business. Religious leaders have stressed the need for caring for nature and environmental stability. Individuals can also choose to live more sustainably. +Some people have criticized the idea of sustainability. One point of criticism is that the concept is vague and only a buzzword. Another is that sustainability might be an impossible goal. Some experts have pointed out that "no country is delivering what its citizens need without transgressing the biophysical planetary boundaries". + +== Definitions == + +=== Current usage === +Sustainability is regarded as a "normative concept". This means it is based on what people value or find desirable: "The quest for sustainability involves connecting what is known through scientific study to applications in pursuit of what people want for the future." +The 1983 UN Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) had a big influence on the use of the term sustainability today. The commission's 1987 Brundtland Report provided a definition of sustainable development. The report, Our Common Future, defines it as development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". The report helped bring sustainability into the mainstream of policy discussions. It also popularized the concept of sustainable development. +Some other key concepts to illustrate the meaning of sustainability include: + +It may be a fuzzy concept, but in a positive sense: the goals are more important than the approaches or means applied. +It connects with other essential concepts, such as resilience, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability. +Choices matter: "it is not possible to sustain everything, everywhere, forever". +Scale matters in both space and time, and place matters. +Limits exist (see planetary boundaries). +In everyday usage, sustainability often focuses on the environmental dimension. + +==== Specific definitions ==== +A single specific definition of sustainability may never be possible, but the concept is still useful. There have been attempts to define it, for example: + +"Sustainability can be defined as the capacity to maintain or improve the state and availability of desirable materials or conditions over the long term." +"Sustainability [is] the long-term viability of a community, set of social institutions, or societal practice. In general, sustainability is understood as a form of intergenerational ethics in which the environmental and economic actions taken by present persons do not diminish the opportunities of future persons to enjoy similar levels of wealth, utility, or welfare." +"Sustainability means meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In addition to natural resources, we also need social and economic resources. Sustainability is not just environmentalism. Embedded in most definitions of sustainability we also find concerns for social equity and economic development." +Some definitions focus on the environmental dimension. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines sustainability as: "the property of being environmentally sustainable; the degree to which a process or enterprise is able to be maintained or continued while avoiding the long-term depletion of natural resources". + +=== Historical usage === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..87b99211f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainability" +chunk: 2/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term sustainability is derived from the Latin word sustinere. "To sustain" can mean to maintain, support, uphold, or endure. So sustainability is the ability to continue over a long period of time. +In the past, sustainability referred to environmental sustainability. It meant using natural resources so that people in the future could continue to rely on them in the long term. The concept of sustainability, or Nachhaltigkeit in German, goes back to Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645–1714), and applied to forestry. The term for this now would be sustainable forest management. He used this term to mean the long-term responsible use of a natural resource. In his 1713 work Silvicultura oeconomica, he wrote that "the highest art/science/industriousness [...] will consist in such a conservation and replanting of timber that there can be a continuous, ongoing and sustainable use". The shift in use of "sustainability" from preservation of forests (for future wood production) to broader preservation of environmental resources (to sustain the world for future generations) traces to a 1972 book by Ernst Basler, based on a series of lectures at M.I.T. +The idea itself goes back a long time: Communities have always worried about the capacity of their environment to sustain them in the long term. Many ancient cultures, traditional societies, and indigenous peoples have restricted the use of natural resources. + +=== Comparison to sustainable development === + +The terms sustainability and sustainable development are closely related. In fact, they are often used to mean the same thing. Both terms are linked with the "three dimensions of sustainability" concept. One distinction is that sustainability is a general concept, while sustainable development can be a policy or organizing principle. Scholars say sustainability is a broader concept because sustainable development focuses mainly on human well-being. +Sustainable development has two linked goals. It aims to meet human development goals. It also aims to enable natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services needed for economies and society. The concept of sustainable development has come to focus on economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations. + +== Dimensions == + +=== Development of three dimensions === + +Scholars usually distinguish three different areas of sustainability. These are the environmental, the social, and the economic. Several terms are in use for this concept. Authors may speak of three pillars, dimensions, components, aspects, perspectives, factors, or goals. All mean the same thing in this context. The three dimensions paradigm has few theoretical foundations. +The popular three intersecting circles, or Venn diagram, representing sustainability first appeared in a 1987 article by the economist Edward Barbier. +Scholars rarely question the distinction itself. The idea of sustainability with three dimensions is a dominant interpretation in the literature. +In the Brundtland Report, the environment and development are inseparable and go together in the search for sustainability. It described sustainable development as a global concept linking environmental and social issues. It added sustainable development is important for both developing countries and industrialized countries: + +The 'environment' is where we all live; and 'development' is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable. [...] We came to see that a new development path was required, one that sustained human progress not just in a few pieces for a few years, but for the entire planet into the distant future. Thus 'sustainable development' becomes a goal not just for the 'developing' nations, but for industrial ones as well. +The Rio Declaration from 1992 is seen as "the foundational instrument in the move towards sustainability". It includes specific references to ecosystem integrity. The plan associated with carrying out the Rio Declaration also discusses sustainability in this way. The plan, Agenda 21, talks about economic, social, and environmental dimensions: + +Countries could develop systems for monitoring and evaluation of progress towards achieving sustainable development by adopting indicators that measure changes across economic, social and environmental dimensions. +Agenda 2030 from 2015 also viewed sustainability in this way. It sees the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with their 169 targets as balancing "the three dimensions of sustainable development, the economic, social and environmental". + +=== Hierarchy === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c65425ea1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainability" +chunk: 3/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Scholars have discussed how to rank the three dimensions of sustainability. Many publications state that the environmental dimension is the most important. (Planetary integrity or ecological integrity are other terms for the environmental dimension.) +Protecting ecological integrity is the core of sustainability according to many experts. If this is the case then its environmental dimension sets limits to economic and social development. +The diagram with three nested ellipses is one way of showing the three dimensions of sustainability together with a hierarchy: It gives the environmental dimension a special status. In this diagram, the environment includes society, and society includes economic conditions. Thus it stresses a hierarchy. +This nested hierarchy has led some scholars and Indigenous thinkers to call for decentering the human in sustainability discourse, arguing that ecological systems should not merely be valued for their utility to humans but as interdependent life systems with intrinsic worth. +Another model shows the three dimensions in a similar way: In this SDG wedding cake model, the economy is a smaller subset of the societal system. And the societal system in turn is a smaller subset of the biosphere system. +In 2022 an assessment examined the political impacts of the Sustainable Development Goals. The assessment found that the "integrity of the earth's life-support systems" was essential for sustainability. The authors said that "the SDGs fail to recognize that planetary, people and prosperity concerns are all part of one earth system, and that the protection of planetary integrity should not be a means to an end, but an end in itself". The aspect of environmental protection is not an explicit priority for the SDGs. This causes problems as it could encourage countries to give the environment less weight in their developmental plans. The authors state that "sustainability on a planetary scale is only achievable under an overarching Planetary Integrity Goal that recognizes the biophysical limits of the planet". +Other frameworks bypass the compartmentalization of sustainability into separate dimensions completely. + +=== Environmental sustainability === + +The environmental dimension is central to the overall concept of sustainability. People became more and more aware of environmental pollution in the 1960s and 1970s. This led to discussions on sustainability and sustainable development. This process began in the 1970s with concern for environmental issues. These included natural ecosystems or natural resources and the human environment. It later extended to all systems that support life on Earth, including human society. Reducing these negative impacts on the environment would improve environmental sustainability. +Environmental pollution is not a new phenomenon. But it has been only a local or regional concern for most of human history. Awareness of global environmental issues increased in the 20th century. The harmful effects and global spread of pesticides like DDT came under scrutiny in the 1960s. In the 1970s it emerged that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were depleting the ozone layer. This led to the de facto ban of CFCs with the Montreal Protocol in 1987. +In the early 20th century, Arrhenius discussed the effect of greenhouse gases on the climate (see also: history of climate change science). Climate change due to human activity became an academic and political topic several decades later. This led to the establishment of the IPCC in 1988 and the UNFCCC in 1992. +In 1972, the UN Conference on the Human Environment took place. It was the first UN conference on environmental issues. It stated it was important to protect and improve the human environment.It emphasized the need to protect wildlife and natural habitats: + +The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and [...] natural ecosystems must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate. +In 2000, the UN launched eight Millennium Development Goals. The aim was for the global community to achieve them by 2015. Goal 7 was to "ensure environmental sustainability". But this goal did not mention the concepts of social or economic sustainability. +Specific problems often dominate public discussion of the environmental dimension of sustainability: In the 21st century these problems have included climate change, biodiversity and pollution. Other global problems are loss of ecosystem services, land degradation, environmental impacts of animal agriculture and air and water pollution, including marine plastic pollution and ocean acidification. Many people worry about human impacts on the environment. These include impacts on the atmosphere, land, and water resources. +Human activities now have an impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems. This led Paul Crutzen to call the current geological epoch the Anthropocene. +The importance of citizens in accomplishing climate change adaptation, mitigation, and more general sustainable development objectives is being emphasized more and more by urban climate change governance (Hegger, Mees, & Wamsler, 2022). The Sustainable Development Goals and the Glasgow Climate Pact are two recent international agreements that acknowledge that sustainability transformations depend on both individual and social attitudes, values, and behaviors in addition to technical solutions (IPCC, 2022; Wamsler et al., 2021). Through their roles as voters, activists, consumers, and community members—particularly in decision-making, information co-production, and localized self-governance initiatives—citizens are seen as crucial change agents (Mees et al., 2016; Wamsler, 2017). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f88cbd4d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainability" +chunk: 4/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Economic sustainability === +The economic dimension of sustainability is controversial. This is because the term development within sustainable development can be interpreted in different ways. Some may take it to mean only economic development and growth. This can promote an economic system that is bad for the environment. Others focus more on the trade-offs between environmental conservation and achieving welfare goals for basic needs (food, water, health, and shelter). +Economic development can indeed reduce hunger or energy poverty, especially in the least developed countries. That is why Sustainable Development Goal 8 calls for economic growth to drive social progress and well-being, where indicators include real GDP per capita growth. However, the challenge is to expand economic activities while reducing their environmental impact. In other words, humanity will have to find ways how societal progress (potentially by economic development) can be reached without excess strain on the environment. +The Brundtland report says poverty causes environmental problems. Poverty also results from them. So addressing environmental problems requires understanding the factors behind world poverty and inequality. The report demands a new development path for sustained human progress. It highlights that this is a goal for both developing and industrialized nations. +UNEP and UNDP launched the Poverty-Environment Initiative in 2005 which has three goals. These are reducing extreme poverty, greenhouse gas emissions, and net natural asset loss. This guide to structural reform will enable countries to achieve the SDGs. It should also show how to address the trade-offs between ecological footprint and economic development. + +=== Social sustainability === +The social dimension of sustainability is not well defined. One definition states that a society is sustainable in social terms if people do not face structural obstacles in key areas. These key areas are health, influence, competence, impartiality and meaning-making. +Some scholars place social issues at the very center of discussions. They suggest that all the domains of sustainability are social. These include ecological, economic, political, and cultural sustainability. These domains all depend on the relationship between the social and the natural. The ecological domain is defined as human embeddedness in the environment. From this perspective, social sustainability encompasses all human activities. It goes beyond the intersection of economics, the environment, and the social. +There are many broad strategies for more sustainable social systems. They include improved education and the political empowerment of women. This is especially the case in developing countries. They include greater regard for social justice. This involves equity between rich and poor both within and between countries. And it includes intergenerational equity. Providing more social safety nets to vulnerable populations would contribute to social sustainability. +A society with a high degree of social sustainability would lead to livable communities with a good quality of life (being fair, diverse, connected and democratic). +Indigenous communities might have a focus on particular aspects of sustainability, for example spiritual aspects, community-based governance and an emphasis on place and locality. +Another aspect of social sustainability would be gender equity. According to reports from the United Nations and various research studies, women are disproportionately affected by climate related issues and sustainability efforts than men are. To name a few, natural disasters, carbon taxes, and public transportation expansions have all reportedly had unequal consequences on women and other marginalized groups by making it harder for them to afford different goods and services or newer transit routes (longer car rides equate to more gas purchases), as well as putting them at risk of becoming targets of violence. +These issues often go unaddressed and unheard, as women do not have the ability to voice these concerns due to the little to nonexistent presence of women in environmental policymaking. Despite the contrast in ability, women are often given the responsibility of solving the issues of climate change more than men are, due to the stereotypical feminine aspect of caring for the planet. For this reason, scholars urge the need for more female representation and leadership in environmental politics and policymaking. They also highlight the link between environmental and social sustainability and the importance of addressing the two together so that actual progress can be made, as policymakers often categorize and handle them separately. By improving healthcare, education, and representation in government, women will be empowered to have a voice in policy making. + +=== Proposed additional dimensions === +Some scholars have argued for further dimensions. They say the traditional three dimensions do not reflect the complexity of contemporary society. + +==== Cultural sustainability ==== + +Agenda 21 for culture and the United Cities and Local Governments argue that sustainable development should include a solid cultural policy. They also advocate for a cultural dimension in all public policies. Another example was the Circles of Sustainability approach, which included cultural sustainability. + +==== Fiscal sustainability ==== + +Fiscal sustainability is the ability of sustain current government spending and other fiscal policies in the long run. Debt Sustainability Analysis is analysis of the sustainability of government debt. Pension sustainability is the long-term fiscal sustainability of pension policies. + +== Interactions between dimensions == + +=== Environmental and economic dimensions === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9223c74ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainability" +chunk: 5/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +People often debate the relationship between the environmental and economic dimensions of sustainability. In academia, this is discussed under the term weak and strong sustainability. In that model, the weak sustainability concept states that capital made by humans could replace most of the natural capital. Natural capital is a way of describing environmental resources. People may refer to it as nature. An example for this is the use of environmental technologies to reduce pollution. +The opposite concept in that model is strong sustainability. This assumes that nature provides functions that technology cannot replace. Thus, strong sustainability acknowledges the need to preserve ecological integrity. The loss of those functions makes it impossible to recover or repair many resources and ecosystem services. Biodiversity, along with pollination and fertile soils, are examples. Others are clean air, clean water, and regulation of climate systems. +Weak sustainability has come under criticism. It may be popular with governments and business but does not ensure the preservation of the earth's ecological integrity. This is why the environmental dimension is so important. +The World Economic Forum illustrated this in 2020. It found that $44 trillion of economic value generation depends on nature. This value, more than half of the world's GDP, is thus vulnerable to nature loss. Three large economic sectors are highly dependent on nature: construction, agriculture, and food and beverages. Nature loss results from many factors. They include land use change, sea use change and climate change. Other examples are natural resource use, pollution, and invasive alien species. + +=== Trade-offs === +Trade-offs between different dimensions of sustainability are a common topic for debate. Balancing the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability is difficult. This is because there is often disagreement about the relative importance of each. To resolve this, there is a need to integrate, balance, and reconcile the dimensions. For example, humans can choose to make ecological integrity a priority or to compromise it. +Some even argue the Sustainable Development Goals are unrealistic. Their aim of universal human well-being conflicts with the physical limits of Earth and its ecosystems. + +== Measurement tools == + +=== Environmental impacts of humans === + +There are several methods to measure or describe human impacts on Earth. They include the ecological footprint, ecological debt, carrying capacity, and sustainable yield. The idea of planetary boundaries is that there are limits to the carrying capacity of the Earth. It is important not to cross these thresholds to prevent irreversible harm to the Earth. These planetary boundaries involve several environmental issues. These include climate change and biodiversity loss. They also include types of pollution. These are biogeochemical (nitrogen and phosphorus), ocean acidification, land use, freshwater, ozone depletion, atmospheric aerosols, and chemical pollution. (Since 2015 some experts refer to biodiversity loss as change in biosphere integrity. They refer to chemical pollution as introduction of novel entities.) +The IPAT formula measures the environmental impact of humans. It emerged in the 1970s. It states this impact is proportional to human population, affluence and technology. This implies various ways to increase environmental sustainability. One would be human population control. Another would be to reduce consumption and affluence such as energy consumption. Another would be to develop innovative or green technologies such as renewable energy. +The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment from 2005 measured 24 ecosystem services. It concluded that only four have improved over the last 50 years. It found 15 are in serious decline and five are in a precarious condition. + +=== Economic costs === + +Experts in environmental economics have calculated the cost of using public natural resources. One project calculated the damage to ecosystems and biodiversity loss. This was the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity project from 2007 to 2011. +An entity that creates environmental and social costs often does not pay for them. The market price also does not reflect those costs. In the end, government policy is usually required to resolve this problem. +Decision-making can take future costs and benefits into account. The tool for this is the social discount rate. The bigger the concern for future generations, the lower the social discount rate should be. Another approach is to put an economic value on ecosystem services. This allows us to assess environmental damage against perceived short-term welfare benefits. One calculation is that, "for every dollar spent on ecosystem restoration, between three and 75 dollars of economic benefits from ecosystem goods and services can be expected". +In recent years, economist Kate Raworth has developed the concept of doughnut economics. This aims to integrate social and environmental sustainability into economic thinking. The social dimension acts as a minimum standard to which a society should aspire. The carrying capacity of the planet acts an outer limit. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f420b13f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainability" +chunk: 6/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Barriers == +There are many reasons why sustainability is so difficult to achieve. These reasons have the name sustainability barriers. Before addressing these barriers it is important to analyze and understand them. Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity ("everything is related"). Others arise from the human condition. One example is the value-action gap. This reflects the fact that people often do not act according to their convictions. Experts describe these barriers as intrinsic to the concept of sustainability. +Other barriers are extrinsic to the concept of sustainability. This means it is possible to overcome them. One way would be to put a price tag on the consumption of public goods. Some extrinsic barriers relate to the nature of dominant institutional frameworks. Examples would be where market mechanisms fail for public goods. Existing societies, economies, and cultures encourage increased consumption. There is a structural imperative for growth in competitive market economies. This inhibits necessary societal change. +Furthermore, there are several barriers related to the difficulties of implementing sustainability policies. There are trade-offs between the goals of environmental policies and economic development. Environmental goals include nature conservation. Development may focus on poverty reduction. There are also trade-offs between short-term profit and long-term viability. Political pressures generally favor the short term over the long term. So they form a barrier to actions oriented toward improving sustainability. +Barriers to sustainability may also reflect current trends. These could include consumerism and short-termism. +Conflicts, lack of international cooperation are also considered as a barrier to achieve sustainability. 61 scientists, including Michael Meeropol, Don Trent Jacobs and 24 organizations including Scientist Rebellion endorsed an appeal saying we can not stop the ecological crisis without stopping overconsumption and this is impossible as wars continue because GDP is directly linked to military potential. + +== Transition == + +=== Characteristics === +Sustainability transformation (or transition), though not universally defined, refers to a deep, system-wide change affecting technology, economy, society, values, and goals. It is a complex and multi-layered process that must happen at all scales, from local communities to global governance institutions. However, it is often politically debated, as different stakeholders may disagree on both the goals and the methods of change. Additionally, such transformations can challenge existing power structures and resource distribution. +A sustainability transition requires major change in societies. They must change their fundamental values and organizing principles. These new values would emphasize "the quality of life and material sufficiency, human solidarity and global equity, and affinity with nature and environmental sustainability". A transition may only work if far-reaching lifestyle changes accompany technological advances. +Scientists have pointed out that: "Sustainability transitions come about in diverse ways, and all require civil-society pressure and evidence-based advocacy, political leadership, and a solid understanding of policy instruments, markets, and other drivers." +There are four possible overlapping processes of transformation. They each have different political dynamics. Technology, markets, government, or citizens can lead these processes. +The European Environment Agency defines a sustainability transition as "a fundamental and wide-ranging transformation of a socio-technical system towards a more sustainable configuration that helps alleviate persistent problems such as climate change, pollution, biodiversity loss or resource scarcities." The concept of sustainability transitions is similar to the concept of energy transitions. +One expert argues a sustainability transition must be "supported by a new kind of culture, a new kind of collaboration, [and] a new kind of leadership". It requires a large investment in "new and greener capital goods, while simultaneously shifting capital away from unsustainable systems". +In 2024 an interdisciplinary group of experts including Chip Fletcher, William J. Ripple, Phoebe Barnard, Kamanamaikalani Beamer, Christopher Field, David Karl, David King, Michael E. Mann and Naomi Oreskes advocated for a paradigm shift toward genuine sustainability and resource regeneration. They said that "such a transformation is imperative to reverse the tide of biodiversity loss due to overconsumption and to reinstate the security of food and water supplies, which are foundational for the survival of global populations." + +=== Principles === +It is possible to divide action principles to make societies more sustainable into four types. These are nature-related, personal, society-related and systems-related principles. + +Nature-related principles: decarbonize; reduce human environmental impact by efficiency, sufficiency and consistency; be net-positive – build up environmental and societal capital; prefer local, seasonal, plant-based and labor-intensive; polluter-pays principle; precautionary principle; and appreciate and celebrate the beauty of nature. +Personal principles: practise contemplation, apply policies with caution, celebrate frugality. +Society-related principles: grant the least privileged the greatest support; seek mutual understanding, trust and many wins; strengthen social cohesion and collaboration; engage stakeholders; foster education – share knowledge and collaborate. +Systems-related principles: apply systems thinking; foster diversity; make what is relevant to the public more transparent; maintain or increase option diversity. + +=== Example steps === +There are many approaches that people can take to transition to environmental sustainability. These include maintaining ecosystem services, protecting and co-creating common resources, reducing food waste, and promoting dietary shifts towards plant-based foods. Another is reducing population growth by cutting fertility rates. Others are promoting new green technologies, and adopting renewable energy sources while phasing out subsidies to fossil fuels. +In 2017 scientists published an update to the 1992 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity. It showed how to move towards environmental sustainability. It proposed steps in three areas: + +Reduced consumption: reducing food waste, promoting dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods. +Reducing the number of consumers: further reducing fertility rates and thus population growth. +Technology and nature conservation: there are several related approaches. One is to maintain nature's ecosystem services. Another is promote new green technologies. Another is changing energy use. One aspect of this is to adopt renewable energy sources. At the same time it is necessary to end subsidies to energy production through fossil fuels. + +==== Agenda 2030 for the Sustainable Development Goals ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a9e6706d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainability" +chunk: 7/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 2015, the United Nations agreed the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Their official name is Agenda 2030 for the Sustainable Development Goals. The UN described this programme as a very ambitious and transformational vision. It said the SDGs were of unprecedented scope and significance. +The UN said: "We are determined to take the bold and transformative steps which are urgently needed to shift the world on to a sustainable and resilient path." +The 17 goals and targets lay out transformative steps. For example, the SDGs aim to protect the future of planet Earth. The UN pledged to "protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of the present and future generations". + +== Options for overcoming barriers == + +=== Issues around economic growth === + +Eco-economic decoupling is an idea to resolve tradeoffs between economic growth and environmental conservation. The idea is to "decouple environmental bads from economic goods as a path towards sustainability". This would mean "using less resources per unit of economic output and reducing the environmental impact of any resources that are used or economic activities that are undertaken". The intensity of pollutants emitted makes it possible to measure pressure on the environment. This in turn makes it possible to measure decoupling. This involves following changes in the emission intensity associated with economic output. Examples of absolute long-term decoupling are rare. But some industrialized countries have decoupled GDP growth from production- and consumption-based CO2 emissions. Yet, even in this example, decoupling alone is not enough. It is necessary to accompany it with "sufficiency-oriented strategies and strict enforcement of absolute reduction targets". +One study in 2020 found no evidence of necessary decoupling. This was a meta-analysis of 180 scientific studies. It found that there is "no evidence of the kind of decoupling needed for ecological sustainability" and that "in the absence of robust evidence, the goal of decoupling rests partly on faith". Some experts have questioned the possibilities for decoupling and thus the feasibility of green growth. Some have argued that decoupling on its own will not be enough to reduce environmental pressures. They say it would need to include the issue of economic growth. There are several reasons why adequate decoupling is currently not taking place. These are rising energy expenditure, rebound effects, problem shifting, the underestimated impact of services, the limited potential of recycling, insufficient and inappropriate technological change, and cost-shifting. +The decoupling of economic growth from environmental deterioration is difficult. This is because the entity that causes environmental and social costs does not generally pay for them. So the market price does not express such costs. For example, the cost of packaging into the price of a product. may factor in the cost of packaging. But it may omit the cost of disposing of that packaging. Economics describes such factors as externalities, in this case a negative externality. Usually, it is up to government action or local governance to deal with externalities. +For highly developed nations, sustainable practices and climate policies "often lead to conflicts between short-term economic interests and long-term environmental goals." However, for developing countries, efforts to address climate change are limited by their financial resources. To effectively advance sustainability, solutions need to focus on "fostering political commitment, enhancing inter-agency coordination, securing adequate funding, and engaging diverse stakeholders to overcome these challenges." +There are various ways to incorporate environmental and social costs and benefits into economic activities. Examples include: taxing the activity (the polluter pays); subsidizing activities with positive effects (rewarding stewardship); and outlawing particular levels of damaging practices (legal limits on pollution). + +=== Government action and local governance === +A textbook on natural resources and environmental economics stated in 2011: "Nobody who has seriously studied the issues believes that the economy's relationship to the natural environment can be left entirely to market forces." This means natural resources will be over-exploited and destroyed in the long run without government action. +Elinor Ostrom (winner of the 2009 Nobel Prize in Economics) expanded on this. She stated that local governance (or self-governance) can be a third option besides the market or the national government. She studied how people in small, local communities manage shared natural resources. She showed that communities using natural resources can establish rules their for use and maintenance. These are resources such as pastures, fishing waters, and forests. This leads to both economic and ecological sustainability. Successful self-governance needs groups with frequent communication among participants. In this case, groups can manage the usage of common goods without overexploitation. Based on Ostrom's work, some have argued that: "Common-pool resources today are overcultivated because the different agents do not know each other and cannot directly communicate with one another." + +=== Global governance === + +Questions of global concern are difficult to tackle. That is because global issues need global solutions. But existing global organizations (UN, WTO, and others) do not have sufficient means. For example, they lack sanctioning mechanisms to enforce existing global regulations. Some institutions do not enjoy universal acceptance. An example is the International Criminal Court. Their agendas are not aligned (for example UNEP, UNDP, and WTO) And some accuse them of nepotism and mismanagement.  +Multilateral international agreements, treaties, and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) face further challenges. These result in barriers to sustainability. Often these arrangements rely on voluntary commitments. An example is Nationally Determined Contributions for climate action. There can be a lack of enforcement of existing national or international regulation. And there can be gaps in regulation for international actors such as multi-national enterprises. Critics of some global organizations say they lack legitimacy and democracy. Institutions facing such criticism include the WTO, IMF, World Bank, UNFCCC, G7, G8 and OECD. + +== Responses by nongovernmental stakeholders == + +=== Businesses === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..62b1b2b9c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainability" +chunk: 8/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:18.078436+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sustainable business practices integrate ecological concerns with social and economic ones. One accounting framework for this approach uses the phrase "people, planet, and profit". The name of this approach is the triple bottom line. The circular economy is a related concept. Its goal is to decouple environmental pressure from economic growth. +Growing attention towards sustainability has led to the formation of many organizations. These include the Sustainability Consortium of the Society for Organizational Learning, the Sustainable Business Institute, and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Supply chain sustainability looks at the environmental and human impacts of products in the supply chain. It considers how they move from raw materials sourcing to production, storage, and delivery, and every transportation link on the way. + +=== Religious communities === + +Religious leaders have stressed the importance of caring for nature and environmental sustainability. In 2015 over 150 leaders from various faiths issued a joint statement to the UN Climate Summit in Paris 2015. They reiterated a statement made in the Interfaith Summit in New York in 2014:As representatives from different faith and religious traditions, we stand together to express deep concern for the consequences of climate change on the earth and its people, all entrusted, as our faiths reveal, to our common care. Climate change is indeed a threat to life, a precious gift we have received and that we need to care for. + +=== Individuals === + +Individuals can also live in a more sustainable way. They can change their lifestyles, practise ethical consumerism, and embrace frugality. These sustainable living approaches can also make cities more sustainable. They do this by altering the built environment. Such approaches include sustainable transport, sustainable architecture, and zero emission housing. Research can identify the main issues to focus on. These include flying, meat and dairy products, car driving, and household sufficiency. Research can show how to create cultures of sufficiency, care, solidarity, and simplicity. +Some young people are using activism, litigation, and on-the-ground efforts to advance sustainability. This is particularly the case in the area of climate action. + +== Assessments and reactions == + +=== Impossible to reach === +Scholars have criticized the concepts of sustainability and sustainable development from different angles. One was Dennis Meadows, one of the authors of the first report to the Club of Rome, called "The Limits to Growth". He argued many people deceive themselves by using the Brundtland definition of sustainability. This is because the needs of the present generation are actually not met today. Instead, economic activities to meet present needs will shrink the options of future generations. Another criticism is that the paradigm of sustainability is no longer suitable as a guide for transformation. This is because societies are "socially and ecologically self-destructive consumer societies". +Some scholars have even proclaimed the end of the concept of sustainability. This is because humans now have a significant impact on Earth's climate system and ecosystems. It might become impossible to pursue sustainability because of these complex, radical, and dynamic issues. Others have called sustainability a utopian ideal: "We need to keep sustainability as an ideal; an ideal which we might never reach, which might be utopian, but still a necessary one." + +=== Vagueness === +The term is often hijacked and thus can lose its meaning. People use it for all sorts of things, such as saving the planet to recycling your rubbish. A specific definition may never be possible. This is because sustainability is a concept that provides a normative structure. That describes what human society regards as good or desirable. +But some argue that while sustainability is vague and contested it is not meaningless. Although lacking in a singular definition, this concept is still useful. Scholars have argued that its fuzziness can actually be liberating. This is because it means that "the basic goal of sustainability (maintaining or improving desirable conditions [...]) can be pursued with more flexibility". + +=== Confusion and greenwashing === +Sustainability has a reputation as a buzzword. People may use the terms sustainability and sustainable development in ways that are different to how they are usually understood. This can result in confusion and mistrust. So a clear explanation of how the terms are being used in a particular situation is important. +Greenwashing is a practice of deceptive marketing. It is when a company or organization provides misleading information about the sustainability of a product, policy, or other activity. Investors are wary of this issue as it exposes them to risk. The reliability of eco-labels is also doubtful in some cases. Ecolabelling is a voluntary method of environmental performance certification and labelling for food and consumer products. The most credible eco-labels are those developed with close participation from all relevant stakeholders. + +== See also == +Index of sustainability articles +Outline of sustainability +Tragedy of the commons + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..71f7c5e8d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainable development" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:19.378917+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sustainable development is an approach to growth and human development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The aim is to have a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining planetary integrity. Sustainable development aims to balance the needs of the economy, environment, and society. Equitable health access is a pillar of social sustainability. The Brundtland Report, published in 1987, helped to make the concept of sustainable development better known. +Sustainable development overlaps with the idea of sustainability which is a normative concept. UNESCO formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it." +The Rio Process that began at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro has placed the concept of sustainable development on the international agenda. Sustainable development is the foundational concept of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These global goals for the year 2030 were adopted in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA). They address the global challenges, including poverty, climate change, biodiversity loss, and peace. + +There are some problems with the concept of sustainable development. Some scholars say it is an oxymoron because according to them, development is inherently unsustainable. Other commentators are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far. Scholars have stated that "sustainable development" is open-ended, ambiguous, and incoherent, so it can be easily appropriated. Furthermore, while digitalization is often promoted as a tool for sustainable development, recent scholarly analysis has introduced a more complex view, indicating that the rapid reliance on digital technologies can have a negative overall impact on environmental sustainability, despite positive influences on economic and social development aspects. Therefore, it is important that there is increased funding for research on sustainability in order to better understand sustainable development and address its vagueness and shortcomings. + +== Definition == +In 1987, the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report Our Common Future, commonly called the Brundtland Report. The report included a definition of "sustainable development" which is now widely used: + +Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains two key concepts within it: +The concept of 'needs', in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and +The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.Sustainable development thus tries to find a balance between economic development, environmental protection, and social well-being. +Scholars note that sustainable development is understood in many different ways. They also highlight inconsistencies in the current market-driven system of social, economic and political organization. Efforts toward global sustainability must consider the diverse challenges, conditions, and choices that affect prospects and prosperity for all, everywhere. +Sustainability means different things to different people, and the concept of sustainable development has led to a diversity of discourses that legitimize competing sociopolitical projects. + +== Development of the concept == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9755eab7c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainable development" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:19.378917+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sustainable development has its roots in ideas regarding sustainable forest management, which were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In response to a growing awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, John Evelyn argued, in his 1662 essay Sylva, that "sowing and planting of trees had to be regarded as a national duty of every landowner, in order to stop the destructive over- exploitation of natural resources." In 1713, Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a senior mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published Sylvicultura economics, a 400-page work on forestry. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, von Carlowitz developed the concept of managing forests for sustained yield. His work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of the science of forestry. This, in turn, influenced people like Gifford Pinchot, the first head of the US Forest Service, whose approach to forest management was driven by the idea of wise use of resources, and Aldo Leopold whose land ethic was influential in the development of the environmental movement in the 1960s. +Following the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in 1962, the developing environmental movement drew attention to the relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation. Kenneth E. Boulding, in his influential 1966 essay The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth, identified the need for the economic system to fit itself to the ecological system with its limited pools of resources. Another milestone was the 1968 article by Garrett Hardin that popularized the term "tragedy of the commons". +The direct linking of sustainability and development in a contemporary sense can be traced to the early 1970s. "Strategy of Progress", a 1972 book (in German) by Ernst Basler, explained how the long-acknowledged sustainability concept of preserving forests for future wood production can be directly transferred to the broader importance of preserving environmental resources to sustain the world for future generations. That same year, the interrelationship of environment and development was formally demonstrated in a systems dynamic simulation model reported in the classic report on Limits to Growth. This was commissioned by the Club of Rome and written by a group of scientists led by Dennis and Donella Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Describing the desirable "state of global equilibrium", the authors wrote: "We are searching for a model output that represents a world system that is sustainable without sudden and uncontrolled collapse and capable of satisfying the basic material requirements of all of its people." The year 1972 also saw the publication of the influential book, A Blueprint for Survival. +In 1975, an MIT research group prepared ten days of hearings on "Growth and Its Implication for the Future" for the US Congress, the first hearings ever held on sustainable development. +In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature published a world conservation strategy that included one of the first references to sustainable development as a global priority and introduced the term "sustainable development". Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged. +Since the Brundtland Report, the concept of sustainable development has developed beyond the initial intergenerational framework to focus more on the goal of "socially inclusive and environmentally sustainable economic growth". In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in the 21st century. The action plan Agenda 21 for sustainable development identified information, integration, and participation as key building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in decision-making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development. +The Rio Protocol was a huge leap forward: for the first time, the world agreed on a sustainability agenda. In fact, a global consensus was facilitated by neglecting concrete goals and operational details. +Whilst the discussions about (or discourse of) sustainable development are highly influential in global and national governance frameworks, its meaning and operationalization are context-dependent and have evolved over time. This evolution can for example be seen in the transition from the Millennium Development Goals (years 2000 to 2015) to the Sustainable Development Goals (years 2015 to 2030). + +== Global governance framework == +The most comprehensive global governance framework for sustainable development is the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This agenda was a follow-up to the Millennium Declaration from the year 2000 with its eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the first comprehensive global governance framework for sustainable development. The SDGs have concrete targets (unlike the results from the Rio Process) but no methods for sanctions. They contain goals, targets and indicators for example in the areas of poverty reduction, environmental protection, human prosperity and peace. +Scholars who are investigating global environmental governance have identified a set of discourses within the public space that mostly convey four sustainability frames: mainstream sustainability, progressive sustainability, a limits discourse, and radical sustainability. First, mainstream sustainability is a conservative approach on both economic and political terms. Second, progressive sustainability is an economically conservative, yet politically reformist approach. Under this framing, sustainable development is still centered on economic growth but human well-being and development can only be achieved through a redistribution of power to even out inequalities between developed and developing countries. Third, a limits discourse is an economically reformist, yet politically conservative approach to sustainability. Fourth, radical sustainability is a transformative approach seeking to break with existing global economic and political structures. + +== Related concepts == + +=== Sustainability === + +== Dimensions == + +Sustainable development, like sustainability, is regarded to have three dimensions: the environment, economy and society. The idea is that a good balance between the three dimensions should be achieved. Instead of calling them dimensions, other terms commonly used are pillars, domains, aspects, spheres. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e880f65d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainable development" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:19.378917+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Pathways == + +Six interdependent capacities are deemed to be necessary for the successful pursuit of sustainable development. These are the capacities to measure progress towards sustainable development; promote equity within and between generations; adapt to shocks and surprises; transform the system onto more sustainable development pathways; link knowledge with action for sustainability; and to devise governance arrangements that allow people to work together. +During the MDG era (year 2000 to 2015), the key objective of sustainable development was poverty reduction to be reached through economic growth and participation in the global trade system. The SDGs take a much more comprehensive approach to sustainable development than the MDGs did. They offer a more people-centered development agenda. Out of the 17 SDGs, for example, 11 goals contain targets related to equity, equality or inclusion, and SDG 10 is solely devoted to addressing inequality within and among countries. + +=== Improving on environmental sustainability === + An unsustainable situation occurs when natural capital (the total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. The concept of sustainable development is intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term result of environmental degradation is the inability to sustain human life. +Important operational principles of sustainable development were published by Herman Daly in 1990: renewable resources should provide a sustainable yield (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); for non-renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generation should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment. +In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the largest, most comprehensive study to date of biodiversity and ecosystem services was published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. It recommended that human civilization will need a transformative change, including sustainable agriculture, reductions in consumption and waste, fishing quotas and collaborative water management. + +Environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressed through approaches such as sustainable agriculture, organic farming and more sustainable business practices. At the local level there are various movements working towards sustainable food systems which may include less meat consumption, local food production, slow food, sustainable gardening, and organic gardening. The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors, including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production. +As global population and affluence have increased, so has the use of various materials increased in volume, diversity, and distance transported. By 2050, humanity could consume an estimated 140 billion tons of minerals, ores, fossil fuels and biomass per year (three times its current amount) unless the economic growth rate is decoupled from the rate of natural resource consumption. +Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of dematerialization, converting the linear path of materials (extraction, use, disposal in landfill) to a circular material flow that reuses materials as much as possible, much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature. This way of thinking is expressed in the concept of circular economy, which employs reuse, sharing, repair, refurbishment, remanufacturing and recycling to create a closed-loop system, minimizing the use of resource inputs and the creation of waste, pollution and carbon emissions. The European Commission has adopted an ambitious Circular Economy Action Plan in 2020, which aims at making sustainable products the norm in the EU. + +=== Improving on economic and social aspects === + +It has been suggested that because of the rural poverty and overexploitation, environmental resources should be treated as important economic assets, called natural capital. Economic development has traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. This model of unlimited personal and GDP growth may be over. Sustainable development may involve improvements in the quality of life for many but may necessitate a decrease in resource consumption. "Growth" generally ignores the direct effect that the environment may have on social welfare, whereas "development" takes it into account. +As early as the 1970s, the concept of sustainability was used to describe an economy "in equilibrium with basic ecological support systems". Scientists in many fields have highlighted The Limits to Growth, and economists have presented alternatives, for example a 'steady-state economy', to address concerns over the impacts of expanding human development on the planet. In 1987, the economist Edward Barbier published the study The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development, where he recognized that goals of environmental conservation and economic development are not conflicting and can be reinforcing each other. +A World Bank study from 1999 concluded that based on the theory of genuine savings (defined as "traditional net savings less the value of resource depletion and environmental degradation plus the value of investment in human capital"), policymakers have many possible interventions to increase sustainability, in macroeconomics or purely environmental. Several studies have noted that efficient policies for renewable energy and pollution are compatible with increasing human welfare, eventually reaching a golden-rule steady state. +A meta review in 2002 looked at environmental and economic valuations and found a "lack of concrete understanding of what "sustainability policies" might entail in practice". A study concluded in 2007 that knowledge, manufactured and human capital (health and education) has not compensated for the degradation of natural capital in many parts of the world. It has been suggested that intergenerational equity can be incorporated into a sustainable development and decision making, as has become common in economic valuations of climate economics. +The World Business Council for Sustainable Development published a Vision 2050 document in 2021 to show "How business can lead the transformations the world needs". The vision states that "we envision a world in which 9+billion people can live well, within planetary boundaries, by 2050." This report was highlighted by The Guardian as "the largest concerted corporate sustainability action plan to date – include reversing the damage done to ecosystems, addressing rising greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring societies move to sustainable agriculture." + +== Barriers == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fbacad12f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainable development" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:19.378917+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Assessments and reactions == + +The concept of sustainable development has been and still is, subject to criticism, including the question of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as sustainable use of a non-renewable resource, since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of earth's finite stock; this perspective renders the Industrial Revolution as a whole unsustainable. +The sustainable development debate is based on the assumption that societies need to manage three types of capital (economic, social, and natural), which may be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be irreversible. Natural capital can not necessarily be substituted by economic capital. While it is possible that we can find ways to replace some natural resources, it is much less likely that they will ever be able to replace ecosystem services, such as the protection provided by the ozone layer, or the climate stabilizing function of the Amazonian forest. +The concept of sustainable development has been criticized from different angles. While some see it as paradoxical (or an oxymoron) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined. +The vagueness of the Brundtland definition of sustainable development has been criticized as follows: The definition has "opened up the possibility of downplaying sustainability. Hence, governments spread the message that we can have it all at the same time, i.e. economic growth, prospering societies and a healthy environment. No new ethic is required. This so-called weak version of sustainability is popular among governments, and businesses, but profoundly wrong and not even weak, as there is no alternative to preserving the earth's ecological integrity." +Scholars have stated that sustainable development is open-ended, much critiqued as ambiguous, incoherent, and therefore easily appropriated. + +== Society and culture == + +=== Sustainable development goals === +Sustainable development is the foundational concept of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Policies to achieve the SDGs are meant to cohere around this concept. + +=== Education for sustainable development === +Education for sustainable development (ESD) is a term officially used by the United Nations. It is defined as education practices that encourage changes in knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for humanity. ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet their needs using a balanced and integrated approach to sustainable development's economic, social, and environmental dimensions. +Agenda 21 was the first international document that identified education as an essential tool for achieving sustainable development and highlighted areas of action for education. ESD is a component of measurement in an indicator for Sustainable Development Goal 12 (SDG) for "responsible consumption and production". SDG 12 has 11 targets, and target 12.8 is "By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature." 20 years after the Agenda 21 document was declared, the 'Future we want' document was proclaimed in the Rio+20 UN Conference on Sustainable Development, stating that "We resolve to promote education for sustainable development and to integrate sustainable development more actively into education beyond the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development." +One version of education for Sustainable Development recognizes modern-day environmental challenges. It seeks to define new ways to adjust to a changing biosphere, as well as engage individuals to address societal issues that come with them. In the International Encyclopedia of Education, this approach to education is seen as an attempt to "shift consciousness toward an ethics of life-giving relationships that respects the interconnectedness of man to his natural world" to equip future members of society with environmental awareness and a sense of responsibility to sustainability. +For UNESCO, education for sustainable development involves: + +integrating key sustainable development issues into teaching and learning. This may include, for example, instruction about climate change, disaster risk reduction, biodiversity, and poverty reduction and sustainable consumption. It also requires participatory teaching and learning methods that motivate and empower learners to change their behaviours and take action for sustainable development. ESD consequently promotes competencies like critical thinking, imagining future scenarios and making decisions in a collaborative way. +The Thessaloniki Declaration, presented at the "International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability" by UNESCO and the Government of Greece (December 1997), highlights the importance of sustainability not only with regards to the natural environment, but also with "poverty, health, food security, democracy, human rights, and peace". + +== See also == + +Digital public goods – Digital good that is non-excludable and non-rival +List of sustainability topics +Outline of sustainability – Overview of and topical guide to sustainability +Policy coherence for development – Approach in development assistance +Sustainability measurement – Quantitbasis for the informed management of sustainability +Sustainability strategies – Mechanisms to foster sustainabilityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Sustainable remediation – Mode of approaching potentially contaminated land and groundwater +United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development – United Nations initiative + +== References == + +== External links == + +Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform of the UN +Sustainable Development Solutions Network \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_remediation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_remediation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a5fe3b8ab --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_remediation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Sustainable remediation" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_remediation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:20.692531+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sustainable Remediation is a term adopted internationally and encompasses sustainable approaches, as described by the Brundtland Report, to the investigation, assessment and management (including institutional controls) of potentially contaminated land and groundwater. Sustainable remediation brings together the concepts of remediation with the practice of sustainability. This field is quickly expanding with new research coming out frequently. + + +== Definition == +The process of identifying sustainable remediation is defined by The UK Sustainable remediation Forum as "the practice of demonstrating, in terms of environmental, economic and social indicators, that the benefit of undertaking remediation is greater than its impact, and that the optimum remediation solution is selected through the use of a balanced decision-making process." This approach is focused on mitigating environmental damage caused by factors like soil degradation, atmospheric pollution, and water contamination in a cost effective, and realistic way. This process can take shape in a wide variety of forms since there is a large range of different remediation projects required to address the critical needs of ecosystems; in fact it is estimated that there are 5 million brown field sites that are in need of remediation, internationally. In the US alone, there are more than 450,000 brown field sites that require significant reinvestment due to years of toxic contamination and/or degradation. + + +== Approach == +Sustainable remediation is the practice of considering the effects of implementing an environmental cleanup and incorporating options to minimize the footprint of the cleanup actions. Opportunities for green and sustainable practices exist throughout the site remediation process of remedial investigation, design, construction, operation, and monitoring. Five core elements are evaluated as part of the environmental footprint analysis including 1) energy, 2) air and atmosphere, 3) materials and waste, 4) land and ecosystem, and 5) water. The cleanup remedy is evaluated for each core element to 1) minimize total energy use and maximize renewable energy use, 2) minimize air pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions, 3) minimize water use and impacts to water resources, 4) reduce, reuse, and recycle materials and waste, and 5) minimize land use and protect ecosystems. + + +== History == +The sustainable remediation industry emerged in Europe and the United States in the 1970s and 1980s with notable restoration projects like the Love Canal Superfund site. Projects like this and increased regulations in Europe led to the eventual creation of several professional groups such as the Network for Industrially Contaminated Land in Europe (NICOLE, founded in 1995 in Europe) and the Sustainable Remediation Forum (SuRF, founded in 2006 in the United States). Since their creation these organizations have released many publications on the topic and have promoted the use of sustainable remediation. While in some cases the restoration projects were initiated due to grassroots community efforts, governmental action has also played an increasingly important role. Advocacy groups have been working with governmental agencies like the EPA to pass legislation, especially after a landmark 1990 court decision (United States v. Fleet Factors Corp) which found that corporations and their creditors can be held liable for property contamination. Additionally, over the last two decades governing bodies like the European Union have taken up initiatives on Sustainable Remediation. + + +== Barriers to sustainable remediation == +There are a few different barriers to sustainable remediation. These barriers include health and safety while working on site, and the effectiveness of the remedy. As one might expect, cleaning up sites that have hazardous waste on them can be dangerous if the proper precautions are not taken. Well intended efforts (e.g., dam removals or excavation of chemical containers) can disrupt ecosystems further and potentially release additional contaminants that have been relatively undisturbed for decades. The effectiveness of the remedy is an important factor when considering a remediation project. Different methods have been used throughout the last few decades on remediation projects with varying levels of success. Certain treatments like pump and treat, and dig and haul can, in certain situations, have some long lasting unintended effects upon the environment that are more detrimental than helpful in some situations. Additional barriers to sustainable remediation involve cost and political opposition. In many cases, remediating severely compromised sites is expensive and time-consuming, requiring extensive resources and a long-term commitment on the part of municipalities and/or developers. These costs can be amplified by the uncertain scope of work that they can entail. In the US, this work is driven, in part, by federal legislation, including the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, the Superfund Act, and the Pollution Prevention Act. While the issue of remediation remains a global priority, new deregulatory proposals issued by the Trump administration make the future of sustainable remediation in the US less certain. + + +== Current practices in the field of sustainable remediation == +Over the last decade, many new methodologies in the field of sustainable remediation have developed, but there are two main types of treatments: in-situ treatments and ex-situ treatments. In-situ treatments, generally speaking, are applied to the contaminated area without removing the contaminant first. These treatments include things like bioremediation, the creation of passive barriers, and sustainable immobilization. Ex-situ treatments usually involve removing contaminated material off site, and either disposing of it, or treating it and returning the cleaned contaminate to its original location. This method is generally used when the contaminate needs to be isolated or when more extensive remediation needs to happen. Ex-situ methods include things like dredging, pump and treat, and dig and haul. While these methods are generally more invasive, they are also very effective when there is dangerous contamination on site. Both methods are important, and a wide variety of new treatments are currently being developed. These new techniques include methods like emerging forms of in-situ chemical treatments, electroactive biochar systems, and soil flushing coupled with aminated-nanocellulose/MOF hydrogel nanocomposites adsorbents. Techniques like these are much more environmentally friendly than more traditional ex-situ methods, and can greatly increase the benefits of remediation. In fact some of these newer techniques have shown to reduce the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions by between 50 and 80 percent. While these numbers are exciting there is still much work to be done, and the long-term impacts, and robustness of some of these methods still need to be better understood and researched. + + +== See also == +Sustainable development +Land recycling + + +== References == + + +== External links == +American Society of Testing and Materials Standard Guide for Greener Cleanups +CL:AIRE - Contaminated Land: Applications in Real Environments +Interstate Technology and Resource Council Green and Sustainable Remediation +Sustainable Remediation Forum Online Resources +United States Environmental Protection Agency Contaminated Site Cleanup Information Green Remediation Focus \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fe3e4f3c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Thermal desorption" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:23.296661+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Thermal desorption is an environmental remediation technology that utilizes heat to increase the volatility of contaminants such that they can be removed (separated) from the solid matrix (typically soil, sludge or filter cake sediment). The volatilized contaminants are then either collected or thermally destroyed. A thermal desorption system therefore has two major components; the desorber itself and the offgas treatment system. +Thermal desorption is not incineration. + +== History == +Thermal desorption first appeared as an environmental treatment technology in 1985 when it was specified in the Record of Decision for the McKin Company Superfund site within the Royal River watershed in Maine. +It is frequently referred to as "low temp" thermal desorption to differentiate it from high temperature incineration. An early direct fired thermal desorption project was the treatment of 8000 tons of toxaphene (a chlorinated pesticide) contaminated sandy soil at the S&S Flying Services site in Marianna Florida in 1990, with later projects exceeding 170,000 tons at the Cape Fear coal tar site in 1999. A status report from the United States Environmental Protection Agency shows that thermal desorption has been used at 69 Superfund sites through FY2000. In addition, hundreds of remediation projects have been completed using thermal desorption at non-Superfund sites. +For in-situ on-site treatment options, only incineration and stabilization have been used at more Superfund sites. Incineration suffers from poor public acceptance. Stabilization does not provide a permanent remedy, since the contaminants are still on site. Thermal desorption is a widely accepted technology that provides a permanent solution at an economically competitive cost. +The world’s first large-scale thermal desorption for treatment of mercury-containing wastes was erected in Wölsau, for the remediation of the Chemical Factory Marktredwitz (founded in 1788) was considered to be the oldest in Germany. Operation commenced in October 1993 including the first optimising phase. 50,000 tons of mercury-contaminated solid wastes were treated successfully between August 1993 and June 1996. 25 metric tons of mercury had been recovered from soil and rubble. Unfortunately the Marktredwitz plant is often misunderstood in the literature as a pilot-scale plant only. + +== Desorbers == +Numerous desorber types are available today. Some of the more common types are listed below. + +Indirect fired rotary +Direct fired rotary +Heated screw (hot oil, molten salt, electric) +Infrared +Microwave +Most indirect fired rotary systems use an inclined rotating metallic cylinder to heat the feed material. The heat transfer mechanism is usually conduction through the cylinder wall. In this type of system neither the flame nor the products of combustion can contact the feed solids or the offgas. Think of it as a rotating pipe inside a furnace with both ends sticking outside of the furnace. The cylinder for full-scale transportable systems is typically five to eight feet in diameter with heated lengths ranging from twenty to fifty feet. With a carbon steel shell, the maximum solids temperature is around 1,000 °F, while temperatures of 1,800 °F with special alloy cylinders are attainable. Total residence time in this type of desorber normally ranges from 30 to 120 minutes. Treatment capacities can range from 2 to 30 tons per hour for transportable units. +Direct-fired rotary desorbers have been used extensively over the years for petroleum contaminated soils and soils contaminated with Resource Conservation and Recovery Act hazardous wastes as defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. A 1992 paper on treating petroleum contaminated soils estimated that between 20 and 30 contractors have 40 to 60 rotary dryer systems available. Today, it is probably closer to 6 to 10 contractors with 15 to 20 portable systems commercially available. The majority of these systems utilize a secondary combustion chamber (afterburner) or catalytic oxidizer to thermally destroy the volatilized organics. A few of these systems also have a quench and scrubber after the oxidizer which allows them to treat soils containing chlorinated organics such as solvents and pesticides. The desorbing cylinder for full-scale transportable systems is typically four to ten feet in diameter with heated lengths ranging from twenty to fifty feet. The maximum practical solids temperature for these systems is around 750 to 900 °F depending on the material of construction of the cylinder. Total residence time in this type of desorber normally ranges from 3 to 15 minutes. Treatment capacities can range from 6 to over 100 tons per hour for transportable units. +Heated screw systems are also an indirect heated system. Typically they use a jacketed trough with a double auger that intermeshes. The augers themselves frequently contain passages for the heating medium to increase the heat transfer surface area. Some systems use electric resistance heaters instead of a heat transfer media and may employ a single auger in each housing. The augers can range from 12 to 36 inches in diameter for full-scale systems, with lengths up to 20 feet. The auger/trough assemblies can be connected in parallel and/or series to increase throughput. Full scale capabilities up to 4 tons per hour have been demonstrated. This type of system has been most successful treating refinery wastes. +In the early days, there was a continuous infrared system that is no longer in common use. In theory, microwaves would be an excellent technical choice since uniform and accurately controlled heating can be achieved with no heat transfer surface fouling problems. One can only guess that capital and/or energy costs have prevented the development of a microwave thermal desorber at the commercial scale. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..82dc2f5d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Thermal desorption" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_desorption" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:23.296661+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Offgas treatment == +There are only three basic options for offgas treatment available. The volatilized contaminants in the offgas can either be discharged to atmosphere, collected or destroyed. In some cases, both a collection and destruction system are employed. In addition to managing the volatilized components, the particulate solids (dust) that exit the desorber must also be removed from the offgas. +When a collection system is used, the offgas must be cooled to condense the bulk of the volatilized components into a liquid. The offgas will exit most desorbers in the 350–900 °F range. The offgas is then typically cooled to somewhere between 120 and 40 °F to condense the bulk of the volatilized water and organic contaminants. Even at 40 °F, there may be measurable amounts of non-condensed organics. For this reason, after the condensation step, further treatment of the offgas is usually required. The cooled offgas may be treated by carbon adsorption, or thermal oxidation. Thermal oxidation can be accomplished using a catalytic oxidizer, an afterburner or by routing the offgas to the combustion heat source for the desorber. The volume of gas requiring treatment for indirect fired desorbers is a fraction of that required for a direct fired desorber. This requires smaller air pollution control trains for the gaseous process vent emissions. Some thermal desorption systems recycle the carrier gas, thereby further reducing the volume of gaseous emissions. +The condensed liquid from cooling the offgas is separated into organic and aqueous fractions. The water is either disposed of or used to cool the treated solids and prevent dusting. The condensed liquid organic is removed from the site. Depending on its composition, the liquid is either recycled as a supplemental fuel or destroyed in a fixed base incinerator. A thermal desorber removing 500 mg/kg of organic contaminants from 20,000 tons of soil will produce less than 3,000 US gallons (11,000 L) of liquid organic. In essence 20,000 tons of contaminated soil could be reduced to less than one tank truck of extracted liquid residue for off-site disposal. +Desorbers using offgas destruction systems use combustion to thermally destroy the volatilized organics components forming CO, CO2, NOx, SOx and HCl. The destruction unit may be called an afterburner, secondary combustion chamber, or thermal oxidizer. Catalytic oxidizers may also be used if the organic halide content of the contaminated media is low enough. Regardless of the name, the destruction unit is used to thermally destroy the hazardous organic constituents that were removed (volatilized) from the soil or waste. + +== See also == +In situ thermal desorption + +== References == + +T. McGowan, T., R. Carnes and P. Hulon. Incineration of Pesticide-Contaminated Soil on a Superfund Site, paper on the S&S Flying Services Superfund Site remediation project, Marianna, FL, presented at HazMat '91 Conference, Atlanta, GA, October, 1991 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aa9cc6ddc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Urban sprawl (also known as suburban sprawl or urban encroachment) is defined as "the rapid expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns, often characterized by low-density residential housing, single-use zoning, and increased reliance on the private automobile for transportation". Urban sprawl has been described as the unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for very dense urban planning. +Urban sprawl refers to a special form of urbanization, and it relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with such development. In modern times some suburban areas described as "sprawl" have less detached housing and higher density than the nearby core city. Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of industrial warfare. Sometimes the urban areas described as the most "sprawling" are the most densely populated. +The modern disadvantages and costs of urban sprawl include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside. The revenue for building and maintaining urban infrastructure in these areas are gained mostly through property and sales taxes. Most jobs in the US are now located in suburbs generating much of the revenue, although a lack of growth will require higher tax rates. +In Europe, the term peri-urbanisation is often used to denote similar dynamics and phenomena, but the term urban sprawl is currently being used by the European Environment Agency. There is widespread disagreement about what constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some commentators measure sprawl by residential density, using the average residential units per acre in a given area. Others associate it with decentralization (spread of population without a well-defined centre), discontinuity (leapfrogging development, as defined below), segregation of uses, and so forth. +The term urban sprawl is highly politicized and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing environmental degradation, intensifying segregation, and undermining the vitality of existing urban areas, and is attacked on aesthetic grounds. Few people openly support urban sprawl as such, due to the pejorative connotations of the term. The term has become a rallying cry for managing urban growth. + +== Definition == + +The term urban sprawl was often used in the letters between Lewis Mumford and Frederic J. Osborn, firstly by Osborn in his 1941 letter to Mumford and later by Mumford, generally condemning the waste of agricultural land and landscape due to suburban expansions. The term was used in an article in The Times in 1955 as a negative comment on the state of London's outskirts. Definitions of sprawl vary; researchers in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision. Batty et al. defined sprawl as "uncoordinated growth: the expansion of community without concern for its consequences, in short, unplanned, incremental urban growth which is often regarded unsustainable". Bhatta et al. wrote in 2010 that despite a dispute over the precise definition of sprawl, there is a "general consensus that urban sprawl is characterized by [an] unplanned and uneven pattern of growth, driven by a multitude of processes and leading to inefficient resource utilization". +Reid Ewing has shown that sprawl has typically been characterized as urban developments exhibiting at least one of the following characteristics: low-density or single-use development, strip development, scattered development, and/or leapfrog development (areas of development interspersed with vacant land). He argued that a better way to identify sprawl was to use indicators rather than characteristics because this was a more flexible and less arbitrary method. He proposed using "accessibility" and "lack of functional open space" as indicators. Ewing's approach has been criticized for assuming that sprawl is defined by negative characteristics. +What constitutes sprawl may be considered a matter of degree and will always be somewhat subjective under many definitions of the term. Ewing has also argued that suburban development does not, per se, constitute sprawl depending on the form it takes, although Gordon & Richardson have argued that the term is sometimes used synonymously with suburbanization in a pejorative way. + +=== Examples and counterexamples === +According to the National Resources Inventory (NRI), about 44 million acres (69,000 sq mi; 180,000 km2) of land in the United States was developed between 1982 and 2017. Presently, the NRI classifies approximately 100,000 more square kilometres (40,000 square miles) (an area approximately the size of Kentucky) as developed than the Census Bureau classifies as urban. The difference in the NRI classification is that it includes rural development, which by definition cannot be considered to be "urban" sprawl. According to the 2010 Census, approximately 3% of the U.S. land area is urban. As of 2010, 80.7% of the United States total population of 308,745,538 live within Urban areas. +Nonetheless, some urban areas like Detroit have expanded geographically even while losing population. But it was not just urbanized areas in the U.S. that lost population and sprawled substantially. According to data in "Cities and Automobile Dependence" by Kenworthy and Laube (1999), urbanized area population losses occurred while there was an expansion of sprawl between 1970 and 1990 in Amsterdam, Netherlands; Brussels, Belgium; Copenhagen, Denmark; Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich, Germany; and Zürich, Switzerland, albeit without the dismantling of infrastructure that occurred in the United States. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1840c1bb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Despite its sprawl, Metropolitan Los Angeles is the densest major urban area (over 1,000,000 population) in the US, being denser than the New York urban area and the San Francisco urban area. Most of metropolitan Los Angeles is built at more uniform low to moderate density, leading to a much higher overall density for the entire region. This is in contrast to New York, San Francisco or Chicago which have compact, high-density cores surrounded by areas of very low-density suburban periphery, such as eastern Suffolk County in the New York metro area and Marin County in the San Francisco Bay Area. +Some cases of sprawl challenge the definition of the term and what conditions are necessary for urban growth to be considered sprawl. Metropolitan regions such as Greater Mexico City, Delhi National Capital Region Beijing, and the Greater Tokyo Area are often regarded as sprawling despite being relatively dense and mixed use. + +== History == +Many theories speculate as to the reason for the creation of urban sprawl. The theory of "flight from blight" explains that aspects of living in urban areas, such as high taxes, crime rates, poor infrastructure and school qualities lead to many people moving out of urban areas and into surrounding suburban areas. According to The Limits to Growth, reasons why wealthier people move to suburbs include noise, pollution, crime, drug addiction, poverty, labor strikes, and breakdown of social services. +Others suggest that urban sprawl is a natural product of population increases, higher wages, and therefore better access to housing. Improvement in transportation also means that individuals are able to live further from large cities and industrial hubs, thus increasing demand for better housing further from the noise of cities. This leads to the creation of sprawling residential land development surrounding densely packed urban areas. + +== Characteristics == +Despite the lack of a clear agreed upon description of what defines sprawl most definitions often associate the following characteristics with sprawl. + +=== Single-use development === + +This refers to a situation where commercial, residential, institutional and industrial areas are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a single use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure, or other barriers. As a result, the places where people live, work, shop, and recreate are far from one another, usually to the extent that walking, transit use and bicycling are impractical, so all these activities generally require a car. The degree to which different land uses are mixed together is often used as an indicator of sprawl in studies of the subject. +According to this criterion, China's urbanization can be classified as "high-density sprawl", a seemingly self-contradictory term coined by New Urbanist Peter Calthorpe. He explains that despite the high-rise buildings, China's superblocks (huge residential blocks) are largely single-use and surrounded by giant arterial roads, which detach different functions of a city and create an environment unfriendly to pedestrians. + +=== Job sprawl and spatial mismatch === + +Job sprawl is another land use symptom of urban sprawl and car-dependent communities. It is defined as low-density, geographically spread-out patterns of employment, where the majority of jobs in a given metropolitan area are located outside of the main city's central business district (CBD), and increasingly in the suburban periphery. It is often the result of urban disinvestment, the geographic freedom of employment location allowed by predominantly car-dependent commuting patterns of many American suburbs, and many companies' desire to locate in low-density areas that are often more affordable and offer potential for expansion. Spatial mismatch is related to job sprawl and economic environmental justice. Spatial mismatch is defined as the situation where poor urban, predominantly minority citizens are left without easy access to entry-level jobs, as a result of increasing job sprawl and limited transportation options to facilitate a reverse commute to the suburbs. +Job sprawl has been measured and documented in various ways. It has been shown to be a growing trend in America's metropolitan areas. The Brookings Institution has published multiple articles on the topic. In 2005, author Michael Stoll defined job sprawl simply as jobs located more than 5-mile (8.0 km) radius from the CBD, and measured the concept based on year 2000 U.S. census data. Other ways of measuring the concept with more detailed rings around the CBD include a 2001 article by Edward Glaeser and Elizabeth Kneebone's 2009 article, which show that sprawling urban peripheries are gaining employment while areas closer to the CBD are losing jobs. These two authors used three geographic rings limited to a 35-mile (56 km) radius around the CBD: 3 miles (4.8 km) or less, 3 to 10 miles (16 km), and 10 to 35 miles (56 km). Kneebone's study showed the following nationwide breakdown for the largest metropolitan areas in 2006: 21.3% of jobs located in the inner ring, 33.6% of jobs in the 3–10 mile ring, and 45.1% in the 10–35 mile ring. This compares to the year 1998 – 23.3%, 34.2%, and 42.5% in those respective rings. The study shows CBD employment share shrinking, and job growth focused in the suburban and exurban outer metropolitan rings. + +=== Low-density === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c757713d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sprawl often refers to low-density development. There is no precise definition of "low density", but it might commonly mean single-family detached homes on large lots. Such buildings usually have fewer stories and are spaced farther apart, separated by lawns, landscaping, roads or parking lots. In the United States 2–4 houses per acre (5–10 per hectare) might be considered low-density while in the UK 8–12 per acre (or 20–30 per hectare) would still be considered low-density. Because more automobiles are used in the USA, much more land is designated for parking. The impact of low density development in many communities is that developed or "urbanized" land is increasing at a faster rate than the population is growing. +Overall density is often lowered by "leapfrog development". This term refers to the relationship, or lack of it, between subdivisions. Such developments are typically separated by large green belts, i.e. tracts of undeveloped land, resulting in an overall density far lower even than the low density indicated by localized per-acre measurements. This is a 20th and 21st century phenomenon generated by the current custom of requiring a developer to provide subdivision infrastructure as a condition of development. Usually, the developer is required to set aside a certain percentage of the developed land for public use, including roads, parks and schools. In the past, when a local government built all the streets in a given location, the town could expand without interruption and with a coherent circulation system, because it had condemnation power. Private developers generally do not have such power (although they can sometimes find local governments willing to help), and often choose to develop on the tracts that happen to be for sale at the time they want to build, rather than pay extra or wait for a more appropriate location. +Some research argues that religious ideas about how humans should live (and die) promote low-density development and may contribute to urban sprawl. + +=== Conversion of agricultural land to urban use === +Land for sprawl is often taken from fertile agricultural lands, which are often located immediately surrounding cities; the extent of modern sprawl has consumed a large amount of the most productive agricultural land, as well as forest, desert and other wilderness areas. In the United States the seller may avoid tax on profit by using a tax break exempting like-kind exchanges from capital gains tax; proceeds from the sale are used to purchase agricultural land elsewhere and the transaction is treated as a "swap" or trade of like assets and no tax is due. Thus urban sprawl is subsidized by the tax code. In China, land has been converted from rural to urban use in advance of demand, leading to vacant rural land intended for future development, and eventual urban sprawl. + +=== Housing subdivisions === + +Housing subdivisions are large tracts of land consisting entirely of newly built residences. New Urbanist architectural firm Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company states that housing subdivisions "are sometimes called villages, towns, and neighbourhoods by their developers, which is misleading since those terms denote places that are not exclusively residential". They are also referred to as developments. Land developers may adopt tract housing as a cost-saving measure, which often results in a lack of architectural diversity across houses. +Subdivisions often incorporate curved roads and cul-de-sacs. These subdivisions may offer only a few places to enter and exit the development, causing traffic to use high volume collector streets. All trips, no matter how short, must enter the collector road in a suburban system. + +=== Lawn === +After the Second World War, residential lawns became commonplace in suburbs, notably, but not exclusively in North America. The development of country clubs and golf courses in the early 20th century further promoted lawn culture in the United States. Lawns now take up a significant amount of land in suburban developments, contributing to sprawl. + +=== Commercial developments === + +In areas of sprawl, commercial use is generally segregated from other uses. In the U.S. and Canada, these often take the form of strip malls, which refer to collections of buildings sharing a common parking lot, usually built on a high-capacity roadway with commercial functions (i.e., a "strip"). Similar developments in the United Kingdom are called Retail Parks. Strip malls consisting mostly of big box stores or category killers are sometimes called "power centers" (U.S.). These developments tend to be low-density; the buildings are single-story and there is ample space for parking and access for delivery vehicles. This character is reflected in the spacious landscaping of the parking lots and walkways and clear signage of the retail establishments. Some strip malls are undergoing a transformation into Lifestyle centers; entailing investments in common areas and facilities (plazas, cafes) and shifting tenancy from daily goods to recreational shopping. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..facedbfcd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Another prominent form of retail development in areas characterized by sprawl is the shopping mall. Unlike the strip mall, this is usually composed of a single building surrounded by a parking lot that contains multiple shops, usually "anchored" by one or more department stores. The function and size is also distinct from the strip mall. The focus is almost exclusively on recreational shopping rather than daily goods. Shopping malls also tend to serve a wider (regional) public and require higher-order infrastructure such as highway access and can have floorspaces in excess of 1 million sq ft (93,000 m2). Shopping malls are often detrimental to downtown shopping centres of nearby cities since the shopping malls act as a surrogate for the city centre. Some downtowns have responded to this challenge by building shopping centres of their own. +Fast food chains are often built early in areas with low property values where the population is expected to boom and where large traffic is predicted, and set a precedent for future development. Eric Schlosser, in his book Fast Food Nation, argues that fast food chains accelerate suburban sprawl and help set its tone with their expansive parking lots, flashy signs, and plastic architecture (65). Duany Plater Zyberk & Company believe that this reinforces a destructive pattern of growth in an endless quest to move away from the sprawl that only results in creating more of it. + +== Effects == + +=== Environmental === +One of the major environmental problems associated with urban sprawl is land consumption, habitat loss, land pollution, subsequent reduction in biodiversity and destruction of local ecosystems. A review by Brian Czech and colleagues, finds that urbanization endangers more species and is more geographically ubiquitous in the mainland United States than any other human activity. Urban sprawl is disruptive to native flora & fauna and introduces invasive plants into their environments, which are considered to be harmful to local biomes. Although the effects can be mitigated through careful maintenance of native vegetation, the process of ecological succession and public education, sprawl represents one of the primary threats to biodiversity. +Regions with high birth rates and immigration are therefore faced with environmental problems due to unplanned urban growth and emerging megacities such as Kolkata, Shenzen, and Chongqing. Unregulated urban sprawl in these areas contributes to severe pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem degradation. For instance, Kolkata's expansion has led to extensive deforestation and wetland destruction, endangering biodiversity and increasing flood risks. Additionally, Chongqing, as one of China's fastest-growing urban centers. struggles with severe air pollution due to its reliance on coal-powered industries, with particulate matter (PM2.5) levels often exceeding World Health Organization safety limits. The rapid expansion of urban infrastructure in such megacities increases greenhouse gas emissions, with transportation and construction sectors contributing significantly to climate change. Moreover, poor urban planning leads to inadequate sanitation and waste management systems, with cities like Kolkata generating over 5,000 metric tons of waste daily, much of which remains untreated and contributes to water contamination. +Other problems include: + +flooding, which results from increased impervious surfaces for roads and parking (see urban runoff) +Reduce wildlife population and habitat space +Loss of arable land +Accelerate climate change in the region +Affect regional hydrology, especially groundwater supply +increased temperatures from heat islands, which leads to a significantly increased risk of mortality in elderly populations. + +During the mid-to-late 20th century, many major cities in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan experienced population decline due to shrinking household sizes and suburbanization, leading to significant environmental impacts. The expansion of suburban areas resulted in increased land consumption, habitat fragmentation, and higher carbon emissions from car-dependent development. In the U.S., suburbanization was accelerated by policies favoring highway construction and single-family housing, contributing to urban sprawl and loss of arable land. While recent urban revitalization has slowed these trends, challenges such as rising energy demands, heat island effects, and pressure on water resources persist. At the same time, the urban cores of these and nearly all other major cities in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan that did not annex new territory experienced the related phenomena of falling household size and, particularly in the U.S. (see white flight) sustaining population losses. This trend has slowed somewhat in recent years, as more people have regained an interest in urban living. +Due to the larger area consumed by sprawling suburbs compared to urban neighborhoods, more farmland and wildlife habitats are displaced per resident. As forest cover is cleared and covered with impervious surfaces (concrete and asphalt) in the suburbs, rainfall is less effectively absorbed into the groundwater aquifers. This threatens both the quality and quantity of water supplies. Sprawl increases water pollution as rain water picks up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, and other pollutants in runoff from parking lots and roads. + +Gordon & Richardson have argued that the conversion of agricultural land to urban use is not a problem due to the increasing efficiency of agricultural production; they argue that aggregate agricultural production is still more than sufficient to meet global food needs despite the expansion of urban land use. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc5fcdf45 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Health === +Sprawl leads to increased driving, which in turn leads to vehicle emissions that contribute to air pollution and its attendant negative impacts on human health. In addition, the reduced physical activity implied by increased automobile use has negative health consequences. Sprawl significantly predicts chronic medical conditions and health-related quality of life, but not mental health disorders. The American Journal of Public Health and the American Journal of Health Promotion, have both stated that there is a significant connection between sprawl, obesity, and hypertension. Loud vehicles can cause stress, prevent sleep, and minimize social interactions in public for people living in cities (especially homeless people). +In the years following World War II, when vehicle ownership was becoming widespread, public health officials recommended the health benefits of suburbs due to soot and industrial fumes in the city center. However, air in modern suburbs is not necessarily cleaner than air in urban neighborhoods. In fact, the most polluted air is on crowded highways, where people in suburbs tend to spend more time. On average, suburban residents generate more per capita pollution and carbon emissions than their urban counterparts because of their increased driving, as well as larger homes. +Sprawl also reduces the chance that people will take the bicycle for their commute which would be better for their health. Bicycles are a common mode of transportation for those living in urban centers due to many factors. One major factor many people consider relates to how, when one rides a bike to, say, their workplace, they are exercising as they do so. This multi-tasking is better for one's health than automatic transport. +A 2023 meta-analysis found that individuals living in sprawling areas had a 20% higher risk of obesity and a 15% higher risk of developing hypertension compared to residents of compact urban environments. Reduced walkability and longer commuting times were identified as key contributing factors. + +=== Safety === +A heavy reliance on automobiles increases traffic throughout the city as well as automobile crashes, pedestrian injuries, and air pollution. Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for Americans between the ages of five and twenty-four and is the leading accident-related cause for all age groups. Residents of more sprawling areas are generally at greater risk of dying in a car crash due to increased exposure to driving. Evidence indicates that pedestrians in sprawling areas are at higher risk than those in denser areas, although the relationship is less clear than for drivers and passengers in vehicles. +Research covered in the Journal of Economic Issues and State and Local Government Review shows a link between sprawl and emergency medical services response and fire department response delays. + +=== Economy === + +Living in larger, more spread out spaces generally makes public services more expensive. Since car usage becomes endemic and public transport often becomes significantly more expensive, city planners are forced to build highway and parking infrastructure, which in turn decreases taxable land and revenue, and decreases the desirability of the area adjacent to such structures. Providing services such as water, sewers, road maintenance, and electricity is also more expensive per household in less dense areas, given that sprawl increases lengths of power lines, roads, and pipes, necessitating higher maintenance costs. +Residents of low-density areas spend a higher proportion of their income on transportation than residents of high density areas. The unplanned nature of outward urban development is commonly linked to increased dependency on cars. In 2003, a British newspaper calculated that urban sprawl would cause an economic loss of £3,905 per year, per person through cars alone, based on data from the RAC estimating that the average cost of operating a car in the UK at that time was £5,000 a year, while train travel (assuming a citizen commutes every day of the year, with a ticket cost of 3 pounds) would be only £1,095. Additionally, increased density increases the supply of housing in desirable areas, and thus, it also decreases housing prices in those areas (by the logic of supply and demand). +A 2022 Building & Cities report found that urban sprawl in Lagos, Nigeria, has significantly increased housing costs and displaced low-income populations into poorly connected suburban areas, deepening economic inequality and limiting access to employment opportunities and essential services. Similar patterns have been observed in other rapidly urbanizing regions, where the uncontrolled outward growth of cities disproportionately affects vulnerable populations. + +=== Social === +Urban sprawl may be partly responsible for the decline in social capital in the United States. Compact neighborhoods can foster casual social interactions among neighbors, while sprawl creates barriers. Sprawl tends to replace public spaces with private spaces such as fenced-in backyards. +Critics of sprawl maintain that sprawl erodes quality of life. Duany and Plater-Zyberk believe that in traditional neighborhoods the nearness of the workplace to retail and restaurant space that provides cafes and convenience stores with daytime customers is an essential component to the successful balance of urban life. Furthermore, they state that the closeness of the workplace to homes also gives people the option of walking or riding a bicycle to work or school and that without this kind of interaction between the different components of life the urban pattern quickly falls apart. James Howard Kunstler has argued that poor aesthetics in suburban environments make them "places not worth caring about", and that they lack a sense of history and identity. +Urban sprawl has class and racial implications in many parts of the world; the relative homogeneity of many sprawl developments may reinforce class and racial divides through residential segregation. +Numerous studies link increased population density with increased aggression. Some people believe that increased population density encourages crime and anti-social behavior. It is argued that human beings, while social animals, need significant amounts of social space or they become agitated and aggressive. However, the relationship between higher densities and increased social pathology has been largely discredited. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..40f2347e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Increased vector-borne disease risk +Urban sprawl also leads to the loss of natural habitats and habitat fragmentation, which increases contact between wildlife (including those that carry pathogens) and human populations due to the disruption of their ecosystems. This expansion also creates favorable conditions for the spread of vector-borne diseases. +As cities grow, they often develop environments with stagnant water, increased humidity, and higher temperatures—ideal conditions for breeding disease-carrying mosquitoes. These conditions help facilitate the survival of mosquitoes, particularly Aedes species, which have been linked to the transmission of Zika, Malaria, and Chikungunya. +Environmental changes and disease emergence +Changes in land use are a major driver of emerging infectious diseases, as they influence species distribution, abundance, movement, and interactions—all of which affect the transmission of zoonotic diseases. For example, deforestation reduces the habitat of certain wildlife species, causing them to move closer to human settlements and ultimately increasing the likelihood of disease spillover. +One Health and urban sprawl +The One Health framework emphasizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. Addressing the risks of zoonotic diseases in the context of urban sprawl requires an integrated approach that considers the health of all three domains. Effective public health strategies must involve urban planning that takes into account the potential for zoonotic disease transmission, as well as monitoring and controlling animal populations, improving sanitation, and promoting vaccination and disease prevention. + +== Debate == + +According to Nancy Chin, a large number of effects of sprawl have been discussed in the academic literature in some detail; however, the most contentious issues can be reduced "to an older set of arguments, between those advocating a planning approach and those advocating the efficiency of the market". Those who criticize sprawl tend to argue that sprawl creates more problems than it solves and should be more heavily regulated, while proponents argue that markets are producing the economically most efficient settlements possible in most situations, even if problems may exist. However, some market-oriented commentators believe that the current patterns of sprawl are in fact the result of distortions of the free market. Chin cautions that there is a lack of "reliable empirical evidence to support the arguments made either for or against sprawl". She mentions that the lack of a common definition, the need for more quantitative measures "a broader view both in time and space, and greater comparison with alternative urban forms" would be necessary to draw firmer conclusions and conduct more fruitful debates. +Arguments opposing urban sprawl include concrete effects such as health and environmental issues as well as abstract consequences including neighborhood vitality. American public policy analyst Randal O'Toole of the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, has argued that sprawl, thanks to the automobile, gave rise to affordable suburban neighborhoods for middle class and lower class individuals, including non-whites. He notes that efforts to combat sprawl often result in subsidizing development in wealthier and whiter neighborhoods while condemning and demolishing poorer minority neighborhoods. + +=== Groups that oppose sprawl === +The American Institute of Architects, American Planning Association, and Smart Growth America recommend against sprawl and instead endorses smart, mixed-use development, including buildings in close proximity to one another that cut down on automobile use, save energy, and promote walkable, healthy, well-designed neighborhoods. The Sierra Club, the San Francisco Bay Area's Greenbelt Alliance, 1000 Friends of Oregon and counterpart organizations nationwide, and other environmental organizations oppose sprawl and support investment in existing communities. NumbersUSA, a national organization advocating immigration reduction, also opposes urban sprawl, and its founder, Roy Beck, specializes in the study of this issue. + +=== Consumer preference === +One of the primary debates around suburban sprawl is the extent to which sprawl is the result of consumer preference. Some, such as Peter Gordon, a professor of planning and economics at the University of Southern California's School of Urban Planning and Development, argue that most households have shown a clear preference for low-density living and that this is a fact that should not be ignored by planners. Gordon and his frequent collaborator, Harry Richardson have argued that + +The principle of consumer sovereignty has played a powerful role in the increase in America's wealth and in the welfare of its citizens. Producers (including developers) have responded rapidly to households' demands. It is a giant step backward to interfere with this effective process unless the benefits of intervention substantially exceed its cost. They argue that sprawl generates enough benefits for consumers that they continue to choose it as a form of development over alternative forms, as demonstrated by the continued focus on sprawl type developments by most developers. However, other academics such as Reid Ewing argue that while a large segment of people prefer suburban living that does not mean that sprawl itself is preferred by consumers, and that a large variety of suburban environments satisfy consumer demand, including areas that mitigate the worst effects of sprawl. Others, for example Kenneth T. Jackson have argued that since low-density housing is often (notably in the U.S.) subsidized in a variety of ways, consumers' professed preferences for this type of living may be over-stated. + +=== Automobile dependency === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..516d19da7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Whether urban sprawl increases the problems of automobile dependency or not, policies of smart growth have been fiercely contested issues over several decades. An influential study in 1989 by Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy compared 32 cities across North America, Australia, Europe and Asia. The study has been criticised for its methodology, but the main finding, that denser cities, particularly in Asia, have lower car use than sprawling cities, particularly in North America, has been largely accepted, although the relationship is clearer at the extremes across continents than it is within countries where conditions are more similar. +Within cities, studies from across many countries (mainly in the developed world) have shown that denser urban areas with greater mixture of land use and better public transport tend to have lower car use than less dense suburban and ex-urban residential areas. This usually holds true even after controlling for socio-economic factors such as differences in household composition and income. This does not necessarily imply that suburban sprawl causes high car use, however. One confounding factor, which has been the subject of many studies, is residential self-selection: people who prefer to drive tend to move towards low density suburbs, whereas people who prefer to walk, cycle or use transit tend to move towards higher density urban areas, better served by public transport. Some studies have found that, when self-selection is controlled for, the built environment has no significant effect on travel behavior. More recent studies using more sophisticated methodologies have generally refuted these findings: density, land use and public transport accessibility can influence travel behavior, although social and economic factors, particularly household income, usually exert a stronger influence. + +Those not opposed to low density development argue that traffic intensities tend to be less, traffic speeds faster and, as a result, ambient air pollution is lower. Kansas City, Missouri is often cited as an example of ideal low-density development, with congestion below the mean and home prices below comparable Midwestern cities. Wendell Cox and Randal O'Toole are leading figures supporting lower density development. +Longitudinal (time-lapse) studies of commute times in major metropolitan areas in the United States have shown that commute times decreased for the period 1969 to 1995 even though the geographic size of the city increased. Other studies suggest, however, that possible personal benefits from commute time savings have been at the expense of environmental costs in the form of longer average commute distances, rising vehicles-miles-traveled (VMT) per worker, and despite road expansions, worsening traffic congestion. + +=== Transportation inequality === +Critics of urban sprawl say that the United States' improper treatment of minority groups' access to transportation is a major downside to the continuation of urban sprawl. In many urban centers, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco, transportation in minority areas is lacking. As found by Kate Baldridge of Golden Gate University Law, areas with high minority populations typically see less than adequate transportation options, leading to overcrowded and unsafe transportation routes that do not provide a comprehensive means of transportation. This disparity is made more evident because minority residents are more reliant on public transportation. According to Baldridge, this means that minority groups cannot move from urban areas, while people with higher incomes and thus better access to transportation can move out of urban areas and into surrounding suburbs. + +=== Paradox of intensification === +Reviewing the evidence on urban intensification, smart growth and their effects on travel behaviour Melia et al. (2011) found support for the arguments of both supporters and opponents of smart growth measures to counteract urban sprawl. Planning policies that increase population densities in urban areas do tend to reduce car use, but the effect is a weak one, so doubling the population density of a particular area will not halve the frequency or distance of car use. +These findings led them to propose the paradox of intensification, which states: + +Ceteris paribus, urban intensification which increases population density will reduce per capita car use, with benefits to the global environment, but will also increase concentrations of motor traffic, worsening the local environment in those locations where it occurs. + +=== Risk of increased housing prices === +There is also some concern that anti-sprawl policies will increase housing prices. Some research suggests Oregon has had the largest housing affordability loss in the nation, but other research shows that Portland's price increases are comparable to other Western cities. +In Australia, it is claimed by some that housing affordability has hit "crisis levels" due to "urban consolidation" policies implemented by state governments. In Sydney, the ratio of the price of a house relative to income is 9:1. The issue has at times been debated between the major political parties. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4d1268de4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Proposed alternatives === +Many critics concede that sprawl produces some negative externalities; however there is some dispute about the most effective way to reduce these negative effects. Gordon & Richardson for example argue that the costs of building new public transit is disproportionate to the actual environmental or economic benefits, that land use restrictions will increase the cost of housing and restrict economic opportunity, that infill possibilities are too limited to make a major difference to the structure of American cities, and that the government would need to coerce most people to live in a way that they do not want to in order to substantially change the impact of sprawl. They argue that the property market should be deregulated to allow different people to live as they wish, while providing a framework of market based fees (such as emission fees, congestion charging or road pricing) to mitigate many of the problems associated with sprawl such as congestion and increased pollution. +Several cities have adopted strategies to curb urban sprawl effectively. Portland, Oregon, established an Urban Growth Boundary (UGB) to contain development within a designated area, promoting higher-density, walkable neighborhoods and preserving surrounding farmland. Singapore has pioneered Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), concentrating housing, employment, and services around an extensive mass transit system to minimize automobile dependency and urban expansion. London's longstanding Greenbelt policy restricts urban development beyond specific zones to protect green space and control metropolitan growth. + +== Alternative development styles == + +=== Early attempts at combatting urban sprawl === + +Starting in the early 20th century, environmentalist opposition to urban sprawl began to coalesce, with roots in the garden city movement, as well as pressure from campaign groups such as the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE). +Under Herbert Morrison's 1934 leadership of the London County Council, the first formal proposal was made by the Greater London Regional Planning Committee "to provide a reserve supply of public open spaces and of recreational areas and to establish a green belt or girdle of open space". It was again included in an advisory Greater London Plan prepared by Patrick Abercrombie in 1944. The Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 expressly incorporated green belts into all further national urban developments. +New provisions for compensation in the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act allowed local authorities around the country to incorporate green belt proposals in their first development plans. The codification of Green Belt policy and its extension to areas other than London came with the historic Circular 42/55 inviting local planning authorities to consider the establishment of Green Belts. The first urban growth boundary in the U.S. was in Fayette County, Kentucky, in 1958. + +==== Maryland ==== +Maryland underwent many "Smart Growth" initiatives, starting in 1997 with the Smart Growth Areas Act. This act allocated funding towards areas already undergoing growth or areas with development plans. Maryland also implemented the 1997 Rural Legacy Act, which distributed grants to private land owners and allowed them to purchase development rights. Brownfields Voluntary Cleanup and Revitalization Incentive Programs also incentivized property owners to use previously contaminated properties to avoid liability for the property. The state also offered incentives, such as tax breaks and loans for repairs to contaminated areas. Another program the state of Maryland created was the Job Creation Tax Credit Program, which encouraged businesses to relocate to select areas, reducing the intensity of urban sprawl in some areas. The Live Near Your Work Program also incentivized employees to purchase homes closer to work. This led to a reduced commute time and more emphasis on homeownership rather than renting. + +=== Contemporary anti-sprawl initiatives === + +The term "smart growth" has been particularly used in North America. The terms "compact city" and "urban intensification" are often used to describe similar concepts in Europe, and particularly in the UK, where it has influenced government policy and planning practice in recent years. +The state of Oregon enacted a law in 1973 limiting the area urban areas could occupy, through urban growth boundaries. As a result, Portland, the state's largest urban area, has become a leader in smart growth policies that seek to make urban areas more compact (they are called urban consolidation policies). After the creation of this boundary, the population density of the urbanized area increased somewhat (from 1,135 in 1970 to 1,290 per km2 in 2000.) Although the growth boundary has not been tight enough to vastly increase density, the consensus is that the growth boundaries have protected great amounts of wild areas and farmland around the metro area. +Much of San Francisco Bay Area has also adopted urban growth boundaries; 25 of its cities and 5 of its counties have urban growth boundaries. Many of these were adopted with the support and advocacy of Greenbelt Alliance, a non-profit land conservation and urban planning organization. +In other areas, the design principles of New Urbanism have been employed to combat urban sprawl. The concept of circular flow land use management has been developed in Europe to reduce land take by urban sprawl through promoting inner-city and brownfield development. +Although cities such as Los Angeles are well known for sprawling suburbs, policies and public opinion are changing. Transit-oriented development, in which higher-density mixed-use areas are permitted or encouraged near transit stops, is encouraging more compact development in certain areas: particularly those with light and heavy rail transit systems. +Bicycles are the preferred means of travel in many countries: Also, bicycles are permitted in public transit. Businesses in areas of some towns in which bicycle use is high are thriving. Bicycles and transit contribute in two important ways toward the success of businesses: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a3a5a501a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Urban sprawl" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:24.596127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +People living the closest to these business districts on average have more money to spend locally because they spend less on their cars. +Because such people rely more on bicycling, walking, and transit than on driving, they tend to focus more of their commerce on locally owned neighborhood businesses that are convenient for them to reach. +Walkability is a measure of how friendly an area is to walking. Walkability has many health, environmental, and economic benefits. However, evaluating walkability is challenging because it requires the consideration of many subjective factors. Factors influencing walkability include the presence or absence and quality of footpaths, sidewalks, or other pedestrian right-of-ways, traffic and road conditions, land use patterns, building accessibility, and safety, among others. Walkability is an important concept in sustainable urban design. +Land use policies are one potential avenue to reduce the effects of urban sprawl. These policies take the form of boundaries to urban growth, regional development rights, and development centralized in urban areas. Housing policies, such as inclusionary zoning, rental vouchers in suburban areas, and a focus on employer-assisted housing are another approach to combatting urban sprawl. Gasoline taxes and increased funding towards the construction of public transportation also help to reduce the necessity of commuting in and out of urban areas. + +== See also == + +=== Related topics === + +=== Related terminology === + +== Notes and references == + +== Further reading == + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..264b8de7d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Vegetation and slope stability" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:25.862847+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Vegetation and slope stability are interrelated by the ability of the plant life growing on slopes to both promote and hinder the stability of the slope. The relationship is a complex combination of the type of soil, the rainfall regime, the plant species present, the slope aspect, and the steepness of the slope. Knowledge of the underlying slope stability as a function of the soil type, its age, horizon development, compaction, and other impacts is a major underlying aspect of understanding how vegetation can alter the stability of the slope. There are four major ways in which vegetation influences slope stability: wind throwing, the removal of water, mass of vegetation (surcharge), and mechanical reinforcement of roots. + +== Wind throwing == +Wind throw is the toppling of a tree due to the force of the wind, this exposes the root plate and adjacent soil beneath the tree and influences slope stability. Wind throw is a factor when considering one tree on a slope; however, it is of lesser importance when considering general slope stability for a body of trees as the wind forces involved represent a smaller percentage of the potential disturbing forces and the trees which are in the centre of the group will be sheltered by those on the outside. + +== Removal of water == +Vegetation influences slope stability by removing water through transpiration. Transpiration is the vaporisation of liquid water contained in plant tissue and the vapour removal to the air. Water is drawn up from the roots and transported through the plant up to the leaves. +The major effect of transpiration is the reduction of soil pore water pressures which counteracts the loss of strength which occurs through wetting, this is most readily seen as a loss of moisture around trees. However it is not easy to rely on tree and shrub roots to remove water from slopes and consequently help ensure slope stability. The ability to transpire in wet conditions is severely reduced and therefore any increase in soil strength previously gained in evaporation and transpiration will be lost or significantly reduced, consequently the effects of transpiration cannot be taken into account at these times. However it can be assumed that the chance of slope failure following saturation by storm events or periods of extended rainfall will be lessened as a result of transpiration. Moreover, although changes in moisture content will affect the undrained shear strength, the effective shear stress parameters as commonly used in routine slope stability analysis are not directly influenced by changing moisture content, although the water pressures (suctions) used in the analysis will change. +It is important to note that desiccation cracks can potentially be extended by vegetation in dry weather promoting the deeper penetration of water to a potential slip plane and increased water pressure into the soil during the wet periods. Nevertheless, these cracks will be filled by roots growing deeper into the soil as they follow the path of least resistance. +Studies in Malaysia have shown that there is a significant relationship between root length density, soil water content and ultimately slope stability. Slopes that had high root density (due to dense vegetation on the surface) were less likely to undergo slope failure. This is because a high root length density results in low soil water content which in turn results in an increase in shear strength and a decrease in soil permeability. It is suggested that root length density and soil water level could be used as indicators of slope stability and possibly could be used to predict future slope failure. +Transpiration is accentuated when the vegetation has an extensive root system and rapid transpiration continues throughout winter. +The removal of water is also affected by the shading provided by vegetation. Shading helps prevent the desiccation of the soils which results in shrinkage and cracking allowing the deep penetration of rain water. Plants need to have a high leaf to root ratio and have the ability to persist through hot summer months in order to provide effective shading of the soils. + +== The mass of vegetation == +The mass of vegetation is only likely to have an influence on slope stability when larger trees are growing on the slope. A tree of 30–50m height is likely to have a loading of approximately 100–150 kN/m2. The larger trees should be planted at the toe of the slope with a potential rotational failure as this could increase the factor of safety by 10%. However, if the tree is planted at the top of the slope this could reduce the factor of safety by 10%. +Each slope stability situation should be considered independently for the vegetation involved. Transpiration will reduce the weight of the slope as moisture is lost. This can be significant on slopes of marginal stability. +If larger trees are removed from the toe area of a slope there will be both a reduction in soil strength due to the loss of evapotranspiration effects and a reduction in applied loading which may result in temporary suctions in clay soils which could lead to softening as the available water is drawn in to compensate for the suction forces. This is similar to the recognised softening of overconsolidated clays due to the relaxation of overburden pressures when placed in the top layers of an embankment from deep cutting. + +== Mechanical reinforcement of roots == +Roots reinforce the soil by growing across failure planes, root columns acting as piles, and by limiting surface erosion. + +=== Root growth across failure planes === +When roots grow across the plane of potential failure there is an increase in shear strength by binding particles. The roots anchor the unstable surficial soil into the deeper stable layers or bedrock. This most readily occurs when there is rapid deep growth (1.5m deep) of roots which last for more than two years. However, the strength exerted by roots generally only extends down to 1 m (3.3 ft) while most failures occur between 1.2–1.5 m (3.9–4.9 ft) soil depth. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab7d692be --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Vegetation and slope stability" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:25.862847+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Root reinforcement model === +The root Reinforced Earth root model is the result of the root elongation across a potential slip plane which produces a tensile root force which is transferred to the soil by cohesive and frictional contacts between the root and the soil. + +=== Tensile root strength contribution and pull out resistance === +The pull out resistance of a root is the measured resistance of root structure to be pulled out of the ground and is likely to be only a little less than the measured tensile strength of the root which is the roots resistance to breaking as measured in the laboratory. In the cases where there is no pull out data available the tensile strength data maybe used as a rough guide to the maximum pull out resistance available. +The tensile root strength of a range of diameters over a range of species has been tested in the laboratory and has been found to be approximately 5–60 MN/m2. In order for the root to actually enhance slope stability the root must have sufficient embedment and adhesion with the soil. The way that roots interact with the soil is intricate but for engineering purposes the available force contributions may be measured with in situ pull out tests. + +=== Root morphology and modes of failure === +The root length and the type of root branching effects the way that root failure occurs Three different modes of failure have been identified in hawthorn roots which relate to the root soil relationship which is shown in the shape of the roots and the shape of the failure curve. Roots which have no branches tend to fail in tension and pull straight out of the ground with minimal resistance. Roots which have multiple branches generally fail in stages as each branch breaks inside the soil. These roots can then separated into two different groups: 1) those that initially reach their maximum peak force and then maintain a high force that progressively decreases as the root branches fail after significant strain and 2) those that break with increasingly applied force. In a number of tests considerable adhesion between a segment of the root and the soil can be measured prior to the root eventually slipping out of the soil mass. + +=== Type A failure === +Roots that do not have branches generally fail in tension and pull straight out of the ground with only minimal resistance. The root reaches its maximum pullout resistance then rapidly fails at a weak point. The root easily slips out of the soil due to the gradual tapering (progressive decrease in root diameter along its length) which means that as the root is pulled out it is moving through a space that is larger than its diameter which consequently has no further bonds or interaction with the surrounding soil. + +=== Type B failure === +Type B failure occurs when branched roots initially reach their maximum peak resistance then sustain a high resistance which slowly reduces as the branches of the roots fail after significant strain. In some tests considerable adhesion between a section of the root and the soil mass can be measured before the root eventually slips out. Forked roots require a greater force to be pulled out as the cavity above the fork is thinner than the root which is trying to move through the cavity, this can then result in deformation of the soil as the root moves through the soil. + +=== Type C failure === +Roots that have multiple branches or forked branches also can undergo tensile failure but predominantly fail in stages as each branch breaks within the soil. These roots break with increasingly applied force in stages in the form of stepped peaks corresponding to the progressive breaking of roots of greater diameters. The root progressively releases its bonds with the soil until final tensile failure. +In some cases when the root has a sinusoidal shape with many small rootlets along its length the root reaches its maximum pull out resistance on straightening and then breaks at the weakest point; however, at this point the root is not pulled out of the soil as it adheres and interacts with the soil producing a residual strength. If pulling was stopped at this point, the root would give increased strength to the soil. However, if the root is completely pulled out of the ground then there is no further interaction with soil and therefore no increase in soil strength is provided. + +=== Factors which affect root pull out resistance === +Studies have shown that the pull out resistance of hawthorn and oak roots are affected by intra species differences, inter-species variations and root size (diameter) in a similar as way as root tensile strength varies (as measured in the laboratory). In the pull out test the applied force acting on the root acts across a larger root area, which involves multiple branches, longer lengths) than the short (approximately 150mm) length of root used in tensile strength tests. In a pull out test the root is likely to fail at weak points such as branching points, nodes or damaged areas. +The studies also showed that there is a positive correlation between maximum root pull out resistance and root diameter for hawthorn and oat root. Smaller diameter roots had a lower pull out resistance or breaking force than the larger diameter roots. + +=== Root columns acting as piles === +Trees and root columns can prevent shallow mass movement by acting as piles when there is buttressing and soil arching through a woody deep root system which has multiple sinker roots with embedded stems and laterals. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..79f015456 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Vegetation and slope stability" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation_and_slope_stability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:25.862847+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Limitation of surface erosion === +Vegetation can also control water erosion by limiting surface processes such as sheet wash and overland flow. Vegetation can contribute considerably to slope stability through enhancing soil cohesion. This cohesion is dependent upon the morphological characteristics of root systems and the tensile strength of single roots. +There is considerable evidence of fine roots resisting surface erosion. The role of fine roots in general slope stability is not fully understood. Fine roots are thought to help keep the surface soil together and prevent surface erosion. The fine root network may have an apparent enhanced cohesion, which is comparable to geosynthetic mesh elements. The limitation of surface erosion processes is particularly apparent in areas of shrub and grass where the fine root distribution is consistent and clearly defined; however, cohesion is generally limited to the top 1 m (3.3 ft) of soil. + +== See also == +Landslide +Mudslide +Surface runoff +Tillage erosion + +== References == + +Sources + +British Broadcasting Corporation 2007, Biology, viewed 10 June 2007, www.bbc.co.uk/.../gcsebitesize/img/bi05006.gif +Greenwood, J.; Norris, J. & Wint, J. 2007, ‘Discussion: Assessing the contribution of vegetation to slope stability’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 160, no. 1, pp. 51–53. +INTBAU 2007, International network for traditional building, architecture and urbanism, viewed 2 June 2007, www.intbau.org/Images/Scarano/scarano3.580.jpg +Selby, M. 1993, Hillslope materials and processes, Oxford University Press, Oxford, Great Britain. +Watson, A. & Marden, M. 2004, Root tensile strength as an indicator of the performance of indigenous riparian plants – how do they rank?, Landcare Research, Lincoln, NZ. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veteran_tree-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veteran_tree-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f005c4892 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veteran_tree-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +--- +title: "Veteran tree" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veteran_tree" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:27.117605+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A veteran tree is one that has ancient features but not the great age of an ancient tree, and is a tree of great cultural, landscape, or biodiversity value due to its ecological and habitat features. + + +== Definition == +Ancient trees exist in many forms and sizes, with ages ranging according to species and environment, with some lasting for hundreds of years; smaller trees, such as in orchards, can exhibit veteran characteristics after only a few decades. A girth of more than 3 meters at 1.5 meters could be used as a measure to identify if a tree is a veteran. However, other veteran tree characteristics may be taken into account, and alternative girths may be established for different tree species. +Ancient trees often have features of particularly high nature conservation value, such as dead limbs, hollows, rot holes, water pools, seepages, woodpecker holes, splits, loose bark, limbs reaching the ground, and epiphytic plants and lichens. Few of these features are found on younger trees, and they provide habitats and foraging grounds for many species of animals and fungi, some of which are rare. Such features are sometimes removed or damaged by pruning or other arboricultural practices. +Ancient trees can be found in various locations, from dense woodlands to hedgerows, village greens, and ancient parks and wood pastures. They thrive in a variety of settings, such as dense woodland, but are more commonly found as hedgerow trees, on village greens, and in ancient parks and other wood pastures. +Many of the oldest trees are pollards, which is a method of heavily pruning trees by cutting the tree above the browse height of animals. This cultural practice has mostly died out in the UK, except for street trees. + + +== United Kingdom == +Ancient trees occur more frequently in Great Britain than in many other parts of northern Europe. In the United Kingdom in recent years, these trees are being recorded by the Ancient Tree Hunt so that a national database can be created. Mass participation by thousands of eager volunteers led to the success of this initiative. +Although some initiatives have strict rules on how to measure the girth and use GPS devices to document the location of such trees accurately, other schemes rely on members of the public to report large trees. The public has been encouraged to hug big trees in their area to get a measure of their size and report their findings to Natural England or another veteran tree organization. 19th-century maps are also being used to find old trees in places such as Cambridgeshire. + + +== Australia == + +In Australia, veteran trees are often connected with the social, cultural, and legal practices of the Aboriginal peoples. More recent European history of settlement has also produced historical linkages through individual trees that have survived. +Existing prominent trees were often used as survey points indicating boundaries of both private and government land tenure. Some trees hold an exalted position because they were marked (blazed) by 19th-century explorers. +Australia does not have the history of commons and parkland that help explain these landscape forms elsewhere. The new settlers did however bring with them an appreciation of the value of trees for fuel, fodder, and raw material for building; many of them also showed an appreciation of the amenity value of trees, planting large spreading shade trees on their properties and within their new founded towns and cities. +Many of the ancient trees identified today reflect previous patterns of settlement, showing the economic, cultural, and social organizations influencing the lives of those living on the land. They often display the physical scars of traumatic events both man-made and natural. A tree like this is said to have been veteranized. +There is legislation (in the form of national, state, and local laws) that recognizes the importance of protecting the environment, but activists have identified gaps in the protection afforded veteran trees, particularly in the face of ever-increasing pressures of urban development. + + +== Italy == + +In Italy, general features required in order to identify an Albero Monumentale (literally "monumental tree") are defined by national law number 10 of January 14 2013, Norme per lo sviluppo degli spazi verdi urbani, which also requires Italian municipalities (comuni) to take a census of their veteran trees. Defining local standards, census details, and law enforcement aspects such as fines or subsidies related to veteran trees is a matter transferred to the regions, which usually implement specific leggi regionali ('regional laws'). + + +== Turkey == +The Turkish equivalent of the English term 'veteran tree' is 'Anıt Ağaç' that is defined in Turkey by TS 13137 Monumental Trees Inventory Selection Rules and Marking Standard. + + +== Silviculture and veterans == +Silviculture originally was developed to provide timber from forests run as plantations, but now forestry expands to consider non-economic values and ecological values. As a result, these other values are also considered in silvicultural systems that may lead to veteran trees being supported where they exist or created where they have not previously been so considered. The Shelterwood with reserves method is a form of Shelterwood cutting that may do this. + + +== See also == + +List of oldest trees +Tree preservation order +Ancient woodland + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +The Veteran Trees in Istanbul +The Veteran Tree Group Australia blog +Ancient Tree Forum +The Future for Veteran Trees. English Nature, 2000. ISBN 1-85716-509-8 +English Heritage: Veteran Trees information — English Heritage +Veteran Trees Management Handbook, English Nature, 2000. ISBN 1-85716-474-1 +Monumental Trees gives, oldest, tallest and biggest trees across the world. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6de47dab6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Water-meadow" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:31.105255+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A water-meadow (also water meadow or watermeadow) is an area of grassland subject to controlled irrigation to increase agricultural productivity. Water-meadows were mainly used in Europe from the 16th to the early 20th centuries. Working water-meadows have now largely disappeared, but the field patterns and water channels of derelict water-meadows remain common in areas where they were used, such as parts of Northern Italy, Switzerland and England. Derelict water-meadows are often of importance as wetland wildlife habitats. +Water-meadows should not be confused with flood-meadows, which are naturally covered in shallow water by seasonal flooding from a river. "Water-meadow" is sometimes used more loosely to mean any level grassland beside a river. + +== Types == +Two main types of water-meadow were used. + +=== Catchwork water-meadow === +The simplest form of downward floated water meadow is the catchwork (also known as a 'catch meadow' or 'field gutter'system). Catchworks used spring water or hill-side streams to irrigate valley or hill slopes. If neither of these water sources was available rainwater and farmyard run-off was collected in a specially constructed feeder pond. Water was diverted from the source into a contour-following ditch or 'gutter' which skirted the top of the meadow. When the gutter was blocked by 'stops' of turf, peat or logs, or systems of sluices and boards, water over-flowed down the hillside and irrigated the area of meadow below it. Further down slope further gutters, parallel to the first, caught the water and redistributed it in a similar manner to lower pastures. The process encouraged an even flow of water down the slope. At the base of the meadow the water was collected and carried away via a drain. +As catchworks used sloping ground and were relatively cheap to construct and operate without employing professional drowners, they had become popular with hill farmers in Devon, Somerset and the Welsh Marches by the mid-18th century. The improvements catchworks made to hill pastures were dramatic. They transported lime and animal dung to pastures by 'flush' irrigation episodes, treating the grass sward with suspended nutrients – a process known as 'washing in', whereby dung and lime was mixed into the water. The flow of water also improved the soil through oxygenation and broadleaved grasses flourished at the expense of coarser species. A late form of catchwork, widespread in Britain from the mid-18th century, was sewage irrigation, in which urban sewage was passed along drains to catchwork systems or carted to farms and mixed with head main water. + +=== Bedwork water-meadow === + +Bedwork or floated water-meadows were built on almost-level fields along broad river valleys; they required careful construction to ensure correct operation. +A leat, called a main, carrier or top carrier, diverted water from the river and carried it down the valley at a gentler slope than the river, producing a hydrostatic head between the two. Mains were often along the edge of the valley, each main supplying up to about 1 km (0.6 mi) of the valley. The water from the main was used to supply many smaller carriers, on the crests of ridges built across the fields. The channel on the crest of each ridge would overflow slowly down the sides (the panes) of the ridge, the channel eventually tapering to an end at the tip of the ridge. The seeping water would then collect between the ridges, in drains or drawns, these joining to form a bottom carrier or tail drain which returned the water to the river. The ridges and the drains made an interlocking grid (like interlaced fingers), but the ridge-top channels and the drains did not connect directly. A by-carrier took any water not needed for irrigation straight from the main back to the river. The ridges varied in height depending on the available head – usually from around 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in). The pattern of carriers and drains was generally regular, but it was adapted to fit the natural topography of the ground and the locations of suitable places for the offtake and return of water. +The water flow was controlled by a system of hatches (sluice gates) and stops (small earth or wooden-board dams). Irrigation could be provided separately for each section of water-meadow. Sometimes aqueducts took carriers over drains, and causeways and culverts provided access for wagons. The working or floating (irrigation) and maintenance of the water-meadow was done by a highly skilled craftsman called a drowner or waterman, who was often employed by several adjacent farmers. +The terminology used for watermeadows varied considerably with locality and dialect. + +== Uses == +Water-meadow irrigation did not aim to flood the ground, but to keep it continuously damp – a working water-meadow has no standing water. Irrigation in early spring kept frosts off the ground and so allowed grass to grow several weeks earlier than otherwise, and in dry summer weather irrigation kept the grass growing. It also allowed the ground to absorb any plant nutrients or silt carried by the river water – this fertilised the grassland, and incidentally also reduced eutrophication of the river water by nutrient pollution. The grass was used both for making hay and for grazing by livestock (usually cattle or sheep). + +== Derelict water-meadows == +Former water-meadows are found along many river valleys, where the sluice gates, channels and field ridges may still be visible (however the ridges should not be confused with ridge and furrow topography, which is found on drier ground and has a very different origin in arable farming). The drains in a derelict water-meadow are generally clogged and wet, and most of the carrier channels are dry, with the smaller ones on the ridge-tops often invisible. If any main carrier channels still flow, they usually connect permanently to the by-carriers. The larger sluices may be concealed under the roots of trees (such as crack willows), which have grown up from seedlings established in the brickwork. The complex mixture of wet and drier ground often gives derelict water-meadows particularly high wetland biodiversity. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b7f768cbd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Water-meadow" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water-meadow" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:31.105255+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Working water-meadows == +Derelict water-meadows can be transformed into wildlife protection and conservation areas by repairing and operating the irrigation, as is the case of Josefov Meadows in the Czech Republic. By imitating the natural river flooding which is rare in modern straightened and dammed rivers, a rich biodiversity can be restored and attract and sustain many rare and protected wetland species. + +== See also == + +Flood-meadow +Coastal plain +Field +Flooded grasslands and savannas +Grassland +Paddy field +Pasture +Plain +Prairie +Riparian zone +Wet meadow +Floodplain +Berm + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Hadrian Cook and Tom Williamson (eds.), Water Management in the English Landscape: Field, Marsh and Meadow. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999. + +== External links == +"Irrigation § II. Water Meadows" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 842–846. Includes detailed description of bedwork and catchwork water-meadows. +Upper Test Valley Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Description of the upper River Test valley in southern England, including description of catchwork water-meadows. +Harnham Water Meadows Includes animation of water flow. +Water Meadows: The lush pastures of the river valleys Description, terminology and diagrams of floated water-meadows. +Nitrogen Transformations in Wetlands: Effects of Water Flow Patterns—PhD thesis on watermeadows (PDF) +Parapotamische Nutzungssysteme – Wiesenwässerung am Fuß des Kaiserstuhls—PhD thesis on watermeadows (in German) +Drowners, Frog Spawn, and Mystery Flowers − Jack Hargreaves explains the management of a water meadow \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..58098be88 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +--- +title: "Water footprint" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state, or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise, or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service. +Traditionally, water use has been approached from the production side, by quantifying the following three columns of water use: water withdrawals in the agricultural, industrial, and domestic sector. While this does provide valuable data, it is a limited way of looking at water use in a globalised world, in which products are not always consumed in their country of origin. International trade of agricultural and industrial products in effect creates a global flow of virtual water, or embodied water (akin to the concept of embodied energy). +In 2002, the water footprint concept was introduced in order to have a consumption-based indicator of water use, that could provide useful information in addition to the traditional production-sector-based indicators of water use. It is analogous to the ecological footprint concept introduced in the 1990s. The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations. The global issue of water footprinting underscores the importance of fair and sustainable resource management. Due to increasing water shortages, climate change, and environmental concerns, transitioning towards a fair impact of water use is critical. The water footprint concept offers detailed insights for adequate and equitable water resource management. It advocates for a balanced and sustainable water-use approach, aiming to tackle global challenges. This approach is essential for responsible and equitable water resource utilization globally. Thus, it gives a grasp on how economic choices and processes influence the availability of adequate water resources and other ecological realities across the globe (and vice versa). + +== Definition and measures == +There are many different aspects to water footprint and therefore different definitions and measures to describe them. Blue water footprint refers to groundwater or surface water usage, green water footprint refers to rainwater, and grey water footprint refers to the amount of water needed to dilute pollutants. +Water footprint may be quantified physically simply as a volume (in units of litres or cubic metres). Other metrics, often termed water intensity (water consumption intensity or water footprint intensity), are derived as the quotient of volume and a unit of production, for example: +volume per energy (in cubic metres per watt-hour) in the energy generation sector, volume per area (in cubic metres per square kilometre) in the agriculture sector, volume per mass (in cubic metres per tonne) in the manufacturing sector, etc. + +=== Blue water footprint === +A blue water footprint refers to the volume of water that has been sourced from surface or groundwater resources (lakes, rivers, wetlands and aquifers) and has either evaporated (for example while irrigating crops), or been incorporated into a product or taken from one body of water and returned to another, or returned at a different time. Irrigated agriculture, industry and domestic water use can each have a blue water footprint. + +=== Green water footprint === +A green water footprint refers to the amount of water from precipitation that, after having been stored in the root zone of the soil (green water), is either lost by evapotranspiration or incorporated by plants. It is particularly relevant for agricultural, horticultural and forestry products. + +=== Grey water footprint === +A grey water footprint refers to the volume of water that is required to dilute pollutants (industrial discharges, seepage from tailing ponds at mining operations, untreated municipal wastewater, or nonpoint source pollution such as agricultural runoff or urban runoff) to such an extent that the quality of the water meets agreed water quality standards. It is calculated as: + + + + + + + L + + + c + + max + + + − + + c + + nat + + + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {L}{c_{\text{max}}-c_{\text{nat}}}}} + + +where L is the pollutant load (as mass flux), cmax the maximum allowable concentration and cnat the natural concentration of the pollutant in the receiving water body (both expressed in mass/volume). + +=== Calculation for different factors === +The water footprint of a process is expressed as volumetric flow rate of water. That of a product is the whole footprint (sum) of processes in its complete supply chain divided by the number of product units. For consumers, businesses and geographic area, water footprint is indicated as volume of water per time, in particular: + +That of a consumer is the sum of footprint of all consumed products. +That of a community or a nation is the sum for all of its members resp. inhabitants. +That of a business is the footprint of all produced goods. +That of a geographically delineated area is the footprint of all processes undertaken in this area. The virtual change in water of an area is the net import of virtual water Vi, net, defined as the difference of the gross import Vi of virtual water from its gross export Ve. The water footprint of national consumption WFarea,nat results from this as the sum of the water footprint of national area and its virtual change in water. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a1f815b90 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Water footprint" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== History == +The concept of a water footprint was coined in 2002, by Arjen Hoekstra, Professor in water management at the University of Twente, Netherlands, and co-founder and scientific director of the Water Footprint Network, whilst working at the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, as a metric to measure the amount of water consumed and polluted to produce goods and services along their full supply chain. Water footprint is one of a family of ecological footprint indicators, which also includes carbon footprint and land footprint. The water footprint concept is further related to the idea of virtual water trade introduced in the early 1990s by Professor John Allan (2008 Stockholm Water Prize Laureate). The most elaborate publications on how to estimate water footprints are a 2004 report on the Water footprint of nations from UNESCO-IHE, the 2008 book Globalization of Water, and the 2011 manual The water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard. Cooperation between global leading institutions in the field has led to the establishment of the Water Footprint Network in 2008. + +=== Water Footprint Network (WFN) === +The Water Footprint Network is an international learning community (a non-profit foundation under Dutch law) which serves as a platform for sharing knowledge, tools and innovations among governments, businesses and communities concerned about growing water scarcity and increasing water pollution levels, and their impacts on people and nature. The network consists of around 100 partners from all sectors – producers, investors, suppliers and regulators – as well as non-governmental organisations and academics. It describes its mission as follows: To provide science-based, practical solutions and strategic insights that empower companies, governments, individuals and small-scale producers to transform the way we use and share fresh water within earth's limits. + +=== International standard === +In February 2011, the Water Footprint Network, in a global collaborative effort of environmental organizations, companies, research institutions and the UN, launched the Global Water Footprint Standard. In July 2014, the International Organization for Standardization issued ISO 14046:2014, Environmental management—Water footprint—Principles, requirements and guidelines, to provide practical guidance to practitioners from various backgrounds, such as large companies, public authorities, non-governmental organizations, academic and research groups as well as small and medium enterprises, for carrying out a water footprint assessment. The ISO standard is based on life-cycle assessment (LCA) principles and can be applied for different sorts of assessment of products and companies. + +=== Life-cycle assessment of water use === +Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic, phased approach to assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts that are associated with a product, process or service. "Life cycle" refers to the major activities connected with the product's life-span, from its manufacture, use, and maintenance, to its final disposal, and also including the acquisition of raw material required to manufacture the product. Thus a method for assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption was developed. It specifically looks at the damage to three areas of protection: human health, ecosystem quality, and resources. The consideration of water consumption is crucial where water-intensive products (for example agricultural goods) are concerned that need to therefore undergo a life-cycle assessment. In addition, regional assessments are equally as necessary as the impact of water use depends on its location. In short, LCA is important as it identifies the impact of water use in certain products, consumers, companies, nations, etc. which can help reduce the amount of water used. + +=== Water positive === +The Water Positive initiative can be defined as the concept where an entity, such as a company, community, or individual, goes beyond simply conserving water and actively contributes to the sustainable management and restoration of water resources. A commercial or residential development is considered water positive when it generates more water than it consumes. This involves implementing practices and technologies that reduce water consumption, improve water quality, and enhance water availability. The goal of being water positive is to leave a positive impact on water ecosystem and ensure that more water is conserved and restored than is used or depleted. + +== Water availability == + +Globally, about 4 percent of precipitation falling on land each year (about 117,000 km3 (28,000 cu mi)), is used by rain-fed agriculture and about half is subject to evaporation and transpiration in forests and other natural or quasi-natural landscapes. The remainder, which goes to groundwater replenishment and surface runoff, is sometimes called "total actual renewable freshwater resources". Its magnitude was in 2012 estimated at 52,579 km3 (12,614 cu mi)/year. It represents water that can be used either in-stream or after withdrawal from surface and groundwater sources. Of this remainder, about 3,918 km3 (940 cu mi) were withdrawn in 2007, of which 2,722 km3 (653 cu mi), or 69 percent, were used by agriculture, and 734 km3 (176 cu mi), or 19 percent, by other industry. Most agricultural use of withdrawn water is for irrigation, which uses about 5.1 percent of total actual renewable freshwater resources. World water use has been growing rapidly in the last hundred years. + +== By sector == + +=== Agricultural sector === +The water footprint of a product is the total volume of freshwater used to produce the product, summed over the various steps of the production chain. The water footprint of a product refers not only to the total volume of water used; it also refers to where and when the water is used. The Water Footprint Network maintains a global database on the water footprint of products: WaterStat. Nearly over 70% of the water supply worldwide is used in the agricultural sector. +The water footprints involved in various diets vary greatly, and much of the variation tends to be associated with levels of meat consumption. The following table gives examples of estimated global average water footprints of popular agricultural products. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5b45cb9d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Water footprint" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Industrial sector === +The water footprint of a business, the 'corporate water footprint', is defined as the total volume of freshwater that is used directly or indirectly to run and support a business. It is the total volume of water use to be associated with the use of the business outputs. The water footprint of a business consists of water used for producing/manufacturing or for supporting activities and the indirect water use in the producer's supply chain. +The Carbon Trust argue that a more robust approach is for businesses to go beyond simple volumetric measurement to assess the full range of water impact from all sites. Its work with leading global pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) analysed four key categories: water availability, water quality, health impacts, and licence to operate (including reputational and regulatory risks) in order to enable GSK to quantitatively measure, and credibly reduce, its year-on-year water impact. +The Coca-Cola Company operates over a thousand manufacturing plants in about 200 countries. Making its drink uses a lot of water. Critics say its water footprint has been large. Coca-Cola has started to look at its water sustainability. It has now set out goals to reduce its water footprint such as treating the water it uses so it goes back into the environment in a clean state. Another goal is to find sustainable sources for the raw materials it uses in its drinks, such as sugarcane, oranges, and maize. By making its water footprint better, the company can reduce costs, improve the environment, and benefit the communities in which it operates. + +=== Technology companies === +Similar to the industry sector, many global technology companies have been forced to address their large water footprints, especially with the development of AI technology which further increases their data centres water consumption. +Meta announced in 2021 their goal to be water positive by 2030, offsetting all their water use through water restoration projects. Furthermore, they aim to offset 200% of their water footprint in high-water stress regions, and 100% of consumption in medium water stress regions. Apple have also shared their goal to replenish all corporate freshwater withdrawals in high-stress locations by 2030, and as of 2024 they claim to be 40% of the way to achieving this. +There are also innovative solutions being developed to try and make data centres themselves more sustainable, such as Google using non-potable water at over 25% of its data centers, and developing new techniques using either low-water alternatives or recycled wastewater to try and reduce their water footprint. Furthermore, their Hamina data center in Finland uses sea water for cooling which is heated and then cooled again before being returned to the sea. Microsoft are attempting to utilize adiabatic cooling which substitutes the water for outside air, as well as developing Project Natick to try and build a submerged data center which makes use of the sea temperature for cooling. + +==== Artificial intelligence ==== +The rapid growth of artificial intelligence poses some serious environmental concerns one of which is its exceptionally high water footprint. To function, AI technology requires vast amounts of data therefore data centers are growing across the world. These data centers use water in two ways: direct and indirect. They directly use vast amounts of electricity which need to be generated and this requires significant amounts of water and they indirectly use large quantities of water for cooling. This cooling occurs by circulating water through the data center which absorbs heat. As a result of this data centers have an exceptionally high water footprint, and in particular AI data centers. This is a result of the higher level processing that AI requires so there is a higher energy usage therefore more water is needed to generate the electricity and more cooling is necessary. +The rate of AI development has been rapid in recent years, with data centers expected to account for 3.5 percent of the world's electricity use by 2030. This rapid development, in particular with regard to water usage, have sparked concern amongst the global community, particularly in areas already facing water scarcity. Whilst it is difficult to know exactly the statistics behind the water usage of AI, due to a lack of available statistics directly from the companies themselves, we can see the impact through examples such as the Great Salt Lake Basin, which is host to a number of data centers as a result of its cheap water, but which is experiencing new lows in water level year on year. + +=== Domestic sector === +The water footprint of an individual refers to the sum of their direct and indirect freshwater use. The direct water use is the water used at home, while the indirect water use relates to the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services consumed. +The average global water footprint of an individual is 1,385 m3 per year. Residents of some example nations have water footprints as shown in the table: + +== By region == + +=== Water footprint of nations === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..42fcb7cd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Water footprint" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The water footprint of a nation is the amount of water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of that nation. Analysis of the water footprint of nations illustrates the global dimension of water consumption and pollution, by showing that several countries rely heavily on foreign water resources and that (consumption patterns in) many countries significantly and in various ways impact how, and how much, water is being consumed and polluted elsewhere on Earth. International water dependencies are substantial and are likely to increase with continued global trade liberalisation. The largest share (76%) of the virtual water flows between countries is related to international trade in crops and derived crop products. Trade in animal products and industrial products contributed 12% each to the global virtual water flows. The four major direct factors determining the water footprint of a country are: volume of consumption (related to the gross national income); consumption pattern (e.g. high versus low meat consumption); climate (growth conditions); and agricultural practice (water use efficiency). + +==== Production or consumption ==== +The assessment of total water use in connection to consumption can be approached from both ends of the supply chain. The water footprint of production estimates how much water from local sources is used or polluted in order to provide the goods and services produced in that country. The water footprint of consumption of a country looks at the amount of water used or polluted (locally, or in the case of imported goods, in other countries) in connection with all the goods and services that are consumed by the inhabitants of that country. The water footprint of production and that of consumption, can also be estimated for any administrative unit such as a city, province, river basin or the entire world. + +==== Absolute or per capita ==== +The absolute water footprint is the total sum of water footprints of all people. A country's per capita water footprint (that nation's water footprint divided by its number of inhabitants) can be used to compare its water footprint with those of other nations. +The global water footprint in the period 1996–2005 was 9.087 billion m3/yr (billion cubic metres per year, or 9,087,000,000,000,000 liters/year), of which 74% was and green, 11% blue, 15% grey. This is an average amount per capita of 1.385 billion m3/yr., or 3.800 liters per person per day. On average 92% of this is embedded in agricultural products consumed, 4.4% in industrial products consumed, and 3.6% is domestic water use. The global water footprint related to producing goods for export is 1.762 billion m3/y. +In absolute terms, India is the country with the largest water footprint in the world, a total of 987 billion m3/yr. In relative terms (i.e. taking population size into account), the people of the USA have the largest water footprint, with 2480 m3/yr per capita, followed by the people in south European countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain (2300–2400 m3/yr per capita). High water footprints can also be found in Malaysia and Thailand. In contrast, the Chinese people have a relatively low per capita water footprint with an average of 700 m3/yr. (These numbers are also from the period 1996–2005.) + +==== Internal or external ==== + +The internal water footprint is the amount of water used from domestic water resources; the external water footprint is the amount of water used in other countries to produce goods and services imported and consumed by the inhabitants of the country. When assessing the water footprint of a nation, it is crucial to take into account the international flows of virtual water (also called embodied water, i.e. the water used or polluted in connection to all agricultural and industrial commodities) leaving and entering the country. When taking the use of domestic water resources as a starting point for calculating a nation's water footprint, one should subtract the virtual water flows that leave the country and add the virtual water flows that enter the country. +The external part of a nation's water footprint varies strongly from country to country. Some African nations, such as Sudan, Mali, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Malawi and Chad have hardly any external water footprint, simply because they have little import. Some European countries on the other hand—e.g. Italy, Germany, the UK and the Netherlands—have external water footprints that constitute 50–80% of their total water footprint. The agricultural products that on average contribute most to the external water footprints of nations are: bovine meat, soybean, wheat, cocoa, rice, cotton and maize. +The top 10 gross virtual water exporting nations, which together account for more than half of the global virtual water export, are the United States (314 billion m3/year), China (143 billion m3/year), India (125 billion m3/year), Brazil (112 billion m3/year), Argentina (98 billion m3/year), Canada (91 billion m3/year), Australia (89 billion m3/year), Indonesia (72 billion m3/year), France (65 billion m3/year), and Germany (64 billion m3/year). +The top 10 gross virtual water importing nations are the United States (234 billion m3/year), Japan (127 billion m3/year), Germany (125 billion m3/year), China (121 billion m3/year), Italy (101 billion m3/year), Mexico (92 billion m3/year), France (78 billion m3/year), the United Kingdom (77 billion m3/year), and The Netherlands (71 billion m3/year). + +=== Water use in continents === + +==== Europe ==== + +Each EU citizen consumes 4,815 litres of water per day on average; 44% is used in power production primarily to cool thermal plants or nuclear power plants. Energy production annual water consumption in the EU 27 in 2011 was, in billion m3: for gas 0.53, coal 1.54 and nuclear 2.44. Wind energy avoided the use of 387 million cubic metres (mn m3) of water in 2012, avoiding a cost of €743 million. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..47bd68a0e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Water footprint" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Asia ==== +In south India the state Tamil Nadu is one of the main agricultural producers in India and it relies largely in groundwater for irrigation. In ten years, from 2002 to 2012, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment calculated that the groundwater reduced in 1.4 m yr−1, which "is nearly 8% more than the annual recharge rate." + +== Environmental water use == +Although agriculture's water use includes provision of important terrestrial environmental values (as discussed in the "Water footprint of products" section above), and much "green water" is used in maintaining forests and wild lands, there is also direct environmental use (e.g. of surface water) that may be allocated by governments. For example, in California, where water use issues are sometimes severe because of drought, about 48 percent of "dedicated water use" in an average water year is for the environment (somewhat more than for agriculture). Such environmental water use is for keeping streams flowing, maintaining aquatic and riparian habitats, keeping wetlands wet, etc. + +== Criticism == + +=== Insufficient consideration of consequences of proposed water saving policies to farm households === +According to Dennis Wichelns of the International Water Management Institute: "Although one goal of virtual water analysis is to describe opportunities for improving water security, there is almost no mention of the potential impacts of the prescriptions arising from that analysis on farm households in industrialized or developing countries. It is essential to consider more carefully the inherent flaws in the virtual water and water footprint perspectives, particularly when seeking guidance regarding policy decisions." + +=== Regional water scarcity should be taken into account when interpreting water footprint === +The application and interpretation of water footprints may sometimes be used to promote industrial activities that lead to facile criticism of certain products. For example, the 140 litres required for coffee production for one cup might be of no harm to water resources if its cultivation occurs mainly in humid areas, but could be damaging in more arid regions. Other factors such as hydrology, climate, geology, topography, population and demographics should also be taken into account. Nevertheless, high water footprint calculations do suggest that environmental concern may be appropriate. +Many of the criticisms, including the above ones, compare the description of the water footprint of a water system to generated impacts, which is about its performance. Such a comparison between descriptive and performance factors and indicators is basically flawed. + +=== Disproportionality in Measuring the Effects of Grey Water === +In regards to grey water footprints, the current system has difficulties when it comes to accurately depicting the effect of pollution and dilution based contributions towards water footprints as opposed to usage. The effects of contamination are not considered to be different from that of scarcity, though the two have different effects on both human life and the environment. +It is possible for many different waste byproducts to have effects on an ecosystem, and common water footprints approaches that only test for a few of these byproducts do not capture the complete harm done to the environment. One form of unaccounted for environmental degradation can be found in marine ecosystem degradation. One of the most widely considered concerns in marine ecosystem degradation pertains to eutrophication, which is measured by the amount of nitrogen emitted by a body of water. However, it is also possible for industrial waste to have other contaminants in the water, such as other oils or compounds, that can not be measured in the same way that eutrophication can, and therefore will not be accounted for in degradation reports without proper testing methods of their own. +Waste byproducts also affect the quality of drinking water in a similar manner. In China, the byproducts of industrial waste result in heavy metals and salts being polluted into the public water supply. Though water footprints methods do account for the actual water polluted by the contaminants, it does not factor in the amount of water needed to dilute the contaminated water in order to get it to reasonable levels. A similar phenomenon can be seen in an analysis on California's water usage. Whereas the blue and green water components were able to be traced by researchers, the gray water component proved to be difficult to obtain data for by comparison. Therefore, due to a lack of consideration of all factors, water footprints fails to capture the entirety of the impact of industrial waste. If the effects of a process on the environment are unclear during the process of water footprints, it decreases the accuracy of the resulting report. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..03dee35e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Water footprint" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Effects of Location and Globalization on Water Footprints === +Water footprints also have difficulties when attempting to trace the total environmental impact on a global scale, as opposed to the effect in a singular area. With the globalization of the economy and how multiple processes are involved in the creation of a product, different procedures may have different impacts on the environment. However, these processes can not be measured using general metrics, as the procedures that one facility may use to complete that process, be through necessity or efficiency, may not necessarily be the same as another facility tasked with the same procedure. This introduces spatiality - that is, the location from which waste originates - as another axis of consideration in the problem of evaluating water footprints. These implications apply to water footprints, as the environmental effects and contribution to scarcity similarly can not be assessed through generalization. +The spatial effects can also be observed when looking at the concepts of direct and indirect water footprints. Direct water footprint can be defined as water that is used at a specific site to generate or maintain conditions necessary to create a given product. Indirect water footprint can be defined as water that is used to complete the intermediate steps required for many products, such as harvesting foods or fuel sources. While direct water footprint can be measured by taking reports from a specific facility to the amount of water that they use or dilute, indirect water footprints brings their own complications. Indirect water footprints tend to have high variability due to geographical factors. For instance, One proponent of indirect water foot printing is tracing the amount of water used to extract the raw petroleum needed to transport a commodity. Since the amount of fuel used depends on the distance a shipment needs to travel, it can vary greatly between countries, depending on how far resources need to be transported. The multifaceted nature of indirect water footprint sources makes it difficult to accurately assess all of the separate aspects contributing to a product, and even more so the total impact. +Though these criticisms bring merit, these problems are somewhat reduced when water footprint is not used as a lone indicator, but is instead interpreted in context. On the topic of grey water, adequate consideration of all possible consequences of industrial processes can do well to alleviate these issues. When a well-rounded measurement is taken of all of the pollutants that a form of waste can introduce to the environment, it greatly enhances the accuracy of the calculation. On the issue of spatial differences, the use of water availability as a factor assists in determining the proportion of water in a given area a certain water footprint applies to. When data relevant to the specific situation is gathered, both about water and process used and different spatial factors, it becomes more feasible to extrapolate calculations using the water footprint system. +The use of the term footprint can also confuse people familiar with the notion of a carbon footprint, because the water footprint concept includes sums of water quantities without necessarily evaluating related impacts. This is in contrast to the carbon footprint, where carbon emissions are not simply summarized but normalized by CO2 emissions, which are globally identical, to account for the environmental harm. The difference is due to the somewhat more complex nature of water; while involved in the global hydrological cycle, it is expressed in conditions both local and regional through various forms like river basins, watersheds, on down to groundwater (as part of larger aquifer systems). Furthermore, looking at the definition of the footprint itself, and comparing ecological footprint, carbon footprint and water footprint, we realize that the three terms are indeed legitimate. + +== Sustainable water use == +Sustainable water use involves the rigorous assessment of all source of clean water to establish the current and future rates of use, the impacts of that use both downstream and in the wider area where the water may be used and the impact of contaminated water streams on the environment and economic well-being of the area. It also involves the implementation of social policies such as water pricing in order to manage water demand. In some localities, water may also have spiritual relevance and the use of such water may need to take account of such interests. For example, the Maori believe that water is the source and foundation of all life and have many spiritual associations with water and places associated with water. On a national and global scale, water sustainability requires strategic and long term planning to ensure appropriate sources of clean water are identified and the environmental and economic impact of such choices are understood and accepted. The re-use and reclamation of water is also part of sustainability including downstream impacts on both surface waters and ground waters. + +=== Sustainability assessment === +Water footprint accounting has advanced substantially in recent years, however, water footprint analysis also needs sustainability assessment as its last phase. One of the developments is to employ sustainable efficiency and equity ("Sefficiency in Sequity"), which present a comprehensive approach to assessing the sustainable use of water. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..511c88430 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Water footprint" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:29.751202+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Sectoral distributions of withdrawn water use == +Several nations estimate sectoral distribution of use of water withdrawn from surface and groundwater sources. For example, in Canada, in 2005, 42 billion m3 of withdrawn water were used, of which about 38 billion m3 were freshwater. Distribution of this use among sectors was: thermoelectric power generation 66.2%, manufacturing 13.6%, residential 9.0%, agriculture 4.7%, commercial and institutional 2.7%, water treatment and distribution systems 2.3%, mining 1.1%, and oil and gas extraction 0.5%. The 38 billion m3 of freshwater withdrawn in that year can be compared with the nation's annual freshwater yield (estimated as streamflow) of 3,472 billion m3. Sectoral distribution is different in many respects in the US, where agriculture accounts for about 39% of fresh water withdrawals, thermoelectric power generation 38%, industrial 4%, residential 1%, and mining (including oil and gas) 1%. +Within the agricultural sector, withdrawn water use is for irrigation and for livestock. Whereas all irrigation in the US (including loss in conveyance of irrigation water) is estimated to account for about 38 percent of US withdrawn freshwater use, the irrigation water used for production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent, and other withdrawn freshwater use for the livestock sector (for drinking, washdown of facilities, etc.) is estimated at 0.7 percent. Because agriculture is a major user of withdrawn water, changes in the magnitude and efficiency of its water use are important. In the US, from 1980 (when agriculture's withdrawn water use peaked) to 2010, there was a 23 percent reduction in agriculture's use of withdrawn water, while US agricultural output increased by 49 percent over that period. +In the US, irrigation water application data are collected in the quinquennial Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey, conducted as part of the Census of Agriculture. Such data indicate great differences in irrigation water use within various agricultural sectors. For example, about 14 percent of corn-for-grain land and 11 percent of soybean land in the US are irrigated, compared with 66 percent of vegetable land, 79 percent of orchard land and 97 percent of rice land. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== External links == +Water Footprint Network +Personal Water Footprint Calculator +Amount of water needed per day for livestock and household use \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d00ea681 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Wetland" +chunk: 1/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A wetland is a distinct semi-aquatic ecosystem whose groundcovers are flooded or saturated in water, either permanently, for years or decades, or only seasonally. Flooding results in oxygen-poor (anoxic) processes taking place, especially in the soils. Wetlands form a transitional zone between waterbodies and dry lands, and are different from other terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems due to their vegetation's roots having adapted to oxygen-poor waterlogged soils. They are considered among the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as habitats to a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and animals, with often improved water quality due to plant removal of excess nutrients such as nitrates and phosphorus. +Wetlands exist on every continent, except Antarctica. The water in wetlands is either freshwater, brackish or saltwater. The main types of wetlands are defined based on the dominant plants and the source of the water. For example, marshes are wetlands dominated by emergent herbaceous vegetation such as reeds, cattails, and sedges. Swamps are dominated by woody vegetation, such as trees and shrubs (although reed swamps in Europe are dominated by reeds, not trees). Mangrove forests are wetlands with mangroves and halophytic woody plants that have evolved to tolerate salty water. +Examples of wetlands classified by the sources of water include tidal wetlands, where the water source is ocean tides; estuaries, water source is mixed tidal and river waters; floodplains, water source is excess water from overflowed rivers or lakes; and bogs and vernal ponds, water source is rainfall or meltwater, sometimes mediated through groundwater springs. The world's largest wetlands include the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian Plain, the Pantanal in South America, and the Sundarbans in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. +Wetlands contribute many ecosystem services that benefit people. These include for example water purification, stabilization of shorelines, storm protection and flood control. In addition, wetlands also process and condense carbon (in processes called carbon fixation and sequestration), and other nutrients and water pollutants. Wetlands can act as a sink or a source of carbon, depending on the specific wetland. If they function as a carbon sink, they can help with climate change mitigation. However, wetlands can also be a significant source of methane emissions due to anaerobic decomposition of soaked detritus, and some are also emitters of nitrous oxide. +Humans are disturbing and damaging wetlands in many ways, including oil and gas extraction, building infrastructure, overgrazing of livestock, overfishing, alteration of wetlands including dredging and draining, nutrient pollution, and water pollution. Wetlands are more threatened by environmental degradation than any other ecosystem on Earth, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment from 2005. Methods exist for assessing wetland ecological health. These methods have contributed to wetland conservation by raising public awareness of the functions that wetlands can provide. Since 1971, work under an international treaty seeks to identify and protect "wetlands of international importance." + +== Definitions and terminology == + +=== Technical definitions === +A simplified definition of wetland is "an area of land that is usually saturated with water". More precisely, wetlands are areas where "water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season". A patch of land that develops pools of water after a rain storm would not necessarily be considered a "wetland", even though the land is wet. Wetlands have unique characteristics: they are generally distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level and on the types of plants that live within them. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a water table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants. +A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil and hydrophytes. +Wetlands have also been described as ecotones, providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. Wetlands exist "...at the interface between truly terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic systems, making them inherently different from each other, yet highly dependent on both." +In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. +Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as follows: + +Article 1.1: "...wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters." +Article 2.1: "[Wetlands] may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the wetlands." +An ecological definition of a wetland is "an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic and aerobic processes, which, in turn, forces the biota, particularly rooted plants, to adapt to flooding". +Sometimes a precise legal definition of a wetland is required. The definition used for regulation by the United States government is: 'The term "wetlands" means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally included swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.' +For each of these definitions and others, regardless of the purpose, hydrology is emphasized (shallow waters, water-logged soils). The soil characteristics and the plants and animals controlled by the wetland hydrology are often additional components of the definitions. + +=== Types === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e8898da5b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Wetland" +chunk: 2/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Wetlands can be tidal (inundated by tides) or non-tidal. The water in wetlands is either freshwater, brackish, saline, or alkaline. There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog, and fen (bogs and fens being types of peatlands or mires). Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types. Sub-types include mangrove forests, carrs, pocosins, floodplains, peatlands, vernal pools, sinks, and many others. +The following three groups are used within Australia to classify wetland by type: Marine and coastal zone wetlands, inland wetlands and human-made wetlands. In the US, the best known classifications are the Cowardin classification system and the hydrogeomorphic (HGM) classification system. The Cowardin system includes five main types of wetlands: marine (ocean-associated), estuarine (mixed ocean- and river-associated), riverine (within river channels), lacustrine (lake-associated) and palustrine (inland nontidal habitats). + +==== Peatlands ==== +Peatlands are a unique kind of wetland where lush plant growth and slow decay of dead plants (under anoxic conditions) results in organic peat accumulating; bogs, fens, and mires are different names for peatlands. + +=== Wetland names === +Variations of names for wetland systems: + +Some wetlands have localized names unique to a region such as the prairie potholes of North America's northern plain, pocosins, Carolina bays and baygalls of the Southeastern US, mallines of Argentina, Mediterranean seasonal ponds of Europe and California, turloughs of Ireland, billabongs of Australia, among many others. + +=== Locations === + +==== By temperature zone ==== + +Wetlands are found throughout the world in different climates. Temperatures vary greatly depending on the location of the wetland. Many of the world's wetlands are in the temperate zones, midway between the North or South Poles and the equator. In these zones, summers are warm and winters are cold, but temperatures are not extreme. In subtropical zone wetlands, such as along the Gulf of Mexico, average temperatures might be 11 °C (52 °F). Wetlands in the tropics are subjected to much higher temperatures for a large portion of the year. Temperatures for wetlands on the Arabian Peninsula can exceed 50 °C (122 °F) and these habitats would therefore be subject to rapid evaporation. In northeastern Siberia, which has a polar climate, wetland temperatures can be as low as −50 °C (−58 °F). Peatlands in arctic and subarctic regions insulate the permafrost, thus delaying or preventing its thawing during summer, as well as inducing its formation. + +==== By precipitation amount ==== +The amount of precipitation a wetland receives varies widely according to its area. Wetlands in Wales, Scotland, and western Ireland typically receive about 1,500 mm (59 in) per year. In some places in Southeast Asia, where heavy rains occur, they can receive up to 10,000 mm (390 in). In some drier regions, wetlands exist where as little as 180 mm (7.1 in) precipitation occurs each year. +Temporal variation: + +Perennial systems +Seasonal systems +Episodic (periodic or intermittent) systems +Ephemeral (short-lived) systems +Surface flow may occur in some segments, with subsurface flow in other segments. + +== Processes == +Wetlands vary widely due to local and regional differences in topography, hydrology, vegetation, and other factors, including human involvement. Other important factors include fertility, natural disturbance, competition, herbivory, burial and salinity. When peat accumulates, bogs and fens arise. + +=== Hydrology === + +The most important factor producing wetlands is hydrology, or flooding. The duration of flooding or prolonged soil saturation by groundwater determines whether the resulting wetland has aquatic, marsh or swamp vegetation. Other important factors include soil fertility, natural disturbance, competition, herbivory, burial, and salinity. When peat from dead plants accumulates, bogs and fens develop. +Wetland hydrology is associated with the spatial and temporal dispersion, flow, and physio-chemical attributes of surface and ground waters. Sources of hydrological flows into wetlands are predominantly precipitation, surface water (saltwater or freshwater), and groundwater. Water flows out of wetlands by evapotranspiration, surface flows and tides, and subsurface water outflow. Hydrodynamics (the movement of water through and from a wetland) affects hydro-periods (temporal fluctuations in water levels) by controlling the water balance and water storage within a wetland. +Landscape characteristics control wetland hydrology and water chemistry. The O2 and CO2 concentrations of water depend upon temperature, atmospheric pressure and mixing with the air (from winds or water flows). Water chemistry within wetlands is determined by the pH, salinity, nutrients, conductivity, soil composition, hardness, and the sources of water. Water chemistry varies across landscapes and climatic regions. Wetlands are generally minerotrophic (waters contain dissolved materials from soils) with the exception of ombrotrophic bogs that are fed only by water from precipitation. +Because bogs receive most of their water from precipitation and humidity from the atmosphere, their water usually has low mineral ionic composition. In contrast, wetlands fed by groundwater or tides have a higher concentration of dissolved nutrients and minerals. +Fen peatlands receive water both from precipitation and ground water in varying amounts so their water chemistry ranges from acidic with low levels of dissolved minerals to alkaline with high accumulation of calcium and magnesium. + +=== Role of salinity === +Salinity has a strong influence on wetland water chemistry, particularly in coastal wetlands and in arid and semiarid regions with large precipitation deficits. Natural salinity is regulated by interactions between ground and surface water, which may be influenced by human activity. + +=== Soil === +Carbon is the major nutrient cycled within wetlands. Most nutrients, such as sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, and nitrogen are found within the soil of wetlands. Anaerobic and aerobic respiration in the soil influences the nutrient cycling of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and the solubility of phosphorus thus contributing to the chemical variations in its water. Wetlands with low pH and saline conductivity may reflect the presence of acid sulfates and wetlands with average salinity levels can be heavily influenced by calcium or magnesium. Biogeochemical processes in wetlands are determined by soils with low redox potential. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1051845a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Wetland" +chunk: 3/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Biology == +The life forms of a wetland system includes its plants (flora) and animals (fauna) and microbes (bacteria, fungi). The most important factor is the wetland's duration of flooding. Other important factors include fertility and salinity of the water or soils. The chemistry of water flowing into wetlands depends on the source of water, the geological material that it flows through and the nutrients discharged from organic matter in the soils and plants at higher elevations. Plants and animals may vary within a wetland seasonally or in response to flood regimes. + +=== Flora === + +There are four main groups of hydrophytes that are found in wetland systems throughout the world. +Submerged wetland vegetation can grow in saline and fresh-water conditions. Some species have underwater flowers, while others have long stems to allow the flowers to reach the surface. Submerged species provide a food source for native fauna, habitat for invertebrates, and also possess filtration capabilities. Examples include seagrasses and eelgrass. +Floating water plants or floating vegetation are usually small, like those in the Lemnoideae subfamily (duckweeds). +Emergent vegetation like the cattails (Typha spp.), sedges (Carex spp.) and arrow arum (Peltandra virginica) rise above the surface of the water. +When trees and shrubs comprise much of the plant cover in saturated soils, those areas in most cases are called swamps. The upland boundary of swamps is determined partly by water levels. This can be affected by dams Some swamps can be dominated by a single species, such as silver maple swamps around the Great Lakes. Others, like those of the Amazon basin, have large numbers of different tree species. Other examples include cypress (Taxodium) and mangrove swamps. + +=== Fauna === + +Many species of fish are highly dependent on wetland ecosystems. Seventy-five percent of the United States' commercial fish and shellfish stocks depend solely on estuaries to survive. +Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders need both terrestrial and aquatic habitats in which to reproduce and feed. Because amphibians often inhabit depressional wetlands like prairie potholes and Carolina bays, the connectivity among these isolated wetlands is an important control of regional populations. While tadpoles feed on algae, adult frogs forage on insects. Frogs are sometimes used as an indicator of ecosystem health because their thin skin permits absorption of nutrients and toxins from the surrounding environment resulting in increased extinction rates in unfavorable and polluted environmental conditions. +Reptiles such as snakes, lizards, turtles, alligators and crocodiles are common in wetlands of some regions. In freshwater wetlands of the Southeastern US, alligators are common and a freshwater species of crocodile occurs in South Florida. The Florida Everglades is the only place in the world where both the American crocodiles and American alligators coexist. The saltwater crocodile inhabits estuaries and mangroves. Snapping turtles also inhabit wetlands. +Birds, particularly waterfowl and waders use wetlands extensively. +Mammals of wetlands include numerous small and medium-sized species such as voles, bats, muskrats and platypus in addition to large herbivorous and apex predator species such as the beavers, coypu, swamp rabbit, Florida panther, jaguar, and moose. Wetlands attract many mammals due to abundant seeds, berries, and other vegetation as food for herbivores, as well as abundant populations of invertebrates, small reptiles and amphibians as prey for predators. +Invertebrates of wetlands include aquatic insects such as dragonflies, aquatic bugs and beetles, midges, mosquitos, crustaceans such as crabs, crayfish, shrimps, microcrustaceans, mollusks like clams, mussels, snails and worms. Invertebrates comprise more than half of the known animal species in wetlands, and are considered the primary food web link between plants and higher animals (such as fish and birds). + +== Ecosystem services == + +Depending on a wetland's geographic and topographic location, the functions it performs can support multiple ecosystem services, values, or benefits. United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and Ramsar Convention described wetlands as a whole to be of biosphere significance and societal importance in the following areas: + +Water storage (flood control) +Groundwater replenishment +Shoreline stabilization and storm protection +Water purification +Wastewater treatment (in constructed wetlands) +Reservoirs of biodiversity +Pollination +Wetland products +Cultural values +Recreation and tourism +Climate change mitigation and adaptation +According to the Ramsar Convention: + +The economic worth of the ecosystem services provided to society by intact, naturally functioning wetlands is frequently much greater than the perceived benefits of converting them to 'more valuable' intensive land use – particularly as the profits from unsustainable use often go to relatively few individuals or corporations, rather than being shared by society as a whole. +To replace these wetland ecosystem services, enormous amounts of money would need to be spent on water purification plants, dams, levees, and other hard infrastructure, and many of the services are impossible to replace. + +=== Storage reservoirs and flood protection === +Floodplains and closed-depression wetlands can provide the functions of storage reservoirs and flood protection. The wetland system of floodplains is formed from major rivers downstream from their headwaters. "The floodplains of major rivers act as natural storage reservoirs, enabling excess water to spread out over a wide area, which reduces its depth and speed. Wetlands close to the headwaters of streams and rivers can slow down rainwater runoff and spring snowmelt so that it does not run straight off the land into water courses. This can help prevent sudden, damaging floods downstream." +Notable river systems that produce wide floodplains include the Nile River, the Niger river inland delta, the Zambezi River flood plain, the Okavango River inland delta, the Kafue River flood plain, the Lake Bangweulu flood plain (Africa), Mississippi River (US), Amazon River (South America), Yangtze River (China), Danube River (Central Europe) and Murray-Darling River (Australia). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..89c898666 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Wetland" +chunk: 4/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Groundwater replenishment === +Groundwater replenishment can be achieved for example by marsh, swamp, and subterranean karst and cave hydrological systems. The surface water visibly seen in wetlands only represents a portion of the overall water cycle, which also includes atmospheric water (precipitation) and groundwater. Many wetlands are directly linked to groundwater and they can be a crucial regulator of both the quantity and quality of water found below the ground. Wetlands that have permeable substrates like limestone or occur in areas with highly variable and fluctuating water tables have especially important roles in groundwater replenishment or water recharge. +Substrates that are porous allow water to filter down through the soil and underlying rock into aquifers which are the source of much of the world's drinking water. Wetlands can also act as recharge areas when the surrounding water table is low and as a discharge zone when it is high. + +=== Shoreline stabilization and storm protection === + +Mangroves, coral reefs, salt marsh can help with shoreline stabilization and storm protection. Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones. Coral reefs provide a protective barrier to coastal shoreline. Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and will migrate with the shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary of the water. The main conservation benefit these systems have against storms and storm surges is the ability to reduce the speed and height of waves and floodwaters. +The United Kingdom has begun the concept of managed coastal realignment. This management technique provides shoreline protection through restoration of natural wetlands rather than through applied engineering. In East Asia, reclamation of coastal wetlands has resulted in widespread transformation of the coastal zone, and up to 65% of coastal wetlands have been destroyed by coastal development. One analysis using the impact of hurricanes versus storm protection provided naturally by wetlands projected the value of this service at US$33,000/hectare/year. + +=== Water purification === +Water purification can be provided by floodplains, closed-depression wetlands, mudflat, freshwater marsh, salt marsh, mangroves. Wetlands cycle both sediments and nutrients, sometimes serving as buffers between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. A natural function of wetland vegetation is the up-take, storage, and (for nitrate) the removal of nutrients found in runoff water from the surrounding landscapes. +Precipitation and surface runoff induces soil erosion, transporting sediment in suspension into and through waterways. All types of sediments whether composed of clay, silt, sand or gravel and rock can be carried into wetland systems through erosion. Wetland vegetation acts as a physical barrier to slow water flow and then trap sediment for both short or long periods of time. Suspended sediment can contain heavy metals that are also retained when wetlands trap the sediment. +The ability of wetland systems to store or remove nutrients and trap sediment is highly efficient and effective but each system has a threshold. An overabundance of nutrient input from fertilizer run-off, sewage effluent, or non-point pollution will cause eutrophication. Upstream erosion from deforestation can overwhelm wetlands making them shrink in size and cause dramatic biodiversity loss through excessive sedimentation load. + +=== Wastewater treatment === +Constructed wetlands are built for wastewater treatment. An example of how a natural wetland is used to provide some degree of sewage treatment is the East Kolkata Wetlands in Kolkata, India. The wetlands cover 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi), and are used to treat Kolkata's sewage. The nutrients contained in the wastewater sustain fish farms and agriculture. + +=== Reservoirs of biodiversity === +Wetland systems' rich biodiversity has become a focal point catalysed by the Ramsar Convention and World Wildlife Fund. The impact of maintaining biodiversity is seen at the local level through job creation, sustainability, and community productivity. A good example is the Lower Mekong basin which runs through Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, supporting over 55 million people. +A key fish species which is overfished, the Piramutaba catfish, Brachyplatystoma vaillantii, migrates more than 3,300 km (2,100 mi) from its nursery grounds near the mouth of the Amazon River to its spawning grounds in Andean tributaries, 400 m (1,300 ft) above sea level, distributing plant seeds along the route. +Intertidal mudflats have a level of productivity similar to that of some wetlands even while possessing a low number of species. The abundant invertebrates found within the mud are a food source for migratory waterfowl. +Mudflats, saltmarshes, mangroves, and seagrass beds have high levels of both species richness and productivity, and are home to important nursery areas for many commercial fish stocks. +Populations of many species are confined geographically to only one or a few wetland systems, often due to the long period of time that the wetlands have been physically isolated from other aquatic sources. For example, the number of endemic species in the Selenga River Delta of Lake Baikal in Russia classifies it as a hotspot for biodiversity and one of the most biodiverse wetlands in the entire world. + +=== Wetland products === + +Wetlands naturally produce an array of vegetation and other ecological products that can be harvested for personal and commercial use. Many fishes have all or part of their life-cycle occurring within a wetland system. Fresh and saltwater fish are the main source of protein for about one billion people and comprise 15% of an additional 3.5 billion people's protein intake. Another food staple found in wetland systems is rice, a popular grain that is consumed at the rate of one fifth of the total global calorie count. In Bangladesh, Cambodia and Vietnam, where rice paddies are predominant on the landscape, rice consumption reach 70%. Some native wetland plants in the Caribbean and Australia are harvested sustainably for medicinal compounds; these include the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) which possesses antibacterial, wound-healing, anti-ulcer effects, and antioxidant properties. +Other mangrove-derived products include fuelwood, salt (produced by evaporating seawater), animal fodder, traditional medicines (e.g. from mangrove bark), fibers for textiles and dyes and tannins. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c2831924b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Wetland" +chunk: 5/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Additional services and uses of wetlands === +Some types of wetlands can serve as fire breaks that help slow the spread of minor wildfires. Larger wetland systems can influence local precipitation patterns. Some boreal wetland systems in catchment headwaters may help extend the period of flow and maintain water temperature in connected downstream waters. Pollination services are supported by many wetlands which may provide the only suitable habitat for pollinating insects, birds, and mammals in highly developed areas. + +== Disturbances and human impacts == + +Wetlands, the functions and services they provide as well as their flora and fauna, can be affected by several types of disturbances. The disturbances (sometimes termed stressors or alterations) can be human-associated or natural, direct or indirect, reversible or not, and isolated or cumulative. +Disturbances include exogenous factors such as flooding or drought. Humans are disturbing and damaging wetlands for example by oil and gas extraction, building infrastructure, overgrazing of livestock, overfishing, alteration of wetlands including dredging and draining, nutrient pollution and water pollution. Disturbance puts different levels of stress on an environment depending on the type and duration of disturbance. +Predominant disturbances of wetlands include: + +Disturbances can be further categorized as follows: + +Minor disturbance: Stress that maintains ecosystem integrity. +Moderate disturbance: Ecosystem integrity is damaged but can recover in time without assistance. +Impairment or severe disturbance: Human intervention may be needed in order for ecosystem to recover. +Nutrient pollution comes from nitrogen inputs to aquatic systems and have drastically effected the dissolved nitrogen content of wetlands, introducing higher nutrient availability which leads to eutrophication. +Biodiversity loss occurs in wetland systems through land use changes, habitat destruction, pollution, exploitation of resources, and invasive species. For example, the introduction of water hyacinth, a native plant of South America into Lake Victoria in East Africa as well as duckweed into non-native areas of Queensland, Australia, have overtaken entire wetland systems overwhelming the habitats and reducing the diversity of native plants and animals. + +=== Conversion to dry land === +To increase economic productivity, wetlands are often converted into dry land with dykes and drains and used for agricultural purposes. The construction of dykes, and dams, has negative consequences for individual wetlands and entire watersheds. Their proximity to lakes and rivers means that they are often developed for human settlement. Once settlements are constructed and protected by dykes, the settlements then become vulnerable to land subsidence and ever increasing risk of flooding. The Mississippi River Delta around New Orleans, Louisiana is a well-known example; the Danube Delta in Europe is another. +Water pollution is another key driver of the conversion of wetlands to dry land. Since wetlands tend to retain water with less influx or efflux compared to other bodies of water, they can quickly concentrate toxicants that originate from pollutants. This accumulation of toxicants will cause the biodiversity of a wetland to change, particularly since toxicants will be harmful to native aquatic species. The loss of wetland biodiversity is associated with wetland degradation, as the case of alpine wetlands demonstrates. + +=== Drainage of floodplains === +Drainage of floodplains or development activities that narrow floodplain corridors (such as the construction of levees) reduces the ability of coupled river-floodplain systems to control flood damage. That is because modified and less expansive systems must still manage the same amount of precipitation, causing flood peaks to be higher or deeper and floodwaters to travel faster. +Water management engineering developments in the past century have degraded floodplain wetlands through the construction of artificial embankments such as dykes, bunds, levees, weirs, barrages and dams. All concentrate water into a main channel and waters that historically spread slowly over a large, shallow area are concentrated. Loss of wetland floodplains results in more severe and damaging flooding. Catastrophic human impact in the Mississippi River floodplains was seen in death of several hundred individuals during a levee breach in New Orleans caused by Hurricane Katrina. Human-made embankments along the Yangtze River floodplains have caused the main channel of the river to become prone to more frequent and damaging flooding. Some of these events include the loss of riparian vegetation, a 30% loss of the vegetation cover throughout the river's basin, a doubling of the percentage of the land affected by soil erosion, and a reduction in reservoir capacity through siltation build-up in floodplain lakes. + +=== Overfishing === +Overfishing is a major problem for sustainable use of wetlands. Concerns are developing over certain aspects of farm fishing, which uses natural wetlands and waterways to harvest fish for human consumption. Aquaculture is continuing to develop rapidly throughout the Asia-Pacific region especially in China where 90% of the total number of aquaculture farms occur, contributing 80% of global value. Some aquaculture has eliminated massive areas of wetland through practices such as the shrimp farming industry's destruction of mangroves. Even though the damaging impact of large-scale shrimp farming on the coastal ecosystem in many Asian countries has been widely recognized for quite some time now, it has proved difficult to mitigate since other employment avenues for people are lacking. Also burgeoning demand for shrimp globally has provided a large and ready market. + +== Conservation == + +Wetlands have historically subjected to large draining efforts for development (real estate or agriculture), and flooding to create recreational lakes or generate hydropower. Some of the world's most important agricultural areas were wetlands that have been converted to farmland. Since the 1970s, more focus has been put on preserving wetlands for their natural functions. Since 1900, 65–70% of the world's wetlands have been lost. In order to maintain wetlands and sustain their functions, alterations and disturbances that are outside the normal range of variation should be minimized. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b03c152cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Wetland" +chunk: 6/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Balancing wetland conservation with the needs of people === +Wetlands are vital ecosystems that enhance the livelihoods for the millions of people who live in and around them. Studies have shown that it is possible to conserve wetlands while improving the livelihoods of people living among them. Case studies conducted in Malawi and Zambia looked at how dambos – wet, grassy valleys or depressions where water seeps to the surface – can be farmed sustainably. Project outcomes included a high yield of crops, development of sustainable farming techniques, and water management strategies that generate enough water for irrigation. + +=== Ramsar Convention === + +The Ramsar Convention (full title: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat), is an international treaty designed to address global concerns regarding wetland loss and degradation. The primary purposes of the treaty are to list wetlands of international importance and to promote their wise use, with the ultimate goal of preserving the world's wetlands. Methods include restricting access to some wetland areas, as well as educating the public to combat the misconception that wetlands are wastelands. The convention works closely with five International Organisation Partners (IOPs). These are: Birdlife International, the IUCN, the International Water Management Institute, Wetlands International and the World Wide Fund for Nature. The partners provide technical expertise, help conduct or facilitate field studies and provide financial support. + +== Restoration == +Restoration and restoration ecologists intend to return wetlands to their natural trajectory by aiding directly with the natural processes of the ecosystem. These direct methods vary with respect to the degree of physical manipulation of the natural environment and each are associated with different levels of restoration. Restoration is needed after disturbance or perturbation of a wetland. There is no one way to restore a wetland and the level of restoration required will be based on the level of disturbance although, each method of restoration does require preparation and administration. + +=== Levels of restoration === +Factors influencing selected approach may include budget, time scale limitations, project goals, level of disturbance, landscape and ecological constraints, political and administrative agendas and socioeconomic priorities. + +==== Prescribed natural or assisted regeneration ==== +For this strategy, there is no biophysical manipulation and the ecosystem is left to recover based on the process of succession alone. The focus is to eliminate and prevent further disturbance from occurring and for this type of restoration requires prior research to understand the probability that the wetland will recover naturally. This is likely to be the first method of approach since it is the least intrusive and least expensive although some biophysical non-intrusive manipulation may be required to enhance the rate of succession to an acceptable level. Example methods include prescribed burns to small areas, promotion of site specific soil microbiota and plant growth using nucleation planting whereby plants radiate from an initial planting site, and promotion of niche diversity or increasing the range of niches to promote use by a variety of different species. These methods can make it easier for the natural species to flourish by removing environmental impediments and can speed up the process of succession. + +==== Partial reconstruction ==== +For this strategy, a mixture of natural regeneration and manipulated environmental control is used. This may require some engineering, and more intensive biophysical manipulations including ripping of subsoil, agrichemical applications of herbicides or insecticides, laying of mulch, mechanical seed dispersal, and tree planting on a large scale. In these circumstances the wetland is impaired and without human assistance it would not recover within an acceptable period of time as determined by ecologists. Methods of restoration used will have to be determined on a site by site basis as each location will require a different approach based on levels of disturbance and the local ecosystem dynamics. Another form of partial reconstruction includes the utilization of semi-natural wetlands, such as paddy fields that are agricultural plains covered by water during planting seasons. Human assistance is required in order to maintain paddy fields, as they are agricultural in nature, but they have the capacity to reduce flooding in more inland regions. + +==== Complete reconstruction ==== + +This most expensive and intrusive method of reconstruction requires engineering and ground up reconstruction. Because there is a redesign of the entire ecosystem it is important that the natural trajectory of the ecosystem be considered and that the plant species promoted will eventually return the ecosystem towards its natural trajectory. +In many cases constructed wetlands are often designed to treat stormwater/wastewater runoff. They can be used in developments as part of water-sensitive urban design systems and have benefits such as flood mitigation, removing pollutants, carbon sequestration, providing habitat for wildlife and biodiversity in often highly urbanised and fragmented landscapes. +The mechanism by which wetlands are able to support flood mitigation efforts is multifold. Due to their capacity to hold excess volumes of water during periods of heavy rainfall or inland water flow, wetlands are able to elicit reductions in flood area, flood depth, and flood duration. Furthermore, wetlands are able to reduce the velocity of inland water flow, which is an additional mechanism by which wetlands reduce damages to local ecosystems and property found in surrounding regions. + +==== Traditional knowledge ==== +The ideas from traditional ecological knowledge can be applied as a holistic approach to the restoration of wetlands. These ideas focus more on responding to the observations detected from the environment considering that each part of a wetland ecosystem is interconnected. Applying these practices on specific locations of wetlands increase productivity, biodiversity, and improve its resilience. These practices include monitoring wetland resources, planting propagules, and addition of key species in order to create a self-sustaining wetland ecosystem. + +== Climate change aspects == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1410dcb5d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Wetland" +chunk: 7/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Greenhouse gas emissions === +In Southeast Asia, peat swamp forests and soils are being drained, burnt, mined, and overgrazed, contributing to climate change. As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon that had built up over thousands of years and is normally under water is suddenly exposed to the air. The peat decomposes and is converted into carbon dioxide (CO2), which is then released into the atmosphere. Peat fires cause the same process to occur rapidly and in addition create enormous clouds of smoke that cross international borders, which now happens almost yearly in Southeast Asia. While peatlands constitute only 3% of the world's land area, their degradation produces 7% of all CO2 emissions. + +=== Climate change mitigation === + +Studies have favorably identified the potential for coastal wetlands (also called blue carbon ecosystems) to provide some degree of climate change mitigation in two ways: by conservation, reducing the greenhouse gas emissions arising from the loss and degradation of such habitats, and by restoration, to increase carbon dioxide drawdown and its long-term storage. However, CO2 removal using coastal blue carbon restoration has questionable cost-effectiveness when considered only as a climate mitigation action, either for carbon-offsetting or for inclusion in Nationally Determined Contributions. +When wetlands are restored they have mitigation effects through their ability to sink carbon, converting a greenhouse gas (carbon dioxide) to solid plant material through the process of photosynthesis, and also through their ability to store and regulate water. +Wetlands store approximately 44.6 million tonnes of carbon per year globally (estimate from 2003). In salt marshes and mangrove swamps in particular, the average carbon sequestration rate is 210 g CO2 m−2 y−1 while peatlands sequester approximately 20–30 g CO2 m−2 y−1. +Coastal wetlands, such as tropical mangroves and some temperate salt marshes, are known to be sinks for carbon that otherwise contribute to climate change in its gaseous forms (carbon dioxide and methane). The ability of many tidal wetlands to store carbon and minimize methane flux from tidal sediments has led to sponsorship of blue carbon initiatives that are intended to enhance those processes. + +=== Climate change adaptation === + +The restoration of coastal blue carbon ecosystems is highly advantageous for climate change adaptation, coastal protection, food provision and biodiversity conservation. +Since the middle of the 20th century, human-caused climate change has resulted in observable changes in the global water cycle. A warming climate makes extremely wet and very dry occurrences more severe, causing more severe floods and droughts. For this reason, some of the ecosystem services that wetlands provide (e.g. water storage and flood control, groundwater replenishment, shoreline stabilization and storm protection) are important for climate change adaptation measures. In most parts of the world and under all emission scenarios, water cycle variability and accompanying extremes are anticipated to rise more quickly than the changes of average values. + +== Valuation == +The value of a wetland to local communities typically involves first mapping a region's wetlands, then assessing the functions and ecosystem services the wetlands provide individually and cumulatively, and finally evaluating that information to prioritize or rank individual wetlands or wetland types for conservation, management, restoration, or development. Over the longer term, it requires keeping inventories of known wetlands and monitoring a representative sample of the wetlands to determine changes due to both natural and human factors. + +=== Assessment === +Rapid assessment methods are used to score, rank, rate, or categorize various functions, ecosystem services, species, communities, levels of disturbance, and/or ecological health of a wetland or group of wetlands. This is often done to prioritize particular wetlands for conservation (avoidance) or to determine the degree to which loss or alteration of wetland functions should be compensated, such as by restoring degraded wetlands elsewhere or providing additional protections to existing wetlands. Rapid assessment methods are also applied before and after a wetland has been restored or altered to help monitor or predict the effects of those actions on various wetland functions and the services they provide. Assessments are typically considered to be "rapid" when they require only a single visit to the wetland lasting less than one day, which in some cases may include interpretation of aerial imagery and geographic information system (GIS) analyses of existing spatial data, but not detailed post-visit laboratory analyses of water or biological samples. +To achieve consistency among persons doing the assessment, rapid methods present indicator variables as questions or checklists on standardized data forms, and most methods standardize the scoring or rating procedure that is used to combine question responses into estimates of the levels of specified functions relative to the levels estimated in other wetlands ("calibration sites") assessed previously in a region. Rapid assessment methods, partly because they often use dozens of indicators of conditions surrounding a wetland as well as within the wetland itself, aim to provide estimates of wetland functions and services that are more accurate and repeatable than simply describing a wetland's class type. A need for wetland assessments to be rapid arises mainly when government agencies set deadlines for decisions affecting a wetland or when the number of wetlands needing information on their functions or condition is large. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9db02c455 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Wetland" +chunk: 8/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:32.465426+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Inventory === +Although developing a global inventory of wetlands has proven to be a large and difficult undertaking, many efforts at more local scales have been successful. Current efforts are based on available data, but both classification and spatial resolution have sometimes proven to be inadequate for regional or site-specific environmental management decision making. Identifying small, long, and narrow wetlands within the landscape is difficult. Many of today's remote sensing satellites do not have sufficient spatial and spectral resolution to monitor wetland conditions, although multispectral IKONOS and QuickBird data may offer improved spatial resolutions once it is 4 m or higher. Most of the pixels are just mixtures of several plant species or vegetation types. They are difficult to isolate, translating into an inability to classify the vegetation that defines the wetland. The growing availability of 3D vegetation and topography data from LiDAR has partially addressed the limitation of traditional multispectral imagery, as demonstrated in some case studies worldwide. + +=== Monitoring and mapping === +A wetland needs to be monitored over time to assess whether it is functioning at an ecologically sustainable level or whether it is becoming degraded. Degraded wetlands will suffer a loss in water quality, loss of sensitive species, and aberrant functioning of soil geochemical processes. +Practically, many natural wetlands are difficult to monitor from the ground as they quite often are difficult to access and may require exposure to dangerous plants and animals as well as diseases borne by insects or other invertebrates. Remote sensing such as aerial imagery and satellite imaging provides effective tools to map and monitor wetlands across large geographic regions and over time. Many remote sensing methods can be used to map wetlands. The integration of multi-sourced data such as LiDAR and aerial photos proves more effective at mapping wetlands than the use of aerial photos alone, especially with the aid of modern machine learning methods (e.g., deep learning). Overall, using digital data provides a standardized data-collection procedure and an opportunity for data integration within a geographic information system. + +== Legislation == + +=== International efforts === + +=== National efforts === + +==== United States ==== +Each country and region tends to have a codified definition of wetlands for legal purposes. In the United States, wetlands are defined as "those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas". This definition has been used in the enforcement of the Clean Water Act. Some US states, such as Massachusetts and New York, have separate definitions that may differ from the federal government's. +In the United States Code, the term wetland is defined "as land that (A) has a predominance of hydric soils, (B) is inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support a prevalence of hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions and (C) under normal circumstances supports a prevalence of such vegetation." Related to these legal definitions, "normal circumstances" are expected to occur during the wet portion of the growing season under normal climatic conditions (not unusually dry or unusually wet) and in the absence of significant disturbance. It is not uncommon for a wetland to be dry for long portions of the growing season. Still, under normal environmental conditions, the soils will be inundated to the surface, creating anaerobic conditions persisting through the wet portion of the growing season. + +==== Canada ==== +Wetlands and wetland policies in Canada +Other Individual Provincial and Territorial Based Policies + +== Examples == + +The world's largest wetlands include the swamp forests of the Amazon River basin, the peatlands of the West Siberian Plain, the Pantanal in South America, and the Sundarbans in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. + +== See also == + +List of wetland plants +All pages with titles containing wetland + +== References == + +== External links == + Media related to Wetlands at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..22244d1fb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Wildland–urban interface" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:33.715060+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The wildland–urban interface (WUI) is a zone of transition between wilderness (unoccupied land) and land developed by human activity – an area where a built environment meets or intermingles with a natural environment. Human settlements in the WUI are at a greater risk of catastrophic wildfire. +The wildland-urban interface poses challenges to public health, causes environmental impacts, and facilitates the transmission of zoonotic diseases. + +== Definitions == + +In the United States, the wildland–urban interface (WUI) has two definitions. The US Forest Service defines the wildland–urban interface qualitatively as a place where "humans and their development meet or intermix with wildland fuel." Communities that are within 0.5 miles (0.80 km) of the zone are included. A quantitative definition is provided by the Federal Register, which defines WUI areas as those containing at least one housing unit per 40 acres (16 ha). +The Federal Register definition splits the WUI into two categories based on vegetation density: + +Intermix WUI, or lands that contain at least one housing unit per 40 acres (16 ha) in which vegetation occupies more than 50% of terrestrial area; a heavily vegetated intermix WUI is as an area in which vegetation occupies over 75% of terrestrial area (at least 5 km2). +Interface WUI, or lands that contain at least one housing unit per 40 acres (16 ha) in which vegetation occupies less than 50% of terrestrial area (at least 2.4 km2). + +== NIST classification == +In 2022 the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, working with CAL FIRE and the Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety, published a Hazard Mitigation Methodology (HMM) that refines how the wildland–urban interface is described. +The report argues that Structure-Separation Distance (SSD) is the dominant control on parcel-to-parcel fire spread, and therefore on the level of hardening that is needed for both existing and new construction. +The methodology recognises seven WUI types that fall into three broad density bands: + +High-density interface (Types 1 & 2). Here typical SSDs are below 30 ft (9.1 m), and most parcels are smaller than half an acre. Type 1 describes the ribbon of homes that directly borders wildland vegetation, while Type 2 covers the interior of the same development. Post-fire studies at Coffey Park in Santa Rosa and in the Mountain Shadows neighbourhood of Colorado Springs illustrate the high exposure that can arise when homes are separated by as little as 6 ft (1.8 m). +Medium-density interface and intermix (Types 3–5). These areas have SSDs ranging from about 30 to 100 ft (9.1 to 30.5 m) and parcel sizes that commonly exceed one-half acre. Types 3 and 4 divide an interface community into its perimeter and interior bands, whereas Type 5 applies where houses are intermingled with continuous wildland fuels. At this spacing, sheds, fences and other "auxiliary fuels" become important pathways for fire propagation and are a focus of the HMM retrofit guidance. +Low-density interface and intermix (Types 6 & 7). In these settings buildings are typically more than 100 ft (30 m) apart and sit on lots of at least one acre. Type 6 refers to parcels on the wildland edge, while Type 7 covers scattered development embedded within vegetation. Although structure-to-structure ignition is less likely, the methodology notes that long driveways, limited water supply and delayed response times create distinct evacuation and suppression challenges. +Because the scheme is anchored in measurable SSD, it links regional "interface / intermix" mapping with parcel-scale decisions. The note shows, for example, that when two buildings lie within about 25 ft (7.6 m) of one another, directional hardening of walls, eaves and attached decks becomes critical, whereas wider separations allow fuel-management efforts to concentrate on the surrounding parcel. +The HMM classification complements earlier Federal Register and Fire Hazard Severity Zone definitions by connecting broad land-use categories to the detailed mitigation actions needed to reduce structure losses in contemporary WUI fires. + +== Growth == +Human development has increasingly encroached into the wildland–urban interface. + +=== Population shifts === +The WUI was the fastest-growing land use type in the United States between 1990 and 2010. Factors include geographic population shifts, expansion of cities and suburbs into wildlands, and vegetative growth into formerly unvegetated land. The primary cause has been migration. Of new WUI areas, 97% were the result of new housing. In the United States there are population shifts towards the WUIs in the West and South; increasing nationally by 18 percent per decade, covering 6 million additional homes between 1990 and 2000 which in 2013 was 32 percent of habitable structures. Globally, WUI growth includes regions such as Argentina, France, South Africa, Australia, and regions around the Mediterranean sea. Going forward it is expected the WUI will continue to expand; an anticipated amenity-seeking migration of retiring baby-boomers to smaller communities with lower costs of living close to scenic and recreational natural resources will contribute to WUI growth. Climate change is also driving population shifts into the WUI as well as changes in wildlife composition. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fba1dd41e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Wildland–urban interface" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:33.715060+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ecological effects === +Housing growth in WUI regions can displace and fragment native vegetation. The introduction of non-native species by humans through landscaping can change the wildlife composition of interface regions. Pets can kill large quantities of wildlife. +Forest fragmentation is another impact of WUI growth, which can lead to unintended ecological consequences. For instance, increased forest fragmentation can lead to an increase in the prevalence of Lyme disease. White-footed mice, a primary host of the Lyme tick, thrive in fragmented habitats. +Increased urbanisation has a variety of effects on plant life. Depending on the influences that are present, some plant traits like woodiness and height may increase while many other traits either show mixed responses or are not well studied. +Additionally, disease vectors in isolated patches can undergo genetic differentiation, increasing their survivability as a whole. +Increases in wildfire risk pose a threat to conservation in WUI growth regions. +Ecological change driven by human influence and climate change has often resulted in more arid and fire-prone WUI. Factors include climate change driven vegetation growth and introduction of non-native plants, insects, and plant diseases. +In North America, Chile, and Australia, unnaturally high fire frequencies due to exotic annual grasses have led to the loss of native shrublands. + +=== Impact on Human Health === +There are several public health risks associated with human populations at the wildland-urban interface beyond exposure to wildfires. Exposure to smoke from wildfires have considerable health impacts on respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity in vulnerable populations + +=== One Health and Zoonotic Disease Transmission === +The proximity of animals serving as zoonotic disease hosts and humans places human populations at high risk of disease transmission, with 20% of humans living in WUI areas with “high zoonotic potential.” Increased movement into WUI zones places humans at increased risk of zoonoses. The One Health approach, which focuses on the intersection of human, animal, and environmental health, enables monitoring, evaluating appropriate land use, and facilitating interdisciplinary public health approaches to mitigate risks associated with WUI. + +== Fire == +Human development has increasingly encroached into the wildland–urban interface. Coupled with a recent increase in large wildland fires, this has led to an increase in fire protection costs. Between 1985–1994 and 2005–2014, the area burned by wildfires in the United States nearly doubled from 18,000 to 33,000 square kilometers. Wildfires in the United States exceeding 50,000 acres (20,000 ha) have steadily increased since 1983; the bulk in modern history occurred after 2003. In the United States, from 1985 to 2016, federal wildfire suppression expenditures tripled from $0.4 billion per year to $1.4 billion per year. +Evacuations in WUI regions could be complex due to densely populated communities, limited road networks, and varying levels of preparedness and risk perception among residents can lead to congestion, delays, and unsafe evacuation routes. The diverse demographics in these areas —ranging from elderly populations to young families— require tailored evacuation strategies to accommodate different vulnerabilities and safety needs. Effective WUI evacuation planning must balance early warning systems, clear communication, adequate infrastructure, and community engagement to enhance preparedness and ensure rapid, safe responses in emergencies. + +=== Wildfire risk assessment === +Calculating the risk posed to a structure located within a WUI is through predictive factors and simulations. Identifying risk factors and simulation with those factors help to understand and then manage the wildfire threat. +For example, a proximity factor measures the risk of fire from wind carried embers which can ignite new spot fires over a mile ahead of a flame front. A vegetation factor measures the risk those wind carried embers have of starting a fire; lower vegetation has a lower risk. +A quantitative risk assessment simulation combines wildfire threat categories. Areas at the highest risk are those where a moderate population overlaps or is adjacent to a wildland that can support a large and intense wildfire and is vulnerable with limited evacuation routes. + +==== Risk factors ==== +The Calkin framework predicts a catastrophic wildfire in the Wildland–urban Interface (WUI), with three categories of factors. These factors allow for an assessment of a degree of wildfire threat. These are ecological factors that define force, human factors that define ignition, and vulnerability factors that define damage. These factors are typically viewed in a geospatial relationship. +The ecological factor category includes climate, seasonal weather patterns, geographical distributions of vegetation, historical spatial wildfire data, and geographic features. The ecological determines wildfire size and intensity. +The human factor category includes arrangement and density of housing. Density correlates with wildfire risk for two reasons. First, people cause fires; from 2001 to 2011, people caused 85% of wildfires recorded by the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC). Second, housing intensifies wildfires because they contain flammable material and produce mobile embers, such as wood shakes. The relationship between population density and wildfire risk is non-linear. At low population densities, human ignitions are low. Ignitions increase with population density. However, there is a threshold of population density at which fire occurrence decreases. This is true for a range of environments in North America, the Mediterranean Basin, Chile, and South Africa. Possible reasons for a decrease include decreases in open space for ember transmission, fuel fragmentation due to urban development, and higher availability of fire-suppression resources. Areas with moderate population densities tend to exhibit higher wildfire risk than areas with low or high population densities. +The vulnerability factor category is measured with evacuation time through a proximity of habitable structures to roads, matching of administrators to responsibilities, land use, building standards, and landscaping types. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd83088ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +--- +title: "Wildland–urban interface" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildland–urban_interface" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:33.715060+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Risk simulations ==== +Wildfire spread is commonly simulated with a Minimum Travel Time (MTT) algorithm. +Prior to MTT algorithms, fire boundaries were modeled through an application of Huygens' principle; boundaries are treated as wave fronts on a two-dimensional surface. +Minimum Travel Time (MTT) methods build on Huygens' principle to find a minimum time for fire to travel between two points. MTT assumes nearly-constant factors such as environmental factors for wind direction and fuel moisture. The MTT is advantageous over Huygens in scalability and algorithm speed. However, factors are dynamic and a constant representation comes at a cost of a limited window and thus MTT is only applicable to short-timescale simulations. + +=== Risk management === +Structure and vegetation flammability is reduced through community-focused risk management through reduction of community vulnerabilities. The degree of control of vulnerability to wildfires is measured with metrics for responsibilities and zones of defenses. + +==== Reducing risk through responsibility distribution ==== + +The probability of catastrophic WUI wildfire is controlled by assignment of responsibility for three actionable WUI objectives: controlling potential wildfire intensity, reducing ignition sources, and reducing vulnerability. When these objectives are met, then a community is a fire-adapted community. The U.S. Forest Service defines fire-adapted communities as "a knowledgeable and engaged community in which the awareness and actions of residents regarding infrastructure, buildings, landscaping, and the surrounding ecosystem lessens the need for extensive protection actions and enables the community to safely accept fire as a part of the surrounding landscape." +Three groups are responsible for achieving the three WUI objectives, these are land management agencies, local governments, and individuals. + +Land management agencies eliminate ignition sources by hardening infrastructure, reduce wildfire size and intensity through fuel and vegetation management, reduce vulnerability through community education on individual preparedness, and respond to wildfires with suppression. +Local governments control human factors through avoiding moderate density development zoning. +Individuals reduce vulnerability through preparedness in increasing home resistance to ignition, reducing flammability of structures, and eliminating ember generating materials. +Fire-adapted communities have been successful in interacting with wildfires. +The key benefit of fire-adapted communities is that a reliance on individuals as a core block in the responsibility framework reduces WUI expenditures by local, regional, and national governments. + +==== Reducing risk through zone defenses ==== +The risk of a structure to ignite in a wildfire is calculated by a Home Ignition Zone (HIZ) metric. The HIZ includes at a minimum the space within a 200 foot (61 m) radius around a structure. The HIZ is a guideline for whoever is responsible for structure wildfire protection; landlords and tenants (homeowner if they are the same) are responsible for physically constructing and maintaining defense zones while local government defines land use boundaries in a way that defense zones are effective (note: fire-resistant is arbitrary and is not defined in hours of resistance for a given degree of heat; these guidelines are relaxed for non-evergreen trees which are less flammable; this guide is not intended to prevent combustion of individual structures in a wildfire—it is intended to prevent catastrophic wildfire in the WUI): + +Guidelines for structures: +Roof materials are fire-resistant and do not produce embers. +Exterior wall materials are fire-resistant. +Vents for eaves, attics, foundations, and roof are covered with wire mesh fine enough to catch embers +Deck and porch materials are fire-resistant. +Guidelines for landscaping: +Keep vegetation from around windows (heat will break glass). +Keep plants farther than 5 feet (1.5 m) from walls; this is a bare dirt no-grow zone, optional to use mowed green lawn grass and non-combustible mulch with sparse deciduous plants. +Keep trees from growing within 30 feet (9.1 m) of the structure. +Keep vegetation thinned within 100 feet (30 m) of the structure. +Guidelines for outdoor maintenance: +Prune tree limbs back 10 feet (3.0 m) from roofs. +Separate tree branches from power lines. +Clear fallen debris from roof, gutters, window wells, and under decks. +Prune tree branches 6 feet (1.8 m) up from the ground. +Burn ground of leaf litter and needles. +Remove and dispose of dead trees and shrubs. +Guidelines for flammables: +Keep clear of flammables 30 feet (9.1 m) around primary and auxiliary structures including firewood piles. +Keep clear 10 feet (3.0 m) around propane tanks or fuel oil tanks. + +==== Challenges to risk management ==== +There are three challenges. + +Wildfires are an ecological process that naturally contribute to the development of ecosystems and many wildlands are historically predisposed to periodic fire; eradication of fires in WUI regions is not feasible. +Coordination of wildfire management efforts is difficult since wildfires are capable of spreading far distances; communities vary in wildfire risk and preparedness. +Actual wildfire risk and sociopolitical expectations of wildland fire management services are mismatched; real dangers are hidden by overconfidence. +An example of the fire-adapted communities performance was demonstrated in November 2018 when the Camp Fire passed through the community of Concow in Butte County, California. The Concow community was a fire-adapted community. This late season fire provided a stress test of the fire-adapted communities theory. The Concow community was destroyed. The wildfire continued through the community without demonstrating the expected slowing of the flame front. If there was a slowing it was less than anticipated though any slowing contributed to allowing residents to evacuate ahead of the flame front. The wildfire continued through wildlands between the community of Concow and the town of Paradise, California. The wildfire then destroyed the town of Paradise which was in the process of developing into a fire-adapted community. The wildfire ignition is suspected to have originated with unhardened electrical transmission line infrastructure which had recently been redesigned though had not been reconstructed and the new design did not include hardening against ignition where it passed through the WUI. The Camp Fire demonstrated limitations of the fire-adapted community theory in late season wildfires driven by Katabatic winds, and in the land management agencies' responsibility in controlling infrastructure ignition sources. + +== See also == +Edge effect +Exurb +Fenceline community +Human–wildlife conflict +Natural environment +Habitat destruction +Natural landscape +Restoration ecology +Peri-urbanization +Rural–urban fringe +Urban sprawl + +== References == + +== External links == +The eXtension Wildfire Information Network +Fire Adapted Communities +Fire Adapted Communities Learning Network +Firewise Communities USA/Recognition Program +Fires at the Urban Interface \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a67bf44bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Wildlife management" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:35.066640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Wildlife management is the management process influencing interactions among and between wildlife, its habitats and people to achieve predefined impacts. Wildlife management can include wildlife conservation, population control, gamekeeping, wildlife contraceptive and pest control. + +Wildlife management aims to halt the loss in the Earth's biodiversity, by taking into consideration ecological principles such as carrying capacity, disturbance and succession, and environmental conditions such as physical geography, pedology and hydrology. Most wildlife biologists are concerned with the conservation and improvement of habitats; although rewilding is increasingly being undertaken. Techniques can include reforestation, pest control, nitrification and denitrification, irrigation, coppicing and hedge laying. +Gamekeeping is the management or control of wildlife for the well-being of game and may include the killing of other animals which share the same niche or predators to maintain a high population of more profitable species, such as pheasants introduced into woodland. Aldo Leopold defined wildlife management in 1933 as the art of making land produce sustained annual crops of wild game for recreational use. + +== History == +The history of wildlife management begins with the game laws, which regulated the right to kill fish and wildlife game. + +=== United Kingdom === +In Great Britain game laws developed out of the forest laws, which in the time of the Norman kings were very oppressive. Under William the Conqueror, it was as great a crime to kill one of the king's deer as to kill one of his subjects. A certain rank and standing were for a long time qualifications indispensably necessary to confer upon anyone the right of pursuing and killing game. + +The late 19th century saw the passage of the first pieces of wildlife conservation legislation and the establishment of the first nature conservation societies. The Sea Birds Preservation Act 1869 was passed in the United Kingdom as the first nature protection law in the world after extensive lobbying from the Association for the Protection of Sea-Birds. +The Game Act 1831 (1 & 2 Will. 4. c. 32) protected game birds by establishing close seasons when they could not be legally taken. The act made it lawful to take game only with the provision of a game license and provided for the appointment of gamekeepers around the country. The purposes of the law was to balance the needs for preservation and harvest and to manage both environment and populations of fish and game. +The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was founded as the Plumage League in 1889 by Emily Williamson at her house in Manchester as a protest group campaigning against the use of great crested grebe and kittiwake skins and feathers in fur clothing. The group gained popularity and eventually amalgamated with the Fur and Feather League in Croydon to form the RSPB. The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the ornithologist Professor Alfred Newton. +The National Trust formed in 1895 with the manifesto to "...promote the permanent preservation, for the benefit of the nation, of lands, ...to preserve (so far practicable) their natural aspect." On 1 May 1899, the Trust purchased two acres of Wicken Fen with a donation from the amateur naturalist Charles Rothschild, establishing the first nature reserve in Britain. Rothschild was a pioneer of wildlife conservation in Britain, and went on to establish many other nature reserves, such as one at Woodwalton Fen, near Huntingdon, in 1910. During his lifetime he built and managed his estate at Ashton Wold in Northamptonshire to maximise its suitability for wildlife, especially butterflies. Concerned about the loss of wildlife habitats, in 1912 he set up the Society For The Promotion Of Nature Reserves, the forerunner of The Wildlife Trusts partnership. +During the society's early years, membership tended to be made up of specialist naturalists and its growth was comparatively slow. The first independent Trust was formed in Norfolk in 1926 as the Norfolk Naturalists Trust, followed in 1938 by the Pembrokeshire Bird Protection Society which after several subsequent changes of name is now the Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales and it was not until the 1940s and 1950s that more Naturalists' Trusts were formed in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Cambridgeshire. These early Trusts tended to focus on purchasing land to establish nature reserves in the geographical areas they served. +In the later 20th century wildlife management is undertaken by several organizations including government bodies such as the Forestry Commission, Charities such as the RSPB and The Wildlife Trusts and privately hired gamekeepers and contractors. Legislation has also been passed to protect wildlife such as the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. The UK government also give farmers subsidies through the Countryside Stewardship Scheme to improve the conservation value of their farms. + +=== United States === +Early game laws were enacted in the United States in 1839 when Rhode Island closed the hunting season for white-tailed deer from May to November. Other regulations during this time focused primarily on restricting hunting. At this time, lawmakers did not consider population sizes or the need for preservation or restoration of wildlife habitats. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..86b1dbc64 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Wildlife management" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:35.066640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The profession of wildlife management was established in the United States in the 1920s and 1930s by Aldo Leopold and others who sought to transcend the purely restrictive policies of the previous generation of conservationists, such as anti-hunting activist William T. Hornaday. Leopold and his close associate Herbert Stoddard, who had both been trained in scientific forestry, argued that modern science and technology could be used to restore and improve wildlife habitat and thus produce abundant "crops" of ducks, deer, and other valued wild animals. +The institutional foundations of the profession of wildlife management were established in the 1930s, when Leopold was granted the first university professorship in wildlife management (1933, University of Wisconsin, Madison), when Leopold's textbook 'Game Management' was published (1933), when The Wildlife Society was founded, when the Journal of Wildlife Management began publishing, and when the first Cooperative Wildlife Research Units were established. Conservationists planned many projects throughout the 1940s. Some of which included the harvesting of female mammals such as deer to decrease rising populations. Others included waterfowl and wetland research. The Fish and Wildlife Management Act was put in place to urge farmers to plant food for wildlife and to provide cover for them. +In 1937 the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (also known as the Pittman-Robertson Act) was passed in the U.S.. This law was an important advancement in the field of wildlife management. It placed a 10% tax on sales of guns and ammunition. The funds generated were then distributed to the states for use in wildlife management activities and research. This law is still in effect today. +Wildlife management grew after World War II with the help of the GI Bill and a postwar boom in recreational hunting. An important step in wildlife management in the United States national parks occurred after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone National Park. In 1963, United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management. In the Leopold Report, the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective, and recommended active management of Yellowstone's elk population. +Elk overpopulation in Yellowstone is thought by many wildlife biologists, such as Douglas Smith, to have been primarily caused by the extirpation of wolves from the park and surrounding environment. After wolves were removed, elk herds increased in population, reaching new highs during the mid-1930s. The increased number of elk resulted in overgrazing in parts of Yellowstone. Park officials decided that the elk herd should be managed. For approximately thirty years, the park elk herds were culled: Each year some were captured and shipped to other locations, a certain number were killed by park rangers, and hunters were allowed to take more elk that migrated outside the park. By the late 1960s the herd populations dropped to historic lows (less than 4,000 for the Northern Range herd). This caused outrage among both conservationists and hunters. The park service stopped culling elk in 1968. The elk population then rebounded. Twenty years later there were 19,000 elk in the Northern Range herd, a historic high. +Since the tumultuous 1970s, when animal rights activists and environmentalists began to challenge some aspects of wildlife management, the profession has been overshadowed by the rise of conservation biology. Although wildlife managers remain central to the implementation of the Endangered Species Act and other wildlife conservation policies, conservation biologists have shifted the focus of conservation away from wildlife management's concern with the protection and restoration of single species and toward the maintenance of ecosystems and biodiversity. In the United States, wildlife management practices are implemented by a governmental agency, such as the Endangered Species Act. + +== Types of wildlife management == + +Custodial management is preventive or protective. The aim is to minimize external influences on the population and its habitat. It is appropriate in a national park where one of the stated goals is to protect ecological processes. It is also appropriate for conservation of a threatened species where the threat is of external origin rather than being intrinsic to the system. Feeding of animals by visitors is discouraged. +Manipulative management acts on a population, either changing its numbers by direct means or influencing numbers by the indirect means of altering food supply, habitat, density of predators, or prevalence of disease. This is appropriate when a population is to be harvested, or when it slides to an unacceptably low density or increases to an unacceptably high level. Such densities are inevitably the subjective view of the land owner, and may be disputed by animal welfare interests. +Rewilding approaches emphasize the need to reduce human impact on ecosystems to restore them to their self-sustaining state. This approach differs from traditional wildlife management techniques by recognizing the role of keystone species which have an outsize effect on their ecosystems. By reintroducing keystone species, rewilding aims to restore missing ecological processes that have led to widespread environmental collapse. This field attributes the ongoing need for human intervention in ecosystem management to the historical extinction of a limited number of megafaunal species. Rewilding strategies include Passive, Active, Pleistocene, trophic, and Urban rewilding techniques. Recent research suggests certain types of rewilding, particularly trophic rewilding, may contribute to climate change mitigation by restoring ecosystem resilience, and improving carbon sequestration. +Pest control is the control of real or perceived pests and can be used for the benefit of wildlife, farmers, gamekeepers or human safety. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1ac2df7e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Wildlife management" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:35.066640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Hunting limitations == +Wildlife management studies, research and lobbying by interest groups help designate times of the year when certain wildlife species can be legally hunted, allowing for surplus animals to be removed. In the United States, hunting season and bag limits are determined by guidelines set by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service for waterfowl and other migratory gamebirds. The hunting season and bag limits for state regulated game species such as deer are determined by State game Commissions, which are made up of representatives from various interest groups and wildlife biologists. +Open season is when wildlife is allowed to be hunted by law and is usually not during the breeding season. Hunters may be restricted by sex, age or class of animal, for instance there may be an open season for any male deer with 4 points or better on at least one antler. Closed season is when wildlife is protected from hunting and is usually during its breeding season. Closed season is enforced by law, any hunting during closed season is punishable by law and termed as illegal hunting or poaching. Open and closed season on deer in the United Kingdom is legislated for in the Deer Act. + +== Predator control == +The Division of Biological Survey was created within the United States Department of Agriculture in 1896. Its work centered on managing agricultural pests throughout the United States. By 1905 with funding scarce, the Survey included in its mission the eradication of wolves, coyotes and other large predators. This garnered them the support of ranchers and western legislators resulting, by 1914, in a $125,000 congressionally approved budget for use on the National Forests and the public domain in destroying wolves, coyotes and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry. +Meanwhile, scientists like Joseph Grinnell and Charles C. Adams, a founder of the Ecological Society of America, were promoting a "balance of nature" theory – the idea that predators were an important part of the larger ecosystem and should not be eradicated. In 1924, at a conference organized by the American Society of Mammalogists (ASM), the debate generated a public split between those in the Survey, promoting eradication, and those from the ASM who promoted some sort of accommodation. Edward A. Goldman from the Survey, made perfectly clear that with the arrival of Europeans in North America, the balance of nature had been "violently overturned, never to be reestablished". He concludes with the idea that "Large predatory mammals, destructive to livestock and to game, no longer have a place in our advancing civilization." +The Survey subsequently placed over 2 million poisoned bait stations across the west and by 1930 had "extirpated wolves from the Lower 48 and advised and assisted in erasing grey wolves from Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks". The Survey then turned to the eradication of coyote, coordinated through the 1931 Animal Damage Control Act. This practice continued into the early 1970s. Despite the killing of hundreds of thousands of coyotes, their adaptability prevented any significant population decline. The threat drove the coyotes to migrate into new habitats, even venturing into urban areas. +In 1985 Ronald Reagan transferred the responsibility for predator control to the Wildlife Services program under the Department of Agriculture. Official reports show Wildlife Services has killed over 22 million animals in the last decade. In 2023 alone, they killed over 1.4 million animals, including 375,045 native wild animals. + +== Impact on ecosystems == +Habitat destruction and fragmentation are major drivers of biodiversity loss in the United Kingdom, however landowners that participate in field sports, particularly hunting and shooting, are more likely to conserve and reinstate woodlands and hedgerows because they are used by quarry species. A study in 2003 showed that they are around 2.5 times more likely to plant new woodlands than landowners without game or hunting interests, and also conserve a far greater woodland area. +Landowners undertake management measures to improve habitats for quarry species, including shrub planting, coppicing and skylighting to encourage understory growth. Roger Draycott of the Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust has reported the conservation benefits of game management schemes in the UK, including woodlands with denser undergrowth and higher abundances of native birds. However, overall evidence that game shooting is beneficial to wider biodiversity has been inconclusive: high densities of game birds are known to negatively impact ecosystems, resulting in shorter grassland vegetation, lower floral diversity in semi-natural woodlands, fewer saplings in hedgerows leading from such woodlands, and reductions in arthropod biomass attributable to predation. +The rearing of both wild and released game birds requires the provision of food and shelter during the winter months, and to achieve this landowners plant cover crops. Generally species such as maize or quinoa, these are planted in strips alongside arable land. Cover crops are also used by a variety of nationally declining farmland birds such as linnets and finches, providing valuable food resources and refuge from predators. +Prior to the Hunting Act, fox hunting also provided a major incentive for woodland conservation and management throughout England and Wales, with higher species diversity and abundance of plants and butterflies found in woodlands managed for foxes according to a survey of mounted hunts in 2006, verified by The Council of Hunting Associations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b91f20962 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Wildlife management" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_management" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:35.066640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Opposition == +The control of wildlife through killing and hunting has created an opposition to hunting by animal rights and animal welfare activists. Critics object to the real or perceived cruelty involved in some forms of wildlife management. They also argue against the deliberate breeding of certain animals by environmental organizations—who hunters pay money to kill—in pursuit of profit. Additionally, they draw attention to the attitude that it is acceptable to kill animals in the name of ecosystem or biodiversity preservation, yet it is seen as unacceptable to kill humans for the same purpose; asserting that such attitudes are a form of discrimination based on species-membership i.e. speciesism. +Environmentalists have also opposed hunting where they believe it is unnecessary or will negatively affect biodiversity. Critics of game keeping note that habitat manipulation and predator control are often used to maintain artificially inflated populations of valuable game animals (including introduced exotics) without regard to the ecological integrity of the habitat. Gamekeepers in the United Kingdom claim it to be necessary for wildlife conservation as the amount of countryside they look after exceeds by a factor of nine the amount in nature reserves and national parks. + +== References == + +== External links == + Media related to Wildlife management at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file