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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space-0.md
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title: "Abstract space"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space"
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category: "reference"
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Abstract space, in geography, is a hypothetical space characterized by equal and consistent properties; a geographic space that is completely homogeneous. All movement and activity would be equally easy or difficult in all directions and all locations within this space. This concept is useful for modeling or analyzing spatial activity and behavior by limiting or eliminating extraneous variables, such as terrain. For example, if researchers want to study the relationship between culture and trade, they don't want their model to be overwhelmed or influenced by factors such as mountainous barriers and rivers because these would detract from the purpose of modeling how culture alone effects trade.
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== See also ==
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Central Place Theory
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== References ==
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space-0.md
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title: "Activity space"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space"
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In social science, the activity space designates the "set of places individuals encounter as a result of their routine activities in everyday life."
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The activity space can include all relevant locations that an individual routinely go to, such as the place of residence, the workplace (or the place of study), but also gyms, supermarkets, or cinemas.
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== Definition ==
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Activity space research started in the field of geography and urban planning, where scholars investigated the effect of urban spatial structure on individual behavior. Horton and Reynolds define the activity space "as the subset of all urban locations with which the individual has direct contact as the result of day-to-day activities." They consider the activity space as a subset of one's "action space," which they define as "the collection of all urban locations about which the individual has information and the subjective utility or preference he associates with these locations". The "action space" is often use synonymously with the terms "awareness space," "mental map," and "cognitive map."
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The emergence of the cognitive science has broadened the scope of activity space beyond the realm of physicality. Scientists like David Kirsh define activity space as the blend of several components. These components include:
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The goal a task is meant to accomplish or problem it is meant to resolve
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The physical space the task is performed within
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The actions an "agent" is capable of taking
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The concepts, plans, and other abstract resources agents find in the environment or bring to the task in their minds
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== See also ==
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Absolute space and time
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Method of loci
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Social space
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Sociology of space
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Spatial analysis
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Spatial memory
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Time geography
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== References ==
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)-0.md
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title: "Alfoz (territory)"
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The geographical term alfoz (plural alfoces) was used in the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages to describe the rural territory, including subordinate hamlets, under the jurisdiction of a corresponding town (villa in Spanish). The villa and its alfoz, under the authority of the town's local council (concejo), sometimes underpinned what was called a Comunidad de Villa y Tierra, an autonomous political division. At the center of this community, the town (or sometimes a city) comprised an urban area and usually boasted of a castle and a fortified wall.
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By the 12th century, the alfoces had fiscal, judicial and military functions. Furthermore, they lent themselves to the communal use of land for silvopastoral agriculture; however, in the year 1100, monarchs began to allocate portions of land to the Church and the nobility, an act that undermined the very purpose of the alfoz.
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The alfoz and its villa formed what would later be known as a municipality. The word alfoz comes from the Arabic al-hawz, meaning "rural district". It is currently preserved in several placenames in Spain as well as is occasionally used as a modern-day common noun.
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== Notes ==
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== References ==
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== Bibliography ==
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Martínez Sopena, Pascual (2005). Una historia de Valladolid: El Valladolid medieval (in Spanish). Ayuntamiento de Valladolid. ISBN 84-95389-80-0.
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García Velasco, Miguel Ángel (2008). Moraleja de las Panaderas: Refugio entre pinares (in Spanish). Diputación de Valladolid. p. 32. ISBN 978-84-7852-097-8.
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-0.md
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title: "Alluvial fan"
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An alluvial fan is an accumulation of sediments that fans outwards from a concentrated source of sediments, such as a narrow canyon emerging from an escarpment. They are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but are also found in more humid environments subject to intense rainfall and in areas of modern glaciation. They range in area from less than 1 square kilometer (0.4 sq mi) to almost 20,000 square kilometers (7,700 sq mi).
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Alluvial fans typically form where a flow of sediment or rocks emerge from a confined channel and are suddenly free to spread out in many directions. For example, many alluvial fans form when steep mountain valleys meet a flat plain. The transition from a narrow channel to a wide open area reduces the carrying capacity of flow and results in deposition of sediments. The flow can take the form of infrequent debris flows like in a landslide, or can be carried by an intermittent stream or creek.
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The reduction of flow is key to the formation of alluvial fans. If a river exits a mountain valley without any reduction in flow, it is more common to see the formation of an alluvial plain. The steepness of an alluvial formation depends on how much flow decreases when entering flat ground as sediment will be deposited further away from its source if river flow is high.
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Alluvial fans are most commonly found at the foot of desert mountains, such as in the Great Basin of western North America, in the New Red Sandstone of south Devon, or all across the major population centers of Xinjiang in the Taklamakan Desert and Junggar Basin.
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Alluvial fans are not unique to Earth, as they are simply a result of gravity and geometry, and thus have also been found abundantly on Mars and Titan, showing that fluvial processes have occurred on other worlds.
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Some of the largest alluvial fans are found along the Himalaya mountain front on the Indo-Gangetic Plain. A shift of the feeder channel (a nodal avulsion) can lead to catastrophic flooding, as occurred on the Kosi River fan in 2008.
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== Description ==
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An alluvial fan is an accumulation of sediments that fans out from a concentrated source of sediments, such as a narrow canyon emerging from an escarpment. This accumulation is shaped like a section of a shallow cone, with its apex at the source of sediments.
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Alluvial fans vary greatly in size, from only a few meters across at the base to as much as 150 kilometers across, with a slope of 1.5 to 25 degrees. Some giant alluvial fans have areas of almost 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi). The slope measured from the apex is generally concave, with the steepest slope near the apex (the proximal fan or fanhead) and becoming less steep further out (the medial fan or midfan) and shallowing at the edges of the fan (the distal fan or outer fan). Sieve deposits, which are lobes of coarse gravel, may be present on the proximal fan. The sediments in an alluvial fan are usually coarse and poorly sorted, with the coarsest sediments found on the proximal fan.
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When there is enough space in the alluvial plain for all of the sediment deposits to fan out without contacting other valley walls or rivers, an unconfined alluvial fan develops. Unconfined alluvial fans allow sediments to naturally fan out, and the shape of the fan is not influenced by other topological features. When the alluvial plain is more restricted, so that the fan comes into contact with topographic barriers, a confined fan is formed.
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Wave or channel erosion of the edge of the fan (lateral erosion) sometimes produces a "toe-trimmed" fan, in which the edge of the fan is marked by a small escarpment. Toe-trimmed fans may record climate changes or tectonic processes, and the process of lateral erosion may enhance the aquifer or petroleum reservoir potential of the fan. Toe-trimmed fans on the planet Mars provide evidence of past river systems.
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When numerous rivers and streams exit a mountain front onto a plain, the fans can combine to form a continuous apron. This is referred to as a bajada or piedmont alluvial plain.
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== Formation ==
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Alluvial fans usually form where a confined feeder channel exits a mountain front or a glacier margin. As the flow exits the feeder channel onto the fan surface, it is able to spread out into wide, shallow channels or to infiltrate the surface. This reduces the carrying power of the flow and results in deposition of sediments.
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Flow in the proximal fan, where the slope is steepest, is usually confined to a single channel (a fanhead trench), which may be up to 30 meters (100 ft) deep. This channel is subject to blockage by accumulated sediments or debris flows, which causes flow to periodically break out of its old channel (nodal avulsion) and shift to a part of the fan with a steeper gradient, where deposition resumes. As a result, normally only part of the fan is active at any particular time, and the bypassed areas may undergo soil formation or erosion.
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Alluvial fans can be dominated by debris flows (debris flow fans) or stream flow (fluvial fans). Which kind of fan is formed is controlled by climate, tectonics, and the type of bedrock in the area feeding the flow onto the fan.
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-1.md
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=== Debris flow ===
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Debris flow fans receive most of their sediments in the form of debris flows. Debris flows are slurry-like mixtures of water and particles of all sizes, from clay to boulders, that resemble wet concrete. They are characterized by having a yield strength, meaning that they are highly viscous at low flow velocities but become less viscous as the flow velocity increases. This means that a debris flow can come to a halt while still on moderately tilted ground. The flow then becomes consolidated under its own weight.
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Debris flow fans occur in all climates but are more common where the source rock is mudstone or matrix-rich saprolite rather than coarser, more permeable regolith. The abundance of fine-grained sediments encourages the initial hillslope failure and subsequent cohesive flow of debris. Saturation of clay-rich colluvium by locally intense thunderstorms initiates slope failure. The resulting debris flow travels down the feeder channel and onto the surface of the fan.
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Debris flow fans have a network of mostly inactive distributary channels in the upper fan that gives way to mid- to lower-level lobes. The channels tend to be filled by subsequent cohesive debris flows. Usually only one lobe is active at a time, and inactive lobes may develop desert varnish or develop a soil profile from eolian dust deposition, on time scales of 1,000 to 10,000 years. Because of their high viscosity, debris flows tend to be confined to the proximal and medial fan even in a debris-flow-dominated alluvial fan, and streamfloods dominate the distal fan. However, some debris-flow-dominated fans in arid climates consist almost entirely of debris flows and lag gravels from eolian winnowing of debris flows, with no evidence of sheetflood or sieve deposits. Debris-flow-dominated fans tend to be steep and poorly vegetated.
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=== Fluvial ===
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Fluvial fans (streamflow-dominated fans) receive most of their sediments in the form of stream flow rather than debris flows. They are less sharply distinguished from ordinary fluvial deposits than are debris flow fans.
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Fluvial fans occur where there is perennial, seasonal, or ephemeral stream flow that feeds a system of distributary channels on the fan. In arid or semiarid climates, deposition is dominated by infrequent but intense rainfall that produces flash floods in the feeder channel. This results in sheetfloods on the alluvial fan, where sediment-laden water leaves its channel confines and spreads across the fan surface. These may include hyperconcentrated flows containing 20% to 45% sediments, which are intermediate between sheetfloods having 20% or less of sediments and debris flows with more than 45% sediments. As the flood recedes, it often leaves a lag of gravel deposits that have the appearance of a network of braided streams.
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Where the flow is more continuous, as with spring snow melt, incised-channel flow in channels 1–4 meters (3–10 ft) high takes place in a network of braided streams. Such alluvial fans tend to have a shallower slope but can become enormous. The Kosi and other fans along the Himalaya mountain front in the Indo-Gangetic plain are examples of gigantic stream-flow-dominated alluvial fans, sometimes described as megafans. Here, continued movement on the Main Boundary Thrust over the last ten million years has focused the drainage of 750 kilometres (470 miles) of mountain frontage into just three enormous fans.
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== Geologic record ==
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Alluvial fans are common in the geologic record, but may have been particularly important before the evolution of land plants in the mid-Paleozoic. They are characteristic of fault-bounded basins and can be 5,000 meters (16,000 ft) or thicker due to tectonic subsidence of the basin and uplift of the mountain front. Most are red from hematite produced by diagenetic alteration of iron-rich minerals in a shallow, oxidizing environment. Examples of paleofans include the Triassic basins of eastern North America and the New Red Sandstone of south Devon, the Devonian Hornelen Basin of Norway, and the Devonian-Carboniferous in the Gaspé Peninsula of Canada. Such fan deposit likely contain the largest accumulations of gravel in the geologic record.
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=== Depositional facies ===
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Several kinds of sediment deposits (facies) are found in alluvial fans.
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Alluvial fans are characterized by coarse sedimentation, though the sediments making up the fan become less coarse further from the apex. Gravels show well-developed imbrication with the pebbles dipping towards the apex. Fan deposits typically show well-developed reverse grading caused by outbuilding of the fan: Finer sediments are deposited at the edge of the fan, but as the fan continues to grow, increasingly coarse sediments are deposited on top of the earlier, less coarse sediments. However, a few fans show normal grading indicating inactivity or even fan retreat, so that increasingly fine sediments are deposited on earlier coarser sediments. Normal or reverse grading sequences can be hundreds to thousands of meters in thickness. Depositional facies that have been reported for alluvial fans include debris flows, sheet floods and upper regime stream floods, sieve deposits, and braided stream flows, each leaving their own characteristic sediment deposits that can be identified by geologists.
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Debris flow deposits are common in the proximal and medial fan. These deposits lack sedimentary structure, other than occasional reverse-graded bedding towards the base, and they are poorly sorted. The proximal fan may also include gravel lobes that have been interpreted as sieve deposits, where runoff rapidly infiltrates and leaves behind only the coarse material. However, the gravel lobes have also been interpreted as debris flow deposits. Conglomerate originating as debris flows on alluvial fans is described as fanglomerate.
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Stream flow deposits tend to be sheetlike, better sorted than debris flow deposits, and sometimes show well-developed sedimentary structures such as cross-bedding. These are more prevalent in the medial and distal fan. In the distal fan, where channels are very shallow and braided, stream flow deposits consist of sandy interbeds with planar and trough slanted stratification. The medial fan of a streamflow-dominated alluvial fan shows nearly the same depositional facies as ordinary fluvial environments, so that identification of ancient alluvial fans must be based on radial paleomorphology in a piedmont setting.
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-2.md
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== Occurrences ==
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Alluvial fans are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but are also found in more humid environments subject to intense rainfall and in areas of modern glaciation. They have also been found on other bodies of the Solar System.
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=== Terrestrial ===
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Alluvial fans are built in response to erosion induced by tectonic uplift. The upwards coarsening of the beds making up the fan reflects cycles of erosion in the highlands that feed sediments to the fan. However, climate and changes in base level may be as important as tectonic uplift. For example, alluvial fans in the Himalayas show older fans entrenched and overlain by younger fans. The younger fans, in turn, are cut by deep incised valleys showing two terrace levels. Dating via optically stimulated luminescence suggests a hiatus of 70,000 to 80,000 years between the old and new fans, with evidence of tectonic tilting at 45,000 years ago and an end to fan deposition 20,000 years ago. Both the hiatus and the more recent end to fan deposition are thought to be connected to periods of enhanced southwest monsoon precipitation. Climate has also influenced fan formation in Death Valley, California, US, where dating of beds suggests that peaks of fan deposition during the last 25,000 years occurred during times of rapid climate change, both from wet to dry and from dry to wet.
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Alluvial fans are often found in desert areas, which are subjected to periodic flash floods from nearby thunderstorms in local hills. The typical watercourse in an arid climate has a large, funnel-shaped basin at the top, leading to a narrow defile, which opens out into an alluvial fan at the bottom. Multiple braided streams are usually present and active during water flows. Phreatophytes (plants with long tap roots capable of reaching a deep water table) are sometimes found in sinuous lines radiating from arid climate fan toes. These fan-toe phreatophyte strips trace buried channels of coarse sediments from the fan that have interfingered with impermeable playa sediments.
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Alluvial fans also develop in wetter climates when high-relief terrain is located adjacent to low-relief terrain. In Nepal, the Koshi River has built a megafan covering some 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) below its exit from Himalayan foothills onto the nearly level plains where the river traverses into India before joining the Ganges.
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Along the upper Koshi tributaries, tectonic forces elevate the Himalayas several millimeters annually. Uplift is approximately in equilibrium with erosion, so the river annually carries some 100 million cubic meters (3.5×10^9 ft3) of sediment as it exits the mountains. Deposition of this magnitude over millions of years is more than sufficient to account for the megafan.
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In North America, streams flowing into California's Central Valley have deposited smaller but still extensive alluvial fans, such as that of the Kings River flowing out of the Sierra Nevada. Like the Himalayan megafans, these are streamflow-dominated fans.
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=== Extraterrestrial ===
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==== Mars ====
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Alluvial fans are also found on Mars. Unlike alluvial fans on Earth, those on Mars are rarely associated with tectonic processes, but are much more common on crater rims. The crater rim alluvial fans appear to have been deposited by sheetflow rather than debris flows.
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Three alluvial fans have been found in Saheki Crater. These fans confirmed past fluvial flow on the planet and further supported the theory that liquid water was once present in some form on the Martian surface. In addition, observations of fans in Gale crater made by satellites from orbit have now been confirmed by the discovery of fluvial sediments by the Curiosity rover. Alluvial fans in Holden crater have toe-trimmed profiles attributed to fluvial erosion.
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The few alluvial fans associated with tectonic processes include those at Coprates Chasma and Juventae Chasma, which are part of the Valles Marineris canyon system. These provide evidence of the existence and nature of faulting in this region of Mars.
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==== Titan ====
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Alluvial fans have been observed by the Cassini-Huygens mission on Titan using the Cassini orbiter's synthetic aperture radar instrument. These fans are more common in the drier mid-latitudes at the end of methane/ethane rivers where it is thought that frequent wetting and drying occur due to precipitation, much like arid fans on Earth. Radar imaging suggests that fan material is most likely composed of round grains of water ice or solid organic compounds about two centimeters in diameter.
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== Impact on humans ==
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Alluvial fans are the most important groundwater reservoirs in many regions. Many urban, industrial, and agricultural areas are located on alluvial fans, including the conurbations of Los Angeles, California; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Denver, Colorado, in the western United States, and in many other parts of the world. However, flooding on alluvial fans poses unique problems for disaster prevention and preparation.
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=== Aquifers ===
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The beds of coarse sediments associated with alluvial fans form aquifers that are the most important groundwater reservoirs in many regions. These include both arid regions, such as Egypt or Iraq, and humid regions, such as central Europe or Taiwan.
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=== Flood hazards ===
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Alluvial fans are subject to infrequent but often very damaging flooding, whose unusual characteristics distinguish alluvial fan floods from ordinary riverbank flooding. These include great uncertainty in the likely flood path, the likelihood of abrupt deposition and erosion of sediments carried by the flood from upstream sources, and a combination of the availability of sediments and of the slope and topography of the fan that creates extraordinary hazards. These hazards cannot reliably be mitigated by elevation on fill (raising existing buildings up to a meter (three feet) and building new foundations beneath them). At a minimum, major structural flood control measures are required to mitigate risk, and in some cases, the only alternative is to restrict development on the fan surface. Such measures can be politically controversial, particularly since the hazard is not obvious to property owners. In the United States, areas at risk of alluvial fan flooding are marked as Zone AO on flood insurance rate maps.
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Alluvial fan flooding commonly takes the form of short (several hours) but energetic flash floods that occur with little or no warning. They typically result from heavy and prolonged rainfall, and are characterized by high velocities and capacity for sediment transport. Flows cover the range from floods through hyperconcentrated flows to debris flows, depending on the volume of sediments in the flow. Debris flows resemble freshly poured concrete, consisting mostly of coarse debris. Hyperconcentrated flows are intermediate between floods and debris flows, with a water content between 40 and 80 weight percent. Floods may transition to hyperconcentrated flows as they entrain sediments, while debris flows may become hyperconcentrated flows if they are diluted by water. Because flooding on alluvial fans carries large quantities of sediment, channels can rapidly become blocked, creating great uncertainty about flow paths that magnifies the dangers.
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Alluvial fan flooding in the Apennine Mountains of Italy have resulted in repeated loss of life. A flood on 1 October 1581 at Piedimonte Matese resulted in the loss of 400 lives. Loss of life from alluvial fan floods continued into the 19th century, and the hazard of alluvial fan flooding remains a concern in Italy.
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On January 1, 1934, record rainfall in a recently burned area of the San Gabriel Mountains, California, caused severe flooding of the alluvial fan on which the towns of Montrose and Glendale were built. The floods caused significant loss of life and property.
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The Koshi River in India has built up a megafan where it exits the Himalayas onto the Ganges plain. The river has a history of frequently and capriciously changing its course, so that it has been called the Sorrow of Bihar for contributing disproportionately to India's death tolls in flooding. These exceed those of all countries except Bangladesh. Over the last few hundred years, the river had generally shifted westward across its fan, and by 2008, the main river channel was located on the extreme western part of the megafan. In August 2008, high monsoon flows breached the embankment of the Koshi River. This diverted most of the river into an unprotected ancient channel and flooded the central part of the megafan. This was an area with a high population density that had been stable for over 200 years. Over a million people were rendered homeless, about a thousand lost their lives and thousands of hectares of crops were destroyed.
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=== Petroleum reservoirs ===
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Buried alluvial fans are sometimes found at the margins of petroleum basins. Debris flow fans make poor petroleum reservoirs, but fluvial fans are potentially significant reservoirs. Though fluvial fans are typically of poorer quality than reservoirs closer to the basin center, due to their complex structure, the episodic flooding channels of the fans are potentially lucrative targets for petroleum exploration. Alluvial fans that experience toe-trimming (lateral erosion) by an axial river (a river running the length of an escarpment-bounded basin) may have increased potential as reservoirs. The river deposits relatively porous, permeable axial river sediments that alternate with fan sediment beds.
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== See also ==
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Alluvium – Loose soil or sediment that is eroded and redeposited in a non-marine setting
|
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Floodplain – Land adjacent to a water body which is flooded during periods of high water
|
||||
Placer deposit – Accumulation of valuable minerals formed by gravity separation
|
||||
River delta – Silt deposition landform at the mouth of a river
|
||||
Subaqueous fan – Type of sediment deposit
|
||||
Tectonic influences on alluvial fans
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
83
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain-0.md
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|
||||
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|
||||
title: "Alluvial plain"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:44.931749+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An alluvial plain is a plain (an essentially flat landform) created by the deposition of sediment over a long period by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A floodplain is part of the process, being the smaller area over which the rivers flood at a particular time. In contrast, the alluvial plain is the larger area representing the region over which the floodplains have shifted over geological time.
|
||||
As the highlands erode due to weathering and water flow, the sediment from the hills is transported to the lower plain. Various creeks will carry the water further to a river, lake, bay, or ocean. As the sediments are deposited during flood conditions in the floodplain of a creek, the elevation of the floodplain will be raised. As this reduces the channel floodwater capacity, the creek will, over time, seek new, lower paths, forming a meander (a curved path). The leftover higher locations, typically natural levees at the margins of the flood channel, will be eroded by lateral stream erosion, local rainfall, and possibly wind transport if the climate is arid and does not support soil-holding grasses. These processes, over geologic time, will form the plain, a region with little relief (local changes in elevation) yet with a constant but slight slope.
|
||||
The Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms, maintained by the United States National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS), defines an "alluvial plain" as "a large assemblage of fluvial landforms (braided streams, terraces, etc.) that form a low gradient, regional ramps along the flanks of mountains and extend great distances from their sources (e.g., High Plains of North America)". Use of "alluvial plain" as a general, informal term for a broad flood plain or a low-gradient delta is explicitly discouraged. The NCSS glossary instead suggests "flood plain".
|
||||
Alluvial plains have similar traits to a river delta; however, the river delta will flow into a larger body of water. Alluvial plains generally don't have this.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Alluvial plains by continent ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Africa ===
|
||||
Barotse Floodplain in Angola and Zambia
|
||||
Kafue Flats in Zambia
|
||||
Okavango Delta in Botswana
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
Chianan Plain in Taiwan
|
||||
Indo-Gangetic Plain in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan
|
||||
Mekong Delta in Vietnam
|
||||
Mesopotamia in Iraq
|
||||
North China Plain in China
|
||||
Punjab Plain in India and Pakistan
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
Baetic Depression in Andalusia, Spain
|
||||
Haute vallée de la Sarthe in France
|
||||
Iskar Valleys in Bulgaria
|
||||
Lower Danubian Plain, Bulgaria and Romania
|
||||
Mesaoria in Cyprus
|
||||
Multiple alluvial sites in Switzerland
|
||||
Palakaria Valley in Bulgaria
|
||||
Po Valley in Italy
|
||||
Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt Delta in the Netherlands
|
||||
Struma Valley in Bulgaria
|
||||
Tundzha Valleys in Bulgaria
|
||||
Upper Thracian Plain in Bulgaria
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== North America ===
|
||||
Laguna de Santa Rosa in the United States
|
||||
Mississippi Alluvial Plain in the United States
|
||||
Oxnard Plain in the United States
|
||||
Santa Clara Valley in San Jose, California, United States
|
||||
Tempisque River Plain in Costa Rica
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oceania ===
|
||||
Canterbury Plains in Canterbury, New Zealand
|
||||
Cumberland Plain in Greater Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
|
||||
Darling Riverine Plains in South-eastern Australia
|
||||
Lockyer Valley in South-eastern Queensland, Australia
|
||||
Southland Plains in Southland, New Zealand
|
||||
Waikato Plains in Waikato, New Zealand
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== South America ===
|
||||
Gran Chaco in Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay
|
||||
Llanos in Colombia and Venezuela
|
||||
Llanos de Moxos in Bolivia
|
||||
Middle Amazon in Brazil
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Alluvial fan
|
||||
Alluvium
|
||||
Coastal plain
|
||||
Desert pavement
|
||||
Floodplain
|
||||
River delta
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
51
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-0.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Americas (terminology)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:46.319434+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Americas, also known as America, are lands of the Western Hemisphere, composed of numerous entities and regions variably defined by geography, politics, and culture.
|
||||
The Americas are recognized in the English-speaking world to include two separate continents: North America and South America. In parts of Europe and Latin America, America is considered to be a single continent, within which North and South America are subcontinents.
|
||||
|
||||
== Physical geography ==
|
||||
North America—the continent and associated islands of the Northern Hemisphere and (chiefly) Western Hemisphere. It lies northwest of South America and is bounded by the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific Oceans.
|
||||
Middle America—the territory between the southern Rocky Mountains and the northern tip of the Andes. This isthmus marks the transition between North and South America. It may also include the Caribbean.
|
||||
Central America—the narrow southern portion of mainland North America connecting with South America, extending from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Isthmus of Panama; alternatively, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt may delimit the region on the north.
|
||||
Caribbean—the region between southeastern North America and northern South America, consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (most of which enclose the sea), and the surrounding coasts. The islands—composed of the Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, and Lucayan Archipelago—are also known as the West Indies (or, in some languages, the Antilles).
|
||||
South America—the continent and associated islands of the Western Hemisphere. It is chiefly in the Southern Hemisphere and lies between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, southeast of North America.
|
||||
|
||||
== Human geography ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Geographical or geopolitical regions ===
|
||||
North America—when used to denote less than the entire North American continent, contains Canada, Mexico, and the United States, and the dependencies of Bermuda (U.K.), Greenland (Denmark), and Saint Pierre and Miquelon (France). Occasionally, this refers to just Canada and the United States together.
|
||||
Middle America—Mexico and the nations of Central America; often also includes the West Indies. Occasionally, Colombia and Venezuela are also included in Middle America.
|
||||
Central America—the southern region of the North American continent, comprising Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Sometimes, Central America may be defined to only include the five countries which gained independence as the United Provinces of Central America. This definition excludes Belize and Panama.
|
||||
West Indies—the island territories of the Caribbean.
|
||||
South America—contains the nations of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela, and the French overseas department of French Guiana. Also includes the insular territories of the Falkland Islands (U.K.), the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (U.K.), Fernando de Noronha (Brazil), Trindade and Martim Vaz (Brazil), the Galápagos Islands (Ecuador), and the Juan Fernández Islands (Chile).
|
||||
Middle America (United States)—Middle America may also refer to the midwestern United States or the middle-class segment of the U.S. population.
|
||||
|
||||
=== United Nations geoscheme ===
|
||||
|
||||
Northern America—the northern region of the North American continent, including Canada, the United States, Greenland, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, and Bermuda.
|
||||
Latin America and the Caribbean-extending from The Bahamas and Mexico to Argentina and Chile.
|
||||
Central America—the countries south of Mexico and north of Colombia.
|
||||
The Caribbean.
|
||||
South America—all the countries south of Panama.
|
||||
Within this scheme, the continent of America includes Northern America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Political divisions ===
|
||||
|
||||
United States of America—a federal republic in North America founded in 1776 and comprising 50 states (one of which, Hawaii, is not considered to be located in North America) and one federal district (the District of Columbia), with several outlying territories of varying affiliation; commonly referred to as the U.S. or simply America.
|
||||
Confederate States of America—a former confederation in North America from 1861 to 1865, comprising eleven southern states that attempted to secede from the United States of America: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Their rebellion precipitated the American Civil War; upon its conclusion, the Confederate States were readmitted to representation in the United States Congress.
|
||||
British America—former designation for British possessions in the Americas.
|
||||
British North America—former designation for territories in North America colonised by Great Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly after 1783 and in reference to Canada. At the start of the American Revolution in 1775, the British Empire in North America included twenty colonies north of Mexico. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolution and established boundaries between the United States and British North America; East Florida and West Florida were also ceded to Spain in the treaty, and then ceded by Spain to the US in 1819. From 1867 to 1873, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America confederated (through a series of eponymous acts) into the Dominion of Canada. Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949.
|
||||
British West Indies—the islands and territories of the Caribbean under British colonial influence.
|
||||
Federal Republic of Central America—formerly the United Provinces of Central America, a federal republic in Central America from 1823 to 1840 comprising the newly independent Spanish territories: Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and (later) Los Altos. In 1838, the federation succumbed to civil war and dissolved.
|
||||
Northern America (América Septentrional)-the first official name of Mexico.
|
||||
Mexican America (América Mexicana)-a name chosen and drafted in the first Mexican constitution.
|
||||
United Provinces of South America, denomination of Argentina during the early developments of the Argentine War of Independence, and official denomination of the country as per the 1819 Constitution (rejected 1820).
|
||||
West Indies Federation—a federation of several Caribbean island colonies and territories of the United Kingdom (see also: British West Indies) from 1958 to 1962. This was followed by the West Indies Associated States, a smaller, looser polity, from 1967 to 1981.
|
||||
40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-1.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Americas (terminology)"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:46.319434+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Linguistic/cultural regions ===
|
||||
Anglo-America—the region of the Americas having significant historical, linguistic, and cultural links to England or the British Isles, i.e., Anglophone; often just Canada and the United States.
|
||||
Latin America—the region of the Americas where Romance languages derived from Latin–namely Spanish, Portuguese, and variably French–are officially or primarily spoken. Though French is spoken in Quebec, it is typically not included due to Canada's links to Britain.
|
||||
Ibero-America—the region of the Americas having significant historical, linguistic, and cultural links to Spain or Portugal (both on the Iberian Peninsula), i.e., Hispanophone and Lusophone.
|
||||
Hispanic America (also Spanish America)—those countries inhabited by Spanish-speaking populations.
|
||||
French America—the Francophone region.
|
||||
Mesoamerica—a region of the Americas extending from central Mexico southeast to Nicaragua and Costa Rica; a term used especially in archaeology and ethnohistory for the region where an array of civilizations had flourished during the pre-Columbian era, and which shared a number of historical and cultural traditions.
|
||||
Mesoamerican Linguistic Area—a sprachbund, or linguistic region, defined as the area inhabited by speakers of a set of indigenous languages which have developed certain similarities as a result of their historic and geographical connections; roughly co-terminate with the archaeological/ethnohistorical Mesoamerica.
|
||||
Aridoamerica—an archaeological/ethnohistorical regional division, essentially comprising the arid/semi-arid northern portion of present-day Mexico, whose historical peoples are generally characterized by a nomadic existence and minimal reliance on agriculture.
|
||||
Oasisamerica—an occasionally used archaeological/ethnohistorical term for a (pre-Columbian) cultural region of North America.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
American (word)
|
||||
Naming of the Americas
|
||||
Columbia (name)
|
||||
Supercontinent, subcontinent, microcontinent, and continental shelf
|
||||
Region, subregion, and trade block
|
||||
Geography
|
||||
Physical geography
|
||||
Political geography and geopolitics
|
||||
Human geography and regional science
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Sources ==
|
||||
The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online. 2005. New York: Columbia University Press (proprietary; limited access).
|
||||
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. 2003. (ISBN 0-87779-809-5) New York: Merriam-Webster, Inc.
|
||||
Oxford English Reference Dictionary, 2nd ed. (rev.) 2002. (ISBN 0-19-860652-4) Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
|
||||
What's the difference between North, Latin, Central, Middle, South, Spanish and Anglo America?. Archived 2016-04-10 at the Wayback Machine. Geography at about.com.
|
||||
Map of North a Middle America
|
||||
34
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism-0.md
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34
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism-0.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Anatopism"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:47.579101+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An anatopism (from the Ancient Greek ἀνά, "against," and τόπος, "place") is something that is out of its proper place.
|
||||
The concept of anatopism is less widely familiar than that of anachronism, perhaps because much that is anatopic is also anachronistic. Yet the distinction is a valid one; not all that is anatopic is necessarily also anachronistic.
|
||||
The online Collins English Dictionary gives a synonym for "anatopism": anachorism (from Greek: ana- + khōros, "place"): "a geographical misplacement; something located in an incongruent position".
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Examples ==
|
||||
Catherine Hardwicke's 2006 film The Nativity Story shows a field of maize in a Nazareth farming scene. Maize is native to Mesoamerica, not to the Middle East, and in pre-Columbian times was grown only in the Americas. The use of maize in this film is an anatopism as well as an anachronism.
|
||||
The same anatopism appears in the first part ("The Warrior Pharaohs") of a three-part 2002 PBS documentary series on "Egypt's Golden Empire" depicting the history of ancient Egypt's New Kingdom: ears of maize corn are shown in a scene recreating the battle and siege of Megiddo in the 15th century BC.
|
||||
Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, set in 180 AD, features Roman soldiers riding horses using saddles with stirrups. While the Romans had had saddles since about 100 BC, and stirrups had existed in the world since about 700 BC, stirrups did not appear in Europe until about the 6th or 7th century AD, making them both anatopic and anachronistic.
|
||||
The opening scene of Disney's 1994 film The Lion King features a variety of African animals venturing to Pride Rock. However, the ants that appear in the scene hold leaves in their mandibles, behavior that only leaf cutter ants in Latin America exhibit.
|
||||
John Ford's much-lauded 1939 film Stagecoach was filmed in Monument Valley on the Arizona-Utah border, but textually set in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. The vegetation and topography of Monument Valley and the lower-altitude deserts are vastly different, rendering the film's actual location notably anatopic.
|
||||
Scenes of the Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889 in the 1960 film Cimarron were shot near Tucson, Arizona. The arid subtropical Sonoran Desert landscape bears no resemblance to the fertile terrain of the central Oklahoma of the land rush, and in the background are sky island mountains typical of the desert Southwest but non-existent in Oklahoma.
|
||||
The Polish writer Bolesław Prus, for the sake of making a point, introduces into chapter 63 of his historical novel Pharaoh, set in the ancient Egypt of 1087–1085 BC, a substance that behaves like gunpowder. This appears to be both an anachronism and an anatopism, since gunpowder is thought to have been invented, some time later, in China or in Arabia. Another apparent anatopism introduced by the author (in chapter 45) is an object that resembles a telescope, that may also be an anachronism.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Anachronism
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Bolesław Prus, Pharaoh, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, Warsaw, Polestar Publications, and New York, Hippocrene Books, 2001, ISBN 83-88177-01-X.
|
||||
65
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization-0.md
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65
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization-0.md
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@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Anthropization"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:48.874145+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In geography and ecology, anthropization is the conversion of open spaces, landscapes, and natural environments by human action.
|
||||
Anthropic erosion is the process of human action degrading terrain and soil.
|
||||
An area may be classified as anthropized even though it looks natural, such as grasslands that have been deforested by humans. It can be difficult to determine how much a site has been anthropized in the case of urbanization because one must be able to estimate the state of the landscape before significant human action.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Origin ==
|
||||
The earliest known stages of anthropization can be found as early as the Neolithic era and the basic farmland created in that time. With the continually-growing population of humans, the land that the Earth provides has been appropriated over the years. The ecological footprint created by anthropization is continually growing despite efficiency and technique improvements made in anthropization..
|
||||
Whether anthropized or not, all land seldom a few locations has been claimed. Outside of the largely inhospitable Arctic and Antarctic circles and large portions of other uninhabitable landscapes, much of the globe has been used or altered in some direct way by humans. Land has been appropriated for many different reasons, but ultimately the outcome is typically a short-term benefit for humans. An area is anthropized is some way to make land available for housing, to harvest the resources, to create space for some anthropological reason, or many other possibilities.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Processes and effects ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Agriculture ===
|
||||
The root of many early forms of civilization, agriculture has been a primary reason for anthropization. To cultivate food or breed animals, humans must alter land—till soil or build structures—to facilitate agriculture. This can lead to soil erosion and pollution (pesticides, greenhouse gas emissions, etc.), and subsequently habitat fragmentation and overall an increased ecological footprint. Agriculture and industry often overlap, and industry produces many of these effects too.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Urban development ===
|
||||
Especially with approximately 7.5 Billion humans inhabiting the Earth, this typically aligns with an increase in residences worldwide. Over the years, humans have built on land to meet their needs and wants. These actions range from small villages to massive factories, water parks, and apartments. Urbanization and development of human residences can significantly affect the environment. Not only does the physical space of buildings fragment habitats and possibly endanger species, but it fundamentally alters the habitat for any other living being. For some species, this effect can be inconsequential, but for many this can have a dramatic impact. The biosphere is very much interconnected, and this means that if one organism is affected, then as a result the other organisms within this ecosystem and food chain are also affected.
|
||||
|
||||
As well, within the last century, any urbanized area requires roads for transportation. This transportation is a continued source of pollution, and the roads can be a source of soil erosion.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Industry and technology ===
|
||||
To support humans, industrial buildings and processes are apparently essential. Urban development and agriculture require that people produce, refined, or construct many things. Key to this is that factories require that people gather the materials they need to create a product. The wide range of products in this anthropological age use a plethora of substances that must be harvested or produced. Many of these materials are non-renewable (e.g., fossil fuel, metal ores, etc.) and the harvest of these results in relatively permanent anthropization. For resources that depend on in high quantity, this can also mean temporary depletion or damage to the source of the resource (e.g., depletion or pollution of fresh water reserves, improper or inefficient silviculture, etc.). Even sustainable or renewable industrial anthropization still affects the environment. While the resource in question may not be in jeopardy, the harvest and processing can still change and damage the environment.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Science ====
|
||||
Anthropization can also be a result of scientific endeavours. This can manifest as construction of structures to aid in scientific discovery and observation. This can range from structures such as observatories, or on the opposite scale the Large Hadron Collider. These and many other things are built and used to enhance knowledge of sciences. They do however require space and energy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Energy ====
|
||||
To power the ever-growing human race, energy is needed. Power-harvesting structures are built to harness energy, such as dams, windmills, and nuclear reactors. These sources of energy ultimately fuel the rest of anthropological activity and are essential in this way. However many of these methods have consequences. With dams, construction aside, they can cause flooding, habitat fragmentation, and other effects. With nuclear reactors, they have a lasting effect in that typically a lifespan of one of these is around 50 years and afterwards the nuclear waste must be dealt with, and the structure itself must be shut down and cannot be used further. To safely dispose of this even low-level waste can take hundreds of years, ranging upwards with increased radioactivity. To produce and as a result of this production of energy, it requires a lot of anthropized land.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Evolution of anthropization ==
|
||||
|
||||
Changes in population directly effect anthropological impact—but changes in technology and knowledge have greatly changed anthropization throughout the Holocene. The tools and methods that humans use to anthropize have changed drastically. For examples, the great pyramids in Egypt were not constructed by some large machine, but instead by thousands of humans. They were still able to build massive monuments, but the efficiency of their efforts and environmental damage was very different from what would be possible today. This shows that the environmental effect of modern anthropization is generally greater, not just because of the increase in population. Pollution and loss of biodiversity in Egypt was largely natural, not man-made, and anthropization existed on a much lower level.
|
||||
As the human population of Earth increase, this anthropization will continue to evolve.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Ecological footprint
|
||||
Land development
|
||||
Land use
|
||||
Wilderness
|
||||
Artificialization
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Media related to Anthropization at Wikimedia Commons
|
||||
55
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry-0.md
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55
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry-0.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Backcountry"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:51.538300+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In geography, a backcountry, back country or backwater is a geographical area that is remote, undeveloped, isolated, or difficult to access. These areas are typically rural or mountainous and sparsely populated.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Terminology ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Backcountry and wilderness within United States national parks ===
|
||||
The National Park Service (NPS) generally uses the term "backcountry" to refer to "primitive, undeveloped portions of parks". Developments within backcountry areas are generally limited to trails, unpaved roads, and administrative facilities associated with dispersed recreational use. Dispersed recreational use is the most prevalent human use in backcountry areas, although research activities may also occur.
|
||||
The NPS defines wilderness within US national parks as any "backcountry areas which have been specifically designated as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System or any other area that has been determined to possess the characteristics of wilderness as defined by Section 2(c) of the Wilderness Act". Section 2(c) states in part that wilderness:
|
||||
|
||||
(1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least five thousand acres of land or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value.
|
||||
Wilderness lands within US national parks are a subset of all backcountry lands. Wilderness and backcountry lands also exist outside of US national parks on public lands managed by the US Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Use of the term "backcountry" in New Zealand and Australia ===
|
||||
In New Zealand, "backcountry" often refers to land that is not accessible by public access. For example, it is common for a farmer to have some remote parts of their land left in scrubland or forest. This is often adjacent to other areas of backcountry which are yet to be developed or protected from development. Trampers and other explorers sometimes need to get farmers' permission to access parts of the national parks of New Zealand or other natural phenomena, if they intend to pass over backcountry. Hunters can ask for permission from farmers to hunt in their backcountry.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Backcountry in Australia ====
|
||||
Backcountry is generally only used for mountainous areas where snow falls in Australia, whereas other remote areas are usually called "the bush" which can cover both national park areas and farming areas.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Hazards ==
|
||||
The backcountry may contain many hazards including rough terrain, life-threatening weather, avalanches, and wild animals. In the United States, tragic accidents and dramatic backcountry rescues of stranded hikers, climbers, or skiers are a staple of news reporting.
|
||||
Some United States jurisdictions have discussed placing limits on human access to the backcountry during times of particular danger.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Backcountry skiing
|
||||
Backcountry snowboarding
|
||||
Backcountry.com
|
||||
Backcountry hut
|
||||
Badlands
|
||||
Bushland
|
||||
Countryside
|
||||
Desert
|
||||
Outback
|
||||
The bush
|
||||
Potability of backcountry water
|
||||
Wilderness
|
||||
Frontcountry
|
||||
Slackcountry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Barrier ridge"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:54.171011+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The terms barrier ridge, a term of art in the earth sciences, especially geology and sometimes barrier range (more common as a geography term) describing the existence of gross landforms describing long ridgelines which are particularly difficult to pass, especially in the context of being on foot or dependent upon other forms of animal powered transportation systems, in mountainous and sometimes hilly terrains.
|
||||
Barrier ridges such as the steep rising slopes or escarpments of the Allegheny Front, separating the ridge-and-valley Appalachians from the drainage divides of the uplands of the Appalachian Plateau. The ridge and valley region is filled with a succession of nearly impassible ridges from Northern Georgia, along the Appalachian chain all the way to Maine.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Media related to Barrier ridge at Wikimedia Commons
|
||||
30
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution-0.md
Normal file
30
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Binary distribution"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:55.509941+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Binary distribution is the presence of two or more very large and dominant cities in a country.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Countries with binary distribution ==
|
||||
Australia (Melbourne, Sydney)
|
||||
Brazil (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro)
|
||||
Canada (Toronto, Montréal)
|
||||
China (Shanghai, Beijing)
|
||||
India (Mumbai, Delhi)
|
||||
Italy (Rome, Milan)
|
||||
Japan (Tokyo, Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto)
|
||||
Netherlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam)
|
||||
Russia (Moscow, Saint Petersburg)
|
||||
Spain (Madrid, Barcelona)
|
||||
Turkey (Ankara, Istanbul)
|
||||
USA (New York City, Los Angeles)
|
||||
Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
42
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)-0.md
Normal file
42
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Boundary (real estate)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:56.802552+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A unit of real estate or immovable property is limited by a legal boundary (sometimes also referred to as a property line, lot line or bounds). The boundary (in Latin: limes) may appear as a discontinuation in the terrain: a ditch, a bank, a hedge, a wall, or similar, but essentially, a legal boundary is a conceptual entity, a social construct, adjunct to the likewise abstract entity of property rights.
|
||||
A cadastral map displays how boundaries subdivide land into units of ownership. However, the relations between society, owner, and land in any culture or jurisdiction are conceived of in terms more complex than a tessellation. Therefore, the society concerned has to specify the rules and means by which the boundary concept is materialized and located on the ground.
|
||||
A 'Western' version of the boundary determination might be a legally specified procedure, performed by a chartered surveyor, supported by statements from neighbors and pertinent documents, and resulting in official recording in the cadastre as well as boundary markings in the field. Alternatively, indigenous people represent boundaries through ephemeral performances, such as song and dance, and, when in more permanent form, e.g. paintings or carvings, in an artistic or metaphorical manner.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Identifying boundaries ==
|
||||
|
||||
Legal boundaries are usually established by a professional surveyor using a transit and or modern Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. The coordinates of the property line are often described on a drawing called a "plot plan" or "plat" by indicating the length of the boundary along a specific compass bearing in relation to a verifiable "point of beginning". The metes and bounds method is also used to provide a legal description of a property.
|
||||
On maps, the line may be marked with U+214A ⅊ PROPERTY LINE.
|
||||
The ⅊ symbol may also be used in architectural drawings and CAD design to show plates.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Related concepts ==
|
||||
Land parcel
|
||||
Boundary dispute
|
||||
Butts and bounds
|
||||
Digital Cadastral DataBase
|
||||
National territories and borders
|
||||
Redistribution, land consolidation
|
||||
Surveying, Coordinate system
|
||||
Territory (administrative division)
|
||||
Title (property)
|
||||
Commons
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
Dyson, L. E.; Hendriks, M.; Grant, S. (2007) Information Technology and Indigenous People. Information Science Publishing. ISBN 1-59904-298-3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Media related to Boundary (real estate) at Wikimedia Commons
|
||||
41
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte-0.md
Normal file
41
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Butte"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:58.123904+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In geomorphology, a butte ( BEWT) is an isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small, relatively flat top; buttes are smaller landforms than mesas, plateaus, and tablelands. The word butte comes from the French word butte (French: [byt]), meaning 'knoll' (of any size); its use is prevalent in the Western United States, including the Southwest, where mesa (Spanish for 'table') is used for the larger landform.
|
||||
Due to their distinctive shapes, buttes are frequently landmarks in plains and mountainous areas. To differentiate the two landforms, geographers use the rule of thumb that a mesa has a top that is wider than its height, while a butte has a top that is narrower than its height.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Formation ==
|
||||
Buttes form by weathering and erosion when hard caprock overlies a layer of less resistant rock that is eventually worn away. The harder rock on top of the butte resists erosion. The caprock provides protection for the less resistant rock below from wind abrasion which leaves it standing isolated. As the top is further eroded by abrasion and weathering, the excess material that falls off adds to the scree or talus slope around the base. On a much smaller scale, the same process forms hoodoos.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notable buttes ==
|
||||
The Mitten Buttes of Monument Valley in the Utah–Arizona state line are two of the most distinctive and widely recognized buttes. Monument Valley and the Mittens provided backgrounds in the scenes of many western-themed films, including seven movies directed by John Ford. Another very well-known and frequently photographed butte in northern Arizona is Thumb Butte, which overlooks the city of Prescott and is the most prominent and distinctive geologic landmark in the vicinity. The Devils Tower in northeastern Wyoming is a laccolithic butte composed of igneous rock rather than sandstone, limestone or other sedimentary rocks.
|
||||
|
||||
The term butte is sometimes applied more broadly to isolated, steep-sided hills with pointed or craggy, rather than flat, tops. Three notable formations that are either named butte or may be considered buttes even though they do not conform to the formal geographer's rule are Scotts Bluff in Nebraska which is a collection of five bluffs, Crested Butte, which is a 12,168 ft (3,709 m) mountain in Colorado, and Elephant Butte, which is now an island in Elephant Butte Reservoir in New Mexico.
|
||||
Among the well-known non-flat-topped buttes in the United States are Bear Butte, South Dakota, Black Butte, Oregon, and the Sutter Buttes in California. In many cases, buttes have been given other names that do not use the word butte, for example, Courthouse Rock, Nebraska. Also, some large hills that are technically not buttes have names using the word, examples of which are Kamiak Butte, Chelan Butte and Steptoe Butte in Washington state.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Gallery ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Footnotes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
"Butte" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
|
||||
"Butte" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
|
||||
252
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md
Normal file
252
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,252 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of Arabic toponyms"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:50.237695+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The glossary of Arabic toponyms gives translations of Arabic terms commonly found as components in Arabic toponyms. A significant number of them were put together during the PEF Survey of Palestine carried out in the second half of the 19th century.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
'Ain, pl.: `Ayūn, ʿUyūn
|
||||
Spring, fountain, source. Examples: El Aaiún
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Ain
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Aiun
|
||||
|
||||
Ab, Abu
|
||||
Father; as a geographical term it signifies "producing", "containing", etc.;
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Ab
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Abu
|
||||
|
||||
Arak, pl.: Arkan
|
||||
Cavern or cliff (among various meanings); see All pages with titles containing Arak
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
|
||||
Bab, pl.: Buwab
|
||||
Gate. Examples Bab el-Mandeb; see All pages with titles containing Bab
|
||||
Baḥr
|
||||
Arabic: بحر - Sea, large river. see All pages with titles containing Bahr
|
||||
Beit
|
||||
House. see All pages with titles containing Beit
|
||||
Balad
|
||||
Arabic: بلد (sometimes transliterated as Beled or Belled) - Town; see All pages with titles containing Balad
|
||||
Bir
|
||||
Arabic: بير, Well; see All pages with titles containing Bir
|
||||
Birkeh
|
||||
Artificial pool, tank; see All pages with titles containing Birkeh
|
||||
Buḥayra, Baḥeirah
|
||||
Arabic: بحيرة, Lake, lagoon; Diminutive of بَحْر (baḥr, “sea”).
|
||||
Burj
|
||||
Arabic: برج, Tower, castle; see All pages with titles containing Burj
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
Casbah
|
||||
a kind of medina (old city) or fortress; cf. "Qasba"; see All pages with titles containing Casbah
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
|
||||
Dar
|
||||
wikt:دار house; see Relevant pages with titles containing Dar
|
||||
Deir
|
||||
wikt:دير monastery, convent, cloister (often ruins thereof); see All pages with titles containing Deir
|
||||
Derb
|
||||
wikt:درب road, pass;see All pages with titles containing Derb
|
||||
Dhahr
|
||||
wikt:ظهر ridge; All pages with titles containing Dhahr
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
|
||||
Haram
|
||||
Sacred place; see All pages with titles containing Haram
|
||||
Haud
|
||||
Reservoir, pond; see All pages with titles containing Haud
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
|
||||
Ibn
|
||||
Son; as a geographical term it signifies "producing", "containing", etc. see All pages with titles containing Ibn
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
|
||||
Jama'a, Djama'a, Jami'a
|
||||
place of gathering, community, mosque;
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Jama'a
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Jami'a
|
||||
|
||||
Jazira, Jezireh, Jeziret
|
||||
Island;
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Jazira
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Jezireh
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Jeziret
|
||||
|
||||
Jebel, Djebel, Jebal, Jabal
|
||||
mountain;
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Jabal
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Jebal
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Jebel
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Djebel
|
||||
|
||||
Jisr
|
||||
bridge; see All pages with titles containing Jisr
|
||||
|
||||
Jubb
|
||||
(Arabic: جُبّ ): well, pit; see All pages with titles containing Jubb
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
|
||||
Kafr, Kafar, Kafer, Kufur, Kfar
|
||||
Ultimately from an unattested "Mari language" through Akkadian and Aramaic, meaning "unfortified town". See the Wiktionary entry at كفر. Equivalent to Modern Hebrew Kfar. Unrelated to kafir or kufr.
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kafr
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kafar
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kafer
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kufur
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kfar
|
||||
|
||||
Kasbah, Kasba, Kasaba
|
||||
See Qasba
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kasba
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kasbah
|
||||
|
||||
Khan
|
||||
From Persian xân, meaning caravanserai. Unrelated to the "Khan" in "Genghis Khan".
|
||||
Relevant pages with titles containing Khan
|
||||
|
||||
Khirbet, Khurbet, Khirbat, etc.
|
||||
is the conjunctive form "ruin of" (خربة) of the Arabic word for "ruin" (خرب, khirba, khirbeh, kharab ("ruined"))
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Khirbet
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Khirbat
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Khurbet
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kharab
|
||||
|
||||
Ksar, qsar, plural: ksour, qsour
|
||||
Maghrebi Arabic; See "Qasr"
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Ksar
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Ksour
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qsar
|
||||
|
||||
Kul'ah, Kal'at, Kalat, Kala, Kaleh
|
||||
Arabic, Persian. See "Qalat"
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kal'at
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kalat
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kaleh
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
|
||||
Mazar
|
||||
مزار: shrine, grave, tomb, etc. cf. "Mazar (mausoleum)". The placename usually refers to a grave of a saint, ruler, etc.. Examples: Mazar-i-Sharif
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Mazar
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Al-Mazar
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Almazar
|
||||
|
||||
Mazra', Mazra'a, Al-Mazra'a, Mazraa
|
||||
مزرعة, mazraʿa: farm, مزرع, mazraʿ: field, farmland, origin for majra, hamlet in Indian subcontinent
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
|
||||
Nahr
|
||||
wikt:نهر, river, with the particular meaning of perennial water course, as opposed to a seasonal one, which is called a wadi; see All pages with titles containing Nahr-e
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
|
||||
Oued
|
||||
In North African Arabic, same as Wadi; see All pages with titles containing Oued
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
|
||||
Qabr, Kabr, pl.:Qubūr
|
||||
Arabic: قَبْر, pl. Arabic: قُبُور - tomb, grave
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qabr
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qubur
|
||||
|
||||
Qal'a (construct state: qal'at)
|
||||
Arabic, Persian. Fortified place, fort, fortress, castle;
|
||||
All pages with titles containing al-Qal'a
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qal'at
|
||||
|
||||
Casbah, Kasbah, Qaṣba, Qaṣbah, Qaṣaba
|
||||
Arabic: القصبة, romanized: al-qaṣaba), a kind of medina (old city) or fortress
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Casbah
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qasba
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qasbah
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qasaba
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kasbah
|
||||
|
||||
Qaṣr, Kaṣr, al-Qaṣr, pl.:Quṣūr
|
||||
Arabic: قصر, lit. 'palace/castle/fortress', from Latin castrum
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qasr
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Kasr
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Qusur
|
||||
It entered into Spanish and Portuguese placenames in the forms Alcazar, Alcácer
|
||||
North African (Maghrebi Arabic) form: Ksar
|
||||
The dictionary definition of qasr at Wiktionary
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
|
||||
Ras
|
||||
wikt:رأس, head, cape, top, peak, etc., see All pages with titles containing Ras
|
||||
|
||||
Rujm, plural: rujum
|
||||
wikt:رجم, mound, cairn, hill, spur, and also as "stone heap" or "tumulus".
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Rujm
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Rujum
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
|
||||
souk, sūq, souq
|
||||
wikt:سوق, "market"
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Souk
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Suk
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Souq
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
|
||||
Umm
|
||||
Mother; as a geographical term it signifies "producing", "containing", etc.; cf. "Mother of all"; see All pages with titles containing Umm
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
|
||||
Wadi, Wad, North African Arabic: see Oued
|
||||
Watercourse: stream (often intermittent stream), sometimes dry waterbed, valley
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Wadi
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Wady
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Wad
|
||||
All pages with titles containing Oued
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Toponymy of Maghreb
|
||||
Oikonyms in Western and South Asia
|
||||
Place names of Palestine
|
||||
List of Arabic place names
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Sources ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
The intro to a 1950s gazetteer for 35,000 placenames of Arabian Peninsula and surrounding waters and islands contains a glossary of generic toponymic features
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This glossary of geography terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in geography and related fields, including Earth science, oceanography, cartography, and human geography, as well as those describing spatial dimension, topographical features, natural resources, and the collection, analysis, and visualization of geographic data. It is split across two articles:
|
||||
|
||||
This page, Glossary of geography terms (A–M), lists terms beginning with the letters A through M.
|
||||
Glossary of geography terms (N–Z) lists terms beginning with the letters N through Z.
|
||||
Related terms may be found in Glossary of geology, Glossary of agriculture, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of astronomy.
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
absolute location
|
||||
The particular location of a point on Earth's surface that can be expressed by a grid reference such as latitude and longitude.
|
||||
|
||||
accessibility
|
||||
A locational characteristic that permits a place to be reached by the efforts of those at other places.
|
||||
|
||||
accessibility resource
|
||||
A naturally emergent landscape form that eases communication between areas.
|
||||
|
||||
acculturation
|
||||
The act of adopting a culture different to your own; usually due to immersion into a dominant group.
|
||||
|
||||
acme
|
||||
See summit.
|
||||
|
||||
acre (ac)
|
||||
A unit of area traditionally defined as the area of a plot of land one chain (66 feet) by one furlong (660 feet), equivalent to 43,560 square feet (0.001563 sq mi; 4,047 m2), or about 0.40 hectare.
|
||||
|
||||
active volcano
|
||||
A volcano that is currently erupting, or one that has erupted within the last 10,000 years (the Holocene) or during recorded history.
|
||||
|
||||
adret
|
||||
The sunny, warm aspect of a hill or mountain, as opposed to the ubac or shady side.
|
||||
|
||||
affluent
|
||||
See tributary.
|
||||
|
||||
agricultural geography
|
||||
A sub-discipline of geography which studies the spatial relationships between humans and agriculture, as well as the cultural, political, and environmental processes that lead to parts of the Earth's surface being transformed into agricultural landscapes through primary sector activities.
|
||||
|
||||
alluvial fan
|
||||
A distinctly triangular or fan-shaped deposit of sediment transported by water, often referred to as alluvium. Alluvial fans usually form at the base of mountains, where high-velocity rivers or streams meet a relatively flat area and lose the energy needed to carry large quantities of sediment, which ultimately spreads out in all available directions. They tend to be larger and more obvious in arid regions.
|
||||
|
||||
alluvial plain
|
||||
A wide, flat, gently sloping plain created by the long-term deposition of alluvium from one or more rivers flowing from highland regions, and typically characterized by various fluvial landforms such as braided streams, terraces, and meanders. Alluvial plains encompass the larger area over which a river's floodplain has shifted through geological time.
|
||||
|
||||
alluvial soils
|
||||
Soils deposited through the action of moving water. These soils lack horizons and are usually highly fertile.
|
||||
|
||||
alluvium
|
||||
Clay, silt, gravel, or similar detrital material deposited by flowing water.
|
||||
|
||||
alpine
|
||||
Characteristic of or resembling the European Alps, or any other high-elevation mountain range or mountainous environment (especially one deeply modified by glacial erosion so as to contain characteristic landforms such as cirques, horns, etc.), in topography, climate, or ecological communities.
|
||||
|
||||
altitude
|
||||
The height of an object in the atmosphere above sea level. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with elevation.
|
||||
|
||||
amphidromic point
|
||||
Also amphidrome and tidal node.
|
||||
A geographical location where there is little or no tide, i.e. where the tidal amplitude is zero or nearly zero because the height of sea level does not change appreciably over time (meaning there is no high tide or low tide), and around which a tidal crest circulates once per tidal period (approximately every 12 hours). Tidal amplitude increases, though not uniformly, with distance from these points. Amphidromic points are the consequence of resonance phenomena which occur when obstructing landmasses reflect tidal bulges back and forth across oceanic basins; their precise locations, usually in the open ocean near the center of the basin, depend largely on the surrounding topography and bathymetry, and also vary slightly with winds, currents, and the positions of the Sun and the Moon. There are at least a dozen well-defined amphidromic points across the Earth's oceans.
|
||||
|
||||
anastomosing stream
|
||||
Also anastomosed stream.
|
||||
A stream or river composed of multiple, branching, interconnected, coexisting channels that enclose floodbasins on alluvial plains, usually formed when a slow-moving river encounters avulsions that divert its flow, creating new channels on the floodplain.
|
||||
|
||||
anecumene
|
||||
Also anoecumene.
|
||||
The part of the Earth's surface which is uninhabited and/or uninhabitable by human beings. Contrast ecumene.
|
||||
|
||||
angle of repose
|
||||
The steepest angle of descent or dip, relative to the horizontal plane, at which a mass of loose, freely movable material such as sand or unconsolidated rock debris can remain stationary, i.e. without sliding downward, despite the pull of gravity.
|
||||
|
||||
Antarctic
|
||||
The region of the Earth that is south of the Antarctic Circle.
|
||||
|
||||
Antarctic Circle
|
||||
The southernmost of the Earth's two polar circles of latitude, south of which the sun appears above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore visible at midnight) and also appears at least partially below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore not visible at noon). Its latitude is approximately 66°33′47.1″ south of the Equator. Contrast Arctic Circle.
|
||||
|
||||
antecedent stream
|
||||
Also antecedent river and antecedent drainage.
|
||||
A stream or other watercourse that existed before the present form of the surrounding land surface was established and which maintains its original course and pattern despite changes in the local geology or topography. For example, a landscape featuring a river with a dendritic drainage pattern may be altered by gradual, localized tectonic uplift, but the river may be sufficiently powerful to erode through the new obstructions as rapidly as they are formed, carving a gorge rather than being redirected, and thereby preserving its dendritic pattern even though it now flows over a landscape that typically produces very different drainage patterns. Compare insequent stream.
|
||||
|
||||
anthropization
|
||||
The conversion of open spaces, landscapes, and natural environments by human action.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 2/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
anthropogenic
|
||||
1. Of or relating to anthropogeny, the scientific study of the origins of human beings.
|
||||
2. Having an origin in human activity; caused by or attributable to humans.
|
||||
|
||||
anti-dip stream
|
||||
A stream flowing in a direction approximately opposite to that of the dip of the underlying surface rocks. It is frequently, though not necessarily, an obsequent stream.
|
||||
|
||||
anticline
|
||||
A geological upfold that has an arch-like convex shape and its oldest beds near its center, often visible at the Earth's surface in exposed rock strata. Contrast syncline.
|
||||
|
||||
antimeridian
|
||||
1. The meridian of longitude that is directly opposite or antipodal to a given meridian, i.e. the imaginary line that is exactly 180 degrees of longitude distant from the given meridian. Together, a meridian and its antimeridian form a great circle that passes through the geographic poles.
|
||||
2. The 180th meridian in particular, i.e. the meridian of longitude that is exactly 180 degrees both east and west of the Prime Meridian, with which it forms a great circle dividing the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The 180th meridian is used as the approximate basis for the International Date Line because it mostly passes through the open waters of the Pacific Ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
antipodes
|
||||
Any pair of points on the Earth's surface that are diametrically opposite to each other, such that a straight line connecting them would pass through the Earth's center. Such points are as far away from each other as possible, with the great-circle distance between them being approximately 20,000 kilometres (12,000 mi).
|
||||
|
||||
anywhere fix
|
||||
A geographic position which a GPS receiver is able to calculate without requiring information about its own location or the local time.
|
||||
|
||||
apogean tide
|
||||
The tide when the Moon is at its furthest distance from Earth in its orbit (its apogee), during which its gravitational pull is reduced, resulting in a smaller tidal range than is usual, i.e. lower high tides and higher low tides. Contrast perigean tide.
|
||||
|
||||
apparent place
|
||||
The apparent position of an object in space as seen by an observer, which, because of physical and geometric effects, may differ from the object's true position.
|
||||
|
||||
applied geography
|
||||
The application of geographical knowledge and techniques to the solution of economic and social problems on any scale, ranging from local to global, in disciplines such as civic planning, land use and management, location policy, and population studies, among many others.
|
||||
|
||||
apposed glacier
|
||||
A glacier resulting from the merging of two separate glaciers.
|
||||
|
||||
apron
|
||||
A spread of alluvium deposited by streams, especially those originating from a melting glacier. See also alluvial fan and outwash plain.
|
||||
|
||||
aquiclude
|
||||
A normally permeable rock, underlying or overlying an aquifer, which becomes impermeable because of the saturation of its pores by water, potentially creating a confined aquifer.
|
||||
|
||||
aquifer
|
||||
Also aquafer.
|
||||
An underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials such as gravel, sand, or silt, which is sufficiently porous to carry or conduct water yet also sufficiently coarse or non-absorptive to release the water and thereby permit its exposure to or access from the ground surface. Groundwater from aquifers may naturally emerge at the surface, e.g. at a spring, or may be extracted using man-made wells. There are many different types of aquifer with various levels of hydraulic conductivity.
|
||||
|
||||
aquifuge
|
||||
An impermeable rock stratum which not only obstructs the passage of water but cannot absorb it, e.g. granite.
|
||||
|
||||
aquitard
|
||||
A bed or layer of rock that slows the conveyance of water from an aquifer due to its low permeability or low hydraulic conductivity.
|
||||
|
||||
archipelago
|
||||
Also island chain.
|
||||
A chain, cluster, or collection of islands in a sea.
|
||||
|
||||
arête
|
||||
A sharp, narrow mountain ridge, often resulting from the erosive activity of alpine glaciers flowing in adjacent valleys.
|
||||
|
||||
arroyo
|
||||
Also wash.
|
||||
A deep gully cut by a stream that flows only part of the year; a dry gulch. The term is used primarily in desert areas in North America and South America.
|
||||
|
||||
Arctic
|
||||
The region of the Earth that is north of the Arctic Circle.
|
||||
|
||||
Arctic Circle
|
||||
The northernmost of the Earth's two polar circles of latitude, north of which the sun appears above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore visible at midnight) and also appears at least partially below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and is therefore not fully visible at noon). Its latitude is approximately 66°33′47.1″ north of the Equator. Contrast Antarctic Circle.
|
||||
|
||||
ash
|
||||
Fragments of lava or rock less than 1⁄3 centimetre (0.13 in) in diameter that have been ejected into the atmosphere by a volcanic explosion.
|
||||
|
||||
aspect
|
||||
Also exposure.
|
||||
The direction toward which a slope faces with respect to a compass or to the Sun's position in the sky, or the direction which a segment of coastline faces as it meets the sea.
|
||||
|
||||
assimilation
|
||||
The process by which the rock forming the wall of a magma chamber in incorporated into the magma itself.
|
||||
|
||||
Atlantic Seaboard fall line
|
||||
The physiographic border between the Piedmont and Atlantic coastal plain regions of eastern North America. The name derives from the river rapids and waterfalls that occur as the water flows from the hard rocks of the higher piedmont onto the softer rocks of the coastal plain.
|
||||
|
||||
Atlantic-type coastline
|
||||
See discordant coastline.
|
||||
|
||||
atlas
|
||||
A bound collection of maps.
|
||||
|
||||
atmosphere
|
||||
The mixture of gases, aerosols, solid particles, and water vapor that envelops the Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
atoll
|
||||
A ring-shaped coral reef that partially or completely encircles a lagoon.
|
||||
|
||||
autonomous height
|
||||
See topographic prominence.
|
||||
|
||||
aven
|
||||
A vertical or inclined shaft connecting a cave passage to the surface.
|
||||
|
||||
avulsion
|
||||
1. The sudden loss of land by the action of water.
|
||||
2. The rapid abandonment by a river or stream of an existing channel in favor of the formation of a new channel, typically because the new channel follows a steeper or less obstructed course.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 11/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
desire path
|
||||
Also social trail.
|
||||
Any path or trail, often a footpath, created as a consequence of erosion caused by repeated human or animal traffic, usually because it is the shortest or easiest route to navigate between an origin and a destination. Desire paths often emerge as shortcuts where constructed paths or roads are circuitous, have gaps, or are non-existent.
|
||||
|
||||
dew pond
|
||||
A shallow artificial pond built to capture and hold rainwater or sea mist in order to provide water for livestock, made especially in areas where natural supplies of surface water are not readily available, such as on the chalk downlands of southern England.
|
||||
|
||||
diapir
|
||||
A type of igneous intrusion in which a more mobile, ductile, or deformable rock or other material is forced to intrude into relatively brittle overlying rocks.
|
||||
|
||||
diaspora
|
||||
The scattered dispersion of a human population from its original homeland; or the members of a dispersed population, now residing in various locations to which they are not indigenous.
|
||||
|
||||
digital elevation model (DEM)
|
||||
A three-dimensional computer graphics representation of a geographic terrain surface created from elevation data. DEMs are the most common basis for digitally produced relief maps.
|
||||
|
||||
dike
|
||||
1. A ditch, wall, embankment, or ridge, natural or man-made, that is an obstacle to something else; another name for a levee.
|
||||
2. In geology, an intrusion in which molten rock has ascended through an approximately vertical fissure and solidified into a wall of rock that is often harder or less permeable than the rocks of the surrounding strata.
|
||||
|
||||
diocese
|
||||
A type of administrative division used by certain Christian churches for religious purposes.
|
||||
|
||||
direction
|
||||
The position of one point relative to another without reference to the distance between them, usually expressed as the angular distance in degrees between a line connecting the two points and a reference direction. In cartography, navigation, and orienteering, direction is often considered only with respect to a two-dimensional plane (see compass rose), but it is also commonly interpreted in three dimensions.
|
||||
|
||||
discharge
|
||||
In hydrology, the volumetric flow rate of water through a cross-sectional area, i.e. the volume of water that passes a particular point along a waterway (e.g. a cross-section of a stream channel) per unit time. The measure includes the volumes of any suspended solids, dissolved chemicals, or organic matter in addition to the water itself. Discharge is commonly measured for both natural and man-made hydrological systems, where it may be referred to by various names including streamflow and outflow.
|
||||
|
||||
discordant coastline
|
||||
Also Atlantic-type coastline.
|
||||
A coastline which cuts transversely across the predominant orientation of the local geological strata, i.e. not parallel to them, as with a concordant coastline.
|
||||
|
||||
dissected plateau
|
||||
A landscape produced by significant stream erosion and incision of a plateau such that only a small part of the plateau surface is at or near the original elevation of the summit; much of the area instead occurs as eroded hills or badlands.
|
||||
|
||||
distance decay
|
||||
The decrease in cultural or spatial interactions between two places as the distance between them increases. This effect may be noticeable in towns and cities, where certain characteristics such as pedestrian traffic, building height, and land value tend to decline with greater distance from the city center.
|
||||
|
||||
distributary
|
||||
A stream or river that branches off and flows away from a main channel and does not return to it. Distributaries are common near river deltas. Contrast tributary.
|
||||
|
||||
district
|
||||
A type of administrative subdivision used by governments and institutions worldwide, typically at regional or local levels. Districts are commonly drawn to define the jurisdictions of special local government services, such as law enforcement and education, and often function more or less independently of the municipal or county governments that designate them. The term can refer to a wide variety of official and colloquial subdivisions, including electoral districts, school districts, and shopping districts.
|
||||
|
||||
divide
|
||||
See drainage divide.
|
||||
|
||||
doab
|
||||
In parts of South Asia, the low alluvial plain lying between and reaching to the confluence of two rivers or streams. See also interfluve.
|
||||
|
||||
doline
|
||||
Also vrtače and shakehole.
|
||||
A shallow enclosed basin or funnel-shaped depression typical of karst landscapes, usually with a flat floor and linked to the underlying drainage system by a vertical shaft. See also sinkhole.
|
||||
|
||||
dome
|
||||
1. A steep-sided mound that forms when very viscous lava is extruded from a volcanic vent.
|
||||
2. An uplifted area of sedimentary rock with a downward dip in all directions, often caused by molten rock material pushing upward from below. The sediments have often eroded away, exposing the rocks that resulted when the molten material cooled.
|
||||
|
||||
donga
|
||||
In southern Africa, another name for a gully or badland carved by extreme erosion.
|
||||
|
||||
dormant volcano
|
||||
An active volcano that is in repose (quiescence) but is expected to erupt in the future.
|
||||
|
||||
dormitory town
|
||||
See commuter town.
|
||||
|
||||
downland
|
||||
Also down and downs.
|
||||
An open, treeless expanse of gently undulating, elevated grassland, usually of chalk and supporting grazing for livestock. The term is used primarily in southern England, Australia, and New Zealand.
|
||||
|
||||
downtown
|
||||
In English-speaking North America, the commercial, cultural, and often historical and/or geographical center of a city or town, especially a large city within a major metropolitan area, often synonymous with its central business district.
|
||||
|
||||
drainage
|
||||
The natural or artificial removal of surface and/or sub-surface water from an area with excess water, e.g. via runoff facilitated by channels such as streams and rivers, into which water collects and is transported to sea level by gravity. The patterns, hierarchies, and evolution of drainage networks are widely studied in physical geography disciplines.
|
||||
|
||||
drainage basin
|
||||
Also catchment, drainage area, river basin, water basin, or watershed.
|
||||
Any area of land where precipitation collects and drains into a common outlet, such as into a river, lake, ocean, or any other body of water. The drainage system includes all of the surface water from precipitation runoff and snowmelt, as well as all of the groundwater beneath the Earth's surface. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a drainage divide.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 12/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
drainage divide
|
||||
Also ridgeline, watershed, water parting, water divide, or simply divide.
|
||||
The topographical barrier that separates neighboring drainage basins. Divides are often, though not always, located along conspicuous elevated ridges or mountain ranges.
|
||||
|
||||
draw
|
||||
Also re-entrant.
|
||||
1. A terrain feature formed by two parallel ridges or spurs with low ground in between them.
|
||||
2. Another name for an arroyo, ravine, or gulch, especially one with a broad floor and gently sloping sides.
|
||||
|
||||
draw down
|
||||
The maximum extent to which the water table is reduced in elevation as a result of pumping water from a well that penetrates an aquifer. The amount of draw down diminishes logarithmically with distance from the site of the well, a fact which determines the shape of the subsurface cone of depression in the area surrounding the well.
|
||||
|
||||
drift
|
||||
All sediment transported by a glacier, sorted or unsorted, whether deposited directly by the ice or by glacial meltwater.
|
||||
|
||||
drift ice
|
||||
Also brash ice.
|
||||
A type of sea ice consisting of multiple ice floes that are not attached to the shoreline or any other fixed object such as a shoal, and which are therefore free to "drift" under the influence of winds and ocean currents. Contrast fast ice.
|
||||
|
||||
drowned valley
|
||||
A valley which was originally formed on land but later partially or entirely submerged beneath the sea due to a rise in sea level. See also fjord, calanque, and ria.
|
||||
|
||||
drumlin
|
||||
An elongated hill in the shape of an inverted spoon or half-buried egg which is formed by glacial ice acting on underlying unconsolidated till or ground moraine.
|
||||
|
||||
dry farming
|
||||
A type of farming practiced in semi-arid or dry grassland areas without irrigation, instead using such approaches as fallowing, maintaining a finely broken surface, and growing drought-tolerant crops.
|
||||
|
||||
dry gap
|
||||
See wind gap.
|
||||
|
||||
dry point
|
||||
An area of firm or dry ground in a wetland, marsh, or floodplain, often capable of supporting a human settlement.
|
||||
|
||||
dryland
|
||||
An ecoregion or more generally any land area defined by a relative scarcity of water, where precipitation is evenly balanced or exceeded by evaporation from surfaces and evapotranspiration by plants. Drylands encompass all sub-humid and arid environments, from tropical savannas to hyper-arid extremes such as deserts.
|
||||
|
||||
dune
|
||||
A hill of loose sand built by the movements and erosional and depositional processes of wind or water, often occurring in deserts and coastal areas.
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
|
||||
Earth science
|
||||
Also called the Earth sciences or geoscience.
|
||||
1. A collective term for the various fields of natural science related to the planet Earth.
|
||||
2. The branch of science that studies the physical constitution and characteristics of the Earth and its atmosphere, using methods and tools from geography, geology, physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth works and changes over time.
|
||||
|
||||
earthquake
|
||||
A sudden and intense shaking of the ground due to tectonic activity.
|
||||
|
||||
Eastern Hemisphere
|
||||
The half sphere of the Earth that is east of the Prime Meridian and west of the antimeridian. It is opposite the Western Hemisphere.
|
||||
|
||||
easting
|
||||
|
||||
economic distance
|
||||
The physical distance a commodity may travel before its value is exceeded by the costs of transporting it.
|
||||
|
||||
economic geography
|
||||
A sub-discipline of geography which studies the location, distribution, and spatial organization of economic activities across the world.
|
||||
|
||||
economic tiger
|
||||
A country with rapid economic growth due to cheap labor, quickly advancing technology, and/or policies favoring aggressive exports.
|
||||
|
||||
economies of agglomeration
|
||||
The economic advantages that accrue to an activity by locating close to other activities; benefits that follow from complementarity or shared public services.
|
||||
|
||||
econym
|
||||
See oeconym.
|
||||
|
||||
ecoregion
|
||||
Also called an ecological region.
|
||||
A type of biogeographic province that is smaller than a bioregion and which contains characteristic, ecologically and geographically distinct, and relatively uniform assemblages of biological communities and species. Ecoregion boundaries often overlap within ecotones and mosaic habitats, and most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from those described for their assigned biome.
|
||||
|
||||
ecotone
|
||||
A transition area between two biological communities, where different communities meet and integrate. It may manifest as a gradual blending of the communities across a broad area, or as an abrupt boundary line.
|
||||
|
||||
ecumene
|
||||
Also oecumene.
|
||||
1. The habitable world according to the ancient Greeks; the part of the Earth's surface that is suitable for permanent human settlement, e.g. because it is climatically tolerable and physically occupiable.
|
||||
2. All of human civilization considered collectively.
|
||||
|
||||
edge city
|
||||
A concentration of businesses, commercial buildings, or retail and entertainment venues situated outside of a traditional downtown or central business district in what was previously a suburban residential or rural area.
|
||||
|
||||
edgelands
|
||||
The transitional areas of "fringe" space at the boundaries of a country, city, or other artificial geographical entity, often distinguished by a partly man-made, partly natural landscape that is in the earliest stages of human management and organization. Compare hinterland.
|
||||
|
||||
effective accessibility
|
||||
The extent to which a place or service is actually accessible, governed not only by the distance to be traveled but also by whether or not the means of transport, the time available, and social circumstances make access possible.
|
||||
|
||||
ekistics
|
||||
The scientific study of human settlements of all types, incorporating concepts such as regional, metropolitan, and community planning and dwelling design with the goal of achieving harmony between the inhabitants of a settlement and their physical, social, and cultural environments.
|
||||
|
||||
electoral geography
|
||||
A branch of human geography concerned with analysis of the organization, methods, results, and consequences of political elections in the context of geographic space and using geographical techniques.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,122 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 13/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
elevation
|
||||
1. The height of a geographic location above or below a fixed reference point; in particular, the height of a point on the Earth's surface with respect to sea level (or at least to a reference geoid used as an approximation of the Earth's mean sea level). Compare altitude, geopotential height, and depth.
|
||||
2. The vertical angle between the horizontal and a high point, e.g. between the horizon and a star in the night sky, or between the base of a mountain and its summit.
|
||||
3. In architecture, a view of one of the sides of a building, or a drawing of this view.
|
||||
|
||||
ellipsoid
|
||||
See reference ellipsoid.
|
||||
|
||||
emergence
|
||||
1. The rise of the level of a land surface with respect to the sea, so that land formerly under the sea becomes dry.
|
||||
2. The location at which an underground stream or aquifer comes to the surface.
|
||||
|
||||
emergent coastline
|
||||
A coast or shoreline resulting from a rise in land surface elevation relative to sea level.
|
||||
|
||||
empolder
|
||||
To reclaim by the creation of a polder.
|
||||
|
||||
enclave
|
||||
A tract or territory completely surrounded by and enclosed within the territory of exactly one other state, country, or other political entity. Unlike enclaves, exclaves can be surrounded by more than one other state.
|
||||
|
||||
endemic
|
||||
Restricted or exclusive to a certain place, region, or people, having originated there, and existing nowhere else.
|
||||
|
||||
endorheic basin
|
||||
Also endoreic basin, closed basin, or terminal basin.
|
||||
A closed drainage basin that allows little or no outflow to external bodies of water but converges instead into internal lakes or swamps which equilibrate through evaporation.
|
||||
|
||||
englacial
|
||||
Embedded within a glacier. Contrast subglacial and superglacial.
|
||||
|
||||
entrepôt
|
||||
Also entrepot or transshipment port.
|
||||
A place (e.g. a port, city, or trading post) to which physical goods or merchandise are brought to be stored temporarily while awaiting export to another country, and where they are not liable to customs duties. Though the term once described important commercial centers situated along long-distance trade routes, modern customs areas have largely made such entrepôts obsolete, and the term is now more commonly used to refer to duty-free ports with a high volume of re-export trade.
|
||||
|
||||
environment
|
||||
Everything on and around the Earth's surface and atmosphere; the complex of physical, chemical, and biological elements which comprise the natural world, especially as contrasted with man-made objects or spaces.
|
||||
|
||||
environs
|
||||
The area surrounding a particular geographical place, i.e. its surroundings or environment.
|
||||
|
||||
epeiric sea
|
||||
A large, shallow body of salt water on a continental shelf which is connected to the ocean; an inland sea. See also marginal sea.
|
||||
|
||||
epicenter
|
||||
The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake, near which the seismic waves produced by the earthquake are usually most noticeable.
|
||||
|
||||
equal-area projection
|
||||
|
||||
equator
|
||||
1. An imaginary line dividing a spheroid such as a planet into northern and southern hemispheres, defined by the intersection of the spheroid's surface and the plane perpendicular to its axis of rotation, which results in a great circle exactly midway between and hence equidistant from the planet's geographic poles and is therefore defined as zero degrees latitude.
|
||||
2. The Earth's equator in particular (often capitalized as the Equator): the imaginary circle of latitude halfway between the geographic poles which is assigned a latitude of zero degrees (0°) and therefore used as a reference point from which all other lines of latitude are measured. At 40,074 kilometres (24,901 mi) in circumference, is the largest great circle of the Earth. Places located on or near the Equator experience approximately the same amount of daylight year-round, which causes local daytime temperatures and climate patterns to be relatively stable throughout the year.
|
||||
|
||||
equatorial cylindrical orthomorphic map projection
|
||||
See Mercator projection.
|
||||
|
||||
equidistant
|
||||
Equally distant from a point, object, or location; e.g. a given location A is said to be equidistant from two other locations B and C if B and C each have the same distance from A.
|
||||
|
||||
equinox
|
||||
A solar equinox is a moment in time when the Sun appears directly above the equator, rather than to its north or south.
|
||||
|
||||
equirectangular projection
|
||||
|
||||
erg
|
||||
Also reg and hamada.
|
||||
A broad, flat desert area covered by wind-swept sand and having little or no vegetative cover.
|
||||
|
||||
erosion
|
||||
The wearing away of the Earth's surface caused by the movement of water, ice, or wind.
|
||||
|
||||
erratic
|
||||
Also glacial erratic.
|
||||
A boulder that has been carried from its source by a glacier and deposited as the glacier melted. Such boulders are often conspicuous because they differ geologically from the surrounding rock.
|
||||
|
||||
escarpment
|
||||
A long cliff or steep slope separating two comparatively level or more gently sloping surfaces and resulting from erosion or faulting.
|
||||
|
||||
esker
|
||||
Also os, eskar, or eschar.
|
||||
A long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel, usually occurring in glaciated or formerly glaciated areas.
|
||||
|
||||
estavelle
|
||||
Also inversac.
|
||||
A karstic sinkhole or ponor which, depending on the season and weather conditions, can serve as either a sink or a source of freshwater.
|
||||
|
||||
estuary
|
||||
The broad lower course of a river where it enters the ocean and is affected by the tides. Compare delta.
|
||||
|
||||
étang
|
||||
A shallow pool or lake caused by the ponding of backwash draining from a beach by material brought ashore by the sea.
|
||||
|
||||
etchplain
|
||||
A plain beneath which the bedrock has been subjected to considerable subsurface weathering, known as "etching". Erosion of the regolith overlying an etchplain often exposes topographical irregularities such as inselbergs.
|
||||
|
||||
ethnic group
|
||||
A group of people in a country who share a unique culture and identity.
|
||||
|
||||
evorsion
|
||||
See pothole.
|
||||
|
||||
exaration
|
||||
See plucking.
|
||||
|
||||
exclave
|
||||
A portion of a state or territory that is geographically separated from the main part by surrounding foreign territory of one or more other states or political entities. Many exclaves are also enclaves.
|
||||
|
||||
exotic stream
|
||||
A stream found in an area that is too dry to have spawned such a flow. The flow originates in some moister section.
|
||||
|
||||
extinct volcano
|
||||
A volcano that is not expected to erupt again.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 14/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
exurb
|
||||
A region or district that lies outside a city and usually beyond its suburbs; a place of this type is called an exurb. Compare rural.
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
|
||||
fairway
|
||||
The part of a navigable waterway containing the navigable channel, in particular the central, deepest, widest, or most commonly used channel.
|
||||
|
||||
fall line
|
||||
A geomorphologic unconformity between an upland region of relatively hard crystalline basement rock and a coastal plain of softer sedimentary rock.
|
||||
|
||||
fallow
|
||||
Agricultural land that is plowed or tilled but left unseeded during a growing season. Fallowing is usually done to conserve moisture and soil nutrients.
|
||||
|
||||
false origin
|
||||
A selected point in a projected coordinate system from which the position of any place can be expressed in terms of its coordinates with respect to the selected point. The false origin differs from the true origin in order to exclude negative values.
|
||||
|
||||
fast ice
|
||||
Also land-fast ice and shore-fast ice.
|
||||
Sea ice that is more or less securely "fastened" to a coastline, to the sea floor, or to grounded icebergs, and which therefore does not move with currents and winds (unlike drift ice). The formation of fast ice is usually seasonal and its properties vary with water depth, topography of the sea floor, tides, and pressure from adjacent drift ice.
|
||||
|
||||
fault
|
||||
A fracture in the Earth's crust accompanied by a displacement of one side of the fracture.
|
||||
|
||||
fault-block mountain
|
||||
A mountain mass created by either the uplift of land between faults or the subsidence of land outside the faults.
|
||||
|
||||
fault zone
|
||||
An area of numerous fractures in the Earth's crust along which movement has occurred. The movement may be in any direction and involve material on either or both sides of the fractures.
|
||||
|
||||
federation
|
||||
A form of government in which powers and functions are divided between a central government and a number of political subdivisions that have a significant degree of political autonomy.
|
||||
|
||||
fell
|
||||
A wild, barren, high-altitude moor or upland, or a treeless alpine tundra, often studded with boulders or rock outcrops; or a broad, isolated mountain summit. The term is used primarily in northern England, Scotland, and Fennoscandia.
|
||||
|
||||
felsenmeer
|
||||
See blockfield.
|
||||
|
||||
fen
|
||||
An area of spongy, waterlogged ground containing decaying vegetation that accumulates over time into peat, and which is supplied with an input of mineral-rich surface or groundwater by a direct connection to a larger hydrological system. This external input typically results in higher mineral concentrations and a more alkaline pH than other peat-forming ecosystems such as bogs. Fens are one of four main types of wetland, along with bogs, marshes, and swamps.
|
||||
|
||||
field
|
||||
1. Any large, open, outdoor space, natural or man-made, especially one with a natural surface covering such as grass or soil and having few trees and structures, permitting long sightlines.
|
||||
2. (variable) A property, quantity, or observation (e.g. temperature, soil moisture, population density, etc.) that can be theoretically assigned to any point of space and which varies across space. Both scalar and vector fields are found in GIS applications, although the former is more common. Also spatially dependent variable.
|
||||
|
||||
figure of the Earth
|
||||
The size and shape of the Earth as studied in geodesy. Applications requiring varying levels of precision have led to the development of many different models of the Earth, ranging from simple spheres to much more accurate approximations such as geoids.
|
||||
|
||||
firn
|
||||
A type of ice that is at an intermediate stage between snow and glacial ice. More specifically, firn is partially compacted névé left over from past seasons which has subsequently recrystallized into a form that is harder and denser than névé.
|
||||
|
||||
first bottom
|
||||
A colloquial term loosely applied to the topographically lowest step of a floodplain that experiences regular flooding (though the frequency considered "regular" is inconsistently specified), i.e. the first part to be inundated when a flood occurs. The term is used primarily in the Midwestern United States.
|
||||
|
||||
First Law of Geography
|
||||
Also Tobler's First Law of Geography.
|
||||
A fundamental assumption of spatial analysis articulated by the Swiss-American geographer Waldo Tobler as "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." This principle is considered foundational to the concepts of spatial dependence and autocorrelation, and is expressed mathematically in the inverse distance weighting method of spatial interpolation and in regionalized variable theory as the basis for kriging.
|
||||
|
||||
firth
|
||||
Another name for a coastal inlet, strait, or bay associated with the mouth of a large river, where the tidal effects of seawater passing upriver have widened the riverbed into an estuary. The term is used primarily in Scotland.
|
||||
|
||||
fish ladder
|
||||
A series of shallow steps down which water is allowed to flow, designed to permit salmon or other anadromous fish to circumvent artificial barriers such as dams as they swim upstream to spawn.
|
||||
|
||||
fissure
|
||||
A long, narrow opening or line of breakage made by cracking or splitting, especially in rock or earth.
|
||||
|
||||
fjard
|
||||
A large, open, navigable body of water between the islands of an archipelago or between an island and the mainland, either on the sea coast or in freshwater lakes or rivers.
|
||||
|
||||
fjord
|
||||
Also fiord.
|
||||
A long, narrow, navigable marine inlet with steep sides or cliffs created by glacial erosion.
|
||||
|
||||
flark
|
||||
A hollow or depression within a bog, often water-filled and usually occurring as part of a repeated series of such depressions which are elongated and parallel to each other and separated by intervening ridges known as strings.
|
||||
|
||||
flood bypass
|
||||
|
||||
flood wall
|
||||
A primarily vertical artificial barrier designed to temporarily contain the waters of a river or other waterway which may rise to high levels during flooding events. Flood walls are narrower and typically easier to build than dikes or levees, so they are mainly used in locations where space is limited or where building more traditional flood-control structures would interfere with other interests.
|
||||
|
||||
floodbank
|
||||
See levee.
|
||||
|
||||
floodplain
|
||||
Also bottomland.
|
||||
A broad, flat area of land adjacent to a river or stream which is leveled by annual flooding and by the lateral and downstream movement of meanders.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 15/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
floodway
|
||||
1. Another name for a flood bypass.
|
||||
2. A large-capacity channel or culvert designed to capture and divert floodwaters or excess streamflow from populous or flood-prone areas and eventually drain it into a river or other body of water, e.g. an artificial drainage canal bounded by levees. They often run below street level in larger cities.
|
||||
3. A road crossing of a flood-prone channel, built at or close to the natural ground level. It is similar to a causeway but crosses a shallow and often dry depression that is subject to flooding, rather than a continuously flooded waterway.
|
||||
4. A part of a floodplain kept clear of encumbrances and reserved for emergency diversion of floodwaters.
|
||||
|
||||
floor
|
||||
The level or nearly level lower part of a valley or basin, or the bed of any body of water, such as a stream, lake, or ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
flow regime
|
||||
The general behavior of a river or other watercourse as defined by its average flow conditions throughout the year, including seasonal variations in discharge, size and frequency of floods, and frequency and duration of droughts.
|
||||
|
||||
flute
|
||||
A glacial landform created by the movement of a glacier around a boulder, consisting of a lineation or streamlined furrow or ridge parallel to the direction of ice movement. They generally form in newly deposited till or older drift and can reach heights of 25 metres (82 ft) and lengths of 20 kilometres (12 mi).
|
||||
|
||||
fluvial
|
||||
Of or pertaining to rivers or streams; produced by the action of a river or stream.
|
||||
|
||||
fluvial terrace
|
||||
|
||||
focality
|
||||
The characteristic of a place that follows from its interconnections with more than one other place. When interaction within a region comes together at a single place (i.e. when the movement focuses on that location), the place is said to possess focality.
|
||||
|
||||
focus
|
||||
Also hypocenter.
|
||||
The point inside the Earth's crust from which an earthquake originates.
|
||||
|
||||
foothills
|
||||
A geographic transition zone defined by gradual increases in elevation between plains or low-relief hills and adjacent topographically higher hills, mountains, or uplands.
|
||||
|
||||
footslope
|
||||
The part of the profile of a hillslope that forms the concave surface at the base of the slope. It is a transition area between sites of erosion and transport higher up the slope (e.g. the shoulder and backslope) and sites of deposition further down the slope (the toeslope).
|
||||
|
||||
ford
|
||||
A place, natural or man-made, where a river or stream is shallow enough to be crossed by wading, or by getting a vehicle's wheels wet (as opposed to crossing a permanently dry bridge). Fords may be seasonal or temporary, becoming impassable during high water.
|
||||
|
||||
foredeep
|
||||
A relatively narrow, deep, elongated, and steep-sided trough in the ocean floor, usually near or parallel to a mountainous land area or associated with an archipelago, or such a trough when infilled with sediment. See also foreland basin.
|
||||
|
||||
foreland
|
||||
1. Any land area or territory located in front of something else.
|
||||
2. A landform projecting into the sea, e.g. a cape or headland.
|
||||
3. The seaward trading area associated with a particular port or harbor.
|
||||
4. (glaciology) The area between the current leading edge of a glacier and the moraines of the most recent maximum.
|
||||
|
||||
foreland basin
|
||||
A type of structural endmember basin that develops adjacent and parallel to a mountain range as a result of lithospheric flexure during its orogeny. Topographic loading and downflexure creates space in the basin that is filled by sediment eroded from the range. Compare rift basin.
|
||||
|
||||
foreshore
|
||||
The part of a seashore located between the lowest low water line and the mean high water line. See also intertidal zone; contrast backshore.
|
||||
|
||||
forest
|
||||
Any extensive area dominated by communities of trees.
|
||||
|
||||
formal region
|
||||
An area of the Earth that is unified by some measurable physical or human characteristic.
|
||||
|
||||
form line
|
||||
A contour line whose precise position on a map has not been accurately surveyed but rather interpolated from surrounding contours.
|
||||
|
||||
fresh water
|
||||
Any naturally occurring water characterized by low concentrations (typically less than 0.05% by volume) of dissolved salts and other solids relative to either salt water or brackish water. Sources of fresh water on Earth include glaciers, ice caps, icebergs, bogs, lakes, rivers, streams, and most groundwater.
|
||||
|
||||
friction of distance
|
||||
The influence and restraining effect of distance on all forms of movement, based on the fundamental geographical principle that movement necessarily incurs one or more costs, in the form of physical effort, energy, time, and/or other resources, and that these costs are directly proportional to the distance traveled. Such costs effectively resist the propensity for movement, akin to the friction of classical mechanics, and hence the concept of physical distance is a critical factor in determining whether or not a given movement, event, or process occurs.
|
||||
|
||||
frontalier
|
||||
Also cross-border worker and frontier worker.
|
||||
Someone who lives in one country and works in a neighboring country, commuting across the international border each workday and returning to their country of residence on a nightly or weekly basis; someone who lives and works across political or geographical frontiers.
|
||||
|
||||
frontcountry
|
||||
|
||||
frontier
|
||||
1. The area near or beyond a political or geographical boundary; a march or borderland.
|
||||
2. The area near or beyond the edge of a settled or civilized area, consisting of sparsely populated or uninhabited wilderness. See also hinterland and edgeland.
|
||||
|
||||
frost hollow
|
||||
Also frost pocket.
|
||||
A hollow or depression surrounded on all sides by higher terrain, such as the floor of a deep valley, where very cold, dense air tends to concentrate as strong terrestrial radiation on the slopes above forces the cold air downslope, often at nighttime. Temperatures in these hollows can be tens of degrees colder than the immediate surroundings.
|
||||
|
||||
functional diversity
|
||||
The characteristic of a place where a variety of different activities (economic, political, or social) occur, most often associated with urban places.
|
||||
|
||||
functional region
|
||||
An area of the Earth's surface that is defined by its interaction with or connectivity to other regions.
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 16/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
gallery forest
|
||||
A narrow strip of trees or shrubs lining both banks of a river or stream in otherwise treeless, open country. Above very narrow streams, the foliage on each side may meet in the canopy.
|
||||
|
||||
gazetteer
|
||||
A geographical dictionary or directory used in conjunction with a map or atlas and containing information concerning the geographical make-up, social statistics, and physical features of a country, region, or continent.
|
||||
|
||||
gentilic
|
||||
See demonym.
|
||||
|
||||
geo
|
||||
Also gio.
|
||||
A narrow inlet within a deep cleft in a rocky coastline, sheltered by tall, near-vertical cliffs created by wave-driven erosion along faults and bedding planes in the rock. The term is primarily used in the islands of northern Scotland.
|
||||
|
||||
geoblocking
|
||||
Also geolocking.
|
||||
A technology that restricts access to online content according to an Internet user's geographical location, which may be determined by any of various geolocation techniques, including checking the user's IP address against a blacklist, triangulating GPS queries, and measuring the latency of a signal traveling between the user's computer and another endpoint in the network.
|
||||
|
||||
geocode
|
||||
A concise, human-readable series of letters, numbers, and/or other symbols which represents and uniquely identifies a particular geographic entity so as to distinguish it from other geographic entities in a finite set or database.
|
||||
|
||||
geocoding
|
||||
The conversion of a text-based description of a physical location, such as the name of a place or a street address, into geographic coordinates, e.g. latitude and longitude, which can then be plotted in a spatial coordinate system and represented on a map to locate and uniquely identify its position on the Earth's surface. The reverse process, where geographic coordinates are converted into a text-based description, is known as reverse geocoding.
|
||||
|
||||
geocell
|
||||
In many geographic information systems, an imaginary polygon on the surface of the Earth with dimensions 1 degree of latitude by 1 degree of longitude, or approximately 111 by 111 kilometres (69 by 69 miles) at the Equator, representing an area equal to about 12,321 square kilometres (4,757 square miles). The east-west distance equal to 1 degree of longitude gradually decreases as one approaches the poles, such that the shape of a geocell becomes increasingly trapezoidal at higher latitudes.
|
||||
|
||||
geodata
|
||||
Also geospatial data, georeferenced information, and geoinformation.
|
||||
Any data or information having an implicit or explicit association with one or more locations on the Earth, especially that used for georeferencing in GIS databases.
|
||||
|
||||
geodesic
|
||||
Also orthodrome, geodesic line, and geodetic line.
|
||||
In geodesy, the shortest line on a specific surface between two particular points on that surface. The geodesic between a given two points on a flat plane is a segment of a straight line drawn between those points; the geodesic between two points on a sphere is a shorter arc of the great circle which connects both points. Geodesics may also be plotted on the surface of an ellipsoid, such as an idealized reference ellipsoid used to model the shape of the Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
geodesy
|
||||
Also geodetics.
|
||||
The science of accurately measuring and understanding the Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field and how these properties change over time.
|
||||
|
||||
geodetic control network
|
||||
Also geodetic network, reference network, or control point network.
|
||||
|
||||
geodetic datum
|
||||
Also geodetic system, geodetic reference datum, or geodetic reference system.
|
||||
A coordinate system and set of reference points used for locating places on the Earth, which defines horizontal and vertical coordinates upon a particular reference ellipsoid that approximates the figure of the Earth. Geodetic datums are used in geodesy, navigation, and surveying applications to translate positions indicated on paper or digital maps to their actual positions on the Earth; because the Earth is an imperfect ellipsoid, localized datums such as the ED50 covering only specific countries or regions are often more accurate representations of their area of coverage than global standards such as the WGS 84 of the World Geodetic System.
|
||||
|
||||
geodetic north
|
||||
See true north.
|
||||
|
||||
geodetics
|
||||
See geodesy.
|
||||
|
||||
geodynamics
|
||||
A subfield of geophysics and Earth science that studies the physical dynamics of the Earth by applying physics, chemistry, and mathematics to the understanding of how mantle convection and other internal processes lead to plate tectonics and geological phenomena such as mountain formation, volcanism, earthquakes, and faulting, among others.
|
||||
|
||||
geofence
|
||||
A virtual boundary or perimeter drawn around a real-world geographic area in a GIS software application, allowing distinctions between the properties of adjacent places which cannot be physically made on the ground to be made and stored digitally in an electronic database.
|
||||
|
||||
geographic coordinate system
|
||||
A coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters, or symbols. Geographic coordinates are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position such as elevation and two or three other numbers represent a horizontal position such as latitude and longitude.
|
||||
|
||||
geographic factor
|
||||
Any physical or human condition that impacts the environment of a geographic place.
|
||||
|
||||
geographic information science (GIS)
|
||||
Also GIScience.
|
||||
The scientific study of data structures and computational techniques for capturing, representing, processing, and analyzing geographic information.
|
||||
|
||||
geographic information system (GIS)
|
||||
Any system of computer software tools designed to allow users to record, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present large sets of spatial or geographic data.
|
||||
|
||||
Geographic Names Information System (GNIS)
|
||||
A digital public-domain database developed by the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Board on Geographic Names which contains name and locative information about more than two million physical and cultural features located throughout the United States and its territories. Each feature recorded in the database receives a unique feature record identifier called a GNIS identifier.
|
||||
|
||||
geographic pattern
|
||||
Any observable model, style, or trend in some element of geography, generally observed on maps.
|
||||
|
||||
geographic process
|
||||
Any process or activity, natural or man-made, that brings changes to some aspect of physical or human geography.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 17/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
geographical inertia
|
||||
Also geographical momentum.
|
||||
The tendency of a place with established installations and services to maintain its size and its importance as a focus of economic or industrial activity after the conditions originally influencing its development have appreciably altered, ceased to be relevant, or disappeared.
|
||||
|
||||
geographical mile
|
||||
A unit of length defined as the distance equal to one minute of arc along the Earth's Equator: approximately 1,855.3 metres (1.1528 mi; 1.8553 km). The precise length varies with the reference ellipsoid used to approximate the shape of the Earth. Regardless of the particular ellipsoid, the length of one degree of longitude at the Equator is equal to exactly 60 geographical miles.
|
||||
|
||||
geography
|
||||
The scientific study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
geoid
|
||||
The shape that the surface of the Earth's oceans would take under the influence of Earth's gravity and rotational acceleration alone, in the absence of other influences such as winds and tides. It is often characterized as the precise mathematical figure of the Earth: a smooth but irregular gravitational equipotential surface at every point of which, by definition, the direction of the force of gravity is always perpendicular and spirit levels are always parallel. Its shape results from anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field caused by the uneven distribution of mass within and on the Earth's surface. A reference ellipsoid is an idealized approximation of the more complex and accurate geoid.
|
||||
|
||||
geoinformatics
|
||||
The science and technology which develops and uses information science infrastructures to address problems and analyze data within geography, cartography, geoscience, and related branches of science and engineering.
|
||||
|
||||
geoinformation
|
||||
See geodata.
|
||||
|
||||
geolocation
|
||||
The identification or estimation of the real-world geographic location of an object, involving the generation of a set of geographic coordinates in order to determine a more meaningful description of location, such as a street address.
|
||||
|
||||
geolocking
|
||||
See geoblocking.
|
||||
|
||||
geomatics
|
||||
Also geospatial science.
|
||||
The scientific discipline that involves gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic or spatially referenced information.
|
||||
|
||||
geometer
|
||||
See surveyor.
|
||||
|
||||
geomorphology
|
||||
The study of the arrangement and form of the Earth's crust and of the relationship between these physical features and the geologic structures beneath.
|
||||
|
||||
geopotential
|
||||
1. The potential of the Earth's gravitational field, expressed as the sum, U, of the gravitational potential Vg of the Earth at point P and the rotational potential Vc at the same point, i.e. U = Vg + Vc.
|
||||
2. The negative of the sum of the gravitational potential Vg and the rotational potential Vc, i.e. U = −(Vg + Vc). This alternative definition is often used by physicists.
|
||||
3. The potential energy of a unit mass relative to the geoid, numerically equivalent to the work which would be done in lifting the mass from the geoid against the force of gravity to the elevation at which the mass is actually located.
|
||||
|
||||
georeferencing
|
||||
|
||||
geoscience
|
||||
See Earth science.
|
||||
|
||||
geosophy
|
||||
The study of geographical knowledge from any and all points of view, past or present, true or false; the study of the nature and expression of geographical ideas.
|
||||
|
||||
geospatial science
|
||||
See geomatics.
|
||||
|
||||
geosphere
|
||||
The collective non-living parts of the Earth: the lithosphere, the atmosphere, the cryosphere, and the hydrosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
geostatistics
|
||||
A branch of statistics which involves the organization, management, and analysis of spatial and spatiotemporal datasets. Geostatistical algorithms are often incorporated in GIS software applications.
|
||||
|
||||
geosystems
|
||||
See physical geography.
|
||||
|
||||
geotargeting
|
||||
|
||||
ghetto
|
||||
A section of a city occupied by members of a minority group who live there because of social restrictions on their residential choices. Originally, the term referred specifically to a section of a European city to which Jews were confined.
|
||||
|
||||
ghost town
|
||||
A deserted or abandoned village, town, or city, especially one in which remaining buildings and infrastructure such as roads are still visible. The term is also sometimes used to refer to settlements that are still populated, but significantly less so than in previous years.
|
||||
|
||||
glacial
|
||||
Of or pertaining to a glacier or to the consequences of glaciation; formed, deposited, caused, or affected by glaciological processes.
|
||||
|
||||
glacial drift
|
||||
See drift.
|
||||
|
||||
glacial erratic
|
||||
See erratic.
|
||||
|
||||
glacial flour
|
||||
See rock flour.
|
||||
|
||||
glacial lake
|
||||
A lake or other enclosed body of water created by historical or ongoing glacial activity; e.g. the Great Lakes of North America.
|
||||
|
||||
glacial till
|
||||
The mass of rocks and finely ground material carried by a glacier and deposited when the ice melts. This creates an unstratified material of varying composition.
|
||||
|
||||
glacial trough
|
||||
|
||||
glaciation
|
||||
1. The process or state of being covered with a glacier.
|
||||
2. Another name for a glacial period, an interval of time that is marked by colder temperatures and advancing glaciers.
|
||||
|
||||
glacier
|
||||
A persistent mass of dense ice that moves slowly but constantly under its own weight, and which is composed largely of compacted snow that forms over very long periods of time wherever the annual accumulation of snow exceeds its rate of melting and sublimation. Glaciers slowly deform and abrade the land beneath them, causing many unique geomorphological processes and creating a huge variety of landforms including cirques, moraines, and fjords. They form exclusively on land and are distinct from the much thinner ice that forms on bodies of water.
|
||||
|
||||
glaciology
|
||||
The scientific study of glaciers, including their formation, composition, behavior, causes, effects, and distribution; or more generally of ice or any natural phenomena involving ice.
|
||||
|
||||
glacis
|
||||
A smooth, gently sloping surface at the foot of a hill, mountain, or any other high promontory, whether natural or artificial. In the latter case, the term is used in particular to describe a stone or earthen slope constructed at the base of some historical military fortifications.
|
||||
|
||||
glade
|
||||
Also clearing.
|
||||
Any large, open, mostly treeless area within a forest.
|
||||
|
||||
glen
|
||||
A long valley bounded by gently sloping, concave sides, and typically narrower and deeper than a strath. The term is used primarily in Scotland.
|
||||
|
||||
glint
|
||||
A steep cliff, terrace, or edge of a plateau.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 18/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
global
|
||||
1. Of or concerning all parts of the world (i.e. worldwide); affecting or distributed across the whole of the Earth.
|
||||
2. Of or relating to a globe or sphere; spherical or approximately so.
|
||||
3. Comprehensive; total; encompassing all or nearly all considerations, categories, items, etc.
|
||||
|
||||
global city
|
||||
Also world city, power city, or alpha city.
|
||||
A city which functions as an important or primary node in the global economy. Though criteria are not strictly defined, a global city typically is very large; dominates trade and economic interactions within a large surrounding area; supports a large and demographically diverse population; serves as a center of ideas and innovation in business, science, culture, and politics; and/or is a headquarters for major financial institutions, multinational corporations, or worldwide media and communications networks.
|
||||
|
||||
global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
|
||||
|
||||
Global Positioning System (GPS)
|
||||
A satellite-based radionavigation positioning system owned and operated by the United States Department of Defense and made available for use by both the military and the general public. It is one of several GNSS standards that provides geolocation and time information, transmitted via microwave signals, to enabled satellite navigation devices, known as GPS receivers, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to at least four GPS satellites. Modern state-of-the-art GPS receivers can accurately pinpoint locations to within 30 centimetres (0.98 ft).
|
||||
|
||||
globalization
|
||||
The process of interaction and integration among people, companies, governments, and cultures across the world. A complex and multifaceted phenomenon, globalization is considered largely the result of economically motivated advances in transportation and communication technologies in the past several centuries which have dramatically increased interactions between otherwise isolated groups of people.
|
||||
|
||||
globe
|
||||
A true-to-scale map of the Earth that duplicates its round shape and correctly represents relative areas, sizes, and shapes of physical features, distances, and directions.
|
||||
|
||||
gnamma
|
||||
See panhole.
|
||||
|
||||
gore
|
||||
1. An irregularly shaped parcel of land of any size, often approximately triangular, that is left between two adjoining surveyed parcels as the result of incomplete or inaccurate boundary surveys.
|
||||
2. A lune-shaped map which may be fitted to the surface of a globe with a negligible amount of distortion.
|
||||
|
||||
gorge
|
||||
See canyon.
|
||||
|
||||
graben
|
||||
A depression or valley bounded on either side by distinct, parallel escarpments or faults and formed by the downward displacement of a block of the Earth's crust. Grabens often occur side-by-side with horsts, their uplifted or non-displaced counterparts, in a repeated series of vertical displacements.
|
||||
|
||||
grade
|
||||
Also slope, incline, gradient, pitch, rise, or mainfall.
|
||||
A physical surface that is inclined with respect to the horizontal, or the angle between that surface and the horizontal, typically expressed in degrees, or calculated as a ratio of "rise" (vertical distance) to "run" (horizontal distance) and expressed as a fraction or percentage; a larger number indicates a steeper incline. The term "grade" is often used to describe the incline of man-made surfaces such as roads and the roofs of buildings, whereas the term "slope" is more commonly used to describe natural surfaces such as the sides of hills or mountains or the beds and banks of watercourses.
|
||||
|
||||
grassland
|
||||
Any land area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (i.e. plants of the botanical family Poaceae), sometimes also inclusive of grass-like plants of other families. A large and important biome occurring worldwide, grasslands may be natural or created for agricultural purposes.
|
||||
|
||||
graticule
|
||||
A network of lines on a map or chart (or imagined on the surface of the Earth) representing geodetic parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.
|
||||
|
||||
gravimetry
|
||||
The measurement of the strength of a gravitational field, especially the Earth's gravitational field, typically by calculating the acceleration due to gravity at a particular point on the Earth's surface. Because it can vary widely across the surface, knowing the local magnitude of the gravitational force is often necessary in order to produce accurate geographical data.
|
||||
|
||||
great circle
|
||||
Also orthodrome.
|
||||
Any circle on the surface of a sphere created by the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through its center. A great circle divides the sphere into two equal hemispheres, and all of a sphere's great circles have the same center and circumference, which by definition is the largest possible circumference of the sphere. The mathematical properties of great circles make them useful in geodesy, where they are often visualized upon the surface of the Earth (despite the fact that the Earth is not a perfect sphere): for example, the Equator of the idealized Earth is a great circle, and any meridian with its antimeridian forms a great circle. Because the shortest path between any two points on the surface of a sphere follows the arc of a great circle, great-circle distances are often used as approximations of geodesics for the purposes of air and sea navigation. See also small circle.
|
||||
|
||||
great-circle bearing
|
||||
The horizontal direction or bearing followed by the arc of a great circle through a given pair of terrestrial points, expressed as the angular distance from a reference direction.
|
||||
|
||||
great-circle distance
|
||||
Also orthodromic distance.
|
||||
The length of a line between two points which follows the arc of a great circle as defined by the intersection of the Earth's surface with an imaginary plane passing through the Earth's center. It is the shortest route between those two points on the Earth's surface.
|
||||
|
||||
green belt
|
||||
Also greenway.
|
||||
A special land-use zone designated in some cities to prevent development of wild, undeveloped, or agricultural land surrounding or adjacent to urban areas, in order to conserve natural ecosystems, to allow the return and establishment of wildlife, and/or to create urban green space for aesthetic or recreational purposes. The term may also refer more specifically to the boundary between developed and undeveloped areas rather than to the undeveloped area itself.
|
||||
|
||||
greenfield
|
||||
A previously undeveloped plot of land for which development is proposed or on which it is in progress, or which is intentionally not being developed so as to permit it to evolve naturally. Compare brownfield.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 19/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
grid
|
||||
A pattern of lines on a chart or map, such as those representing latitude and longitude, which helps determine absolute location.
|
||||
|
||||
grid magnetic angle
|
||||
Also grid variation or grivation.
|
||||
The angular difference in direction between grid north and magnetic north, typically expressed in degrees east or west of grid north.
|
||||
|
||||
grid north
|
||||
The direction northwards as indicated by the grid lines of a map projection, which may or may not be aligned with geodetic north and magnetic north.
|
||||
|
||||
grivation
|
||||
See grid magnetic angle.
|
||||
|
||||
groundwater
|
||||
The water present beneath the Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in fractures and voids within geological strata. Contrast surface water.
|
||||
|
||||
grove
|
||||
A small group of trees growing close together and generally surrounded by little or no undergrowth.
|
||||
|
||||
growing season
|
||||
The part of the year during which local weather conditions (i.e. temperature and precipitation) permit the normal growth of plants in a given location. What defines a "growing season" is often informal and colloquial, and may vary widely by location and from year to year; in many places, the local growing season is defined as the period of time between the average date of the last frost (in temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, this typically occurs in the spring) to the average date of the first frost (in the autumn).
|
||||
|
||||
groyne
|
||||
A rigid, man-made hydraulic structure extending from an ocean shore or river bank, constructed to interrupt water flow and limit the movement of sediment by longshore drift.
|
||||
|
||||
gulch
|
||||
A deep, V-shaped valley formed by erosion, often containing a small stream or a dry streambed, especially one in arid regions.
|
||||
|
||||
gulf
|
||||
A large arm or inlet of an ocean or sea that lies within a curved coastline, similar to a bay but usually larger and often with a narrower opening.
|
||||
|
||||
gully
|
||||
A landform resembling a large ditch or a small ravine created by the action of swift running water eroding deeply and sharply into soil, typically on a hillside.
|
||||
|
||||
gumbo
|
||||
Any very fine, clayey soil which rapidly turns to sticky mud when wet. The term is used primarily in the United States and Canada.
|
||||
|
||||
guyot
|
||||
Also tablemount.
|
||||
An isolated underwater seamount with a flat top that is at least 200 metres (660 ft) below the water's surface.
|
||||
|
||||
gypsey
|
||||
See winterbourne.
|
||||
|
||||
gyre
|
||||
Any large system of circulating ocean currents, particularly those related to large-scale wind movements. Gyres are caused by the Coriolis effect and play a fundamental role in the global thermohaline circulation.
|
||||
|
||||
gyroscope
|
||||
A device consisting of a spinning disc or rotor mounted in such a way as to preserve the orientation and angular velocity of its axis of rotation with respect to an inertial reference frame, irrespective of perturbations to the mounting itself, which makes it possible to measure and maintain an unbiased equilibrium in the attitude and/or course of a moving object such as an airborne or waterborne vehicle or camera. Modern digital gyroscopes and their associated readouts are widely used in navigation and geodesy as the basic sensor in direction-seeking, direction-keeping, and attitude stabilization systems.
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
|
||||
habitus
|
||||
An individual's sense of "home", or of their place in the world, comprising socially ingrained habits, beliefs, skills, and dispositions based on their geographical environment, cultural origin, inheritance, experiences, and the social networks they develop throughout their life, all of which may be subject to refashioning with passing time or increasing distance.
|
||||
|
||||
hachure
|
||||
Any of a series of non-numerical lines used on a map to indicate the general orientation and steepness of topographical terrain. Such lines vary in length, thickness, and spacing, with steeper slopes indicated by shorter, heavier, and more closely spaced lines.
|
||||
|
||||
haff
|
||||
A coastal lagoon of fresh or brackish water on the south coast of the Baltic Sea, fed by a stream which is blocked by a nehrung, through which it is linked to the sea by a channel.
|
||||
|
||||
halo effect
|
||||
In the context of geography, the detrimental effect of a border or other boundary on locations close to it, making those locations unattractive to people intending to visit or settle there; e.g. a political boundary in disputed territory, where immigration across the boundary occurs frequently. There may also be beneficial effects on such locations.
|
||||
|
||||
ham
|
||||
In southern England, a plot of meadow land, especially a tract of rich pasture near a river; or a small settlement, ranging in size from a single homestead to a town.
|
||||
|
||||
hamada
|
||||
Also hammada.
|
||||
A desert landscape consisting of high, largely barren, rocky plateaus where most of the sand has been removed by deflation, and thus lacking most surficial materials other than boulders and exposed bedrock.
|
||||
|
||||
hamlet
|
||||
A small human settlement, variably defined as one the size of a town, village, or parish or as a smaller subdivision of or satellite entity to a larger settlement.
|
||||
|
||||
hanging valley
|
||||
A tributary valley that is higher in elevation than the main valley into which it drains, such that it appears to be "hanging" above the lower valley. Hanging valleys are commonly the result of differential glacial erosion, when adjacent areas beneath a glacier are subjected to different rates of erosion.
|
||||
|
||||
harmonic tremor
|
||||
One of a series of continuous rhythmic earthquakes in the Earth's upper lithosphere that can be detected by seismographs. Harmonic tremors often precede or accompany volcanic eruptions.
|
||||
|
||||
head of navigation
|
||||
The farthest point above the mouth of a river that can be navigated by watercraft, whether because of natural or man-made obstacles.
|
||||
|
||||
heading
|
||||
The compass direction in which the bow or nose of a moving vessel or aircraft is pointed. This is not necessarily the same direction in which the vessel is actually traveling, known as its course; any difference between heading and course is due to the motion of the air or water through which the vessel is moving, or other aerodynamic effects such as skidding or slipping. See also bearing.
|
||||
|
||||
headland
|
||||
A high coastal promontory that extends out into a body of water, often surrounded by steep cliffs. A very large headland is often called a cape.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 20/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
headwall
|
||||
A steep slope or sheer cliff face at the upper end of a valley (e.g. at the back of a cirque), or at the active face of a mine, pit, or quarry.
|
||||
|
||||
headwaters
|
||||
1. Another name for the source of a river, stream, or other watercourse, i.e. the point or points furthest from the mouth of a particular channel at which precipitation, meltwater, or groundwater first accumulates into a persistent, identifiable, and/or named body of water whose contents ultimately empty into that particular channel; or all of the uppermost tributaries of a watershed considered collectively (of which there may be thousands), typically including all streams identified as first-order through third-order in conventional stream order systems.
|
||||
2. The entire region, inclusive of land, surrounding these sources, often abutting the boundary of a drainage divide that separates distinct watersheds.
|
||||
|
||||
hearth
|
||||
The source area of any innovation; the place from which an idea, crop, artifact, or good is diffused to other areas.
|
||||
|
||||
heartland
|
||||
1. The central or interior part of a region.
|
||||
2. A part of a region considered essential to the viability and survival of the whole.
|
||||
|
||||
heath
|
||||
Also heathland.
|
||||
A shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining, infertile, acidic soils and characterized by open, low-growing, woody vegetation.
|
||||
|
||||
hectare (ha)
|
||||
A metric unit of area defined by a square with sides of 100 metres, equal to 10,000 m2 or 2.471 acres. There are 100 hectares in 1 square kilometre (km2).
|
||||
|
||||
hedgerow
|
||||
Also simply hedge.
|
||||
A line of closely spaced shrubs or trees, planted and trained so as to form a barrier or to mark a boundary between two neighboring areas, or to serve as a windbreak for crops in adjacent fields.
|
||||
|
||||
heliotrope
|
||||
A device used in geodetic surveying to reflect sunlight onto a distant point so as to aid long-distance observations.
|
||||
|
||||
hemisphere
|
||||
One half of the Earth, usually conceived as resulting from the division of the globe into two equal parts of either north and south or east and west.
|
||||
|
||||
heteroclinal fold
|
||||
A geological fold of which one side is sloped at an angle steeper than that of the other side.
|
||||
|
||||
high plain
|
||||
A plain lying at a high elevation, generally above 600 metres (2,000 ft).
|
||||
|
||||
high water mark
|
||||
A natural or man-made demarcation that indicates the maximum rise of a body of water over an area of land. Though not necessarily an actual physical mark, river or sea waters rising to a high point often leave a lasting physical impression such as a noticeable discoloration or deposited debris; such a mark is often the result of a flood or storm surge. High water marks may reflect an all-time high, an annual high, or the high point for some other period of time (e.g. a tidal cycle). A natural delineation created by debris deposited by a high tide is called a strandline. See also wash margin and mean high water.
|
||||
|
||||
highland
|
||||
Sometimes used interchangeably with upland.
|
||||
1. Any elevated region of land, often one that is mountainous or situated atop a plateau. The term is sometimes reserved for relatively low-elevation mountain ranges or foothills.
|
||||
2. Any area of land (mountainous or otherwise) that is higher in elevation relative to another area. In this sense, the term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater riparian areas, on the basis of elevation above sea level.
|
||||
|
||||
highway
|
||||
Any major public or private road or other thoroughfare on land, especially one that is paved and capable of supporting high-capacity, rapid transit between populated places.
|
||||
|
||||
hill
|
||||
Any landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. A hill is generally considered less steep than a mountain.
|
||||
|
||||
hillock
|
||||
Also knoll.
|
||||
A small hill.
|
||||
|
||||
hinterland
|
||||
1. An area that is tributary to a place and linked to that place through lines of exchange or interaction.
|
||||
2. The area, not necessarily settled itself, that is nonetheless influenced by a particular settlement or establishment; i.e. its sphere of influence.
|
||||
|
||||
historical geography
|
||||
A branch of human geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time, especially (though not necessarily limited to) geographic change as it relates to human activity; the geography of the past, whether real, perceived, or theoretical.
|
||||
|
||||
hoe
|
||||
A projecting ridge or outcropping of land, its height ending abruptly or steeply. The term is used primarily in placenames in Great Britain.
|
||||
|
||||
hogback
|
||||
Also hog's back or hogsback.
|
||||
A long, narrow ridge or series of hills with a narrow crest and steep, symmetrical slopes of nearly equal inclination on both flanks, especially one created by the differential erosion of an outcropping which exposes homoclinal sedimentary rock strata. Compare esker, drumlin, and cuesta.
|
||||
|
||||
holding
|
||||
Land owned or occupied by legal right for the purpose of agriculture.
|
||||
|
||||
homestead
|
||||
1. (dwelling) A house or home, especially an isolated farmhouse with its associated outbuildings on a large agricultural holding such as a ranch; or a small rural settlement of dispersed farms.
|
||||
2. (legal concept) In the United States, a plot of land given legal meaning by a series of federal laws granting applicants ownership of land in the public domain upon the condition that they live on it and improve it. Homesteaders were initially granted plots of 160 acres (0.65 km2), which was considered adequate to support a single family, but later as much as 640 acres (2.6 km2).
|
||||
|
||||
horizon
|
||||
Also skyline.
|
||||
The apparent line that separates the ground from the sky, dividing all visible directions into two categories: those that intersect the Earth's surface and those that do not. When not obscured by buildings, trees, or mountains, the true horizon can be useful in navigation and determining positional orientation. In perfect visibility, to an observer on Earth standing at an elevation of 3 metres (10 ft) from the horizontal, the horizon in any direction is approximately 6.5 kilometres (4 mi) distant; at 30 metres (100 ft), it is 21 kilometres (13 mi) away.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,87 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 3/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
awareness space
|
||||
All of the locations of which an individual is "aware", i.e. about which they have knowledge above some minimum level, even those they may not have actually visited. Awareness space includes activity space, and it enlarges as new locations are discovered and new information is gathered. See also search space and mental map.
|
||||
|
||||
axis
|
||||
1. (coordinate system) Any of the reference lines of a Cartesian coordinate system, from which the signed distances to each coordinate are measured, e.g. the x-axis or the y-axis.
|
||||
2. (of a fold) The imaginary central line or plane dividing the limbs of the fold as symmetrically as possible; the crest from which strata dip downward and away in an anticline, or the lowest depth of the trough from which strata rise in opposite directions in a syncline.
|
||||
3. (of the Earth) The rotational axis of the Earth: the diameter between the North Geographic Pole and the South Geographic Pole, passing through the planet's geometric center, around which the Earth rotates anti-clockwise (i.e. to the east) once every 23 hours and 56 minutes. This axis is constantly tilted at an angle of about 66°30' with respect to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, which is the primary cause of the seasonal weather cycles experienced at temperate and polar latitudes.
|
||||
|
||||
ayre
|
||||
Another name for a shingle beach or other gravel-covered spit, bar, or tombolo, used primarily in the archipelagos of northern Scotland.
|
||||
|
||||
azimuth
|
||||
The angle formed between a reference vector (often magnetic north) and a line from the observer to a point of interest projected perpendicularly to the zenith on the same plane as the reference vector. Azimuth is usually measured in degrees and can be determined with a compass.
|
||||
|
||||
azimuthal projection
|
||||
A map projection in which all bearings are laid off correctly from the centerpoint of the map, so that all points on the map are true in distance and direction from the center.
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
|
||||
backcountry
|
||||
Any geographical area that is remote, isolated, undeveloped, or difficult to access, as contrasted with frontcountry; sparsely populated or uninhabited wilderness. See also bush.
|
||||
|
||||
backshore
|
||||
The part of a seashore lying inland from the mean high water line, landwards of the foreshore, from which it is often delineated by a conspicuous strandline. This part of the beach is only affected by waves during exceptional high tides or severe storms.
|
||||
|
||||
backslope
|
||||
The part of the profile of a hillslope that forms the steepest, typically linear portion of the slope, generally located in the middle and bounded by a convex shoulder above and a concave footslope below. The backslope may or may not include vertical or near-vertical cliffs.
|
||||
|
||||
backwash
|
||||
The seaward return flow of a receding wave after it has broken on a beach or other surface. Contrast swash.
|
||||
|
||||
backwater
|
||||
1. A part of a river in which there is little or no current, especially a side channel, a sluggish meander, or a slowing and widening of the main stem created by an obstruction to flow.
|
||||
2. A place regarded as remote, underdeveloped, or culturally backward relative to other places; a place or state of stagnation, in which little or no economic, social, or intellectual progress occurs.
|
||||
3. A secluded, peaceful place.
|
||||
|
||||
badia
|
||||
In the Middle East, an arid area characterized by low or irregular precipitation and little or no vegetation.
|
||||
|
||||
badlands
|
||||
An area of rugged or irregular topography resulting from extensive wind and water erosion of unconsolidated sedimentary rock.
|
||||
|
||||
bajada
|
||||
Also bahada.
|
||||
A series of adjacent alluvial fans coalescing in a basin at the foot of a mountain range.
|
||||
|
||||
Balkanization
|
||||
The political fragmentation of a larger region or state into multiple smaller regions or states, often implying mutual hostility or lack of cooperation between such units, as has occurred frequently in the Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe.
|
||||
|
||||
bank
|
||||
1. The land alongside a body of water, particularly the sloping ground bordering and defining the channel of a flowing watercourse such as a river or stream.
|
||||
2. An elevation in the bed of a river, stream, or shallow sea, either fully or partially submerged, mid-channel or connected to the shore, and usually made of sand, mud, gravel, or other loose sediment. See also bar and shoal.
|
||||
3. Another name for a hill or hillside.
|
||||
|
||||
bankfull stage
|
||||
The stage during which the channel of a river or stream is completely filled with water from bank to bank, immediately preceding the overbank stage, when the river overflows its banks and inundates the surrounding floodplain.
|
||||
|
||||
bar
|
||||
An elevated area of unconsolidated sediment such as sand or gravel which has been deposited by the flow of a river or other moving body of water. See also shoal.
|
||||
|
||||
barrage
|
||||
An impoundment built for seasonal floodwater storage and/or to create a reservoir for irrigation, as opposed to a dam, which instead serves the purpose of hydroelectric power generation, though the terms are sometimes used more or less interchangeably.
|
||||
|
||||
barrier island
|
||||
A long, narrow ridge or shoal lying above the highest high tide level (thereby creating an island) and parallel to the mainland coast, from which it is separated by a lagoon. Barrier islands are essentially very large sandbars deposited naturally by wave and tidal action, often in extensive chains along the coastline, or created artificially by dredging. Though their size and shape change frequently, particularly during storms, they are important natural breakwaters, sheltering areas of relatively calm waters where wetlands and marine life flourish. See also spit and tied island.
|
||||
|
||||
barrier reef
|
||||
A coral reef lying parallel to a shore and some distance from it, creating a sheltered lagoon which the reef protects from the open ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
barrier ridge
|
||||
Any steep, unnavigable ridge or escarpment isolating one terrain from another.
|
||||
|
||||
barrio
|
||||
In the Spanish-speaking world, a neighborhood or community within a larger urban area, generally with informal boundaries, though in some places the term may refer to a formal subdivision of a municipality.
|
||||
|
||||
barrow
|
||||
See tumulus.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 21/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
horizontal equivalent
|
||||
The distance between two points on a land surface when projected on to a perfectly horizontal (i.e. flat) plane, e.g. on a map, as opposed to measuring the actual physical length along the real-world surface, which can be greatly increased by slopes and other topographic variation. The distance between the start and end points of any route, even if at the same elevation, will often appear to be much shorter on a map than the shortest route that could actually be walked between them, because of the influence of real-world changes in vertical displacement along the path followed by the route.
|
||||
|
||||
horn
|
||||
A mountain formed by the back-to-back abutment of three or four adjacent cirques, leaving a distinctly pyramidal peak.
|
||||
|
||||
horst
|
||||
A raised block of the Earth's crust, bounded by parallel escarpments or faults, that has been displaced upward or has remained stationary while adjacent blocks on either side, known as grabens, have been displaced downward. Horsts and grabens often occur side-by-side in a repeated series of vertical displacements.
|
||||
|
||||
hotspot
|
||||
An area in the middle of a lithospheric plate where magma rises from the mantle and erupts at the Earth's surface, despite being far from the plate's tectonic boundaries. Volcanoes often occur above a hotspot.
|
||||
|
||||
hum
|
||||
A residual hill in limestone country, resembling a haystack, left standing when the surrounding land surface is eroded.
|
||||
|
||||
human geography
|
||||
The branch of geography that studies humans and their communities, cultures, economies, and interactions with the environment by examining their relations with and across space and place. Along with physical geography, it is one of the two major sub-fields of geography.
|
||||
|
||||
human–environment interaction
|
||||
The interdependent relationship between humans and the environment.
|
||||
|
||||
humanistic geography
|
||||
Also humanist geography.
|
||||
An approach in human geography which emphasizes the subjective as distinct from the objective in that it stresses the importance of perception, creativity, thinking, and beliefs as well as human experience and values in the formation of the attitudes of people toward their environment and in affecting their relationships with it.
|
||||
|
||||
hummock
|
||||
A small knoll or mound, typically less than 15 metres (49 ft) in height and situated above an otherwise level ground surface.
|
||||
|
||||
humus
|
||||
Partially decomposed organic soil material.
|
||||
|
||||
hundred
|
||||
In England, Scandinavia, and many other parts of the world, an administrative subdivision of a larger region, often a county or shire, with its own judicial authority.
|
||||
|
||||
hydrograph
|
||||
A graph showing the rate of flow (i.e. the discharge) of water past a specific point of measurement in a river or other channel over time, typically expressed in cubic metres or cubic feet per second (m3 or ft3/s).
|
||||
|
||||
hydrography
|
||||
The study of the surface waters of the Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
hydrosphere
|
||||
The totality of the water found on, under, and above the Earth's surface in liquid, solid, and gaseous forms, including all oceans, lakes, rivers, and streams, as well as all ice and glaciers and subsurface groundwater. Some definitions restrict the hydrosphere to liquid water only, instead placing solid forms in the cryosphere and gaseous forms in the atmosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
hypsography
|
||||
The geographic representation on a map of features related to elevation, altitude, and other measures of height above a reference surface (and sometimes inclusive of depths below the reference surface as well).
|
||||
|
||||
hypsometer
|
||||
Any instrument used to measure the height or elevation of an object above a reference surface, either by trigonometry or by measuring changes in atmospheric pressure or boiling point. Trigonometric principles are applied when viewing the measured object from a distance, e.g. when determining the heights of trees or buildings, or when surveying the elevations of distant landforms; whereas the principle that atmospheric pressure decreases predictably with elevation above sea level is applied in instruments that measure their own height (i.e. the elevation of the instrument's location).
|
||||
|
||||
hypsometry
|
||||
The study or measurement of the elevation or depth of features of the Earth's surface relative to mean sea level. In a narrower sense, hypsometry may refer to land elevations only, and therefore is sometimes viewed as the terrestrial equivalent of bathymetry.
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
|
||||
ice age
|
||||
Any very long period of Earth's history during which surface and atmospheric temperatures are greatly reduced, resulting in the development or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and widespread glaciation. The most recent such period was the Pleistocene Epoch, which ended approximately 12,000 years ago.
|
||||
|
||||
ice cap
|
||||
A flattened, often dome-shaped mass of ice that covers less than 50,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi) of land area and is not constrained by topographical features such as mountains; larger masses of ice are termed ice sheets. Contrast polar ice cap.
|
||||
|
||||
ice floe
|
||||
A large piece of floating drift ice, typically with a flat surface and at least 20 metres (66 ft) across at its widest point.
|
||||
|
||||
ice sheet
|
||||
Also continental glacier.
|
||||
A mass of glacial ice that covers more than 50,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi) of land area; smaller masses of ice may be termed ice caps or ice shelves. The two polar ice sheets are the only ice sheets that currently exist on Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
ice shelf
|
||||
A large floating platform of ice formed when a glacier or ice sheet in a coastal area flows onto the ocean surface. By contrast, sea ice is formed directly over the water and is typically much thinner.
|
||||
|
||||
ice stream
|
||||
A region of relatively fast-moving ice within an ice sheet that flows like a stream under its own weight (making it essentially equivalent to a glacier) and empties into the ocean. Ice streams are responsible for the majority of the mass lost from both the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets.
|
||||
|
||||
iceberg
|
||||
A large chunk of fresh water ice which has broken away from a larger body of ice (such as a glacier or ice shelf) and is floating freely in open water.
|
||||
|
||||
icefall
|
||||
A portion of a glacier where a steepening or narrowing of the underlying bed causes the ice to move more rapidly than elsewhere, resulting in a chaotic, highly fractured surface characterized by numerous crevasses and seracs.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 22/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
igneous rock
|
||||
Rock formed when molten (melted) materials harden.
|
||||
|
||||
immigration
|
||||
To move to another country. People that move to another country are called immigrants.
|
||||
|
||||
impact crater
|
||||
A type of crater formed by the hypervelocity collision of a solid astronomical body, such as a meteor, with the Earth's surface. Unlike volcanic craters, impact craters typically have raised rims higher in elevation and depressed floors lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain.
|
||||
|
||||
impoundment
|
||||
1. Another name for a dam that impounds a body of water.
|
||||
2. The reservoir created by such a dam.
|
||||
|
||||
improved land
|
||||
Any land area which has been intentionally altered from its natural condition by human activity, such as ploughing, clearing, cultivation, or some other form of management, and thereby made more valuable or productive for human purposes (not necessarily to the benefit of any other organism or the environment in general). Legal definitions vary with location, but in most countries the term refers primarily to certain types of agricultural land or to property which has been developed for residential or commercial use.
|
||||
|
||||
inclinometer
|
||||
Also clinometer, declinometer, tilt meter, gradient meter, slope gauge, and level gauge.
|
||||
An instrument used to measure angles of slope, elevation, or depression with respect to the direction of the gravitational force, i.e. in the vertical plane, including both inclines and declines. The measure may be expressed in degrees, percentage points, or topos.
|
||||
|
||||
index contour
|
||||
A contour line drawn with a heavier line weight to distinguish it from intermediate contours. Depending on the contour interval, index contours are usually indicated every fourth or fifth contour, along with their assigned numerical values, in order to facilitate ease of interpretation.
|
||||
|
||||
index map
|
||||
See map index.
|
||||
|
||||
indigenous
|
||||
Originating in or native to a particular place or region, usually used of a living organism.
|
||||
|
||||
inertia costs of location
|
||||
Costs borne by an activity because it remains located at its original site, even though the distributions of supply and demand have changed.
|
||||
|
||||
influent
|
||||
(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing into a larger watercourse or body of water.
|
||||
|
||||
infrastructure
|
||||
The broad set of facilities and interrelated systems that serve a city, country, or any other inhabited area, encompassing the structures and services necessary for its industries, economies, and residential spaces to function. Infrastructure may include public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, water reservoirs, canals, sewers, and electrical and telecommunications networks, among other things. A well-developed infrastructure is essential to enable, sustain, and improve living and working conditions in any society or organization.
|
||||
|
||||
ingression coast
|
||||
Also ingressed coast and depressed coast.
|
||||
A generally flat coastline whose shape has been largely defined by the penetration of the sea into relatively low-lying areas of the land surface, often as a result of crustal movements or a rise in sea level, such that the boundary between land and water closely matches the topographic contours of the land prior to its being covered by seawater.
|
||||
|
||||
inland
|
||||
Of, relating to, within, or towards the interior of a landmass, i.e. distant from the coast.
|
||||
|
||||
inland sea
|
||||
A very large, isolated expanse of open water in the interior of a landmass, either completely surrounded by dry land or connected to the ocean by a river, strait, or other narrow waterway.
|
||||
|
||||
inland waters
|
||||
Any surface watercourse or body of water surrounded entirely by land, including ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers, or all such waters within a polity considered collectively. See also internal waters.
|
||||
|
||||
inlet
|
||||
An indentation of a shoreline, usually long and narrow, which leads to an enclosed body of salt water, such as a sound, bay, lagoon, or marsh.
|
||||
|
||||
inselberg
|
||||
Also monadnock.
|
||||
An isolated rocky hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain that rises abruptly from a virtually level surrounding plain. Compare mogote.
|
||||
|
||||
inset
|
||||
A subsection of a map that is reserved for depicting another map of the same place at a different scale, often a smaller scale to show relative location within a larger geographic area (e.g. a country's location on the globe) or a larger scale to show increased detail (e.g. of public transit routes in a downtown area), or with different features or overlays in order to provide additional information that would be difficult to interpret if presented in the main map area. Insets are usually outlined with an obvious boundary to prevent confusion, and may include their own set of cartographic elements such as a scale, graticule, and legend.
|
||||
|
||||
inshore
|
||||
(relative to a position on a body of water) Near to or moving towards the shore; shorewards of a position as opposed to seawards of it. See also onshore and offshore.
|
||||
|
||||
insular
|
||||
Of or relating to an island, or suggestive of the isolated condition of an island.
|
||||
|
||||
integrated drainage
|
||||
A drainage pattern in which stream systems have developed to the point that all parts of the landscape drain into some part of a stream and to a common base level, the initial or original surfaces having essentially eroded away entirely, such that few or no closed drainage systems are present.
|
||||
|
||||
integrated geography
|
||||
Also integrative geography, environmental geography, or human–environment geography.
|
||||
The branch of geography that describes and explains the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment.
|
||||
|
||||
intercardinal directions
|
||||
Also intermediate directions or ordinal directions.
|
||||
The set of four intermediate directions used in cartography and navigation, each of which is located halfway between a pair of cardinal directions: northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW). They are often included in the compass rose and are used to define further subdivisions such as the secondary-intercardinal directions.
|
||||
|
||||
interfluve
|
||||
A narrow, elongated, and plateau-like or ridge-like landform between two valleys, or an area of higher ground between two rivers in the same drainage basin.
|
||||
|
||||
intermediate directions
|
||||
See intercardinal directions.
|
||||
|
||||
intermittent stream
|
||||
A stream or other watercourse in which water does not flow continuously but dries up occasionally, often predictably with the seasons, as opposed to a perennial stream which flows year-round. See also bourne.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 23/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
intermontane
|
||||
Also intermountain.
|
||||
Situated between mountains or mountain ranges, e.g. the high plateaus lying between the eastern and western ranges of the Andes.
|
||||
|
||||
International Date Line
|
||||
A line of longitude generally 180 degrees east and west of the Prime Meridian. The date is one day earlier to the east of the line.
|
||||
|
||||
international waters
|
||||
|
||||
interpolation
|
||||
In geographic information science, the estimation of the values of spatially dependent variables at unsampled points based on known values of surrounding points, under the assumption that any unknown quantity can be calculated based on its distance to each surrounding quantity. Interpolation techniques such as spline and kriging are commonly raster operations, but can also be applied in vector environments using a triangulated irregular network to model a surface.
|
||||
|
||||
interruption
|
||||
Any place where the contiguous geographic area represented in a map projection has been split, separating to distant parts of the projection certain features and locations which are in reality much closer to each other, in order to permit the representation of a three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional map. All world maps, for example, have at least one interruption, conventionally along the length of a single meridian, thus forming an east–west boundary despite that the approximately spherical shape of the Earth is continuous, with no such boundaries; features on either side of the interruption, though very close to each other on the actual Earth, are depicted on opposite edges of the map, appearing to be separated by thousands of miles. Some world map projections attempt to reduce distortion of scale by having more than one interruption, which divide the projected area into multiple gores, each with its own central meridian.
|
||||
|
||||
intervening opportunity
|
||||
The existence of a closer, less expensive opportunity for obtaining a good or service, or for a migration destination. Such opportunities lessen the attractiveness of more distant places.
|
||||
|
||||
Intracoastal Waterway (ICW)
|
||||
A system of navigable inland waterway channels, maintained through dredging and sheltered for the most part by a series of linear offshore islands, that follows the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of the United States more than 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi) from Boston, Massachusetts, around the southern tip of Florida, to Brownsville, Texas.
|
||||
|
||||
inversac
|
||||
See estavelle.
|
||||
|
||||
inverted river delta
|
||||
|
||||
island
|
||||
Also isle.
|
||||
Any piece of sub-continental land that is entirely surrounded by water; or more generally, any isolated habitat that is surrounded by a different habitat, including different types of land.
|
||||
|
||||
island nation
|
||||
A country or polity whose territory consists primarily or entirely of one or more islands or parts of islands.
|
||||
|
||||
isle
|
||||
See island.
|
||||
|
||||
islet
|
||||
A very small island.
|
||||
|
||||
isometric
|
||||
Having equal measure.
|
||||
|
||||
isopleth
|
||||
Any line on a map connecting places of equal value of some specified variable. The variable may be a physical or natural quantity, such as elevation above sea level (as with contour lines) or temperature (as with isotherms), or a quantity related to social or economic statistics, such as population, wealth, or transport costs.
|
||||
|
||||
isostasy
|
||||
Also isostatic equilibrium.
|
||||
The state of gravitational equilibrium between the Earth's crust and its mantle, such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density. This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at Earth's surface. Isostatic theory maintains that where equilibrium exists at the surface, equal mass must underlie equal surface area, and that the thickness of crustal features and the depth of the world's oceans tend to change over time in order to compensate for the uneven distribution of mass in the lithosphere. For example, the instability of continental margins where high mountains are found adjacent to deep oceanic trenches is explained by the subterranean movement of magma to effect a return to regional equilibrium, a process known as isostatic adjustment.
|
||||
|
||||
isthmus
|
||||
A narrow piece of land connecting two larger land areas across an expanse of water by which they are otherwise separated.
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
|
||||
jetty
|
||||
Any man-made structure that projects from land out into a body of water, serving as a breakwater, a walkway, or a landing stage for watercraft, or, in pairs, as a means of constricting a channel.
|
||||
|
||||
jhum cultivation
|
||||
Also jhoom cultivation or slash-and-burn agriculture.
|
||||
Clear-cutting and/or setting fire to an area of land so it can be used for farm cultivation.
|
||||
|
||||
junction
|
||||
A meeting or intersection of two or more routes of travel, as of roads, rivers, or lines on a map, or a place at which a single route diverges into two or more different routes.
|
||||
|
||||
jungle
|
||||
An area covered with dense vegetation dominated by large trees, often tropical.
|
||||
|
||||
jurisdiction
|
||||
1. The right and power to apply the law in a particular place or within a defined field of responsibility.
|
||||
2. The geographical area to which such authority applies.
|
||||
|
||||
juvenile water
|
||||
Also magmatic water.
|
||||
Water present within or derived from the magma of the Earth's mantle and which when brought to the surface by volcanic eruptions is entering the water cycle for the first time (or at least for the first time in millions of years, having previously circulated in the oceans or the atmosphere but becoming subducted beneath the surface and returned to the mantle).
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
|
||||
kame
|
||||
An irregularly shaped hill or mound composed of sand, gravel, and glacial till which accumulates in a depression on a retreating glacier and is subsequently deposited on the land surface with further melting of the glacier. Kames are often associated with kettles.
|
||||
|
||||
karre
|
||||
A furrow or channel varying in depth from a few millimetres to more than a metre, and separated from others by ridges, caused by solution on limestone surfaces.
|
||||
|
||||
karst
|
||||
An area possessing surface topography resulting from the underground solution of subsurface limestone or dolomite.
|
||||
|
||||
kettle
|
||||
Also kettle hole or pothole.
|
||||
A shallow, sediment-filled body of water formed by blocks of ice calving from a retreating glacier, or by draining floodwaters.
|
||||
|
||||
key
|
||||
See cay.
|
||||
|
||||
key col
|
||||
|
||||
kill
|
||||
Also kil.
|
||||
A river, stream, strait, or tidal inlet. The term is used primarily in areas of Dutch influence in the northeastern United States.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 24/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
knickpoint
|
||||
Also nickpoint.
|
||||
1. A point of abrupt inflection in the longitudinal profile of a river or its channel or valley, such as occurs at a waterfall.
|
||||
2. Any interruption or break in the character of a slope.
|
||||
|
||||
knob
|
||||
A peak or projection from the top of a hill or mountain, or any rounded protrusion of land, especially a small but prominent or isolated hill with steep sides; a boulder or an area of resistant rock protruding from the side of a hill or mountain. The term is used primarily in the southern United States.
|
||||
|
||||
knoll
|
||||
See hillock.
|
||||
|
||||
kolk
|
||||
Also colc and colk.
|
||||
1. A violently rotating underwater vortex capable of plucking and scouring depressions in bedrock, which may leave behind distinct pits or lakes known as rock-cut basins or potholes.
|
||||
2. Another name for a bog pond.
|
||||
|
||||
kopje
|
||||
See tor.
|
||||
|
||||
krai
|
||||
In Russia and other Slavic countries, a generic term for a region, historically and politically reserved for border regions in particular, and variously translated as march, frontier, or territory. The term is cognate with the name of Ukraine.
|
||||
|
||||
kriging
|
||||
Also Gaussian process regression and Wiener–Kolmogorov prediction.
|
||||
In geostatistics, an interpolation technique in which, for a given spatially dependent variable, a predicted value for an unmeasured location is derived by weighting the surrounding measured values based on the distance between them and to the unmeasured location, as well as the overall spatial arrangement of the measured points. Widely used in GIS applications, kriging is based on regionalized variable theory, which assumes that the spatial variation in the data being modeled is homogeneous across the surface.
|
||||
|
||||
kum
|
||||
A sandy desert of Central Asia, roughly equivalent to the Saharan erg.
|
||||
|
||||
kyle
|
||||
In Scotland, a narrow channel or strait between two islands, or between an island and the mainland.
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
|
||||
lacustrine
|
||||
Of or pertaining to a lake; formed by or deposited in a lake.
|
||||
|
||||
lacustrine plain
|
||||
A nearly level land area formed by the infilling of a lake with sediment and the complete drainage or evaporation of water from the lake, leaving the deposited sediments behind.
|
||||
|
||||
lagoon
|
||||
A small area of water connected to the ocean but otherwise blockaded by one or more islands.
|
||||
|
||||
lahar
|
||||
Also mudflow or debris flow.
|
||||
A flowing mixture of water and debris (intermediate between a volcanic avalanche and a water flood) that forms on the slopes of a volcano.
|
||||
|
||||
lake
|
||||
A body of water localized in a basin and surrounded entirely by land. Lakes are often defined as separate from any river or stream that serves to feed or drain them.
|
||||
|
||||
land bridge
|
||||
Any piece of land connecting larger land areas that are otherwise separated by water, especially one over which living organisms, such as terrestrial animals and plants, are able to cross and thereby colonize previously inaccessible lands. Land bridges may be created by falling sea levels, tectonic activity, or post-glacial rebound. Compare isthmus.
|
||||
|
||||
land cover
|
||||
The physical material present on the surface of the Earth, including categories such as vegetation (grasslands, shrubs, forests, etc.), bare ground, water, asphalt and artificial surfaces, and many others.
|
||||
|
||||
land-fast ice
|
||||
See fast ice.
|
||||
|
||||
landform
|
||||
A natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth. A combined set of landforms makes up the terrain of a given area, and their arrangement in a landscape is known as topography.
|
||||
|
||||
landlocked
|
||||
1. (of a country or other polity, or a geographical region) Completely surrounded by land and thus lacking a marine coastline; having no territory directly connected to or bordering the ocean.
|
||||
2. (of a property or parcel of land) Completely surrounded by privately owned property and having no access to a public road.
|
||||
|
||||
landmark
|
||||
Any natural or artificial feature that is recognizable enough to be used for navigation; a feature that stands out enough from its environment to be visible across long distances.
|
||||
|
||||
landmass
|
||||
Any large contiguous area of land typically surrounded by an ocean or sea. Compare continent.
|
||||
|
||||
landscape
|
||||
1. A broad or distinct area of land consisting of a collection of landforms which define a general geomorphologic form or setting, e.g. a mountain range, valley, plain, coast, etc. Landforms within a landscape are spatially associated but may vary in formation processes and age.
|
||||
2. The visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. In the broadest sense, landscapes may include geophysical landforms such as hills and mountains; bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, and the sea; living elements of land cover such as vegetation; human elements such as buildings, structures, and various forms of land use; and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. They reflect both physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence in a living synthesis of people and place.
|
||||
|
||||
landscape studies
|
||||
A branch of geography which examines the structure and organization of landscapes, focusing on landscapes as the settings for cultural and ecological patterns, processes, and histories, as well as on the social and cultural evolution of landscapes, including the ways in which they shape and are shaped by human societies and the interrelationships between place-making and personal and social memory.
|
||||
|
||||
landslide
|
||||
Also landslip.
|
||||
A sudden mass movement of earth from a hill, mountain, or cliff, in which displaced material slides, flows, falls, or collapses under the force of gravity yet often retains form as it moves; or the visible evidence of this movement after the displaced material has come to rest. Landslides may have many causes, though they are commonly associated with heavy precipitation, underground aquifers, wave action, and earthquakes.
|
||||
|
||||
land-tied island
|
||||
See tied island.
|
||||
|
||||
lateral blast
|
||||
A sideways-directed explosion from the side or summit of a volcano.
|
||||
|
||||
lateral moraine
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 25/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
latitude
|
||||
A measure of distance north or south of the Equator. One degree of latitude equals approximately 111 kilometers (69 mi). Lines of latitude, also called circles of latitude or parallels, are the imaginary lines that cross the surface of the Earth in an east-west direction (parallel to the Equator) and measure how far north or south of the Equator a place is located.
|
||||
|
||||
lava
|
||||
The term used for magma once it has erupted onto the Earth's surface.
|
||||
|
||||
layer of no motion
|
||||
In oceanography, a hypothetical layer at some depth in the ocean within which the water is assumed to be at rest, implying that the isobaric surfaces within that layer are level and hence that such surfaces can be used as points of reference when calculating absolute-gradient currents.
|
||||
|
||||
lea
|
||||
A pasture, meadow, or grassy field.
|
||||
|
||||
leaching
|
||||
A process of soil nutrient removal through the erosive movement and chemical action of water.
|
||||
|
||||
lee
|
||||
The side or slope of a physical feature (such as a hill or mountain) which faces downwind, i.e. away from the direction in which the wind is blowing, or which faces away from an advancing glacier or ice sheet. The lee side is often sheltered by the topography from exposure to the wind and any moisture it brings.
|
||||
|
||||
leeward
|
||||
Toward the lee side; sheltered from the wind; the direction downwind from a point of reference. Contrast windward.
|
||||
|
||||
legend
|
||||
A key for understanding the meanings of the symbols or pictures on a map.
|
||||
|
||||
levee
|
||||
Also dike, embankment, floodbank, and stopbank.
|
||||
An elongated naturally occurring ridge or an artificially constructed wall or barrier which regulates water levels in areas prone to flooding. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river or a coastline.
|
||||
|
||||
lithosphere
|
||||
The Earth's hard, outermost shell. It comprises the crust and the upper part of the mantle. It is divided into a mosaic of 16 major slabs or plates, which are known as lithospheric plates or tectonic plates.
|
||||
|
||||
lithospheric plates
|
||||
See tectonic plates.
|
||||
|
||||
loam
|
||||
A type of easily worked, highly fertile soil composed of clay, silt, and sand in an approximate ratio of 20:40:40. Loams generally heat rapidly, are well-aerated, and drain neither too quickly nor too slowly.
|
||||
|
||||
localism
|
||||
A movement or philosophy that prioritizes local or small-scale politics, issues, and values over regional or broader concerns, rejecting things like centralized government and economic outsourcing in favor of local production and consumption of goods, local control of government, and the promotion of local history, local culture, and local identity.
|
||||
|
||||
localization
|
||||
The set of processes by which social, cultural, economic, or other activities become embedded in specific places or locations, rather than in alternative places or across many places, either in contrast to or as a related aspect of globalization. In the former sense localization may be deliberately practiced as a form of resistance to globalization through the promotion of increased local control, self-government, and economic self-sufficiency. See also deglobalization.
|
||||
|
||||
location
|
||||
A particular point or place in physical space. Compare absolute location.
|
||||
|
||||
location theory
|
||||
A group of theories which seek to explain the siting of economic activities in particular locations.
|
||||
|
||||
loess
|
||||
A soil made up of small particles that were transported by the wind to their present location.
|
||||
|
||||
longitude
|
||||
A measure of distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, a line drawn between the North and South Poles and passing through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England. Lines of longitude, also called meridians, are the imaginary lines that cross the surface of the Earth in a north-south direction (parallel to the Prime Meridian) and measure how far east or west of the Prime Meridian a place is located.
|
||||
|
||||
longshore drift
|
||||
Also longshore current and littoral drift.
|
||||
A geological process by which sediment is transported along a coast parallel to the shoreline due to incoming wind-driven waves meeting the shore at an oblique angle; this generates a water current which moves unidirectionally along the shore within the surf zone. A well-known example occurs on sandy beaches when breaking waves send swash up the beach at an angle but gravity drains the backwash straight downslope, perpendicular to the shoreline, causing the same sand particles to gradually move down the beach over multiple cycles. The same process occurs at many different scales and affects all sediment sizes, and can vary with the wind direction even at the same location.
|
||||
|
||||
lowland
|
||||
Any area of land that is lower in elevation relative to another area. The term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater riparian areas, on the basis of elevation above sea level. Lowland areas are usually relatively flat and characterized by slow-flowing waterways and alluvial plains. Contrast highland and upland.
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
|
||||
maar
|
||||
A broad, shallow, flat-bottomed volcanic crater created by an eruption involving groundwater coming into contact with magma. Maars commonly have low rims and subtle relief and characteristically fill with water to form crater lakes.
|
||||
|
||||
machair
|
||||
A fertile, low-lying, grassy plain on the northwest coasts of Ireland and Scotland.
|
||||
|
||||
magma
|
||||
Molten rock containing liquids, crystals, and dissolved gases that forms within the upper part of the Earth's mantle and crust. When erupted onto the Earth's surface, it is called lava.
|
||||
|
||||
magmatic water
|
||||
See juvenile water.
|
||||
|
||||
magnetic anomaly
|
||||
A local deviation from the predicted value of the Earth's magnetic field, due either to the presence of rocks formed in past geological eras which have preserved internal magnetizations that differ from modern magnetic alignments, or to local abundances or deficiencies of ferromagnetic minerals.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 26/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
magnetic declination
|
||||
Also magnetic variation.
|
||||
The angle on the horizontal plane between magnetic north and true north. Because compass needles always point to magnetic north, and because the Magnetic North Pole and the Geographic North Pole are not in precisely the same location, the north direction indicated by a compass may be slightly different from the direction of geographic north, depending on the user's location on the Earth. The user can compensate for this discrepancy by adding the known declination angle for their location to the magnetic bearing reported by their compass, yielding the true bearing with respect to true north.
|
||||
|
||||
magnetic dip
|
||||
Also dip angle and magnetic inclination.
|
||||
The angle made with the horizontal by the Earth's magnetic field lines. Locations in the Northern Hemisphere usually have positive values of inclination, indicating that the magnetic field is angled downward, into the Earth; the angle increases as one approaches the North Magnetic Pole, where the field lines point vertically downward, perpendicular to the horizontal. Locations in the Southern Hemisphere usually have negative inclination, indicating that the field lines are angled upward, away from the Earth, with the maximum angle located at the South Magnetic Pole. Dip angle is in principle the angle made by the needle of a vertically held compass, though in practice ordinary compass needles may be deliberately weighted against dip, or may be unable to move freely in the correct plane. Magnetic dip can be measured more reliably with a dip circle.
|
||||
|
||||
magnetic meridian
|
||||
|
||||
magnetic north
|
||||
The direction a compass points, towards the Magnetic North Pole. Magnetic north differs from true north and grid north.
|
||||
|
||||
magnetic pole
|
||||
Either of the two poles of the Earth's true magnetic field – the Magnetic North Pole or the Magnetic South Pole.
|
||||
|
||||
magnetic variation
|
||||
See magnetic declination.
|
||||
|
||||
main stem
|
||||
Also trunk.
|
||||
The primary downstream channel of a river, as contrasted with its tributaries. Virtually all of the water in a river's drainage basin eventually flows through the main stem.
|
||||
|
||||
mainfall
|
||||
See grade.
|
||||
|
||||
mainland
|
||||
A term used to denote a contiguous landmass or political territory relative to its politically associated but geographically remote outlying territories. It is variously used to refer to the continental (i.e. non-insular) part of a polity relative to its exclaves or oceanic islands; or to the largest or most politically, economically, and/or demographically significant island within an island nation. For example, continental Europe is often considered "the mainland" relative to the British Isles, while the island of Great Britain is considered "the mainland" relative to Northern Ireland and the many smaller islands that constitute the United Kingdom.
|
||||
|
||||
makhtesh
|
||||
A deep, closed valley (usually drained by a single wadi) surrounded by steep walls of resistant rock and superficially resembling a crater. The term is used primarily in the deserts of Israel and Egypt.
|
||||
|
||||
mammilated
|
||||
Smooth and rounded in appearance, used of various landforms of different sizes from individual rocks to entire landscapes.
|
||||
|
||||
mantle
|
||||
The layer of the Earth's interior between the crust and the core, consisting of ultrabasic rock which is predominantly solid under the immense pressure of overlying rock but behaves as a viscous fluid over geological time scales or if this pressure is relieved (as with magma penetrating the crust). The mantle is about 2,900 kilometers (1,800 mi) thick, making up 84% of the Earth's volume and 67% of its mass. The uppermost sub-layer is known as the asthenosphere; the lithosphere is composed of the topmost 65–70 kilometres (40–43 mi) of the mantle and the crust.
|
||||
|
||||
map
|
||||
A picture of a place drawn at an established scale on a two-dimensional plane surface, often depicting natural and manmade features on or under the surface of the Earth or other planetary body, typically with the features positioned as accurately as possible relative to a coordinate reference system. More generally, a map is any graphical representation of locative information about the relative positions of particular features within a space or place.
|
||||
|
||||
map index
|
||||
Also index map.
|
||||
A graphical key identifying the relationships between the individual maps of a map series, their coverage areas, and/or their production status or availability. Index maps enable users to find a map or set of maps covering a particular region of interest by overlaying a grid or a set of rectangles on a map of a larger geographical area. Each grid unit or rectangle is labeled with a name or number corresponding to a specific map sheet which depicts the indicated area in greater detail.
|
||||
|
||||
map projection
|
||||
A systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations from the surface of a three-dimensional shape, such as a sphere or an ellipsoid, into locations on a two-dimensional plane. Maps of locations on the Earth require map projections to represent features in a convenient format that is easy to view and interpret, though all map projections necessarily distort the true properties of the Earth's surface to some degree.
|
||||
|
||||
map series
|
||||
A group of topographic or thematic map sheets usually having the same scale and cartographic specifications and collectively identified by the publisher or producing agency as belonging to the same group.
|
||||
|
||||
map sheet
|
||||
An individual map or chart printed on a single page or sheet of paper, either complete in itself or part of a map series.
|
||||
|
||||
mapping
|
||||
The process of designing, drawing, or creating a map. The term is used in particular to refer to the application of cartographic techniques in order to make planimetric or topographic maps, but may also be used for any map, and in the broadest sense may refer to the gathering of geographical data of any kind.
|
||||
|
||||
march
|
||||
Also marche or mark; (pl.) marches or marchlands.
|
||||
A boundary, frontier, or borderland, as opposed to an interior heartland. In medieval Europe, a march was the land surrounding a border between realms, or a neutral buffer zone under the joint control of two or more realms with conflicting laws or territorial claims.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 27/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
margin
|
||||
1. The line or edge along which the surface of a body of water meets the land.
|
||||
2. In property law, the boundary of a piece of land which is bounded by a stream or watercourse, often with the center of the stream or the thalweg defining the legal boundary.
|
||||
3. The mostly blank, unused space lying beyond the neatline of a map and completely surrounding the map area. See also surround.
|
||||
|
||||
marginal land
|
||||
Land that is of low agricultural value because any crops produced from it would be worth the same or less than the costs paid to produce them, either because the rights or improvements required to cultivate it are very expensive, or the market prices for the crops are very low, or for any other reason. A change in economic conditions may allow formerly marginal lands to become profitable again.
|
||||
|
||||
marginal sea
|
||||
1. A sea or other large area of the ocean that is partially enclosed by land and/or submarine ridges yet still adjacent to, widely open to, and connected to the larger ocean at the surface; e.g. the Yellow Sea and Hudson Bay.
|
||||
2. Also territorial sea, marine belt, and maritime belt.Those waters along a nation's coast within which the nation has exclusive jurisdiction except for the right of innocent passage of foreign vessels. See also territorial waters.
|
||||
marine
|
||||
1. Of, relating to, found in, or produced by the sea or ocean.
|
||||
2. Of or relating to shipping or navigation, particularly by watercraft.
|
||||
|
||||
maritime climate
|
||||
A climate strongly influenced by an oceanic environment, typically found on islands and the windward shores of continents. It is characterized by small daily and yearly temperature variation and high relative humidity.
|
||||
|
||||
market orientation
|
||||
The tendency of a firm or industry to be located close to wherever demand for the commodities it produces is strongest.
|
||||
|
||||
marsh
|
||||
A type of wetland dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species and often found at the edges of lakes and streams, where it forms a transition between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
|
||||
|
||||
Massenerhebung effect
|
||||
|
||||
massif
|
||||
1. Any section of the Earth's crust which is demarcated by faults or flexures and tends to retain its internal structure while being displaced as a whole.
|
||||
2. A single large mountain mass or compact group of connected mountains forming an independent portion of a mountain range.
|
||||
|
||||
mayen
|
||||
In Switzerland and the Central Alps, a large shelf or ledge, intermediate between high alpine meadows and valley floors, where cattle are allowed to rest briefly during their annual movements between summer and winter pasture.
|
||||
|
||||
mean sea level (MSL)
|
||||
The average sea level of one or more of the Earth's coastal bodies of water, such as oceans and seas, or at a particular location, from which heights such as elevation and altitude are measured.
|
||||
|
||||
meander
|
||||
One of a series of regular sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or windings in the main channel of a river, stream, or other watercourse. Meanders are produced by the repetitive upstream erosion and downstream deposition of sediments along the banks of a watercourse as the water flows back and forth across the axis of a valley or floodplain.
|
||||
|
||||
meander cutoff
|
||||
The process by which the strip of land separating the two closest parts of a meandering river or stream channel is breached by the river's flow, forming a new, shorter channel that effectively "shortcuts" the loop of the meander and causes it to be gradually abandoned until it is completely isolated from the main flow. The river's course suddenly becomes much straighter, and the abandoned meander often forms a slackwater or an oxbow lake, or becomes loaded with sediment and dries up entirely, leaving visible traces of the former channel.
|
||||
|
||||
meander neck
|
||||
The narrow strip of land separating the river on each side of a well-developed meander. If this strip is completely eroded away, a cutoff occurs. See also neck.
|
||||
|
||||
meander scar
|
||||
Also meander scarp.
|
||||
A typically crescent-shaped incision in a bluff or valley wall formed by the remnants of a dry, abandoned meander.
|
||||
|
||||
medial moraine
|
||||
Also median moraine.
|
||||
The morainic debris lying centrally in a line across the surface of a glacier, formed when the lateral moraines of two confluent glaciers meet.
|
||||
|
||||
median line
|
||||
|
||||
medical geography
|
||||
A branch of human geography that studies the geographical aspects of health and the provision of healthcare, examining the spatial distribution of human diseases, mortality, morbidity, and the environmental factors conducive to human health and illness.
|
||||
|
||||
Mediterranean climate
|
||||
Any climate characterized by mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, as experienced in the Mediterranean Basin.
|
||||
|
||||
megacity
|
||||
A very large city, typically with a population of at least 10 million people. Precise definitions vary, but criteria are usually based on total population and/or population density.
|
||||
|
||||
megafan
|
||||
An exceptionally large alluvial fan, variously defined as being more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) long from apex to toe or having a surface area of more than 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi).
|
||||
|
||||
megalopolis
|
||||
A chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas which have merged into a very large and heavily populated urban complex. See also conurbation and metropolitan coalescence.
|
||||
|
||||
megaregion
|
||||
|
||||
meilograph
|
||||
See opisometer.
|
||||
|
||||
meltwater
|
||||
Also snowmelt.
|
||||
Water (usually freshwater) derived from the melting of snow or ice, including seasonal snowfall, glacial ice, icebergs, and ice shelves over the ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
mental map
|
||||
The conception of an actual geographic space as it exists within a person's mind; an imagined "map" of the spatial relationships and orientations of physical objects and locations within the real-world environment, reflecting the knowledge and prejudices of the individual and characteristic of the way the individual acquires, classifies, stores, retrieves, and interprets geographic information.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 28/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Mercator projection
|
||||
Also equatorial cylindrical orthomorphic map projection.
|
||||
A conformal cylindrical map projection in which the equator is represented by a straight line true to scale and meridians are represented by parallel straight lines perpendicular to the equator and uniformly spaced according to the distances between them at the equator. Lines of latitude are also represented by a system of straight lines which are perpendicular to all of the meridians and therefore parallel to the equator, though their spacing is not uniform but rather increases with increasing distance from the equator in order to conform with the expanding scale resulting from the parallel representations of the meridians. The standard Mercator projection has long been popular in navigation because it represents north as up and south as down everywhere in the world while preserving local directions and shapes, though it also greatly inflates the size of objects near the geographic poles.
|
||||
|
||||
mere
|
||||
A shallow pond, lake, or wetland. The term is used primarily in Great Britain and other parts of Western Europe.
|
||||
|
||||
mereing
|
||||
A type of surveying in which boundaries are established with respect to ground features present at the time of the survey, which may include natural features and may or may not remain unchanged over time, e.g. a metes and bounds survey.
|
||||
|
||||
meridian
|
||||
A line of longitude, i.e. any imaginary line connecting points of equal longitude and running perpendicular to all lines of latitude, intersecting them at right angles. Unlike lines of latitude, meridians are all the same length, but are not parallel to each other, instead converging at the geographic poles. Each meridian is half of a great circle drawn on the Earth's surface; the other half, connecting all of the meridian's antipodes, is termed an antimeridian. Meridians are numbered according to their longitudinal measure in angular degrees (further subdivided into minutes and seconds) up to 180 degrees east or west of an arbitrarily designated zero or prime meridian, by convention the International Reference Meridian.
|
||||
|
||||
meridional
|
||||
Of, relating to, or characteristic of the south, especially of the inhabitants of a southern region or territory, in particular southern Europe. Contrast septentrional.
|
||||
|
||||
mesa
|
||||
An isolated, relatively flat-topped natural elevation, usually more extensive than a butte but less extensive than a plateau.
|
||||
|
||||
metamorphic rock
|
||||
Rock that has been physically altered by heat and/or pressure.
|
||||
|
||||
metes and bounds
|
||||
A system of land survey that defines parcels of land according to visible natural landscape features and distance. The resultant field pattern is usually very irregular in shape.
|
||||
|
||||
metropole
|
||||
The homeland or central territory from which a colonial empire governs, as opposed to its colonies or overseas territories.
|
||||
|
||||
metropolis
|
||||
A large city or conurbation which is considered a significant economic, political, or cultural center for a country or geographic region and/or an important hub for regional or international connections and communications.
|
||||
|
||||
metropolitan area
|
||||
Also metro area or commuter belt.
|
||||
A region consisting of one or more densely populated urban cores (often a metropolis) and its less populous surrounding territories, including satellite cities, towns, and intervening rural areas, all of which are socioeconomically tied to the core as typically measured by commuting patterns. A metropolitan area usually comprises multiple neighborhoods, jurisdictions, and municipalities, with its inhabitants sharing industry, housing, and many other forms of infrastructure.
|
||||
|
||||
metropolitan coalescence
|
||||
The merging of the urbanized parts of separate metropolitan areas; a megalopolis is a result of this process.
|
||||
|
||||
metropolitan state
|
||||
|
||||
migration
|
||||
The movement of people, animals, or other living organisms from one place to another.
|
||||
|
||||
mire
|
||||
See bog.
|
||||
|
||||
mogote
|
||||
An isolated, rounded, steep-sided hill composed of either limestone, marble, or dolomite and surrounded by nearly flat alluvial plains, especially as found in tropical regions.
|
||||
|
||||
Mohorovičić discontinuity
|
||||
Also Moho discontinuity, Moho boundary, or simply Moho.
|
||||
The boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle, as defined by the abrupt change in velocity of seismic P waves traveling across this boundary, which occurs as the waves pass through different densities of rock.
|
||||
|
||||
mole
|
||||
A long, massive, man-made stone or earthen structure used as a pier or breakwater, or as a causeway between places separated by water, but designed to prevent the free movement of water underneath it (unlike a true pier).
|
||||
|
||||
monadnock
|
||||
See inselberg.
|
||||
|
||||
montane
|
||||
Of or pertaining to a mountain or mountains; mountainous; occurring at high elevation. The term is used in particular to describe biomes or ecological communities occupying cool, humid zones at or near timberline. See also alpine.
|
||||
|
||||
monticule
|
||||
A secondary cone on the side of a larger volcano, or any small mountain or large hill.
|
||||
|
||||
moor
|
||||
Also moorland.
|
||||
An upland habitat and ecoregion characterized by low-growing vegetation on acidic soils and generally referring to uncultivated hills but also including low-lying wetlands.
|
||||
|
||||
moraine
|
||||
The rocks and soil carried and deposited by a glacier. A terminal moraine, either a ridge or low hill running perpendicular to the direction of ice movement, is often visible near the end of a retreating glacier, indicating the glacier's maximum advance.
|
||||
|
||||
moulin
|
||||
A vertical, cylindrical shaft, up to 25–30 metres (82–98 ft) deep, by which surface meltwater flows into a glacier, usually formed at lines of structural weakness in the ice.
|
||||
|
||||
mound
|
||||
Any heaped pile of earth, gravel, sand, rocks, or debris, typically with a rounded top and of topographically higher elevation than its immediate surroundings.
|
||||
|
||||
mountain
|
||||
A large landform that rises prominently above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a rocky peak with great vertical relief; a mountain is generally considered steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed by volcanic or tectonic forces and erode slowly through the actions of rivers, glaciers, and weathering. Most exist within extensive mountain ranges.
|
||||
|
||||
mountain pass
|
||||
A navigable route through a mountain range or over a ridge, often crossing a saddle.
|
||||
|
||||
mountain range
|
||||
A series of neighboring mountains or hills, often closely arranged in a line and connected by high ground. Individual mountains within the same mountain range are usually the result of the same orogeny, and often (though not always) share a common form, alignment, and geology.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 29/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
mouth
|
||||
1. The place where a river or stream flows into another body of water, such as a lake or another river but especially a sea or ocean. Deltas and estuaries occur near the mouths of rivers.
|
||||
2. The lower or downstream end or the most accessible entrance of a valley, canyon, ravine, or cave.
|
||||
|
||||
mudflat
|
||||
Also mud flat and tidal flat.
|
||||
A type of coastal wetland consisting of exposed layers of bay mud formed by the deposition of silts, clays, and marine animal detritus by tides or rivers. Mudflats usually form within the intertidal zone of relatively sheltered areas such as bays and lagoons.
|
||||
|
||||
mudflow
|
||||
See lahar.
|
||||
|
||||
multicultural
|
||||
Of, pertaining to, or including multiple distinct cultures.
|
||||
|
||||
multilingual
|
||||
The ability to use more than one language when speaking or writing. This term often refers to the presence of more than two populations of significant size within a single political unit, each group speaking a different language as their primary language.
|
||||
|
||||
municipal corporation
|
||||
The legal term for a government body at the local level, including but not necessarily limited to cities, counties, towns, townships, villages, and boroughs.
|
||||
|
||||
municipality
|
||||
A type of general-purpose urban administrative subdivision having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and/or state laws to which it is subordinate. Municipalities are often included within but usually distinguished from larger administrative divisions such as counties, though the nature of their territorial boundaries and political jurisdictions can vary considerably in different parts of the world.
|
||||
|
||||
muskeg
|
||||
Another name for a bog, used primarily in Alaska and western Canada.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Index of geography articles
|
||||
Outline of geography
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
Much of this material was copied from U.S. government works which are in the public domain because they are not eligible for copyright protection.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 4/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
barysphere
|
||||
The Earth's core and mantle considered together, i.e. all of the Earth's interior beneath the lithosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
base level
|
||||
The lowest level to which a stream can erode its bed. The ultimate base level of all streams is sea level.
|
||||
|
||||
baseline
|
||||
An accurately measured line of known length on the Earth's surface, used as a reference line in triangulation and other surveying operations.
|
||||
|
||||
basin
|
||||
Another name for a depression, particularly one that is approximately circular, level or nearly level at the bottom, and/or surrounded on all sides by land of uniform elevation.
|
||||
|
||||
batholith
|
||||
A very large body of igneous rock, usually granite, which has been exposed by erosion of the overlying rock.
|
||||
|
||||
bathymetry
|
||||
1. The measurement of water depth, mainly of seas and oceans but sometimes of deep lakes.
|
||||
2. The study and depiction of the physical features or relief of the floor of a lake or ocean. In this sense bathymetry is considered the underwater equivalent of hypsometry or topography.
|
||||
|
||||
bay
|
||||
A coastal body of water that is directly connected to but recessed from a larger body of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, or another bay. The land surrounding a bay usually shelters it from strong winds and waves, making bays ideal places for ports and harbors.
|
||||
|
||||
bayou
|
||||
In the southern United States, a sluggish or stagnant slough or backwater, or a marshy outlet of a lake or river.
|
||||
|
||||
beach
|
||||
A landform along the shoreline of an ocean, sea, lake, or river with a loose surface of sand, gravel, shingle, pebbles, shells, stones, or coral.
|
||||
|
||||
bearing
|
||||
The direction or position of an object, or the direction of an object's movement, relative to a fixed point. It is typically measured in degrees and can be determined with a compass. By convention, magnetic north is defined as having a bearing of zero degrees.
|
||||
|
||||
bedrock
|
||||
The solid rock in the Earth's crust that underlies all soil and other loose material; the rock material that breaks down eventually to form soil.
|
||||
|
||||
belt
|
||||
Also corridor.
|
||||
A large region or district (often but not necessarily a broad, elongated area of vague or indeterminate boundaries) identified or associated with one or more particular, distinctive characteristics, e.g. of climate (banana belt), vegetation (Pine Belt), topography (Alpide belt), geology or mineral resources (Lead Belt), agriculture (Corn Belt), land use (green belt), language or ethnicity (Hindi Belt), or social/cultural demographics (Bible Belt). See also regionalism.
|
||||
|
||||
bench
|
||||
A narrow step, shelf, ledge, or terrace, typically backed by a steep slope, produced either naturally (e.g. by erosion, as with a wave-cut bench) or artificially (e.g. by mining).
|
||||
|
||||
benchmark
|
||||
A surveying mark cut or embedded into a durable, fixed material, such as a rock or the wall of a building, for which the height above some designated datum level has been accurately measured.
|
||||
|
||||
berg
|
||||
1. A mountain or hill; a cliff face or precipice.
|
||||
2. Another name for a bergschrund, iceberg, or inselberg.
|
||||
|
||||
bergschrund
|
||||
Also rimaye or simply berg or schrund.
|
||||
A crevasse or series of parallel crevasses that opens in a glacier when a mass of moving ice detaches and pulls away from stagnant ice or firn. Bergschrunds are common in mountainous areas, often forming seasonally near the back of a cirque where the ice meets a steep or rocky headwall. When the rift forms directly between ice and rock, the gap is called a randkluft.
|
||||
|
||||
berm
|
||||
1. A level space, shelf, or raised barrier separating two areas, often man-made and built of compacted earth. Berms often function as impoundments, fortification lines, or border walls and other lines of demarcation.
|
||||
2. A low, impermanent, nearly horizontal or landward-sloping shelf, bench, or narrow terrace on the backshore of a beach and parallel to the shoreline, formed by waves which deposit material beyond the average high water mark, e.g. during storms. Some beaches have no berms; others may have one or more.
|
||||
|
||||
bight
|
||||
A bend or curve in a coastline, river, or other geographical feature typically indicating an especially large, open bay that is shallower than a sound.
|
||||
|
||||
billabong
|
||||
In Australia, a branch of a river that is cut off when the main stem changes course, leaving an elongated and often ephemeral waterhole or oxbow lake.
|
||||
|
||||
biogeography
|
||||
The study of the distribution of biological species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.
|
||||
|
||||
biogeosphere
|
||||
The outer part of the lithosphere, specifically the part which is also part of the biosphere, from the surface of the Earth to the greatest subterranean depths at which organic life can exist.
|
||||
|
||||
biological diversity
|
||||
Also biodiversity.
|
||||
A concept recognizing the variety of life forms in an area of the Earth and the ecological interdependence of these life forms.
|
||||
|
||||
biome
|
||||
A large ecosystem characterized by a distinct climate, flora, and fauna.
|
||||
|
||||
biosphere
|
||||
The entirety of all biological systems on Earth, integrating all living beings and ecosystems; the realm in which biological organisms live.
|
||||
|
||||
biota
|
||||
The animal and plant life of a region, considered as a total ecological entity.
|
||||
|
||||
blackwater
|
||||
The water of a slow-moving river channel flowing through a forested swamp or wetland, characterized by high concentrations of tannins leached from decaying vegetation, which gives it a darkly stained color and high acidity.
|
||||
|
||||
blockfield
|
||||
Also felsenmeer.
|
||||
A surface of broken, boulder-sized rock fragments found in periglacial or volcanic environments, created in situ by processes other than mass wasting, often by frost weathering in the joints of larger rocks.
|
||||
|
||||
blowhole
|
||||
Also marine geyser.
|
||||
A hole or fissure, especially a nearly vertical one, that is the landward opening of a sea cave, frequently spouting or spraying air and seawater as waves crash against the cave's seaward opening.
|
||||
|
||||
blowout
|
||||
A sandy depression formed when wind erodes into patches of bare sand on otherwise vegetation-stabilized sand dunes at the margins of coastal and arid ecosystems.
|
||||
|
||||
bluff
|
||||
A steep slope or cliff marking the outer margin of a floodplain, especially one formed as the river erodes the concave bend of a meander. See also cut bank.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 5/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
bocage
|
||||
A landscape of mixed woodland and pasture, with fields and winding country lanes sunken between low, narrow ridges and banks surmounted by tall, thick hedgerows, especially as found in rural parts of western Europe.
|
||||
|
||||
body of water
|
||||
Any significant accumulation of water, either natural or artificial, on the surface of the Earth. Bodies of water may hold or contain water, as with lakes and oceans, or they may collect and move water from one place to another, as with rivers, streams, and other watercourses.
|
||||
|
||||
bog
|
||||
Also mire, quagmire, or muskeg.
|
||||
A type of wetland which accumulates deposits of dead plant material, especially mosses, known as peat. Bogs occur where water at the ground surface is acidic and low in dissolved nutrients. They are one of four main types of wetland, along with fens, marshes, and swamps.
|
||||
|
||||
bootheel
|
||||
See salient.
|
||||
|
||||
border
|
||||
The geographical boundary of a political entity or legal jurisdiction, such as a country, state, or other subnational entity.
|
||||
|
||||
bore
|
||||
1. (tidal) A steep-fronted wave formed by the convergence of two tidal bulges or by the constriction of an incoming tide as it travels up a river, firth, or narrow bay, temporarily reversing the direction of the current.
|
||||
2. (hole) A deep, man-made hole or shaft drilled into the ground, e.g. in mining, or for digging a well or tunnel.
|
||||
|
||||
bornhardt
|
||||
A bald, steep-sided, dome-shaped hill, mountain, or rock outcropping at least 30 metres (98 ft) in height and several hundred meters in width. Compare inselberg, tor, and nubbin.
|
||||
|
||||
borough
|
||||
A type of administrative subdivision in certain English-speaking parts of the world. Though traditionally used to refer to a fortress or a walled town, modern usage of the term can variably refer to any town with its own local self-government, a formal or informal subdivision of a large metropolis (as in New York City and London), or an entire administrative region (as in the U.S. state of Alaska).
|
||||
|
||||
bottomland
|
||||
See floodplain.
|
||||
|
||||
boulevardization
|
||||
The replacement of the narrow, congested, winding streets of an older town or neighborhood with wider, more modern streets or boulevards, often according to a carefully plotted grid layout.
|
||||
|
||||
boundary
|
||||
Any line of demarcation, real or imaginary, visible or invisible, natural or artificial, with or without legal significance, which may be perceived from either or both sides of the line, indicating the place at which two or more geographical areas of distinct ownership, administration, legal jurisdiction, or any other quality meet; e.g. a border separating political or administrative divisions, zones of occupation, natural areas, or private and public property. See also frontier.
|
||||
|
||||
bourne
|
||||
Also bourn, born, borne, and burn.
|
||||
A seasonal or intermittent stream flowing from a spring in an otherwise dry valley, and whose flow depends on the level of the water table; or the spring or fount itself. The term is used primarily in the chalklands of southern England. See also winterbourne.
|
||||
|
||||
box canyon
|
||||
A short, narrow canyon with steep walls on three sides, allowing entry and exit only through the mouth of the canyon.
|
||||
|
||||
brake
|
||||
See canebrake.
|
||||
|
||||
brash ice
|
||||
See drift ice.
|
||||
|
||||
breadbasket
|
||||
A region of a country or other polity which supports a large proportion of the country's domestic food production (especially of wheat and other grains) due to its fertile soils, favorable climate, and/or relative accessibility to agricultural interests.
|
||||
|
||||
break
|
||||
1. Any more or less abrupt change in the profile of a slope or hillside.
|
||||
2. A heavily eroded area along a river featuring steep banks, bluffs, ravines, or gorges. The term is used chiefly in the plural (i.e. breaks) and primarily in the United States and Canada.
|
||||
|
||||
breaker
|
||||
1. Another name for a breaking wave.
|
||||
2. A reef, shoal, bar, skerry, or area of shallow water against which waves routinely break.
|
||||
|
||||
breaker zone
|
||||
See surf zone.
|
||||
|
||||
break-in-bulk point
|
||||
A transfer point on a transport route where the mode of transport or type of carrier changes and where large-volume shipments are reduced in size. For example, goods may be unloaded from a ship and transferred to trucks at an ocean port.
|
||||
|
||||
breaking wave
|
||||
Also breaker.
|
||||
A wave of water on the surface of an ocean, lake, or other body of water with enough energy that, upon reaching a peak size or velocity, its crest "breaks" or overturns upon itself with a distinct forward curve, with the linear energy transforming into turbulence. Waves tend to break as they enter areas of shallow water, most reliably near shorelines, where the decreasing depth of the sea floor beneath them forces them to grow to a critical height at which point they overturn and the remaining forward energy is dissipated upon the beach as swash, though other forces may also cause breaking, including stormy weather and passing watercraft.
|
||||
|
||||
breakwater
|
||||
Any man-made structure built on the coast of a body of water, typically the sea, in order to reduce the intensity of wave action in an area adjacent to the shore, thereby providing safe harbourage for human activities in the inshore waters. Breakwaters may also be designed to protect the coastline from coastal erosion and longshore drift.
|
||||
|
||||
brownfield
|
||||
Any previously developed area of land that is no longer in use, often with derelict buildings and infrastructure, and in some contexts implying land that has been abandoned because of pollution or contamination. Compare greenfield.
|
||||
|
||||
brush
|
||||
Low-lying, woody, often dense vegetation or plant debris, e.g. scrub; a thicket of small trees and shrubs, or the plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs.
|
||||
|
||||
built environment
|
||||
The human-made spaces that provide the setting for human activity, in which people live, work, and recreate on a day-to-day basis.
|
||||
|
||||
burgh
|
||||
A type of administrative subdivision in Scotland and northern England, equivalent to a borough.
|
||||
|
||||
burn
|
||||
In parts of the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, a large stream or a small river. See also bourne.
|
||||
|
||||
bush
|
||||
Wild, undeveloped, or uncultivated land, especially when covered by thick shrubs and vegetation; sparsely populated or uninhabited wilderness. See also backcountry, hinterland, outback, and bushveld.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 6/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
bushveld
|
||||
Also lowveld, or simply bush or veld.
|
||||
In southern Africa, a tropical or subtropical woodland ecoregion consisting largely of open savanna with scattered trees; wild countryside as opposed to cultivated land.
|
||||
|
||||
butte
|
||||
An isolated hill or mountain with steep or precipitous sides, usually having a smaller summit area than a mesa.
|
||||
|
||||
bypass
|
||||
1. A route which diverges around a place rather than traveling through it, especially a road or footpath built specifically for the purpose of diverting automobile or pedestrian traffic away from areas that are congested, blocked, under construction, or unsafe.
|
||||
2. See flood bypass.
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
cadastre
|
||||
Also cadaster.
|
||||
A type of parcel-based land recording system containing a comprehensive record of interests in individual units of land within a country or other polity, usually including a geometric description of each parcel's physical location, dimensions, and boundaries that is linked to legal information detailing the nature of the interests (e.g. rights, restrictions, and responsibilities), the ownership or control of those interests, and the economic value of the land and its improvements. The cadastre is a fundamental source of data used in resolving disputes between landowners.
|
||||
|
||||
cairn
|
||||
A man-made stack or mound of rocks, stones, or masonry, usually roughly conical or pyramidal in shape, constructed as a burial mound, to mark a surveyed point, or as a landmark or waypoint to aid routefinding on a route that is otherwise unmarked and difficult to distinguish from the surrounding environment.
|
||||
|
||||
calanque
|
||||
A narrow, steep-sided valley surrounding an inlet formed in karstic regions along the Mediterranean coast, either by fluvial erosion or the collapse of the roof of a cave that has been subsequently partially submerged by a rise in sea level.
|
||||
|
||||
caldera
|
||||
A very large cauldron-shaped depression of volcanic origin which forms through the subsidence and collapse of the ground surface following the evacuation of an underlying magma chamber. See also volcanic crater.
|
||||
|
||||
campo
|
||||
1. In the Spanish-speaking world, the rural countryside or the bush.
|
||||
2. In Brazil, an area of level, open grassland with scattered trees, comparable to a savanna.
|
||||
|
||||
canal
|
||||
A navigable artificial water channel, usually built as a conduit for human activity.
|
||||
|
||||
canebrake
|
||||
Also canebreak.
|
||||
A dense thicket of giant cane grasses, often lining a riverbank or other body of water. The term is used primarily in the southeastern United States.
|
||||
|
||||
canopy
|
||||
The canopy is the aboveground portion of a plant cropping or crop, formed by the collection of individual plant crowns.
|
||||
|
||||
canyon
|
||||
Also gorge or cañon.
|
||||
A deep cleft between cliffs or escarpments, or a rift between two mountain peaks, resulting from weathering and the erosive activity of a river over long periods of geologic time.
|
||||
|
||||
cape
|
||||
A large headland or promontory extending into a body of water, usually a sea or ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
capillary fringe
|
||||
The soil layer lying immediately above the water table, in which water is drawn up and held within pore spaces by capillarity.
|
||||
|
||||
capital
|
||||
1. A primary city or town of a country, state, province, or other subnational polity, especially one that is a seat of government for the entire polity, either by law or by virtue of being the physical location of the government's offices and meeting places, or both. A capital is often but not always the largest or most economically or historically important city of its constituent. A polity may have one or more capitals, or none.
|
||||
2. Any place considered to have informal primacy or importance with respect to some characteristic or association, e.g. Milan, Italy is sometimes unofficially called the "Fashion Capital of the World".
|
||||
|
||||
caprock
|
||||
A stratum of erosion-resistant sedimentary rock (usually limestone) found in arid areas. Caprock forms the top layer of most mesas and buttes.
|
||||
|
||||
cardinal directions
|
||||
The set of four primary directions used in cartography and navigation: north (N), south (S), east (E), and west (W). Together they form the primary divisions of the compass rose. They can be further subdivided into the intercardinal directions and secondary-intercardinal directions.
|
||||
|
||||
carrying capacity
|
||||
The total number of human beings that an area can support given the quality of the natural environment and the level of technology of the population.
|
||||
|
||||
cartography
|
||||
The study and practice of making maps and charts. A person who draws or makes maps or charts is called a cartographer.
|
||||
|
||||
cartogram
|
||||
A map in which some thematic mapping variable, such as travel time, population, or gross national product, is substituted for traditional measures of land area or distance such that the geometry or space of the map is distorted in order to convey and emphasize the information of the alternate variable.
|
||||
|
||||
cartouche
|
||||
A decorative panel or emblem on a map or a globe, enclosing the title, legend, scale, or any other information.
|
||||
|
||||
castle koppie
|
||||
See tor.
|
||||
|
||||
cataract
|
||||
A large waterfall, or a long series of rapids in a river, of the type occurring in the river Nile.
|
||||
|
||||
catchment
|
||||
See drainage basin.
|
||||
|
||||
causeway
|
||||
A track, road, or railway raised above a body of water or a low-lying place by virtue of being built upon a man-made embankment, typically constructed of earth, masonry, wood, or concrete. Compare bridge.
|
||||
|
||||
cave
|
||||
Any naturally hollow underground space large enough for a person to enter.
|
||||
|
||||
cavern
|
||||
A type of solutional cave that is formed in soluble rock with the ability to grow speleothems.
|
||||
|
||||
cay
|
||||
Also key.
|
||||
A small, sandy, low-elevation island on the surface of an otherwise submerged coral reef; a type of coral island. Compare atoll.
|
||||
|
||||
celestial pole
|
||||
Either of the two imaginary points in the sky at which an indefinitely extended projection of the Earth's axis of rotation intersects the celestial sphere. As the Earth rotates upon its axis, the north and south celestial poles remain permanently fixed in the sky (directly overhead to observers at the North Pole and South Pole, respectively), and all other points appear to rotate around them.
|
||||
|
||||
cenote
|
||||
A natural pit or sinkhole resulting from the collapse of limestone bedrock which exposes groundwater underneath.
|
||||
|
||||
census-designated place (CDP)
|
||||
A concentration of population identified by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 7/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
central business district (CBD)
|
||||
A centrally located commercial business district in an urban area, typically containing a concentration of office and retail activities.
|
||||
|
||||
centroid
|
||||
The point in a geometric figure for which the coordinates are the average values of the coordinates of all other points in the figure, i.e. the arithmetic mean position of all points in the figure; or the point with the smallest possible average distance from all other points of the figure. In geography, the geographical center of a region of the Earth's surface is the centroid of the two-dimensional shape of that region, as projected radially to sea level or onto a geoid.
|
||||
|
||||
chain
|
||||
A unit of length equal to 66 feet (20.117 m), used especially in public land surveys in the United States; 10 square chains is equal to 1 acre (0.40 hectares). Though the literal chains used to measure this distance have long been superseded, surveying tapes are often still called "chains", and measuring with a tape may be called "chaining".
|
||||
|
||||
channel
|
||||
Also strait.
|
||||
1. A waterway separating two relatively close landmasses.
|
||||
2. Any narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water.
|
||||
3. The deepest part of a shallow body of water, often used as a passageway for large ships.
|
||||
|
||||
chaparral
|
||||
A class of terrestrial vegetation characterized by dense, impenetrable thickets of thorny shrubs or dwarf broadleaved trees, commonly found in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States.
|
||||
|
||||
chart
|
||||
A special-purpose map designed for navigation, especially nautical and aeronautical navigation, or to present specific data or technical information.
|
||||
|
||||
chevron
|
||||
A triangular or V-shaped erosional microform which characteristically develops on the shallow flanks of cuestas in arid regions.
|
||||
|
||||
chimney
|
||||
See salient.
|
||||
|
||||
chine
|
||||
A steep-sided coastal gorge, typically of soft eroding cliffs of sandstone or clay, through which a river or stream flows to the sea. The term is used primarily in southern England.
|
||||
|
||||
chinook
|
||||
A warm, dry wind experienced along the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. Most common in winter and spring, it can result in a rise in temperature of 20 °C (36 °F) in a quarter of an hour.
|
||||
|
||||
chorography
|
||||
The art of establishing, describing, or mapping a geographic region or district, or more broadly, the representation of space or place.
|
||||
|
||||
chorology
|
||||
The study of the causal relations of the phenomena present in a region; a comprehensive explanatory study of a region.
|
||||
|
||||
choropleth
|
||||
A map showing the distribution of a phenomenon by graded shading which indicates the density per unit area of that phenomenon; the darker the shading, the greater the density.
|
||||
|
||||
chott
|
||||
Also shott and shatt.
|
||||
An ephemeral, often highly saline lake that forms seasonally with fluctuations in the water table, usually in the winter, in the desert basins of Northwest Africa.
|
||||
|
||||
cinder cone
|
||||
A steep-sided volcano formed by the explosive eruption of cinders that form around a vent. Cinders are lava fragments about 1 centimetre (0.39 in) in diameter.
|
||||
|
||||
circle of latitude
|
||||
See parallel.
|
||||
|
||||
cirque
|
||||
Also corrie or cwm.
|
||||
An amphitheatre-shaped valley surrounded on three or more sides by steep, cliff-like slopes and formed by glacial or fluvial erosion.
|
||||
|
||||
city
|
||||
A large human settlement, generally with extensive systems constructed for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, and communication.
|
||||
|
||||
city center
|
||||
Also city centre.
|
||||
The commercial, cultural, political, or historical focal point of a city or urban area, where a significant proportion of its population, workforce, business, traffic, administration, and/or other activity is concentrated, often though not necessarily located near its geographic center. The city center may include or overlap with a central business district or downtown area, and the terms are commonly used interchangeably.
|
||||
|
||||
city-state
|
||||
A sovereign state or small independent country that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories.
|
||||
|
||||
clearing
|
||||
1. The practice of permanently removing vegetation, especially trees and bushes, from a forest or woodland in order to use the space for another purpose, such as agriculture, civic development, or paths for roads, railways, or power lines.
|
||||
2. Another name for a glade.
|
||||
|
||||
cliff
|
||||
Any vertical or nearly vertical rock exposure, usually formed by the processes of weathering and erosion.
|
||||
|
||||
cliffed coast
|
||||
Also abrasion coast.
|
||||
A coastline where the repeated action of ocean waves has formed steep and often precipitous cliffs, as opposed to a flat or gently sloping alluvial coast.
|
||||
|
||||
climate
|
||||
A pattern of the combination of precipitation and the temperature over time.
|
||||
|
||||
climax vegetation
|
||||
The vegetation that would exist in an area if growth had proceeded undisturbed for an extended period. This would be the "final" collection of plant types that presumably would remain forever, or until the stable conditions were somehow disturbed.
|
||||
|
||||
clinometer
|
||||
See inclinometer.
|
||||
|
||||
coast
|
||||
Also coastline, seashore, and seaboard.
|
||||
The area where land meets a sea or ocean. Compare shore.
|
||||
|
||||
coastal
|
||||
Of, on, or pertaining to a coast or coastline, i.e. a boundary or transition between land and sea. Coastal areas are regions defined by interactions between terrestrial and marine processes.
|
||||
|
||||
coastal bench
|
||||
See wave-cut platform.
|
||||
|
||||
coefficient of localization
|
||||
Also index of concentration.
|
||||
A measure of the degree of localization or spatial concentration of a given phenomenon, e.g. residential housing or industrial activity, within a particular space or spaces. Values for this variable, often mathematically symbolized as L, range from 0 (where the phenomenon is evenly distributed across all spaces) and 1 (where it is densely concentrated in one space and completely absent elsewhere).
|
||||
|
||||
col
|
||||
Also gap or notch.
|
||||
The lowest point on a mountain ridge between two peaks.
|
||||
|
||||
colatitude
|
||||
The complementary angle of a given latitude; i.e. the arithmetic difference between 90 degrees and the given latitude. For example, the colatitude of 36° 22′ 49″ is 53° 37′ 11″.
|
||||
|
||||
colony
|
||||
A territory under the immediate complete political control of a sovereign metropolitan state but otherwise distinct, often geographically, from the state's home territory. Colonies have no international representation independent of the metropolitan state and its ruling country controls its trade for its benefit. Compare satellite state.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 8/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
colluvium
|
||||
Loose, unconsolidated sediment that has been transported and deposited at the base of a hillslope by any of various wash or mass movement processes, such as surface runoff, sheet erosion, or landslides. Typically a heterogeneous mixture of rock types and sizes ranging from silt to talus boulders, colluvium is often derived from eluvium, and differs from alluvium, which is deposited primarily by fluvial activity.
|
||||
|
||||
combe
|
||||
Variously comb, coomb, coombe, and cumb.
|
||||
A steep, narrow valley or a large hollow on the side of a hill or coastline, especially one enclosed on all but one side. The term is used primarily in southern England, where it often implies a dry ravine in a limestone or chalk escarpment. See also cwm.
|
||||
|
||||
commonwealth
|
||||
1. Traditionally, a political community founded for the benefit of all or most of the members of the community, i.e. for the public welfare or the common good; or a state or other polity in which the supreme power of government is vested in the people being governed; a republic or a democracy.
|
||||
2. A free association of otherwise individual, autonomous, self-governing territories organized as a federation or confederation, with a jointly operated government being charged with responsibility for certain matters in the common interest, such as defense.
|
||||
|
||||
compass
|
||||
An instrument used for navigation and orientation that indicates direction relative to the geographic cardinal directions by measuring the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field with respect to the North Magnetic Pole. Compasses often display markings for angles or degrees, which allow them to show azimuths and bearings, in addition to a compass rose.
|
||||
|
||||
compass rose
|
||||
Also compass star, wind rose, or rose of the winds.
|
||||
A figure on a compass, map, nautical chart, or monument used to display the orientation of the four cardinal directions — North, East, South, and West — and their intermediate points.
|
||||
|
||||
compass survey
|
||||
A traverse which relies on the indications of a magnetic compass for orienting the traverse as a whole or for determining the directions of individual lines.
|
||||
|
||||
confluence
|
||||
The place at which two or more rivers or other watercourses flow together to form one larger river or watercourse.
|
||||
|
||||
coniferous
|
||||
Bearing cones; from the conifer family.
|
||||
|
||||
contiguity
|
||||
The characteristic of a group of neighboring political or geographical divisions not being interrupted by politically unaffiliated land or water. Such divisions are said to be contiguous.
|
||||
|
||||
continent
|
||||
One of several very large, contiguous landmasses into which the Earth's land area is divided, generally by geographical or political convention rather than any strict criteria. Geologically, continents correspond largely to areas of continental crust on continental plates.
|
||||
|
||||
continental climate
|
||||
The type of climate found in the interior of the major continents in the middle or temperate latitudes. The climate is characterized by a great seasonal variation in temperatures, four distinct seasons, and a relatively small annual precipitation.
|
||||
|
||||
continental divide
|
||||
The line of high ground that separates the different oceanic drainage basins of a particular continent. The river systems of a continent on opposite sides of a continental divide flow toward different oceans. See drainage divide.
|
||||
|
||||
continental shelf
|
||||
A portion of a continent that is submerged beneath an area of relatively shallow water known as a shelf sea. Though continental shelves are usually treated as physiographic provinces of the ocean, they are not part of the deep ocean basin proper but the flooded margins of the continent.
|
||||
|
||||
continentality
|
||||
The quality of being located on a continent.
|
||||
|
||||
contour line
|
||||
Also isoline or isopleth.
|
||||
A line marked on a topographic map which connects points of equal elevation above or below a specified reference datum. Multiple contour lines, each representing a different elevation, are depicted together to show the shape of the terrain within the map area.
|
||||
|
||||
contour interval
|
||||
The difference in elevation between any two adjacent contour lines as depicted on a particular topographic map.
|
||||
|
||||
conurbation
|
||||
An extensive urban area formed when two or more initially separate cities coalesce to form a continuous metropolitan area.
|
||||
|
||||
cordillera
|
||||
A long chain of mountain ranges or highlands, especially those formed by the same orogeny and spanning the length of a continent along tectonic boundaries. The term is used in particular to refer to the American Cordillera, an almost continuous system of parallel ranges lining the west coasts of North, Central, and South America.
|
||||
|
||||
core area
|
||||
The portion of a country or territory that contains its economic, political, intellectual, and cultural focus. It is often the center of creativity and change. See also hearth.
|
||||
|
||||
cornice
|
||||
An accumulation of ice and wind-blown snow overhanging the edge of a ridge or cliff face, usually on the lee side of a steep mountain.
|
||||
|
||||
corrasion
|
||||
The process of mechanical erosion of the Earth's surface by the impact or grinding action of particles being transported across it, either by moving water, waves, glaciers, wind, or gravity.
|
||||
|
||||
corrie loch
|
||||
See tarn.
|
||||
|
||||
cosmopolitan
|
||||
Occurring worldwide; belonging to all parts of the world and free of geographical or political limitations. See also global.
|
||||
|
||||
coulee
|
||||
A dry canyon eroded by Pleistocene floods that cut into the lava beds of the Columbia Plateau in the western United States.
|
||||
|
||||
couloir
|
||||
A narrow gully with a steep gradient in a mountainous terrain, often enclosed by sheer cliffs and filled with snow or ice even during the summer months.
|
||||
|
||||
country
|
||||
A region identified as a distinct national entity in political geography. Compare state.
|
||||
|
||||
county
|
||||
A type of subnational division of a country or federal state used for administrative or other purposes.
|
||||
|
||||
course
|
||||
The cardinal direction in which a vessel or aircraft is moving, or in which it is steered. This is not necessarily the same as the heading, the direction in which the craft's bow or nose is pointed; any difference between heading and course is due to the motion of the air or water through which the vessel is moving, or other aerodynamic effects such as skidding or slipping. See also bearing.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 9/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
cove
|
||||
1. A walled, rounded, cirque-like opening at the head of a small valley.
|
||||
2. A small, narrow, sheltered bay, inlet, tidal creek, or recess in an estuary, often within a larger embayment.
|
||||
3. A small, often approximately circular, wave-cut indentation or recess in a cliff on a large body of water, especially one with a relatively narrow or secluded entrance.
|
||||
4. A shallow tidal river, or the backwater near the mouth of a tidal river.
|
||||
|
||||
crater
|
||||
Any large, roughly circular depression, pit, or hole in the Earth's surface. Craters are classified into different types based on their ultimate causes; see impact crater, volcanic crater, and pit crater.
|
||||
|
||||
crater lake
|
||||
A lake that forms in a volcanic crater or caldera (such as a maar), an impact crater left by a meteorite, or a crater resulting from a man-made explosion.
|
||||
|
||||
craton
|
||||
An old and stable region of continental lithosphere, characterized by a thick crust composed of ancient crystalline basement rock. Cratons are generally found in the interiors of tectonic plates, having remained relatively unaffected by orogenic and tectonic activity for very long periods of time.
|
||||
|
||||
creek
|
||||
A small, intermittent stream that is larger than a brook but smaller than a river. The term is used primarily in the United States, Canada, and Australia.
|
||||
|
||||
crevasse
|
||||
1. A deep crack, fissure, or chasm in the ice of a glacier or ice sheet, or more generally in any ground surface.
|
||||
2. A break in the natural levee or bank of a river.
|
||||
|
||||
crossroads
|
||||
A place where many roads or routes of travel intersect or meet; a junction.
|
||||
|
||||
crust
|
||||
The thin shell of solid material that is the Earth's outermost layer and the outermost component of the lithosphere. The Earth's crust is generally divided into two distinct types, oceanic crust and continental crust, both of which "float" on top of the mantle.
|
||||
|
||||
cryosphere
|
||||
The totality of water in the solid phase on the Earth's surface, including glaciers; sea, lake, and river ice; snow; and permafrost. The cryosphere is sometimes considered a subset of the hydrosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
cryoturbation
|
||||
Also frost churning.
|
||||
The mixing of materials from various horizons of the soil down to the bedrock due to freezing and thawing.
|
||||
|
||||
cuesta
|
||||
A long, low ridge with a steep scarp slope and a gentle backslope (dip slope).
|
||||
|
||||
cultural conversion
|
||||
The process of cultures becoming more alike.
|
||||
|
||||
cultural diffusion
|
||||
The processes by which culture is spread from one region to another.
|
||||
|
||||
cultural diversion
|
||||
A process in which cultural groups distinguish themselves from other cultural groups.
|
||||
|
||||
cultural geography
|
||||
A branch of human geography which studies the patterns and interactions of human culture in relation to the natural environment and the human organization of space.
|
||||
|
||||
cultural landscape
|
||||
The physical setting created by humans that reflects the identity and culture of the area.
|
||||
|
||||
culture
|
||||
The accumulated habits, attitudes, and beliefs of a group of people that define for them their general behavior and way of life; the total set of learned activities of a people.
|
||||
|
||||
culture hearth
|
||||
The area from which the culture of a particular group or population diffused. See also hearth.
|
||||
|
||||
culvert
|
||||
A tunnel or conduit that channels water through or beneath an obstacle (e.g. through a man-made crossing of a ravine that would otherwise block the natural flow of water), or any artificially buried watercourse.
|
||||
|
||||
curvimeter
|
||||
See opisometer.
|
||||
|
||||
cusp
|
||||
An arc-shaped, dune-like mound of sediment on a beach or foreshore. Cusps tend to be uniformly spaced in repeating patterns close to the shoreline, with the embayment of each arc made of fine-grained sand or gravel and the "horns" made of coarser sediment.
|
||||
|
||||
cut bank
|
||||
A continually eroding bank along a meandering river or stream channel, especially a bank that has been eroded into a nearly vertical cliff. Cut banks generally form on the outside bend of a deep meander, opposite the depositional point bar that forms on the inside bend.
|
||||
|
||||
cutoff
|
||||
The new channel formed when a meandering stream erodes through a narrow strip of land and thereby shortens the length of the main channel.
|
||||
|
||||
cwm
|
||||
See cirque.
|
||||
|
||||
cyclone
|
||||
A large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure. It can rotate clockwise or counter clockwise depending on which hemisphere it is in.
|
||||
|
||||
Cyclopean stairs
|
||||
A term referring to the longitudinal profile of some glaciated valleys which have been eroded into a series of consecutive hanging valleys resembling stairs.
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
|
||||
dale
|
||||
Another name for a valley.
|
||||
|
||||
dam
|
||||
Also impoundment.
|
||||
Any barrier, either natural or artificial, that stops or restricts the flow of water, either on the surface or underground. Man-made dams are most commonly built to impound rivers or streams, generally to retain water for purposes such as human consumption, irrigation, aquaculture, or power generation (whereas related structures such as floodgates and levees are more specifically designed to manage or prevent water flow into particular areas).
|
||||
|
||||
dasymetric map
|
||||
A type of thematic map that uses areal symbols to visualize a spatially dependent variable (e.g. population density) by refining a choropleth map with ancillary information about the distribution of the variable. The dasymetric method attempts to improve the resolution of maps based on average or per-capita figures calculated for discrete administrative units, which tend to show sharp contrasts between adjacent areas, by supplementing these figures with additional geographic data that allow more precise categories to be constructed. Dasymetric maps are a hybrid of choropleth and isarithmic maps, combining their strengths and weaknesses in order to more accurately depict quantities that vary continuously across space.
|
||||
|
||||
datum plane
|
||||
Also datum level or datum line.
|
||||
The zero-elevation baseline or vertical datum to which a measurement of elevation or altitude is relative, e.g. the mean sea level calculated for a given location over a given period of time. See also geodetic datum.
|
||||
|
||||
de facto segregation
|
||||
The spatial and social separation of populations that occurs without legal sanction.
|
||||
|
||||
de jure segregation
|
||||
The spatial and social separation of populations that occurs because of legal measures.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (A–M)"
|
||||
chunk: 10/29
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:36.992630+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
debouch
|
||||
Also debouche.
|
||||
A place where water runoff from a relatively small, confined space emerges into a much larger, broader space, or where a body of water pours forth from a narrow opening, such as where a stream or river enters a lake or ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
deciduous forest
|
||||
A forest composed of trees which lose their leaves each year.
|
||||
|
||||
decolonization
|
||||
The process of ending the colonization of a region or a state.
|
||||
|
||||
deep
|
||||
A trough-like depression or trench in the ocean floor, of limited extent but great depth, generally more than 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) below sea level.
|
||||
|
||||
deferred junction
|
||||
A confluence of two watercourses in which a tributary stream is prevented by levees, natural or artificial, from immediately joining another stream or river and consequently is forced to flow parallel beside it, usually within a large floodplain, for a considerable distance before the channels eventually merge, often at the convex bend of a large meander.
|
||||
|
||||
defile
|
||||
A narrow pass or gorge between mountains or hills.
|
||||
|
||||
deforestation
|
||||
The destruction of forests by any means, whether naturally or by human activity.
|
||||
|
||||
degree
|
||||
A unit of angular measure, represented by the º symbol. A circle is divided into 360 degrees; subdivisions of the degree include the minute (1⁄60 of one degree) and the second (1⁄3600 of one degree). Degrees are commonly used to divide the roughly spherical shape of the Earth for geographic and cartographic purposes, e.g. when reporting latitudes and longitudes.
|
||||
|
||||
degree day
|
||||
Deviation of one-degree temperature for one day from an arbitrary standard, usually the long-term average temperature for a place.
|
||||
|
||||
dell
|
||||
A small, secluded hollow, usually within a grassy, park-like, partially wooded valley.
|
||||
|
||||
delta
|
||||
A landform at the mouth of a river where the main stem splits up into several distributaries. It is formed from the deposition of the sediment carried by the river as the flow leaves the mouth of the river. It is often affected by incoming tides. Compare estuary.
|
||||
|
||||
demilitarized zone (DMZ)
|
||||
A politically neutral area or buffer zone in which treaties or agreements between polities or other competing factions forbid military installations, activities, or personnel. These zones are usually situated along an established boundary or frontier separating territories controlled by adjacent military powers or alliances.
|
||||
|
||||
demography
|
||||
The study and systematic analysis of population, particularly human population.
|
||||
|
||||
demoiselle
|
||||
A pillar of rock weathered from volcanic breccia or similar material and capped by a large boulder which has protected the material underneath.
|
||||
|
||||
demonym
|
||||
Also gentilic.
|
||||
A word identifying a person or a group of people in relation to a particular place, usually derived from the name of the place (which may be any kind of place, formal or informal, of any size or scale, from a town or city to a region, province, country, or continent) and used to describe all residents or natives of that place, regardless of any ethnic, linguistic, religious, or cultural differences which may exist within the local population. Examples include "Vietnamese", describing a person from Vietnam; "Detroiter" for a person from the city of Detroit, Michigan; and "Macedonian" for a person from North Macedonia or the wider historical region of Macedonia.
|
||||
|
||||
denudation
|
||||
The uncovering of deeper layers of rock by any natural process, e.g. erosion, weathering, or mass movement.
|
||||
|
||||
dependency
|
||||
Also dependent territory.
|
||||
A territory relying on or subject to the control of another country, neither possessing full political independence nor forming an integral part of the controlling country's political or economic interests.
|
||||
|
||||
deposition
|
||||
Any natural process by which material such as soil and rocks is added to a landform or landmass, e.g. by the action of wind, water, ice, or gravity in transporting previously weathered surface material, which comes to rest when sufficient kinetic energy is lost and accumulates in layers of sediment. See also sedimentation.
|
||||
|
||||
depression
|
||||
Any landform that is sunken or depressed below the surrounding area. Depressions include an enormous variety of landforms and can form by a number of different mechanisms, including erosion, ground collapse, tectonic activity, volcanism, and meteorite impacts.
|
||||
|
||||
derelict land
|
||||
An area of land which has been damaged or devalued by some process, either natural or man-made (e.g. extractive industry), and/or simply neglected, causing it to be abandoned by human interests (and often other organisms) and leaving it incapable of being used productively in its present condition. See also brownfield land.
|
||||
|
||||
desert
|
||||
An arid, barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and living conditions are consequently unfavorable for most plant and animal life. Deserts are characterized by exposure of the unprotected ground surface to processes of denudation as well as large variations in temperature between night and day. They are often classified by the amount of precipitation they receive, by their average temperature, by the causes of their desertification, or by their geographical location.
|
||||
|
||||
desert pavement
|
||||
Also reg, serir, gibber, saï, and desert mosaic.
|
||||
A ground surface often found in arid environments, consisting of interlocking rock fragments of pebble and cobble size, closely packed after the removal of finer rock material and smoothed or polished by blown sand so that eventually their upper surfaces are more or less uniformly flat.
|
||||
|
||||
desert varnish
|
||||
Also desert patina, rock varnish, and rock rust.
|
||||
A conspicuous orange-yellow to black coating often present on exposed rock surfaces in arid environments, consisting of thin, hard, polished layers of metal oxides, especially iron and manganese, which form when minute quantities of matter migrate to the surface of the rock by capillary action and are then precipitated by evaporation.
|
||||
|
||||
desertification
|
||||
The process by which a previously fertile area becomes increasingly arid, infertile, or desert-like; a type of land degradation in which biological productivity is lost due either to natural or man-made processes, e.g. climate change or overexploitation of soils for agriculture.
|
||||
|
||||
desire line
|
||||
A straight line drawn on a map between the point of origin and the destination of a trip, i.e. the shortest distance between these two points, indicating the route a person would like or desire to follow if it were possible.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This glossary of geography terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in geography and related fields, including Earth science, oceanography, cartography, and human geography, as well as those describing spatial dimension, topographical features, natural resources, and the collection, analysis, and visualization of geographic data. It is split across two articles:
|
||||
|
||||
Glossary of geography terms (A–M) lists terms beginning with the letters A through M.
|
||||
This page, Glossary of geography terms (N–Z), lists terms beginning with the letters N through Z.
|
||||
Related terms may be found in Glossary of geology, Glossary of agriculture, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of astronomy.
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
|
||||
nadir
|
||||
|
||||
narrows
|
||||
Also narrow.
|
||||
A land or water passage that is confined or restricted by its narrow breadth, often a strait or a water gap.
|
||||
|
||||
nation
|
||||
A stable community of people formed on the basis of a common geographic territory, language, economy, ethnicity, or psychological make-up as manifested in a common culture.
|
||||
|
||||
national mapping agency
|
||||
A governmental agency which manages, produces, and publishes topographic maps, geographic data, and sometimes cadastral information that is specific to an individual nation or political territory, such as the United Kingdom's Ordnance Survey.
|
||||
|
||||
national park
|
||||
A type of protected area created and managed as a public park by a national governmental authority for conservation purposes. Though individual governments designate national parks differently, they usually share the common goal of preserving natural or semi-natural landscapes (often wilderness) for posterity and as symbols of national pride.
|
||||
|
||||
natural landscape
|
||||
The original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by humans. Contrast cultural landscape.
|
||||
|
||||
nautical mile
|
||||
A unit of distance traditionally defined as the length equal to one minute of arc (1⁄60 of one degree) along a meridian of the Earth. Because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, the length of one minute of arc at the Equator differs from that measured at the geographic poles; thus the modern internationally agreed-upon standard defines the nautical mile as the average of these two extremes: 1,852 metres (6,076 feet; 1.151 miles). It is widely used in air, marine, and space navigation as well as for defining the limits of territorial waters.
|
||||
|
||||
navigable
|
||||
1. (of a place) Capable of being navigated; sufficiently deep, wide, predictable, and/or free of obstructions to afford easy or safe passage to vessels such as ships or automobiles. The term is often used to describe river channels and coastal inlets.
|
||||
2. (of a vessel) In a navigable condition; steerable; seaworthy or roadworthy.
|
||||
|
||||
navigation
|
||||
1. The determination of position and direction, generally by comparing the navigator's position to known locations or patterns.
|
||||
2. The process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a vehicle or craft from one place to another.
|
||||
|
||||
neap tide
|
||||
A tide of decreased tidal range occurring semi-monthly as a result of the Moon being in quadrature with respect to the Earth and the Sun (i.e. in the first quarter or last quarter phases, when roughly half of the lunar disk is visible), or the time period recurring every 14 days during which such tides occur. The average height of the high waters of the neap tides occurring at a particular location is called neap high water or high water neaps, and that of the corresponding low waters is called neap low water or low water neaps. Compare spring tide.
|
||||
|
||||
nearshore
|
||||
The part of a beach between the shoreline and the line at which the waves break.
|
||||
|
||||
neatline
|
||||
A line separating the main body of a map from the map's margin. On a standard quadrangle map, the neatlines are the meridians and parallels delimiting the quadrangle.
|
||||
|
||||
neck
|
||||
1. A narrow stretch of land with water on each side, e.g. an isthmus or promontory.
|
||||
2. A narrow stretch of woodland or of ice.
|
||||
3. A high level pass, especially the narrowest part.
|
||||
|
||||
nehrung
|
||||
A long sandspit separating a haff or lagoon from the sea, especially one along the south coast of the Baltic Sea.
|
||||
|
||||
neighborhood
|
||||
Also neighbourhood or abbreviated to hood.
|
||||
A geographically localized community within a larger city, town, suburb, or rural area, particularly one which supports considerable face-to-face interactions between residents.
|
||||
|
||||
ness
|
||||
In Scotland and parts of England, a headland or cape, or another name for a cuspate foreland; or a spur of a mountain ridge.
|
||||
|
||||
névé
|
||||
A young, granular type of snow that has been partially melted, refrozen, and compacted but is not yet in the form of ice. Névé that survives a full season of ablation becomes firn, which is older and slightly more compact, and thus contributes to the formation of glaciers. The term may also refer to the alpine region surrounding the head of a glacier where snowfall accumulates and becomes névé, feeding the glacier.
|
||||
|
||||
nodal region
|
||||
A region characterized by a set of places connected to another place by lines of communication or movement.
|
||||
|
||||
North Geographic Pole
|
||||
Also called the Geographic North Pole, Geographic North, or simply the North Pole.
|
||||
The point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is the northernmost point on Earth, directly opposite the South Geographic Pole, and defines the direction of true north at a latitude of 90 degrees North; its longitude can be assigned any degree value. Unlike the South Pole, the North Pole is not located on a continental landmass but in the middle of the Arctic Ocean. See also North Magnetic Pole.
|
||||
|
||||
North Geomagnetic Pole
|
||||
Also called the Geomagnetic North Pole.
|
||||
The point in the Northern Hemisphere where the axis of a theoretical simplified dipole passing through the center of the Earth would intersect the Earth's surface. It is antipodal to the South Geomagnetic Pole. Because of the fluid nature of the Earth's molten core, the true axis of the Earth's magnetic field is not a perfect dipole, and so the Geomagnetic Poles and the actual Magnetic Poles lie some distance apart.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 2/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
North Magnetic Pole
|
||||
Also called the Magnetic North Pole or Magnetic North.
|
||||
The point in the Northern Hemisphere at which the Earth's magnetic field points vertically downward. It is close to but distinct from the Geographic North Pole and the Geomagnetic North Pole, and its precise location varies considerably over time due to frequent magnetic changes in the Earth's core. Its counterpart in the Southern Hemisphere is the South Magnetic Pole, though the two poles are not directly opposite each other.
|
||||
|
||||
Northern Hemisphere
|
||||
The half sphere of the Earth that is north of the Equator. It is opposite the Southern Hemisphere.
|
||||
|
||||
northing
|
||||
|
||||
nubbin
|
||||
A small, gentle hill consisting of a bedrock core dotted with rounded residual boulders. Nubbins form in a similar way to castle koppies and bornhardts.
|
||||
|
||||
nunatak
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
|
||||
oasis
|
||||
A combination of a human settlement and an area of cultivated vegetation in an otherwise desolate desert or semi-desert environment, made fertile when sources of fresh water, such as underground aquifers, irrigate the surface naturally or via man-made wells.
|
||||
|
||||
oblate spheroid
|
||||
The approximate geometric shape of the Earth: a three-dimensional ellipsoid that is nearly but not exactly a true sphere, being instead slightly flattened at the poles and slightly elongated at the equator.
|
||||
|
||||
obsequent
|
||||
(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing in the direction opposite to that of the dip of the underlying rock strata. Contrast consequent and subsequent.
|
||||
|
||||
ocean
|
||||
The vast, contiguous body of salt water covering more than 70% of the Earth's surface area and surrounding the continental landmasses; or any portion of this larger body of water that is divided and distinguished from the other portions, each of which is called an ocean, by the presence of the landmasses. The International Hydrographic Organization recognizes five principal oceanic divisions on Earth: from largest to smallest, they are the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
ocean current
|
||||
|
||||
ocean floor
|
||||
See seabed.
|
||||
|
||||
ocean trench
|
||||
A long, narrow, very deep depression in the ocean floor at the junction of two tectonic plates, where one plate is subducted steeply beneath the other, often penetrating the mantle. See also deep.
|
||||
|
||||
oceanography
|
||||
Also oceanology.
|
||||
The scientific study of the Earth's oceans and all processes and phenomena relating to them, including their formation and evolution over time; their physical and chemical properties and how these vary within the ocean and across its boundaries; their interactions with landmasses along coasts; the bathymetry and geology of the sea floor; currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; marine life and ecosystems; and how humans affect and are affected by oceans. The interdisciplinary field draws from and involves a diverse range of other sciences, including physics, biology, geology, hydrology, meteorology, and climatology, among others.
|
||||
|
||||
oeconym
|
||||
Also econym and oikonym.
|
||||
A toponym or proper name for a house or other residential building, or in the broadest sense for any inhabited settlement, such as a village, town, or city.
|
||||
|
||||
oecumene
|
||||
See ecumene.
|
||||
|
||||
offshore
|
||||
1. Moving away from the shore and toward the sea.
|
||||
2. Located at a point or in an area that is relatively close to but still seaward of the shore (as with an offshore island). Contrast onshore.
|
||||
3. Seaward of the foreshore and the backshore.
|
||||
|
||||
ogive
|
||||
One of a series of regularly spaced bands of alternating height and color visible on the surface of some glaciers, resulting from seasonal patterns of alimentation and ablation. Because ice flows faster near the center of the glacier, where there is less friction with the surrounding glacial bed, ogives are usually shaped into conspicuous arcs that point towards the terminus of the glacier.
|
||||
|
||||
ojo
|
||||
In the southwestern United States, a small pond, lake, or spring, especially a hot spring.
|
||||
|
||||
one-commodity country
|
||||
A country that relies on one principal export for much of its earnings.
|
||||
|
||||
open ocean
|
||||
The part of the ocean that is beyond or outside of coastal areas, i.e. distant from land and not enclosed or partially enclosed by it. In oceanography, the term is synonymous with pelagic zone and is often defined as all oceanic waters seaward of any continental shelf; politically and economically, "open ocean" usually refers to all areas of a sea or ocean that are not within territorial waters (hence, any area that is within international waters) or, much more restrictively, not within any sovereign state's exclusive economic zone. See also high seas.
|
||||
|
||||
open range
|
||||
A cattle- or sheep-ranching area characterized by a general absence of fences and in which livestock are by law allowed to roam freely.
|
||||
|
||||
opisometer
|
||||
Also curvimeter, meilograph, or map measurer.
|
||||
An instrument used to measure the lengths of arbitrary curved lines, especially the distances of rivers and roads on a map.
|
||||
|
||||
ordinal directions
|
||||
See intercardinal directions.
|
||||
|
||||
ordnance datum (OD)
|
||||
Any vertical datum used by the British Ordnance Survey as the basis for reporting elevations on maps. In modern Great Britain, the standard ordnance datum is the ODN, defined as the mean sea level calculated from hourly observations of the tidal gauge at Newlyn, Cornwall, between 1915 and 1921. All heights shown on British maps are measured from this benchmark.
|
||||
|
||||
orientation
|
||||
The position of or the act of positioning a person or object with respect to the directional points of a compass, especially the placement of a map or surveying instrument in the field so that a north–south line on the map or instrument lies parallel to a north–south line on the ground. Determining one's orientation at a given time is the chief aim of orienteering, and is generally of critical importance in navigation.
|
||||
|
||||
orienteering
|
||||
The use of a map and compass to navigate over unfamiliar terrain, either by land or water; or a recreational activity or competitive sport in which participants navigate in this way, generally on foot from point to point along a predetermined route, and often in wilderness areas while racing to complete the course within a certain period of time or before competitors.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,96 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 11/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
sea lane
|
||||
Also sea road, seaway, or shipping lane.
|
||||
A navigable route across a wide waterway such as an ocean, sea, or large lake that is regularly used for maritime trade by large vessels or ships because it is safe, direct, and economical.
|
||||
|
||||
sea level
|
||||
The average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans from which heights such as elevation and altitude are commonly measured. Often called mean sea level (MSL), it is a type of standardized geodetic vertical datum that is used in numerous applications, including surveying, cartography, and navigation. Mean sea level is commonly defined as the midpoint between the mean low and mean high tides at a particular location.
|
||||
|
||||
sea stack
|
||||
See stack.
|
||||
|
||||
seabed
|
||||
Also sea floor or ocean floor.
|
||||
The bottom of a sea or ocean. As with land terrain, the ocean floor may have ridges, mountains, valleys, and plains.
|
||||
|
||||
seaboard
|
||||
Any extensive region of land adjacent to the sea, broadly synonymous with coast or coastline.
|
||||
|
||||
seamount
|
||||
A mountain (often a volcano) rising from the ocean floor whose summit does not reach the water's surface and which is therefore entirely submerged and not an island or islet.
|
||||
|
||||
search space
|
||||
In human geography, the locations within an area where an individual or group searches for the resources necessary to meet their specific needs (e.g. for housing or employment), based on information from their current awareness space.
|
||||
|
||||
seaway
|
||||
See sea lane.
|
||||
|
||||
second home
|
||||
A seasonally occupied dwelling that is not the primary residence of the owner. Such residences are usually found in areas with substantial opportunities for recreation or tourist activity.
|
||||
|
||||
secondary-intercardinal directions
|
||||
The set of eight intermediate directions used in cartography and navigation, each of which is located halfway between a pair of intercardinal directions: north-northeast (NNE), east-northeast (ENE), east-southeast (ESE), south-southeast (SSE), south-southwest (SSW), west-southwest (WSW), west-northwest (WNW), and north-northwest (NNW). They may or may not be explicitly labeled on a compass rose.
|
||||
|
||||
secondary sector (secondary economic activity)
|
||||
That portion of a region's economy devoted to the processing of basic materials extracted by the primary sector; i.e. to the production of material goods.
|
||||
|
||||
sector principle
|
||||
The principle on which political claims to territory in the polar regions have historically been made, such that the territories are divided into arbitrary wedge-shaped sectors, each one having an apex at the geographic pole and including outer areas of both land and sea extending to a particular latitude. Because of the limited accessibility and generally low material value of both the Arctic and Antarctic, the sector principle has emerged as a means of formally sharing responsibility for these regions between the world's sovereign states.
|
||||
|
||||
sector theory
|
||||
Also sector model.
|
||||
The view that commercial, industrial, and especially residential areas in a city develop in 'sectors' or districts along lines of transport and communication, from the central business district outwards. In many urban areas the basic pattern of development often approximately follows this model, with industrial sectors developing along canals and railways, working-class housing developing near industrial sectors, and higher quality housing being built away from industrial zones but still in places with quick and convenient road access to other sectors.
|
||||
|
||||
sedimentary rock
|
||||
Rock formed by the hardening of material deposited in some process; most commonly sandstone, shale, and limestone.
|
||||
|
||||
seismograph
|
||||
A scientific instrument that detects and records vibrations (seismic waves) produced by earthquakes.
|
||||
|
||||
selva
|
||||
A dense equatorial forest, especially in the Amazon basin of South America.
|
||||
|
||||
sense of place
|
||||
Either the intrinsic character of a place or the meaning people give to it, or a mixture of both. This sense of meaning may include national, regional, or local identity or awareness, or emotional attachments formed between humans and the places they reside in or travel to. It is often the intangible characteristics of a particular place which are most important to mental representations of that place; these characteristics may be natural and unintentional, or may be consciously created or preserved through memorable or singular structures in order to give a place a distinctive identity.
|
||||
|
||||
serac
|
||||
Also sérac.
|
||||
A large block or pillar of glacial ice formed by the intersection of numerous crevasses where the glacier fragments as it reaches a steep slope. Seracs are usually found in icefalls, often in large numbers, in mountainous terrain.
|
||||
|
||||
settlement
|
||||
Also locality or populated place.
|
||||
Any place where people live and form communities; an inhabited or populated place. Settlements vary widely in size and complexity, from small clusters of dwellings to huge cities and metropolitan areas.
|
||||
|
||||
settlement pattern
|
||||
The spatial distribution of where humans inhabit the Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
shaded relief
|
||||
A type of relief mapping in which terrain features are drawn with colors proportional to their elevation or degree of slope, such that the shading of higher or steeper terrain is darker or lighter than the shading of lower or flatter terrain. This gives the map the illusion of three-dimensional relief, as if the depicted landforms were creating shadows due to illumination from an off-map light source.
|
||||
|
||||
shadow effect
|
||||
The phenomenon by which a large, well-served urban center affects the transport services of a nearby smaller town or city, often by drawing producers and consumers away from the smaller settlement and toward the larger one, causing the smaller settlement to be relatively ill-provided with direct services.
|
||||
|
||||
shakehole
|
||||
See doline.
|
||||
|
||||
shallows
|
||||
An area of water of relatively little depth, e.g. in a sea, lake, or river.
|
||||
|
||||
sheepback
|
||||
Also rôche moutonnée.
|
||||
A rock formation created by the passage of a glacier over underlying bedrock, which often results in asymmetrical erosional forms created by abrasion on the upstream side of the rock and plucking on the downstream side.
|
||||
|
||||
shelf sea
|
||||
A relatively shallow marginal sea, generally less than 300 metres (980 ft) deep, beneath which a portion of a continental shelf is submerged.
|
||||
|
||||
shield
|
||||
A broad area of very old rocks above sea level that is usually characterized by thin, poor soils and low population densities.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 12/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
shield volcano
|
||||
A class of volcano that resembles an inverted warrior's shield, with long gentle slopes produced by multiple eruptions of fluid lava flows.
|
||||
|
||||
shoal
|
||||
Also sandbank, sandbar, or gravel bar.
|
||||
A natural submerged ridge, bank, or bar that consists of or is covered by sand or other unconsolidated material and rises from the bed of a body of water to just below or above the surface.
|
||||
|
||||
shore
|
||||
Also shoreline.
|
||||
The fringe of land at the edge of a large body of water, such as an ocean, sea, or lake. Compare coast.
|
||||
|
||||
shore platform
|
||||
See wave-cut platform.
|
||||
|
||||
shoulder
|
||||
1. A rounded spur on a mountainside; or a bench on the side of a glacier-deepened U-shaped valley, demarcating an abrupt transition between the gentle upper slopes which have been largely unaffected by glacial erosion and the steep lower slopes of the heavily eroded inner valley.
|
||||
2. The part of a roadway between the edge of the graded or paved driving surface and the top of the foreslope of an adjacent ditch or embankment.
|
||||
|
||||
shoulder drop
|
||||
See topographic prominence.
|
||||
|
||||
side valley
|
||||
A valley whose mouth opens onto a larger, lower-order valley to which its drainage is tributary.
|
||||
|
||||
sighting compass
|
||||
A handheld magnetic compass fitted with a sighting device that permits the user to accurately determine the bearing or azimuth of a specified target with respect to their own position. The sighting instrument may make use of a simple notched protrusion akin to a gunsight, an image of the target reflected in a mirror, or a prismatic or lensatic system.
|
||||
|
||||
sinkhole
|
||||
A crater formed when the roof of a cavern collapses, usually found in areas of limestone rock.
|
||||
|
||||
site
|
||||
The features of a place related to the immediate environment in which the place is located (e.g. terrain, soil, subsurface, geology, groundwater, etc.).
|
||||
|
||||
situation
|
||||
The features of a place related to its location relative to other places (e.g., accessibility, hinterland quality).
|
||||
|
||||
skerry
|
||||
A small, rocky islet or reef, often one of a series lying just offshore and parallel to the main trend of the coastline, over which large waves may break at high tide or in stormy weather.
|
||||
|
||||
sky island
|
||||
An isolated mountain, mountain range, or high plateau characterized by conspicuous elevational gradients in geology, climate, and/or biodiversity, so that environments and ecosystems near the summit differ greatly from those of the adjacent slopes or the surrounding lowlands. This effectively cuts off the ecosystems of the highest areas, turning them into "islands" in a "sea" of dissimilar landscapes.
|
||||
|
||||
slack
|
||||
A shallow hole or hollow among coastal sand dunes or mud banks.
|
||||
|
||||
slack water
|
||||
Also slack tide or simply slack.
|
||||
The brief period of time during which a body of water susceptible to tides is completely unstressed because the tidal stream is almost still, i.e. there is no movement in either direction in the tidal current, usually occurring twice daily at the high and low water marks prior to the tide reversing direction.
|
||||
|
||||
slant range
|
||||
The line-of-sight distance along the relative direction between two points, especially two points which are not at the same elevation relative to a specific datum. If the two points are at the same elevation, the slant range equals the horizontal distance.
|
||||
|
||||
slash
|
||||
1. In the southeastern United States, a low-lying swampy or boggy area, overgrown with shrubs and cane grasses and favorable for the growth of the slash pine and related trees.
|
||||
2. The debris of felled trees, especially in a forest that has been subjected to slash-and-burn agriculture.
|
||||
|
||||
slide
|
||||
1. A noticeable track of bare rock or furrowed earth left by the mass movement of soil, mud, snow, or rock under shear stress down a steep slope, as in a landslide or avalanche.
|
||||
2. The mass of material moved or deposited by such an event, and which has become fixed or settled upon the landscape.
|
||||
|
||||
slip-off slope
|
||||
The more gently sloping of the two banks of a river or stream, usually on the inside bend of a meander, as opposed to a cut bank.
|
||||
|
||||
slope
|
||||
The upward or downward inclination of a natural or artificial surface (e.g. a hillside or a road), or the degree or nature of such an incline; a deviation from the perpendicular or horizontal direction (these directions generally being assigned with respect to the direction of the force of gravity). See also grade.
|
||||
|
||||
slough
|
||||
A type of wetland – usually a swamp, a shallow lake, or a backwater branching from or feeding into a river – in which water tends to be stagnant or flows only very slowly on a seasonal basis.
|
||||
|
||||
slum
|
||||
A residential settlement or neighborhood associated with extreme poverty and overpopulation, usually in or near an urban area. Slums are characterized by densely packed and poorly built or dilapidated housing units and a deterioration or lack of civic infrastructure such as reliable water, electricity, sanitation, law enforcement, and other basic services.
|
||||
|
||||
smog
|
||||
A mixture of particulate matter and chemical pollutants which has accumulated in the lower atmosphere, usually over urban areas.
|
||||
|
||||
smooth sheet
|
||||
Also smooth chart, fair sheet, and fair chart.
|
||||
A sheet on which field control and hydrographic data such as soundings, depth curves, and regions surveyed with a wire drag are plotted or drawn during the creation of a hydrographic chart.
|
||||
|
||||
snout
|
||||
Also terminus or toe.
|
||||
The lowermost margin or extremity of a glacier, always either gradually advancing or retreating, sometimes partially hidden by morainic material, and commonly featuring a cave from which meltwater flows.
|
||||
|
||||
snowline
|
||||
The lowest elevation at which snow remains throughout the year if the summer warmth does not completely melt the winter accumulation, e.g. on a high mountain. This elevation varies widely with latitude, local climate, directional aspect, and steepness of slope, such that the snowline may be very different on different mountains in the same range, on different faces of the same mountain, or on the same face in different years.
|
||||
|
||||
social trail
|
||||
See desire path.
|
||||
|
||||
society
|
||||
A group of people living in an organized community.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 13/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
soil building process
|
||||
The creation of organic matter from weathered rock, air, and water.
|
||||
|
||||
soil horizon
|
||||
A distinct layer of soil which can be distinguished from other layers in vertical cross-section.
|
||||
|
||||
solstice
|
||||
The time when the Sun reaches its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere. Two solstices occur annually, around 20–22 June and 20–22 December. In many countries, the seasons of the year are defined by reference to the solstices and the equinoxes.
|
||||
|
||||
solution pan
|
||||
See panhole.
|
||||
|
||||
solubility
|
||||
The degree to which a substance can be dissolved in another substance. In a geographical context, solubility is a characteristic of soil minerals that describes their tendency to be carried away in solution by water. See also leaching.
|
||||
|
||||
sound
|
||||
1. A large inlet of a sea or ocean that is larger than a bay, deeper than a bight, and wider than a fjord.
|
||||
2. A narrow sea or ocean channel between two landmasses.
|
||||
|
||||
sounding
|
||||
1. A measured depth in water, usually a measurement of the distance from an instrument on a vessel at the surface to the bottom of the bed or floor of the body of water at a point directly below the vessel; or the process by which such a measurement is made. In very shallow water, depths may be measurable by mechanical devices such as long sounding poles that make physical contact with the bottom; in deeper water, accurate determination of depth usually relies on a lead-line or the return of sonar echoes. Depth sounding is fundamental to bathymetry.
|
||||
2. A specific depth of water referred to a datum (e.g. a tidal datum) given in the legend of a hydrographic chart.
|
||||
3. A point on a map where the measured value of the depth of a body of water at that point is explicitly shown.
|
||||
|
||||
South Geographic Pole
|
||||
Also called the Geographic South Pole, Geographic South, or simply the South Pole.
|
||||
The point in the Southern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is the southernmost point on Earth, directly opposite the North Geographic Pole, and is located on continental land in Antarctica at a latitude of 90 degrees South; its longitude can be assigned any degree value. See also South Magnetic Pole.
|
||||
|
||||
South Geomagnetic Pole
|
||||
Also called the Geomagnetic South Pole.
|
||||
The point in the Southern Hemisphere where the axis of a theoretical simplified dipole passing through the center of the Earth would intersect the Earth's surface. It is antipodal to the North Geomagnetic Pole. Because of the fluid nature of the Earth's molten core, the true axis of the Earth's magnetic field is not a perfect dipole, and so the Geomagnetic Poles and the actual Magnetic Poles lie some distance apart.
|
||||
|
||||
South Magnetic Pole
|
||||
Also called the Magnetic South Pole or Magnetic South.
|
||||
The point in the Southern Hemisphere at which the Earth's magnetic field points vertically downward. It is close to but distinct from the Geographic South Pole and the Geomagnetic South Pole, and its precise location varies considerably over time due to frequent magnetic changes in the Earth's core. Its counterpart in the Northern Hemisphere is the North Magnetic Pole, though the two poles are not directly opposite each other.
|
||||
|
||||
Southern Hemisphere
|
||||
The half sphere of the Earth that is south of the Equator. It is opposite the Northern Hemisphere.
|
||||
|
||||
space economy
|
||||
The locational pattern of economic activities and their interconnecting linkages.
|
||||
|
||||
spatial analysis
|
||||
1. Any of the wide variety of formal techniques used to study entities according to their topological, geometric, or geographic properties.
|
||||
2. An approach to geography in which the locational variations of a phenomenon or a series of phenomena are studied and the factors influencing or governing the observed patterns of distribution within space are investigated. This approach attempts to break down spatial patterns into simple elements so that measurements can be made of individual sub-patterns, which then allows the comparison of two or more distinct patterns and the development of statistical tests to determine whether a given pattern differs significantly from random variation.
|
||||
|
||||
spatial citizenship
|
||||
The participation of individuals and groups of laypeople in decision-making about spatial planning and social rules in public spaces through the reflexive production and use of geographic media such as maps, virtual globes, and GIS software, particularly to question existing perspectives on the appropriation of space and the actions permitted within that space and to negotiate alternative spatial visions.
|
||||
|
||||
spatial complementarity
|
||||
The occurrence of location pairing such that items demanded by one place can be supplied by another.
|
||||
|
||||
spatial diffusion
|
||||
The process by which materials, ideas, diseases, or information are distributed or spread through space.
|
||||
|
||||
spatial interaction
|
||||
Movement or exchange between locationally separate places.
|
||||
|
||||
spatial reference system (SRS)
|
||||
Also coordinate reference system (CRS).
|
||||
A coordinate-based local, regional, or global system used to locate geographical entities and which defines a specific map projection as well as transformations between different systems.
|
||||
|
||||
spatial science
|
||||
The measurement, management, analysis, and display of spatial information describing geographic spaces, including both natural and socially constructed features. Spatial science emphasizes the study of aggregate spatial patterns, including spatial behavior, within theoretical frameworks and by using quantitative methods to evaluate models and hypotheses. It is an interdisciplinary field combining elements of and overlapping with cartography, geodesy, hydrography, surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing, and geographic information science.
|
||||
|
||||
spatiality
|
||||
The effects of geographic space on actions, interactions, entities, perceptions, and ideas.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 14/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
spatiomap
|
||||
A map that is not merely a diagrammatic representation of a place but is based on an aerial orthophotograph, such that the map includes actual imagery of ground-level features which are often omitted from conventional maps. Spatiomaps are usually created by overlaying annotations directly upon an orthophoto, such as a north arrow or compass rose, a scale bar, political boundaries and labels, or other cartographical information. They are useful when reliable data from ground-based surveys are missing for a particular geographical area or when accurate maps must be produced very quickly, especially during disaster relief efforts where a natural disaster has dramatically changed ground-level detail but new surveys have not yet been conducted.
|
||||
|
||||
spirit level
|
||||
|
||||
spit
|
||||
Also sandspit.
|
||||
A type of bar or shoal extending from a beach into an ocean or lake and which develops by the deposition of sediment as a result of longshore drift. Spits form where the shoreline sharply changes direction, such as at a headland, and often develop a "hooked" or recurve shape at their distal ends.
|
||||
|
||||
spot elevation
|
||||
Also spot height.
|
||||
A point on a map or chart whose height or elevation above a specified reference datum (often mean sea level) is explicitly annotated, usually by a numerical elevation value printed immediately adjacent to a dot or sawbuck indicating the point itself. Topographic maps often include spot elevations, wherever practicable, for the summits of hills, mountains, plateaus, and buttes; mountain passes; forks and intersections of roads, trails, and waterways; water surfaces of lakes and ponds; notable low points such as the local elevational minimum of a basin; very large flat areas; and any other point which may be of interest to the map user.
|
||||
|
||||
spreading ridge
|
||||
See mid-ocean ridge.
|
||||
|
||||
spring
|
||||
Any location where groundwater naturally emerges from an underground aquifer to the Earth's surface.
|
||||
|
||||
spur
|
||||
A lateral ridge or other salient landform protruding from the side of a hill, mountain, or the main crest of a ridge and typically surrounded on at least three sides by steep hillsides.
|
||||
|
||||
stack
|
||||
Also sea stack.
|
||||
A coastal landform consisting of a steep and often vertical column or columns of rock above the surface of the sea and formed by erosion due to wave action. See also pinnacle.
|
||||
|
||||
stage
|
||||
Also stream stage or river stage.
|
||||
In hydrology, the height of the surface of a stream or river at a particular location and a particular point in time, with respect to a reference height such as its bed or a position on its banks, and used especially to monitor seasonal changes in discharge and flooding.
|
||||
|
||||
stand
|
||||
An area of vegetation dominated by a single plant species, e.g. a stand of oak trees.
|
||||
|
||||
Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA)
|
||||
A statistical unit used in the United States consisting of one or more counties that focus on one or more central cities larger than a specified size, or with a total population larger than a specified size.
|
||||
|
||||
state
|
||||
A compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical territory. See country.
|
||||
|
||||
stateless society
|
||||
A society that is not governed by a state; there is little concentration of authority. Most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in power, and they are generally not permanent positions, and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small.
|
||||
|
||||
steilhang
|
||||
A steep mountainside, hillside, or escarpment, especially one with an average incline between 30 and 60 degrees from the horizontal. The term is used primarily in the German-speaking world.
|
||||
|
||||
steppe
|
||||
An ecoregion characterized by expansive grassland plains without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes.
|
||||
|
||||
stopbank
|
||||
See levee.
|
||||
|
||||
stoss
|
||||
An adjective describing the side of a hill or ridge that faces the direction from which an advancing glacier or ice sheet is moving or has moved; i.e. facing upstream or "up-ice" with respect to the glacier, and therefore most exposed to its abrasive action. The opposite side, facing downstream or away from the glacier, is known as the lee.
|
||||
|
||||
strait
|
||||
See channel.
|
||||
|
||||
strandline
|
||||
A beach or shoreline, especially a former or relict one, now elevated above the present water level, which appears as a bench or other visible demarcation lining the length of the shore at a common elevation. See also high water mark.
|
||||
|
||||
strath
|
||||
A large river valley, typically wider and shallower than a glen. The term is used primarily in Scotland, Australia, and Canada.
|
||||
|
||||
stratovolcano
|
||||
Also composite volcano.
|
||||
A steep-sided volcano built by lava flows and tephra deposits.
|
||||
|
||||
stream
|
||||
A natural body of water in which surface water flows between the banks of a channel. Long, large streams are called rivers.
|
||||
|
||||
stream order
|
||||
Also waterbody order.
|
||||
The hierarchical classification of all of the branching streams comprising a river system or watershed, usually by assigning an ordinal number to each individual tributary indicating the magnitude of its channel and/or its position within the overall drainage sequence. Several different numbering methods are in common usage. In the Strahler system, the outermost tributaries (i.e. near the sources) are designated first-order streams, and at least two streams of any given order must combine to form a stream of the next higher order, e.g. two first-order streams unite to form a second-order stream, two-second-order streams join to form a third-order stream, and so on until the largest channel or main stem, terminating at the mouth, is reached.
|
||||
|
||||
streambed
|
||||
Also riverbed or simply bed.
|
||||
The bottom of the channel of a stream or river, usually covered with rocks, sand, or debris and totally devoid of terrestrial vegetation if the stream has flowed recently. The bed is generally considered the part of the channel up to the normal water line, whereas the bank is the part above the water line.
|
||||
|
||||
strike
|
||||
The direction of the line of intersection between an imaginary horizontal plane and the plane of a geological stratum, fault, or hillslope. Strike is usually combined with dip in describing the orientation of a geographical surface.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 15/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
strip map
|
||||
A map covering only a narrow band of territory in which the user is interested, e.g. alongside each side of a trail or vehicle route.
|
||||
|
||||
subcontinent
|
||||
A large landmass forming a contiguous part of an even larger continent, though often separable by physiographic or political boundaries, e.g. the Indian subcontinent; or a non-contiguous but still very large landmass that is smaller than one usually termed a continent, e.g. Greenland.
|
||||
|
||||
subduction zone
|
||||
The place where two lithospheric plates come together, one riding over the other. Most volcanoes on land occur parallel to and inland from the boundary between the two plates.
|
||||
|
||||
subglacial
|
||||
Of, relating to, or formed on or by the underside of a glacier. Contrast englacial and superglacial.
|
||||
|
||||
sublittoral
|
||||
1. Of or relating to the coastal area of the sea between the intertidal zone and the edge of the continental shelf. Compare littoral zone.
|
||||
2. Of or relating to the deepest parts of a lake or other large body of freshwater, distant from the shore, where plants cannot root. See also aphotic zone.
|
||||
|
||||
subsequent
|
||||
(of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing along a course determined by the structure of the local bedrock. Contrast consequent and obsequent.
|
||||
|
||||
subsistence farming (agriculture)
|
||||
A farming practice where a family produces only enough food for their own family and not to sell or export.
|
||||
|
||||
suburban
|
||||
An adjective describing a mixed-use or residential area existing either as an ancillary part of an urban area or as a separate community within commuting distance of a city; a place of this type is called a suburb. Suburbs are often defined by commuter infrastructures and have lower population densities than inner-city neighborhoods.
|
||||
|
||||
suburbanization
|
||||
The process by which a human population shifts from urban to suburban residency, or the gradual increase in the proportion of people choosing to live in suburban neighborhoods which act as satellite communities within commuting distance of larger, centralized urban areas. Suburbanization is inversely related to urbanization.
|
||||
|
||||
summit
|
||||
Also acme, apex, peak, and zenith.
|
||||
A point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, it is a local maximum in elevation. The highest point of a hill or mountain is often referred to as the summit.
|
||||
|
||||
superglacial
|
||||
Also supraglacial.
|
||||
Of or relating to the surface or to the environment at the surface of a glacier. Contrast englacial and subglacial.
|
||||
|
||||
supranational region
|
||||
A region composed of several countries working together for either political, economic, or social purposes, e.g. the European Union.
|
||||
|
||||
surf zone
|
||||
Also breaker zone.
|
||||
The area along a shoreline in which breaking waves routinely form, between the furthest seaward limit at which incoming waves begin to break and the furthest landward extent reached by the uprush of swash on the beach. The extent of the surf zone may change with the tide and local weather conditions.
|
||||
|
||||
surface water
|
||||
Water present on the surface of the Earth, such as in a river, lake, wetland, or ocean, as opposed to subsurface water.
|
||||
|
||||
survey marker
|
||||
|
||||
surveying
|
||||
The science, technique, and profession of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional positions of points on the surface of the Earth and the distances and angles between them. These points are often used to draw maps and establish boundaries for property ownership, construction projects, and other purposes required by civil law.
|
||||
|
||||
swale
|
||||
Any shallow channel or trough with gently sloping sides, either natural or artificial. Man-made swales are often designed to manage surface runoff and increase rainwater infiltration.
|
||||
|
||||
swallet
|
||||
See ponor.
|
||||
|
||||
swamp
|
||||
A forested wetland, often occurring along a large river or on the shores of a large lake.
|
||||
|
||||
swell
|
||||
1. The regular, undulating motion of the surface of a large body of water, e.g. of the ocean; the succession of surface waves in the open ocean which, though they may grow very large, do not break.
|
||||
2. A rise or uplift on the deep sea floor.
|
||||
3. Any dome-shaped landform, often a plateau or other geological uplift, covering a very large area.
|
||||
|
||||
swirlhole
|
||||
See pothole.
|
||||
|
||||
syncline
|
||||
|
||||
synekism
|
||||
|
||||
syrt
|
||||
A denudational highland or elevated flatland in Russia and Central Asia; a kind of dissected plateau.
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
|
||||
table
|
||||
Also tableland.
|
||||
A butte, plateau, or highland with a relatively flat, often expansive summit area. See also mesa.
|
||||
|
||||
tablemount
|
||||
See guyot.
|
||||
|
||||
taiga
|
||||
A moist subarctic coniferous forest that begins where the tundra ends and is dominated by spruces and firs.
|
||||
|
||||
tailings
|
||||
Also tails.
|
||||
Waste materials left over after the mining and processing of ore, during which a valuable mineral or metal is extracted from the uneconomic fraction accompanying it; the latter plus any substances applied in the extraction process are then discarded, often in spoil piles or ponds near the mine, usually because it is prohibitively expensive or impossible to relocate, reuse, or otherwise destroy the discarded material. Mine tailings are distinct from overburden, which is displaced during mining but not processed, and are often nutrient-poor or toxic to living organisms, making it difficult for plant and animal life to reclaim the environs without further treatment.
|
||||
|
||||
talik
|
||||
A layer of year-round unfrozen ground between or within layers of permafrost, or between the active layer and permafrost.
|
||||
|
||||
talus
|
||||
Loose, broken rock fragments of any size and shape, usually coarse and angular, derived from and lying at the base of a cliff or a very steep rock slope. Large quantities tend to accumulate on the slopes of high mountains by falling, rolling, or sliding from an eroding rockfall source. Compare scree.
|
||||
|
||||
talweg
|
||||
See thalweg.
|
||||
|
||||
tank
|
||||
A small man-made pond or reservoir created by impounding a stream or by constructing a pit or basin to collect and hold rainwater or snowmelt. Less commonly, the term may also refer to a natural pond or basin.
|
||||
|
||||
tarn
|
||||
Also corrie loch.
|
||||
A mountain lake or pool of water formed in a cirque excavated by a glacier. A moraine may form a natural dam below a tarn.
|
||||
|
||||
tectonic forces
|
||||
The physical processes involving the movement of the Earth's crust.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 16/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
tectonic plate
|
||||
Any of several very large divisions of the Earth's crust consisting of solid rock which "floats" on top of the semi-solid mantle.
|
||||
|
||||
temperate zone
|
||||
Traditionally, either of the two mid-latitude regions of the Earth defined by their latitudinal position between the tropics and the polar zones, i.e. the region between latitudes 23°30' N and 66°30' N, or that between 23°30' S and 66°30' S. In modern usage, the term may refer instead to regions of mild or temperate climate, regardless of latitude.
|
||||
|
||||
temperature inversion
|
||||
An increase in temperature with height above the Earth's surface, a reversal of the normal pattern, often observed in deep valleys and basins that are mostly or entirely enclosed by high mountain ranges.
|
||||
|
||||
tephra
|
||||
Solid material of all sizes explosively ejected from a volcano into the atmosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
terminal moraine
|
||||
Also end moraine.
|
||||
A moraine that forms at the terminus or snout of a glacier, marking its furthest advance. Debris transported by plucking and abrasion accumulates at the glacier's leading edge, where it is deposited in an unsorted pile of sediment as the ice begins to retreat.
|
||||
|
||||
terracette
|
||||
One of a series of regularly spaced, horizontal, step-like ridges forming a distinctive ribbed pattern on a steep and usually grassy hillside, similar to an agricultural terrace or lynchet but naturally occurring. Various explanations for their origins have been suggested, including soil creep, solifluction, and animal trampling.
|
||||
|
||||
terrain
|
||||
Also topographical relief or simply relief.
|
||||
The vertical and horizontal dimensions of a land surface, usually as expressed in terms of elevation, slope, and orientation of geographical features.
|
||||
|
||||
terrane
|
||||
A fragment or block of the Earth's crust which forms on one tectonic plate but becomes accreted or "sutured" to the crust of another tectonic plate, such that the fragment's distinctive geological history differs markedly from that of surrounding areas. The suture zone between a terrane and the crust it attaches to is usually delimited by faults.
|
||||
|
||||
terrestrial
|
||||
1. Consisting of, living on, or relating to land, as opposed to water or air; e.g. a terrestrial animal lives primarily on land surfaces rather than in the sea.
|
||||
2. On, of, or relating to the Earth, as opposed to other planets or to celestial phenomena occurring outside the Earth's atmosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
territorial waters
|
||||
1. A concept of the Law of the Sea defined as the belt of coastal waters extending no more than 12 nautical miles (22 km) from a designated baseline (usually defined as the mean low-water line) for a coastal state and regarded as the sovereign territory of the state; or more generally any area of water over which a state has legal jurisdiction, including internal waters, the exclusive economic zone, and potentially others.
|
||||
|
||||
territory
|
||||
A specific area or portion of the Earth's surface, especially one claimed or administered by a particular country; similar to though distinct from a region.
|
||||
|
||||
tertiary economic activity (tertiary sector)
|
||||
That portion of a region's economy devoted to service activities (e.g. retail and wholesale operations, transportation, and insurance).
|
||||
|
||||
thalweg
|
||||
Also talweg.
|
||||
The line of lowest elevation within a valley or watercourse, i.e. the line defining the longitudinal profile of an area with respect to the path followed by water draining from the area. Thalwegs are significant in political geography because borders along rivers are often defined by the river's thalweg. This has sometimes led to conflict because the river's course may change naturally over time.
|
||||
|
||||
thaw lake
|
||||
A shallow, rounded lake or pond occupying a depression resulting from the melting of ground ice or permafrost, ubiquitous in thermokarst regions wherever there are flat lowlands with silty alluvium and high ice content, including much of the North American and Siberian Arctic. Many thaw lakes develop elongate shapes oriented with the long axis at a right angle to the prevailing wind.
|
||||
|
||||
theodolite
|
||||
An optical instrument consisting of a small telescope, a spirit level, and graduated arcs mounted on a tripod, used in surveying and other applications to precisely measure angles between designated visible points in the horizontal and vertical planes.
|
||||
|
||||
thermal spring
|
||||
See hot spring.
|
||||
|
||||
thermal stratification
|
||||
The tendency of bodies of water such as lakes to separate into distinct thermal layers along a vertical gradient, such that water temperature varies predictably with increasing depth. Stratification is typically a seasonal phenomenon, exemplified in deep lakes at temperate latitudes during the summer, which often form a warm, turbulent upper layer near the surface, a colder bottom layer, and a transition zone of rapidly decreasing temperature in between. In all but the deepest lakes and oceans, these layers often disappear entirely in the spring and fall, when convective mixing makes the temperature more or less uniform at all depths, and may even invert if the surface freezes during the winter. Local topography, wind patterns, and dissolved solutes also strongly influence the formation and disruption of stratified waters.
|
||||
|
||||
thermocline
|
||||
A thin layer of water in an ocean or lake, typically between the non-circulating hypolimnion and the warmer epilimnion, through which temperature changes more drastically with depth than it does in the layers above or below; e.g. temperature may decrease much more rapidly with increasing depth in this layer, commonly exceeding 1 °C (1.8 °F) per metre of descent.
|
||||
|
||||
thermokarst
|
||||
A type of terrain characterized by expansive landscapes of small hummocks interspersed with irregular, marshy depressions formed by the thawing of ice-rich permafrost. The unique landforms of thermokarst, including pingoes, palsen, thaw lakes, alases, and linear and polygonal troughs, result from various periglacial and thermo-erosional phenomena common in the Arctic and on a smaller scale in mountainous areas such as the Himalayas and the Alps.
|
||||
|
||||
tholoid
|
||||
A volcanic cone occurring inside of a larger volcanic crater or caldera.
|
||||
|
||||
throw
|
||||
The vertical displacement of strata or rocks across the line of a fault, varying from a few millimetres to hundreds of metres in height. Those rocks on the higher side of the fault are termed upthrow, while those on the lower side are termed downthrow.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 17/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
tidal creek
|
||||
Also tidal channel.
|
||||
A narrow inlet or estuary that is affected by the ebb and flow of tides from an adjacent ocean. Water in the lower portions of these channels tends to vary greatly in depth, salinity, electrical conductivity, and other hydrological properties over the course of the tidal cycle, but is often slow-moving and rich in organic sediment drained from upstream freshwater sources, making them important habitats for many species.
|
||||
|
||||
tidal flat
|
||||
An extensive, nearly horizontal, and barren or sparsely vegetated tract of land at the edge of a sea or ocean that is alternately covered and uncovered by the tide.
|
||||
|
||||
tidal prism
|
||||
The total volume of water that flows in and out of a coastal inlet or estuary with each cycle of the tides, excluding any freshwater discharges; i.e. the difference in the inlet's volume between the mean high and low tides.
|
||||
|
||||
tidal range
|
||||
The difference in height between high tide and low tide at a given location. This range may vary over the course of the year, e.g. during neap tides and spring tides.
|
||||
|
||||
tide
|
||||
The periodic rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the Earth's rotation.
|
||||
|
||||
tide pool
|
||||
A shallow pool of seawater, supplied regularly by incoming tides, that forms on a rocky intertidal shore.
|
||||
|
||||
tied island
|
||||
Also land-tied island.
|
||||
An island that is connected to a mainland only by a narrow spit or tombolo which may or may not be occasionally submerged.
|
||||
|
||||
till
|
||||
See glacial till.
|
||||
|
||||
timberline
|
||||
See tree line.
|
||||
|
||||
time distance
|
||||
A measure of how far apart places are in terms of the amount of time it takes to travel between them (how long does it take to travel from place A to place B?). This may be contrasted with other distance metrics such as geographic distance (how far is it?) and cost-distance (how much will it cost to get there?).
|
||||
|
||||
time geography
|
||||
Also time-space geography.
|
||||
An interdisciplinary perspective, ontological framework, and visual language in which space and time are used as basic dimensions of analysis of dynamic processes and events, including social and ecological interactions, environmental changes, and biographies of individuals.
|
||||
|
||||
time zone
|
||||
A region of the globe that observes a uniform standard time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. Most time zones span about 15 degrees of longitude, and in each of these divisions the mean solar time at an arbitrarily selected meridian (usually one near the longitudinal center of the division) is made the standard time across the entire zone. Time zones tend to follow political boundaries between countries and their subdivisions, however, rather than strictly following the same meridian, because it is convenient for areas in frequent communication to keep the same time.
|
||||
|
||||
Tissot's indicatrix
|
||||
Also Tissot's ellipse and ellipse of distortion.
|
||||
A mathematical contrivance used to illustrate the linear, angular, and areal distortions that result when projecting information from a curved three-dimensional geometric model such as a globe onto a two-dimensional map. A single indicatrix is traditionally a circle of determinate size drawn upon the surface of the globe, with center at specific coordinates; the extent to which this circle is deformed when the globe's coordinates are transformed onto a flat two-dimensional map makes apparent the nature of the distortion affecting nearby map features, such as the size and shape of landmasses, which might otherwise be difficult to visualize. Because distortion can vary greatly across a map, it is common for multiple indicatrices to be depicted at multiple points on the map, e.g. at major intersections of meridians and parallels.
|
||||
|
||||
toe
|
||||
See snout.
|
||||
|
||||
toeslope
|
||||
|
||||
toll road
|
||||
Also tollway or turnpike.
|
||||
A public or private road or highway for which a fee or toll is charged to drivers for passage.
|
||||
|
||||
tombolo
|
||||
A sandy or shingle-covered spit, bar, or isthmus connecting an island to the mainland or to another island (thereby forming a tied island).
|
||||
|
||||
topocide
|
||||
|
||||
topographic isolation
|
||||
The minimum great-circle distance between the summit of a mountain or hill and a point of equal elevation, representing a radius of dominance in which the summit is the highest point.
|
||||
|
||||
topographic map
|
||||
Also relief map.
|
||||
A map that uses contour lines to represent the three-dimensional features of a landscape on a two-dimensional surface.
|
||||
|
||||
topographic prominence
|
||||
Also autonomous height, relative height, or shoulder drop.
|
||||
A measure of the independence of a mountain or hill defined as the vertical distance between its summit and the lowest contour line completely encircling it but containing no higher summit within it; or, equivalently, the difference between the elevation of the summit and the elevation of the key col. Mountains with high prominence tend to be the highest points in their vicinity.
|
||||
|
||||
topographical relief
|
||||
See terrain.
|
||||
|
||||
topography
|
||||
The physical features of a place, or the study and depiction of physical features, both natural and man-made, including terrain relief.
|
||||
|
||||
topological map
|
||||
A type of diagrammatic map which depicts the actual positional relationships between certain features but on which true scale is distorted and unnecessary detail is absent to accommodate other considerations (e.g. simplicity so as to aid understanding of a complex communications network or public transit system).
|
||||
|
||||
topology
|
||||
In geographical studies, a discipline concerned with the mathematical analysis of enclosure, order, connectivity, contiguity, and relative position rather than with actual distance and orientation. Topological relationships are commonly expressed in terms of networks and depicted with topological maps.
|
||||
|
||||
toponymy
|
||||
The study of placenames (known as toponyms), their origins, meanings, use, and typology.
|
||||
|
||||
tor
|
||||
Also castle koppie or kopje.
|
||||
A prominent, free-standing rock outcrop that rises abruptly from the smooth slopes of a gently rounded hill or ridge. In the United Kingdom, the term is also used to refer to the hill itself.
|
||||
|
||||
town
|
||||
A medium-sized human settlement that is generally larger than a village but smaller than a city, though the criteria for distinguishing a town vary considerably in different parts of the world.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 18/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
township
|
||||
A type of populated place or administrative subdivision for which definitions vary widely between jurisdictions. In the United States, the township is the basic unit of land in the Public Land Survey System, a quadrangle with sides of approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) aligned to parallels and meridians and further subdivided into 36 one-square-mile sections. The location of each township is specified with respect to a designated reference parallel and a reference meridian.
|
||||
|
||||
township and range
|
||||
The rectangular system of land subdivision used to plat real property for sale and settlement in much of the agriculturally settled United States west of the Appalachian Mountains, established by the Land Ordinance of 1785.
|
||||
|
||||
towpath
|
||||
A road or path alongside a navigable river, canal, or other inland waterway designed to allow land vehicles, draught animals, or a team of human pullers to tow a boat or barge.
|
||||
|
||||
trafficability
|
||||
The capacity of a soil or of a particular type of terrain to permit the movement of vehicles or pedestrians.
|
||||
|
||||
trail
|
||||
|
||||
transferability
|
||||
The extent to which a good or service can be moved from one location to another; the relative capacity for spatial interaction.
|
||||
|
||||
transhumance
|
||||
The seasonal movement of people and animals in search of pasture. Commonly, winters are spent in snow-free lowlands and summers in the cooler uplands.
|
||||
|
||||
transverse
|
||||
Crosswise; lying across; crossing from one side to another, as a line on a map.
|
||||
|
||||
transverse coast
|
||||
See discordant coastline.
|
||||
|
||||
transverse dune
|
||||
A sand dune with its crest oriented at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind, as opposed to the orientation of a longitudinal dune.
|
||||
|
||||
transverse valley
|
||||
A valley which cuts across a ridge or mountain range at right angles to the primary orientation of the crest. Contrast longitudinal valley.
|
||||
|
||||
trap street
|
||||
In cartography, a misrepresented or nonexistent road or street that is deliberately included on a map (often outside the map's nominal area of coverage) for the purpose of detecting plagiarism by acting as a copyright trap: plagiarists who have copied other cartographers' work would find it difficult to explain the inclusion of the trap street on their map as coincidental. For this reason trap streets are often inconspicuous and given unique names. Many other map features are also used as copyright traps, including natural features and entire towns, and the implementation may also involve mislabeling features such as topographic elevations as well as making subtle stylistic alterations such as exaggerated or nonexistent bends in roads or rivers, ideally in a way that does not interfere significantly with navigation.
|
||||
|
||||
traverse
|
||||
1. In surveying, a line or route and the sequence of points on it at which observations or measurements are made, or the process by which such a sequence is established. The term may also refer more generally to any route or path traveled for any purpose.
|
||||
2. A relatively horizontal route taken so as to bypass obstacles when the primary goal is to move vertically, as in rock climbing and mountaineering.
|
||||
|
||||
tree line
|
||||
Also timberline.
|
||||
The latitudinal or elevational limit of normal tree growth. Beyond this limit (i.e. closer to the poles or at higher elevations) climatic conditions are too severe for such growth and trees are stunted or entirely absent. The term cold timberline may also be used to emphasize that the limiting factor is temperature, particularly when distinguishing it from the dry timberline of arid regions, where tree growth is instead limited by the availability of water.
|
||||
|
||||
triangulation
|
||||
The process of determining the location of a given point or object, especially its distance from an observer, by measuring only the angles to it from two known points along a common baseline, which represent two vertices of an imaginary triangle. The unknown point can then be fixed as the third vertex of the triangle, using the one known side and two known angles. Triangulation differs from trilateration, which measures distances to the point directly instead of angles.
|
||||
|
||||
tributary
|
||||
Also called an affluent.
|
||||
A stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem or a lake, rather than directly into a sea or ocean. Contrast distributary.
|
||||
|
||||
trilateration
|
||||
The process of determining the location of a given point or object by measuring only the distances to it from a sufficient number of other points; in particular, a method of surveying in which the location of one point relative to two or more others is determined by measuring the distances between all points (either ordinary Euclidean distances or great-circle distances). When more than three distances are involved, the process may be called multilateration. Measurement of direction and angle is not strictly necessary for trilateration, though this information is often used in tandem with trilateration data.
|
||||
|
||||
tropic
|
||||
Either of the two parallels of latitude marking the boundary of the tropics: the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
|
||||
|
||||
Tropic of Cancer
|
||||
The northernmost circle of latitude on the Earth at which the Sun appears directly overhead at its culmination, which lies approximately 23.4 degrees north of the Equator. Its southern equivalent is the Tropic of Capricorn.
|
||||
|
||||
Tropic of Capricorn
|
||||
The southernmost circle of latitude on the Earth at which the Sun appears directly overhead at its culmination, which lies approximately 23.4 degrees south of the Equator. Its northern equivalent is the Tropic of Cancer.
|
||||
|
||||
tropical
|
||||
Characteristic of, located in, or relating to the tropics, either the specific parallels of latitude or the zone lying between those two parallels.
|
||||
|
||||
tropics
|
||||
Also called the tropical zone or torrid zone.
|
||||
The region of the Earth's surface surrounding the Equator and bounded by the Tropic of Cancer (23.4° N latitude) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.4° S latitude). It is characterized by high annual precipitation and the absence of any significant seasonal variation in temperature. The term is often used more broadly to describe any area possessing what is considered a hot, humid climate, regardless of latitude. See also temperate zone and polar zone.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 19/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
trough
|
||||
Any elongated, generally U-shaped valley, ravine, basin, or ditch, natural or artificial, dry or wet. Particularly common usages refer to a submarine trench or deep in the ocean floor, or to a geological syncline.
|
||||
|
||||
true north
|
||||
Also geodetic north.
|
||||
The direction along the Earth's surface towards the Geographic North Pole. Geodetic true north differs from magnetic north and grid north, and also very slightly from astronomical true north, which is based on the direction of the north celestial pole.
|
||||
|
||||
true south
|
||||
Also geodetic south.
|
||||
The direction along the Earth's surface that is exactly opposite (i.e. bearing 180 degrees) of true north, towards the Geographic South Pole.
|
||||
|
||||
trunk
|
||||
See main stem.
|
||||
|
||||
tsunami
|
||||
A giant ocean wave caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption with great destructive power.
|
||||
|
||||
tundra
|
||||
A treeless plain characteristic of the Arctic and subarctic regions.
|
||||
|
||||
tunnel valley
|
||||
A deep, greatly elongated, U-shaped valley carved from land beneath a mass of glacial ice, often near the margin of a continental ice sheet. Tunnel valleys may be up to 100 kilometres (62 mi) long, 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) wide, and 400 metres (1,300 ft) deep, and often occur side-by-side in a series of multiple parallel valleys.
|
||||
|
||||
turlough
|
||||
In western Ireland, a depression or sinkhole which fills with water when the water table rises, e.g. by tidal effects.
|
||||
|
||||
turnpike
|
||||
See toll road.
|
||||
|
||||
tuya
|
||||
A subglacial landform consisting of a flat-topped, steep-sided volcanic mountain formed when lava erupts beneath an overlying glacier or ice sheet and melts through the ice to the surface, where it pools and solidifies into a level bed of volcanic rock; the glacier continues to gradually erode the surrounding landscape and, upon retreating, leaves behind a characteristic mesa-like rock formation.
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
|
||||
umland
|
||||
An area which is culturally, economically, and politically related to a particular town or city.
|
||||
|
||||
underfit stream
|
||||
A misfit stream that is seemingly too small to have eroded the valley or passage through which it flows, often an indication that there was once a larger stream in its place. Contrast overfit stream.
|
||||
|
||||
underpopulation
|
||||
Economically, a situation in which an increase in the size of the labor force will result in an increase in per-worker productivity.
|
||||
|
||||
uniform region
|
||||
A territory with one or more features present throughout which are absent or unimportant elsewhere.
|
||||
|
||||
uninverted relief
|
||||
Topographic surface relief which closely reflects the shape and orientation of the underlying geological structure, i.e. where hills and ridges coincide with anticlines and valleys with synclines. Contrast inverted relief.
|
||||
|
||||
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
|
||||
|
||||
upland
|
||||
Sometimes used interchangeably with highland.
|
||||
Any area of land that is higher in elevation relative to another area, especially one that is populated by low hills or situated atop a plateau. The term is often used as a conditional descriptor to distinguish related habitats or ecosystems, especially freshwater riparian areas, on the basis of elevation above sea level. Upland areas are usually characterized by relatively fast-flowing waterways and hilly or rocky terrain. Contrast lowland.
|
||||
|
||||
upstate
|
||||
|
||||
urban
|
||||
An adjective describing a settlement with a high population density and a developed infrastructure of built environment; places of this type are variously categorized as cities, towns, or conurbations, or simply called urban areas. Contrast suburban, exurban, and rural.
|
||||
|
||||
urban geography
|
||||
The sub-discipline of geography that derives from the study of cities, urban processes, and the built environment.
|
||||
|
||||
urban sprawl
|
||||
The unrestricted growth of housing, commercial development, and roads (typically of low densities) over large expanses of land, usually within or near an existing urban or suburban area and with little concern for civic planning. It is often considered a type of urbanization and almost always carries negative connotations.
|
||||
|
||||
urban studies
|
||||
The study of the development of cities and urban areas, especially from historical, architectural, or civic planning perspectives.
|
||||
|
||||
urbanization
|
||||
The process by which a human population shifts from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas such as towns and cities, and the ways in which human societies respond and adapt to this change. Urbanization may be characterized as a specific condition at a set time (e.g. the proportion of the total population or physical area within a given set of towns or cities) or as an increase in that condition over time. It precipitates enormous social, economic, and environmental changes for the planet as a whole.
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
|
||||
vale
|
||||
Another name for a valley.
|
||||
|
||||
valley
|
||||
Also vale.
|
||||
1. A low area between hills or mountains, often with a river running through it.
|
||||
2. A depression that is longer than it is wide.
|
||||
|
||||
veld
|
||||
See bushveld.
|
||||
|
||||
vent
|
||||
An opening at the Earth's surface through which volcanic materials (lava, tephra, and gases) erupt. Vents can be at a volcano's summit or on its slopes; they can be circular (craters) or linear (fissures).
|
||||
|
||||
vertical exaggeration
|
||||
A scale used in certain maps, such as raised-relief maps, that deliberately distorts the apparent elevation of the map's topography to emphasize vertical features, which might otherwise appear too small to identify relative to the corresponding horizontal scale.
|
||||
|
||||
viewshed
|
||||
The geographical area that is visible from a particular location. It includes all surrounding points within line-of-sight of the location and excludes points beyond the horizon or obstructed by terrain and natural or artificial objects.
|
||||
|
||||
village
|
||||
A small, clustered human settlement or community, usually larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town and often in rural areas, though the criteria for distinguishing a village can vary considerably in different parts of the world.
|
||||
|
||||
virtual globe
|
||||
A computer-generated three-dimensional software model or representation of Earth or another planet, providing the user with the ability to freely move around in the virtual environment by changing the viewing angle and position, and also to map many different types of data upon the modeled surface, such as land use statistics, meteorological records, and demographic quantities. An example is Google Earth.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 20/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
volcanic avalanche
|
||||
Also debris avalanche.
|
||||
A large, chaotic mass of soil, rock, and volcanic debris moving swiftly down the slopes of a volcano. Volcanic avalanches can also occur without an eruption due to an earthquake, heavy rainfall, or unstable soil, rock, and volcanic debris.
|
||||
|
||||
volcanic crater
|
||||
A type of crater created by volcanic activity, typically shaped like a bowl and containing one or more volcanic vents. Compare caldera.
|
||||
|
||||
volcano
|
||||
A vent or opening in the Earth's surface through which magma erupts, or the landform that is constructed by the eruptive material.
|
||||
|
||||
volcanology
|
||||
Also vulcanology.
|
||||
The scientific study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and the body of related geophysical phenomena known as volcanism. It is a branch of geology and Earth science which seeks to understand the formation, activity, and dormancy of volcanoes, their current and historic eruptions, and how to predict them.
|
||||
|
||||
vrtače
|
||||
See doline.
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
|
||||
wadi
|
||||
1. A dry, ephemeral riverbed which contains water only when heavy rainfall occurs.
|
||||
2. Another name for a valley, used primarily in Arabic-speaking parts of the world.
|
||||
|
||||
warping
|
||||
1. The slow, gentle deformation of the Earth's crust over a wide area, resulting in a raising or lowering of the surface.
|
||||
2. (sedimentation) Any process, natural or artificial, whereby the low-lying land of a tidal estuary is flooded, leading to deposition of silt, mud, or clay.
|
||||
|
||||
wash
|
||||
1. The surging movement of the sea or any other large body of water; another name for the swash of a breaking wave.
|
||||
2. An area of sand and mud submerged or wettened during high tide and exposed during low tide.
|
||||
3. A dry streambed or gully; an arroyo.
|
||||
4. Another name for a washland.
|
||||
5. The collection of fine, granular material that is moved down a slope by erosional processes. See also wash slope.
|
||||
|
||||
wash margin
|
||||
|
||||
wash slope
|
||||
See gravity slope.
|
||||
|
||||
washland
|
||||
Also simply wash.
|
||||
A low-lying area of unused or undeveloped land adjacent to a river or stream, often within a natural floodplain, which is deliberately flooded when the water is high in order to prevent developed residential or agricultural areas from flooding. Washlands are thus sacrificed as a form of flood control, and may simultaneously function as wetlands and wildlife refuges.
|
||||
|
||||
waste land
|
||||
Also wasteland or simply waste.
|
||||
1. Wild, uncultivated, uninhabited land, especially that which is barren or desolate, supporting little or no plant and animal life, such as is found in some deserts.
|
||||
2. Land that yields little or no return when used for agriculture.
|
||||
3. Any land, common or otherwise, that was previously cultivated or developed but is now abandoned, and for which further use has yet to be found. See also brownfield land.
|
||||
|
||||
water column
|
||||
In hydrology and oceanography, a conceptual column of water extending from the surface of an ocean, lake, or river to the sediment of the floor or bed, used to aid interpretation of properties and processes that vary along a depth gradient.
|
||||
|
||||
water gap
|
||||
A low point or opening in a ridge or mountain range carved by the erosional activity of flowing water and through which water continues to flow in the present day. Contrast wind gap.
|
||||
|
||||
water mapping
|
||||
Also water point mapping.
|
||||
The collection and presentation of point data related to the distribution, status, and sustainability of water supplies, generally by overlaying these data on a map showing administrative boundaries and population data, which can help to visualize and predict coverage issues and inform water management practices.
|
||||
|
||||
water pollution
|
||||
The contamination of water by chemical or biological constituents which make it unfit for use.
|
||||
|
||||
water table
|
||||
The level below the land surface at which subsurface material such as permeable rock is fully saturated with groundwater. The depth of the water table reflects the minimum level to which wells must be drilled for groundwater extraction; a spring, marsh, or lake results wherever the theoretical water table lies above the level of the land surface. The level of the water table is the boundary between the vadose zone and the phreatic zone, below which the ground is fully saturated. In many places its depth fluctuates seasonally, which accounts for the intermittent flow of bournes. In some circumstances, there may be no regular water table; in others, a perched water table may exist.
|
||||
|
||||
water-meadow
|
||||
A low-lying area of grassland beside a natural stream or river, subjected to periodic flooding through controlled irrigation to increase agricultural productivity, typically via a series of man-made canals or drains connected to the stream or river.
|
||||
|
||||
waterbody
|
||||
See body of water.
|
||||
|
||||
watercourse
|
||||
Any channel followed by a flowing body of water such as a river or stream, potentially including channels that are dry for part or all of the year.
|
||||
|
||||
waterfall
|
||||
Also cascade, cataract, or simply fall or falls.
|
||||
An abrupt and steep or perpendicular descent in a watercourse, e.g. in the bed of a river, resulting in a significant volume of water tumbling vertically downward or even freely falling by the pull of gravity. Waterfalls occur where the water's normally more level flow is interrupted by a nearly horizontal layer of hard rock overlying more easily eroded soft rock, or by the sharp edge of a plateau, or by the steep rock faces of a hanging valley, coastal cliff, or any other escarpment or knickpoint. They may be permanent or ephemeral; many alpine waterfalls form seasonally on mountainsides as snow and ice melts during the summer.
|
||||
|
||||
waterhole
|
||||
Also water hole.
|
||||
A hollow or depression in the ground, natural or artificial, in which water can collect, either from precipitation or fed by a spring, especially in savannas or deserts where water is otherwise scarce; or a pool in the bed of an intermittent stream. Waterholes may be permanent or ephemeral.
|
||||
|
||||
watershed
|
||||
Another name for a drainage divide, or for the entire catchment area of a drainage basin.
|
||||
|
||||
waterway
|
||||
Any body of water that is deep, wide, and slow enough to be navigable by watercraft.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,113 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 3/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
orographic rainfall
|
||||
Precipitation that results when moist air is lifted over a topographic barrier, such as a mountain range.
|
||||
|
||||
orography
|
||||
A branch of physical geography and geomorphology concerned with the scientific study and description of the topographic relief of the Earth, particularly of mountains and hills, and more broadly of any elevated terrain.
|
||||
|
||||
orthodrome
|
||||
See great circle.
|
||||
|
||||
orthodromic distance
|
||||
See great-circle distance.
|
||||
|
||||
orthophotograph
|
||||
Also orthophoto, orthoimage, or orthoimagery.
|
||||
An aerial photograph or satellite image that has been geometrically corrected or orthorectified such that the scale is uniform across all parts of the image, allowing the image to align with a particular map projection. In an uncorrected aerial photo, distances on the ground may be distorted by topographic relief, camera tilt, or the curvature of the Earth; techniques of digital image processing can compensate for these distortions, often by combining multiple images captured from slightly different perspectives into a single composite image. Orthophotos can be used to measure true distances because they accurately depict the relative sizes and positions of features on the Earth's surface.
|
||||
|
||||
outback
|
||||
In Australia, the vast, remote, sparsely populated backcountry. See also bush.
|
||||
|
||||
outcrop
|
||||
Also outcropping.
|
||||
Any visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth; or more generally, any bare, rocky surface that is topographically distinct from the surrounding terrain. Outcrops occur frequently in places where the rate of erosion exceeds the rate of weathering, such as on steep hillsides and mountains, river banks, and coastlines.
|
||||
|
||||
outwash
|
||||
Rocky and sandy surface material deposited by melted water that flows from a glacier.
|
||||
|
||||
outwash plain
|
||||
A smooth, flat plain of sandy or gravelly alluvial sediment formed by outwash deposited in front of the toe of a melting glacier, with larger material deposited closer to the terminal moraine.
|
||||
|
||||
overbank
|
||||
1. Alluvial sediment, usually consisting of fine sand, silt, and clay, that has been deposited on the floodplain of a river or stream by flood waters that have broken through or overtopped the river's banks.
|
||||
2. The stage when a river or stream overflows the banks of its normal channel and spreads on to a floodplain, depositing such sediment.
|
||||
|
||||
overburden
|
||||
In strip mining, the uneconomic material covering a mineral seam or bed that must be removed before the valuable mineral can be extracted.
|
||||
|
||||
oxbow
|
||||
1. A wide U-shaped meander in a river or stream.
|
||||
2. The lake formed when a meander is cut off from the main stem of the river, creating a separate body of water.
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
|
||||
Pacific-type coastline
|
||||
See concordant coastline.
|
||||
|
||||
padang
|
||||
An uncultivated, treeless grassland in Southeast Asia, sometimes swamp-like, supporting a scrubby heath-type vegetation common on leached sandy soils.
|
||||
|
||||
palisade
|
||||
1. A wall of wooden stakes used as a defensive barrier.
|
||||
2. A line of bold cliffs, especially one showing basaltic columns.
|
||||
|
||||
palsa
|
||||
(pl.) palsen
|
||||
An elliptical dome-like permafrost mound containing alternating layers of ice lenses and peat or mineral soil, commonly 3–10 metres (10–33 ft) high and 2–25 metres (7–82 ft) long, and occurring frequently in bogs in the Arctic and subarctic zones of discontinuous permafrost.
|
||||
|
||||
paludal
|
||||
Of or pertaining to a swamp or marsh, or to sediments that accumulate in a marshy environment.
|
||||
|
||||
pampa
|
||||
(pl.) pampas
|
||||
In parts of South America, a vast, fertile, grassy plain, or the temperate lowland region encompassing these plains.
|
||||
|
||||
pan
|
||||
Any shallow, generally rounded basin or hollow, which may seasonally capture and hold water from rainfall or snowmelt, especially one occurring in an arid or semi-arid region; more specifically, the flat central part of such a depression, which may be temporarily or seasonally flooded.
|
||||
|
||||
pandemic
|
||||
A pandemic is an epidemic of an infectious disease that has a sudden increase in cases and spreads across a large region, for instance, multiple continents or worldwide.
|
||||
|
||||
panhandle
|
||||
See salient.
|
||||
|
||||
panhole
|
||||
Also gnamma, weathering pit, and solution pan.
|
||||
A rounded or circular depression eroded into flat or gently sloping cohesive rock, typically shallow and ranging in diameter from a few centimeters to several meters, that is capable of collecting and holding rainwater and snowmelt. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with pothole, though the latter may also refer to distinct geological features.
|
||||
|
||||
pantanal
|
||||
In southern Brazil, a wetland region consisting of a usually dry savanna that is seasonally flooded by a river.
|
||||
|
||||
pantograph
|
||||
An instrument that enables the mechanical copying of a map or technical drawing on a selectable scale, such that the movement of one pen, in tracing an image, produces identical movements in a second pen, resulting in a duplicate image that is the same size, enlarged, or miniaturized with respect to the original. Pantographs typically consist of hinged rods arranged in the shape of a parallelogram which rotate about a fixed point.
|
||||
|
||||
parallel
|
||||
1. (geometry) Extending in the same direction, equidistant at all points, and never converging or diverging; having the same orientation, nature, tendency, or course; corresponding or similar.
|
||||
2. (geography) Another name for a circle of latitude.
|
||||
|
||||
parish
|
||||
A type of subnational division of a country or federal state used for religious, administrative, or other purposes.
|
||||
|
||||
park
|
||||
|
||||
pass
|
||||
See mountain pass.
|
||||
|
||||
passive glacier
|
||||
A glacier with low rates of both alimentation and ablation because it receives only light snowfall and undergoes little melting throughout the year. Such glaciers move very slowly and transport relatively small amounts of ice and debris. Contrast active glacier.
|
||||
|
||||
pasture
|
||||
Any land used for grazing by livestock, often a natural grassland supporting native grasses and forbs with little or no active management by humans, as opposed to a meadow, where the vegetation is mown for hay or silage.
|
||||
|
||||
peak
|
||||
1. A pointed or protruding top or other vertical projection on a landform, e.g. a mountain, especially implying the highest point or elevational maximum, i.e. the summit.
|
||||
2. A mountain as a whole, in particular a high, isolated, or prominent one.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,95 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 21/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
wave-cut platform
|
||||
Also shore platform, wave-cut cliff, or coastal bench.
|
||||
A flat erosion surface along the shore of a lake, bay, or sea that is formed by the undercutting and eventual collapse of a sea cliff as a result of repetitive wave action.
|
||||
|
||||
waypoint
|
||||
A reference point in physical space used for purposes of navigation, especially when plotted on a map or in a GIS application as part of a traveled route.
|
||||
|
||||
weathering
|
||||
The breaking of rocks into smaller rocks, gradually becoming soil.
|
||||
|
||||
weir
|
||||
Also low head dam.
|
||||
A man-made obstruction built across the width of a river that alters its flow and usually results in a change in the height of the river level, commonly by permitting water to flow freely over a low barrier before cascading down to a lower level. Weirs may serve many purposes, including decreasing or increasing the force of the current, maintaining water depth, or diverting or impounding flow, typically for navigation, irrigation, fishing, to generate a head for a water mill, or to control outflow from a lake or reservoir. Compare dam and barrage.
|
||||
|
||||
welfare geography
|
||||
An approach in human geography which considers the areal differentiation and spatial organization of human activity from the perspective of the welfare (health, prosperity, well-being, etc.) of the people involved, covering everything, positive or negative, contributing to the quality of human life and examining how and where observed inequalities between different societies arise.
|
||||
|
||||
well
|
||||
A hole or shaft dug into the ground to access liquid resources, especially water, oil, or gas, from beneath the Earth's surface. Water wells typically tap into natural groundwater aquifers and remain filled with water up to the level of the water table, which can vary seasonally. The water is drawn up by a pump, or by using containers such as buckets that are raised mechanically or by hand. An artesian well taps a water source held under considerable pressure.
|
||||
|
||||
Western Hemisphere
|
||||
The half sphere of the Earth that is west of the Prime Meridian and east of the antimeridian, and opposite the Eastern Hemisphere. The Western Hemisphere includes all of the Americas, the Atlantic Ocean, and a large portion of the Pacific Ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
wetland
|
||||
Any area of land or ecosystem, natural or artificial, which is flooded or saturated by water, either seasonally or intermittently for short periods or permanently for years or decades, and characterized generally by oxygen-poor hydric soils, distinct flora, high biodiversity, and interactions between terrestrial and aquatic processes. Wetlands may be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater ecosystems, and are often classified based on their sources of water (as with tidal wetlands, estuaries, floodplains, fens, and bogs) and/or their dominant vegetation (as with marshes and swamps).
|
||||
|
||||
wilderness
|
||||
Any natural environment which has not been significantly developed or modified by human activity, or within which natural processes operate without human interference. Such areas are considered important for the survival of wild plant and animal species as well as for maintaining biodiversity and ecological stability. Wildernesses are often protected areas.
|
||||
|
||||
wind gap
|
||||
Also air gap.
|
||||
A pass, notch, or opening in a ridge or mountain range, originally carved by a watercourse flowing through it but which is now dry as a result of stream capture. Contrast water gap.
|
||||
|
||||
wind rose
|
||||
See compass rose.
|
||||
|
||||
windward
|
||||
The side of a landmass facing the direction from which the wind is blowing. Contrast leeward.
|
||||
|
||||
winterbourne
|
||||
Also gypsey.
|
||||
An intermittent stream or bourne which is dry during the summer, especially one formed in the downlands of southern England.
|
||||
|
||||
witness hill
|
||||
|
||||
world
|
||||
|
||||
world city
|
||||
See global city.
|
||||
|
||||
World Geodetic System (WGS)
|
||||
A standard geographic coordinate system, spheroidal reference ellipsoid (for raw altitude data), and geoid (which defines the nominal sea level) used in cartography, geodesy, and satellite navigation applications worldwide. The latest revision, WGS84, is the standard coordinate system used by the Global Positioning System.
|
||||
|
||||
world map
|
||||
A map of most or all of the surface of the Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
worldwide
|
||||
See global.
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
|
||||
zeuge
|
||||
A tabular mass of rock that has become perched atop a pinnacle created by erosion (often aeolian) of the softer, underlying rock. See also demoiselle, hoodoo, and pinnacle.
|
||||
|
||||
zibar
|
||||
A type of low sand dune with limited slip face development, often occurring in the corridors between higher dunes.
|
||||
|
||||
zonation
|
||||
In biogeography and ecology, the separation of the Earth's flora and fauna into distinct groups occupying characteristic habitats, biomes, ecozones, or other idealized geographic divisions, primarily defined by climate, for the purpose of identifying and categorizing patterns in biodiversity. The boundaries of the resulting "zones" may be loosely defined or even somewhat arbitrary. The term has also been extended to include any ecological unit with spatial dimensions.
|
||||
|
||||
zoning
|
||||
The public regulation of land and building use to control the character of a place.
|
||||
|
||||
zenith
|
||||
The imaginary point on the celestial sphere that is directly above a particular location (i.e. in the vertical direction exactly opposite to the apparent direction of the gravitational force at that location). Contrast nadir.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Index of geography articles
|
||||
Outline of geography
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
Much of this material was copied from U.S. government works which are in the public domain because they are not eligible for copyright protection.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 4/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
pediment
|
||||
An eroded, often bare rock platform, cut into the local bedrock, usually slightly concave and triangular in shape and extending over a considerable area at the foot of an abrupt mountain slope or face, the lower edge sloping gently away. Pediments form basal slopes of transport for weathered material derived from the steeper slope above, and are characteristic of arid and semi-arid lands.
|
||||
|
||||
pediplain
|
||||
|
||||
pedology
|
||||
The scientific study of the morphology, composition, and spatial distribution of soils, with an emphasis on classifying soils and understanding their formation and evolution.
|
||||
|
||||
pedosphere
|
||||
The uppermost layer of the Earth's crust that is composed of soils and subject to pedological processes such as soil formation and erosion, a consequence of dynamic interactions between the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
|
||||
|
||||
pelagic zone
|
||||
|
||||
peneplain
|
||||
A low-relief plain leveled by long-term erosion, often implying a landscape that is in the final stages of fluvial erosion during an extended period of tectonic stability, i.e. approaching the point at which all initial topographic inequalities such as mountains and hills have been eroded and evenly redistributed into a broad, flat, uniform surface at or near sea level.
|
||||
|
||||
peninsula
|
||||
A piece of land surrounded almost entirely by water while still being connected to a mainland from which it projects.
|
||||
|
||||
perceptual region
|
||||
An area of the Earth's surface that is defined by the perceptions of the people living there or by those of the general society, and thus is based largely on subjective or qualitative distinctions.
|
||||
|
||||
perched water table
|
||||
|
||||
perennial stream
|
||||
A stream that normally flows continuously throughout the entire year, without drying up, as opposed to a transient or intermittent stream.
|
||||
|
||||
pericline
|
||||
Also centrocline.
|
||||
An anticline in which the rock strata have been arched up in the shape of a dome, such that the beds dip away on all sides from a higher central point.
|
||||
|
||||
periglacial
|
||||
1. Of or relating to an area located adjacent to or on the margin of an ice sheet or glacier, either presently or in the past, or to associated glacial or cryological phenomena.
|
||||
2. Describing any place where seasonal cycles of freezing and thawing modify the landscape in a significant manner.
|
||||
|
||||
periplus
|
||||
Also periplous.
|
||||
A historical manuscript listing the ports, safe anchorages, and coastal landmarks that a maritime vessel could expect to encounter along a shore or coastline, arranged in order according to a particular direction of travel and including the intervening distances between them. See also itinerarium.
|
||||
|
||||
permafrost
|
||||
A permanently frozen layer of soil, or any ground at high latitude or high elevation that remains frozen year-round.
|
||||
|
||||
petrographic province
|
||||
|
||||
photic zone
|
||||
Also euphotic zone, epipelagic zone, and sunlight zone.
|
||||
The uppermost layer of a body of water (e.g. a lake or ocean), defined by the maximum depth to which sunlight can penetrate the water column. The photic zone usually supports large populations of photosynthetic organisms and the majority of the aquatic life inhabiting the body as a whole.
|
||||
|
||||
photogrammetry
|
||||
1. The science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and environments through the process of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images (usually aerial or orbital ones) and patterns of electromagnetic radiant imagery and other phenomena.
|
||||
2. The science of extracting three-dimensional measurements from two-dimensional data, such as images.
|
||||
|
||||
photo-relief
|
||||
The use of shading on a topographic map to give the illusion of elevational relief, as if the image was produced from a photograph of an illuminated three-dimensional model of a physical surface, with the light conventionally coming from the northwest direction.
|
||||
|
||||
phreatic water
|
||||
See groundwater.
|
||||
|
||||
phreatic zone
|
||||
Also zone of saturation.
|
||||
The part of an aquifer that is below the water table, where nearly all pores and fractures are fully saturated with water. Contrast vadose zone.
|
||||
|
||||
physical geography
|
||||
Also physiography or geosystems.
|
||||
The branch of geography that studies processes and patterns in the natural environment, such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment. Along with human geography, it is one of the two major sub-fields of geography.
|
||||
|
||||
physiographic region
|
||||
A portion of the Earth's surface with a common topography and morphology.
|
||||
|
||||
physiography
|
||||
Another name for physical geography.
|
||||
|
||||
piedmont
|
||||
Also foothills.
|
||||
A geographic region of relatively low, gently rolling hills lying or formed at the base of a higher mountain range or other upland area; a transition zone characterized by gradual increases in elevation from plains or lowlands to topographically higher areas. As a proper noun, "Piedmont" may refer in particular to a formally defined region in northwest Italy immediately south of the Alps, or to a broad, informal region on the eastern seaboard of the United States extending from the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Atlantic coastal plain.
|
||||
|
||||
piezometric surface
|
||||
Also potentiometric surface.
|
||||
|
||||
pingo
|
||||
A periglacial landform consisting of a relatively large conical mound of soil-covered ice, commonly 30–50 metres (100–160 ft) high and up to 1,000 metres (0.6 mi) in diameter, and that grows and persists in part as a result of hydrostatic pressure within and below the permafrost of Arctic and subarctic regions.
|
||||
|
||||
pinnacle
|
||||
Also chimney, finger, monument, needle, pillar, spire, and tower.
|
||||
Any natural, free-standing, vertical or nearly vertical column of earth or rock in the shape of a tall, often slender shaft or spire, and which is distinguished by its isolation from nearby rocks or other landforms. The term is applied to a wide variety of geological formations of various sizes and has numerous regional and local synonyms with which it may be used more or less interchangeably. See also demoiselle, hoodoo, prominence, stack, and zeuge.
|
||||
|
||||
pit crater
|
||||
Also subsidence crater or collapse crater.
|
||||
A type of crater formed by the sinking or collapse of the surface lying above a void or empty chamber. Pit craters are similar to calderas and are often associated with volcanic activity, but lack the ejecta deposits and lava flows of volcanic craters.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 5/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
place
|
||||
A particular point on the Earth's surface, or the area surrounding such a point, having or encompassing a definite position; a location, often specifically named, that is identifiable in social interaction because humans have endowed it with meaning or purpose; or a mental representation of a physical space created from functional or emotional associations in the human mind. The concept of place – how places are created, identified, mapped, connected, and used – is fundamental to all of geography.
|
||||
|
||||
place identity
|
||||
|
||||
place utility
|
||||
The measure of approval or satisfaction accorded by an individual to a location in his or her action space; the value or usefulness of a particular place as perceived by a particular person. Dissatisfaction with place utility may result in migration.
|
||||
|
||||
placename
|
||||
See toponym.
|
||||
|
||||
placer
|
||||
1. (mineral deposit) An accumulation of valuable minerals, particularly gold, formed by gravity separation from a source rock during natural sedimentary processes. The minerals, weathered from rocks or veins, are washed out by streams and mixed with alluvial deposits of sand or gravel, from which they can then be extracted by placer mining.
|
||||
2. (reef) A flat, shallow sandbank or reef submerged beneath the ocean surface, often with a sandy bottom suitable as an anchorage for seagoing vessels.
|
||||
|
||||
plain
|
||||
Any broad, flat expanse of land that generally does not show significant variation in topography or elevation.
|
||||
|
||||
plane table
|
||||
Also plain table.
|
||||
A small drawing board mounted on a tripod, used in surveying, site mapping, and related disciplines to provide a solid and level surface upon which to make drawings, charts, and maps while in the field.
|
||||
|
||||
planimetric map
|
||||
A map which uses a two-dimensional coordinate system, where each point is represented by only two coordinates (x, y), as if all of the depicted features existed within a single, flat plane. These maps usually exclude information about vertical position and therefore do not show topographic relief and represent only horizontal distances.
|
||||
|
||||
plat
|
||||
A cadastral map, drawn to scale, showing the legal boundaries and divisions of a surveyed tract of land, particularly of the type used to divide real property for sale and settlement in the Public Land Survey System of the United States.
|
||||
|
||||
plate tectonics
|
||||
A geologic theory that the bending (folding) and breaking (faulting) of the solid surface of the Earth results from the slow movement of large sections of that surface called tectonic plates.
|
||||
|
||||
plateau
|
||||
Also high plain or tableland.
|
||||
A large area of relatively flat terrain that is significantly higher in elevation than the surrounding landscape, often with one or more sides with steep slopes.
|
||||
|
||||
platted land
|
||||
Land that has been divided into surveyed lots.
|
||||
|
||||
playa
|
||||
An exceptionally flat, arid basin that is the dry bed of an evaporated lake; or the shallow, usually saline lake itself which periodically forms when the basin is temporarily covered with water, e.g. after substantial rainfall. See also salt pan.
|
||||
|
||||
Playfair's law
|
||||
In hydrology, an empirical relationship which observes that, especially in areas of uniform bedrock and structure which have been subject to consistent rates of erosion for long periods of time, the size of a valley is directly proportional to the size of the river or stream that drains it, and that confluences between streams in such valleys are generally accordant in level.
|
||||
|
||||
plucking
|
||||
Also exaration.
|
||||
An erosional phenomenon whereby a glacier gradually scours and displaces pieces of rock from the bedrock beneath it and transports them along with the glacial flow of ice and debris. As the glacier moves down a valley, friction causes the basal ice to melt and infiltrate joints and cracks in the bedrock; repeated freezing and thawing widens and deepens these cracks, eventually loosening the rock and causing large blocks and boulders to be carried along by the overlying ice. These boulders are often deposited hundreds of kilometers from their source, becoming erratics. The term is also sometimes used to describe the similar process of quarrying, which occurs on a smaller scale in fast-moving rivers and streams.
|
||||
|
||||
plug
|
||||
A cylindrical mass of volcanic rock marking the neck of an ancient volcano, especially one exposed by denudation of the surrounding cone.
|
||||
|
||||
plumb line
|
||||
A vertical reference line created by suspending a weight, known as a plumb bob or plummet, from a string above the Earth's surface and allowing it to hang freely in the direction of the pull of gravity. A precursor to the spirit level, plumb lines are used to establish a vertical datum in a wide range of applications, particularly in surveying to determine the nadir of a point in space, and often in combination with an instrument to set the instrument precisely over a fixed survey marker.
|
||||
|
||||
plunge pool
|
||||
A deep depression at the base of a waterfall into which the water drops with great force, plucking and abrading the rock beneath and behind the falls and creating an often nearly circular concavity which may remain filled with water long after the waterfall itself dries up.
|
||||
|
||||
plural society
|
||||
A situation in which two or more distinct cultures occupy the same territory but maintain their separate cultural identities.
|
||||
|
||||
point bar
|
||||
A depositional feature made of alluvium that accumulates on the inside bend of a meandering stream or river, below the slip-off slope and often directly opposite a cut bank. Point bars are usually crescent-shaped beaches of sand, silt, or gravel, similar to shoals and river islands.
|
||||
|
||||
polar aspect
|
||||
A planar map projection with its origin located at either the North or the South geographic pole.
|
||||
|
||||
polar circle
|
||||
Either of the two circles of latitude enclosing the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 6/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
polar ice cap
|
||||
Also polar ice sheet.
|
||||
Either of the two very large regions near the Earth's geographical poles that are seasonally or persistently covered in ice, which occurs because high-latitude regions receive less direct solar radiation than other regions and therefore experience much lower surface temperatures. The Earth's polar ice may cover both land and sea, and varies in size seasonally and with long-term climate change. They typically cover a much larger area than true ice caps and are more correctly termed ice sheets.
|
||||
|
||||
polar region
|
||||
Either of the two high-latitude regions surrounding the Earth's geographical poles (the North and South Poles), which are characterized by frigid climates and extensive polar ice caps. The polar region of the Northern Hemisphere is often called the Arctic and that of the Southern Hemisphere is called the Antarctic.
|
||||
|
||||
polder
|
||||
Also empolder.
|
||||
A low-lying tract of land enclosed by dikes, forming an artificial hydrological entity by creating land from a naturally inundated area, e.g. by reclaiming land from a lake or sea, or by building barriers around a floodplain or marsh and then draining it. All polders are eventually below the surrounding water table some or all of the time, making them especially prone to flooding, and they often require continuous draining.
|
||||
|
||||
pole
|
||||
1. An extreme geographical point, especially one of a pair.
|
||||
2. Either of the two points where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface, i.e. the geographic poles, representing the northern and southern extremities of terrestrial latitude: the Geographic North Pole and the Geographic South Pole.
|
||||
3. Either of the two ends of the geomagnetic field generated by the dynamo in the Earth's core. These ends may refer either to the true magnetic poles, known as the Magnetic North Pole and the Magnetic South Pole, which are not directly opposite each other, or to the antipodal poles of a hypothetical perfect dipole passing through the Earth's center, known as the Geomagnetic North Pole and the Geomagnetic South Pole.
|
||||
|
||||
pole of inaccessibility
|
||||
A location that, with respect to a given geographical criterion, is the most difficult to reach according to that criterion, e.g. the geographical location that is the most distant from the nearest point meeting that criterion. The term most commonly refers to the so-called continental or oceanic poles of inaccessibility, i.e. the point on a given continental landmass that is the furthest distance from a coastline, and the point in the ocean that is the furthest distance from land, respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
political geography
|
||||
The study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. A sub-discipline of human geography, its primary concerns can be summarized as the relationships between people, state, and territory.
|
||||
|
||||
polje
|
||||
Also karst polje or karst field.
|
||||
A very large plain found in karstic regions, enclosed within a depression, usually elliptical, with a flat floor either of bare limestone or covered by alluvium, and generally surrounded by steep limestone walls; or more broadly any enclosed or nearly enclosed valley. The term is used primarily in the Slavic-speaking world.
|
||||
|
||||
polynodal
|
||||
Many-centered; having many nodes.
|
||||
|
||||
polynya
|
||||
An area of unfrozen seawater surrounded by an otherwise contiguous area of pack ice or fast ice. Polynyas are often formed along polar coastlines through the action of katabatic winds, but may also form in the open ocean.
|
||||
|
||||
pond
|
||||
A natural or artificial body of standing water that is usually smaller than a lake.
|
||||
|
||||
populated place
|
||||
A place or area with clustered or scattered buildings and a permanent human population (a city, settlement, town, or village) that is referenced with geographic coordinates.
|
||||
|
||||
population
|
||||
A collection of organisms of the same group or species which live in a particular geographical area. In the context of geography, it often refers to a collection of humans and is represented at the most basic level as the number of people in a given geographically or politically defined space, such as a city, town, region, country, or the entire world.
|
||||
|
||||
population geography
|
||||
A branch of human geography that studies the ways in which spatial variations in the composition, distribution, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places. This often involves factors such as where populations are found and how the size and composition of these populations is regulated by the demographic processes of fertility, mortality, and migration.
|
||||
|
||||
positional error
|
||||
The amount by which the mapped location of an imaged cartographic feature fails to agree with the feature's actual location in the real world.
|
||||
|
||||
positioning system
|
||||
Any technology or mechanism used to determine the position of an object in space. Numerous methods for determining position have been practiced since ancient times, though modern positioning systems generally rely on electromagnetic and/or satellite-based technologies capable of providing coverage ranging from local or regional to global and accuracy ranging from tens of metres to sub-millimetre.
|
||||
|
||||
post-industrial
|
||||
An economy that gains its basic character from economic activities developed primarily after manufacturing grew to predominance. Most notable would be quaternary economic patterns.
|
||||
|
||||
potamology
|
||||
The branch of hydrology that studies rivers, including the processes and phenomena that occur at their sources, main channels, and mouths; the structure and morphology of drainage basins; and the water, thermal, ice, and sediment regimes that affect and are affected by river discharge.
|
||||
|
||||
potentiometric surface
|
||||
See piezometric surface.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 7/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
pothole
|
||||
Also pot, swirlhole, churn hole, evorsion, rock mill, and eddy mill.
|
||||
1. Any smooth, bowl-shaped or cylindrical hollow, generally deeper than it is wide, that is carved into the rocky bed of a watercourse such as a stream or river. Fluvial potholes are created by the grinding action of stones or coarse sediment kept in perpetual motion in the same spot by the turbulence of the current. The term is also used to refer to plunge pools beneath waterfalls, which are created by similar processes. See also kolk.
|
||||
2. A vertical or steeply inclined karstic shaft in a limestone deposit.
|
||||
3. In the Great Plains of North America, a shallow depression, generally less than 10 acres (4.0 ha) in area, occurring between dunes or on morainic relief on a prairie and often filled by an intermittent pond or marsh.
|
||||
4. Another name for a kettle.
|
||||
5. Another name for a panhole.
|
||||
|
||||
prairie
|
||||
A type of temperate grassland ecosystem dominated by a characteristic composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than by trees. The term is used primarily in North America, but similar ecosystems can be found across the world.
|
||||
|
||||
Precambrian rock
|
||||
The oldest rocks, generally more than 600 million years old.
|
||||
|
||||
precipitation
|
||||
Any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull.
|
||||
|
||||
presque-isle
|
||||
A peninsula connected to the mainland by an extremely narrow neck of land such that the land at its distal end is very close to being an island. See also tied island.
|
||||
|
||||
prevailing winds
|
||||
The direction from which winds most frequently blow at a specific geographic location.
|
||||
|
||||
primary sector (primary economic activity)
|
||||
That portion of a region's economy devoted to the extraction of basic materials (e.g. mining, lumbering, and agriculture).
|
||||
|
||||
Prime Meridian
|
||||
The imaginary line running from north to south through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England which is assigned a longitude of 0 degrees and is therefore used as the reference point for all other lines of longitude.
|
||||
|
||||
proglacial
|
||||
Preceding, in advance of, or in front of the toe or moraine of a glacier, either spatially or temporally.
|
||||
|
||||
progradation
|
||||
The natural extension of a shoreline into a body of water by the gradual accumulation of sediment over time, especially as a result of fluvial sedimentation processes, such as the protrusion of a river delta into the sea. This occurs when the volume of sediment carried by the river and deposited at its mouth exceeds the volume lost through subsidence, sea level rise, or coastal erosion.
|
||||
|
||||
prominence
|
||||
1. A conspicuous high point that projects above or beyond its surroundings, e.g. a butte or a promontory.
|
||||
2. See topographic prominence.
|
||||
|
||||
promontory
|
||||
A raised mass of land that projects into a lowland or a body of water. Compare headland and cape.
|
||||
|
||||
protected area
|
||||
Any clearly defined geographic space in which human occupation or the exploitation of resources is limited or forbidden through legal or other effective means because of the area's recognized natural, ecological, cultural, or historical value.
|
||||
|
||||
province
|
||||
A type of second-level administrative division within a country or federal state.
|
||||
|
||||
psychogeography
|
||||
The study of specific effects of the geographical environment on the emotions and behaviors of individuals, whether consciously organized or not; the landscape of atmospheres, histories, attitudes, actions, and characters that occupy environments and influence group and individual psychologies.
|
||||
|
||||
public land
|
||||
Any land area held and managed in the public domain by a federal or local government for use by the general public, as opposed to privately held land, for which access and use can be restricted by the individual landholder.
|
||||
|
||||
pueblo
|
||||
A type of Indian village constructed by some tribes in the southwestern United States. A large community dwelling, divided into many rooms, up to five stories high, and usually made of adobe. This is also a Spanish word for town or village.
|
||||
|
||||
pull factor
|
||||
In human geography, anything that encourages people to move or immigrate to a new place or location.
|
||||
|
||||
puna
|
||||
An ecoregion in the central Andes Mountains of South America, or any of the various high-altitude ecosystems encompassing it, including cold deserts and alpine grasslands.
|
||||
|
||||
push factor
|
||||
In human geography, anything that encourages people to leave or emigrate from a place or location.
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
|
||||
quadrangle
|
||||
Also abbreviated quad.
|
||||
A standard division of the Earth's surface area used in maps produced by the United States Geological Survey. Quadrangles are four-sided polygons of varying size, depending on the map series; for example, 7.5-minute quadrangles divide the mapped surface into quadrilaterals measuring 7.5 minutes (0.125 degrees) of latitude by 7.5 minutes of longitude, with each 7.5-minute map showing the topographical detail within one particular quadrilateral of this size. Because the boundaries of quadrangles are based on lines of latitude and longitude, the northern and southern limits of a quadrangle map are not straight lines, and the eastern and western limits are usually not parallel; the actual surface area covered by each map varies with the latitudes depicted.
|
||||
|
||||
quagmire
|
||||
See bog.
|
||||
|
||||
quarry
|
||||
A place from which stone, rock, sand, gravel, slate, or aggregate is excavated from the ground, especially a large man-made pit that is exposed to the open air.
|
||||
|
||||
quaternary sector (economic activities)
|
||||
Activities focused on the management, processing, and research of information.
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
|
||||
raft ice
|
||||
A jumbled mass of blocks of ice that impedes the flow of water in a river or stream.
|
||||
|
||||
rail gauge
|
||||
The distance between the two rails of a railroad.
|
||||
|
||||
railroad bed
|
||||
The track or trace of a railroad route, commonly raised slightly above the adjacent natural ground surface and constructed mostly of locally occurring, earthy materials (e.g. gravel and rock fragments).
|
||||
|
||||
rain shadow
|
||||
An area on the leeward (downwind) side of a mountain or mountain range that receives greatly diminished precipitation.
|
||||
|
||||
rainforest
|
||||
Any forest characterized by abundant rainfall, dense layers of vegetation, and extremely high biodiversity. Rainforests are found in both tropical and temperate regions. The term jungle is sometimes used to refer to a tropical rainforest.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 8/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
rake
|
||||
A sloping terrace on a mountainside or rock face. The term is used primarily in Scotland.
|
||||
|
||||
rapid
|
||||
Also rapids or whitewater.
|
||||
A section of a river or stream where the riverbed is sufficiently steep, the rate of flow is sufficiently fast, and/or the channel is sufficiently narrow or obstructed by shallow or protruding rocks or other obstacles that the water at the surface is visibly swift, turbulent, and broken, often forming large white-capped breaking waves, eddies, whirlpools, and "holes", in contrast to other sections where relatively slow, steady, laminar flows predominate. Rapids can persist long enough to form distinct, stable patterns at particular locations, though they are ultimately dependent on water volume and thus may change seasonally, disappearing entirely if water levels are too low or too high. Generally, watercourses are more likely to form rapids closer to their source, where channels are relatively shallow and narrow and often pass through mountainous or highly eroded terrain, than to downstream portions near their mouth, where channels tend to be deeper and wider.
|
||||
|
||||
raster
|
||||
A representation of spatial data within a two-dimensional image that defines space as a rectangular array or grid of equally sized cells arranged in rows and columns, where each cell can be identified with location coordinates and is associated with attribute values containing a discrete amount of information from one or more layers or "bands". Raster models are useful for storing and presenting large amounts of complex multivariate data that vary continuously across space, as is commonly encountered in maps, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and many other aspects of geographic information science. Raster data are contrasted with vector data, which instead store and represent geographic information in the form of points, lines, and polygons.
|
||||
|
||||
ravine
|
||||
A fluvial slope landform of relatively steep sides, sometimes with an intermittent stream flowing along the downslope channel. Ravines are typically narrower and shallower than canyons, larger than gullies, and smaller than valleys.
|
||||
|
||||
reach
|
||||
1. A relatively straight, level, uninterrupted segment of a stream, river, channel, or other watercourse, or of an arm of a sea or ocean, traditionally defined by its ability to be sailed in one "reach" (i.e. on a single point of sail, without tacking) and also usually implying a line-of-sight stretch of water between two bends or horizons, or between rapids, locks, stream gauges, or any other landmarks.
|
||||
2. Any expanse or widening of a watercourse, natural or man-made (commonly on dammed streams and rivers), or even an expanse of land, especially one that appears to be visually contiguous.
|
||||
3. In fluvial hydrology, a length of a stream or river having fairly uniform characteristics and which is therefore convenient to study as a discrete subdivision of the longer whole.
|
||||
|
||||
reclaimed land
|
||||
1. Any land area that is artificially created from earthy fill material that has been intentionally placed and shaped so as to approximate natural contours, especially as part of land reclamation efforts such as those designed to bury tailings following the cessation of mining operations.
|
||||
2. An area of land, commonly submerged underwater in its natural state, that has been protected by artificial structures such as dikes and drained for agricultural or other purposes (e.g. a polder).
|
||||
|
||||
reef
|
||||
A submerged ridge-like or mound-like structure built by sedentary calcareous organisms, especially corals, in shallow marine waters, and consisting primarily of their skeletal remains, though often still supporting living colonies as well. Reefs may also be partially composed of rocks, sand, gravel, or seashells. They are locally prominent above surrounding sediments deposited on the sea floor, rising to or nearly to the water's surface.
|
||||
|
||||
re-entrant
|
||||
See draw.
|
||||
|
||||
reference ellipsoid
|
||||
A mathematically defined surface that approximates the geoid for use in spatial reference systems or geodetic datum definitions. Because of their relative simplicity, reference ellipsoids are used in geographic applications as preferred surfaces on which geodetic network computations are performed and point coordinates such as latitude, longitude, and elevation are defined.
|
||||
|
||||
reg
|
||||
See desert pavement.
|
||||
|
||||
region
|
||||
An area having some characteristic or characteristics that distinguish it from other areas; a territory that is of interest to people, for which one or more distinctive traits (e.g. climate, economy, history, etc.) define its identity.
|
||||
|
||||
regionalism
|
||||
1. The feeling or expression of a common sense of identity, purpose, or group consciousness associated with a particular geographical region, e.g. the Southern United States, Scandinavia, or Lower Egypt, often combined with the creation of institutions that accommodate that particular identity and shape public action.
|
||||
2. A movement to decentralize central government, placing administrative responsibility instead at a level intermediate between that of the state and that of smaller local or municipal units.
|
||||
3. In architecture, an approach that strives to counter placelessness and lack of identity by incorporating elements of the building's geographical context in its design.
|
||||
4. In linguistics, a word or phrase originating in, characteristic of, or limited in usage to a particular region.
|
||||
|
||||
regiopolis
|
||||
A city located outside the core of a metropolitan area that serves as an independent driving force for political, economic, or cultural development within a larger region. Contrast metropolis.
|
||||
|
||||
register mark
|
||||
A small cross-shaped symbol printed in multiple, overlapping colors at each corner of a colored map, used to indicate the accuracy of the printing of each color by the coincidence of the colored crosses on the completed print.
|
||||
|
||||
regolith
|
||||
A layer of loose, unconsolidated, heterogeneous superficial deposits (e.g. soil, sediments, broken rock, volcanic ash, wind-blown material, etc.) overlying solid bedrock.
|
||||
|
||||
relative height
|
||||
See topographic prominence.
|
||||
|
||||
relative relief
|
||||
The elevation or altitude of one location relative to another location; the difference between the highest and lowest points within a given geographical area.
|
||||
|
||||
reliction
|
||||
Also dereliction.
|
||||
The gradual, long-term recession of a body of water such that submerged land features are uncovered and exposed above the surface; or the formerly submerged land itself.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 9/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
relief
|
||||
The actual physical surface of a region of the Earth, i.e. the specific shape, dimensions, and particularities of its terrain; or the deviation of a real-world surface from a reference surface such as the geoid, a sphere, or a plane. When only the patterns and contours of the natural surface are considered and man-made features are ignored, relief is more or less synonymous with topography.
|
||||
|
||||
relief map
|
||||
See topographic map.
|
||||
|
||||
religion
|
||||
The belief in a supernatural power that is regarded as the creator and maintainer of the universe, as well as the system of beliefs itself.
|
||||
|
||||
remote
|
||||
(of a particular location) Isolated or inaccessible, either by being physically very distant from another location or by lacking connectivity to transportation or communication networks which would otherwise make exchange between locations convenient.
|
||||
|
||||
remote sensing
|
||||
The gathering of information about an object or place from a remote location (i.e. without making physical on-site observations), most commonly by the use of satellite- or aircraft-based electromagnetic sensor technologies.
|
||||
|
||||
representative fraction (RF)
|
||||
The fraction expressing the ratio between the distance measured between two points on a map and the corresponding actual distance measured between those points in the real world, used to indicate the map's scale. The fraction's numerator is typically 1 (indicating one of some specified unit of length, e.g. inches or centimetres) and the denominator is the number of the same unit in the real world which this length represents on the map. For example, a representative fraction of 1⁄1,000,000, often written as 1:1,000,000 or 1:1 mn, means that one inch (or one centimetre) on the map itself is equivalent to one million inches (or centimetres) in the real world. One statute mile is equal to 63,360 inches, so 1,000,000 inches is approximately 16 miles.
|
||||
|
||||
reservoir
|
||||
Also impoundment.
|
||||
An artificial lake or an artificially enlarged natural lake that is used to store water. Reservoirs are often created by the construction of a dam or lock in a natural drainage basin.
|
||||
|
||||
resource
|
||||
Anything that is both naturally occurring and of use to humans.
|
||||
|
||||
retroreflector
|
||||
|
||||
rhumb line
|
||||
Also loxodrome or simply rhumb.
|
||||
A line drawn on the surface of a sphere (or on an idealized representation of the Earth) which crosses all meridians of longitude at the same angle, and which therefore has constant bearing relative to true or magnetic north.
|
||||
|
||||
ria
|
||||
The seaward end of a river valley which has been flooded as a result of a rise in sea level.
|
||||
|
||||
ribbon development
|
||||
The build-up of residential and economic communities along the main routes of communication and transportation radiating from a city or other developed area, because of the advantages of accessibility, relatively inexpensive land, and trade from passers-by.
|
||||
|
||||
ribbon lake
|
||||
A long, narrow, finger-shaped lake, especially one found in a glacial trough and dammed by a rock bar or moraine.
|
||||
|
||||
ridge
|
||||
An elongated raised landform which forms a continuous elevated crest for some distance, such as a chain of hills or mountains. The line formed by the highest points, with only lower terrain immediately to either side, is called the ridgeline.
|
||||
|
||||
ridge and swale
|
||||
Also dune and swale.
|
||||
A landscape characterized by a series of regularly spaced, parallel ridges or hills alternating with marshy depressions. They are most commonly formed on beaches or near river banks by the gradual fluctuations of tides or in association with scroll bars on the inside bends of meanders. See also berm and basin and range.
|
||||
|
||||
riegel
|
||||
An outcrop of resistant bedrock that forms a bar across a glacial trough and often acts as a dam to impound the waters of a lake.
|
||||
|
||||
rift valley
|
||||
A valley that has formed along a long, narrow continental trough bounded by normal faults; a graben of regional size.
|
||||
|
||||
rill
|
||||
A shallow water channel, generally not more than 6 inches (15 cm) deep, that has been cut into a soil surface (especially a cultivated agricultural soil) by the erosive action of flowing water. Larger erosional channels may be called gullies.
|
||||
|
||||
rimaye
|
||||
See bergschrund.
|
||||
|
||||
riparian rights
|
||||
See water rights.
|
||||
|
||||
riparian zone
|
||||
Also riparian area, riparian corridor, and riparian strip.
|
||||
The area along the margins or banks of a river, stream, canal, estuary, or other watercourse; or the interface between land and a watercourse, generally including any land that is close enough to the watercourse to be frequently or persistently hydrated with its water. Riparian areas are important biomes with characteristics of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and often support dense hydrophilic plant communities of high biodiversity. They often overlap with and by some definitions may be considered wetlands.
|
||||
|
||||
river
|
||||
A natural watercourse, usually fresh water, that flows towards an ocean, sea, lake, another river, or in some cases into an endorheic basin or an underground aquifer. See also stream.
|
||||
|
||||
river pocket
|
||||
An area of land enclosed within the bend of a river, especially where the bend is extended or pronounced (e.g. a meander) and the only road access is along the isthmus. The term is used primarily in Australia.
|
||||
|
||||
riverine
|
||||
Also riparian.
|
||||
Located on or inhabiting the banks or the area adjacent to a river or lake.
|
||||
|
||||
rivulet
|
||||
A very small stream or brook, often intermittent or ephemeral; a streamlet.
|
||||
|
||||
road map
|
||||
Also route map and street map.
|
||||
Any map that shows man-made roads, streets, highways, railways, and/or other transportation routes within a particular coverage area, especially one which prioritizes the display of this information over other information such as natural features. Road maps are designed to emphasize information relevant to motorists, often including road-use designations, political boundaries and labels, and points of interest such as tourist attractions, parks and recreational facilities, hotels, restaurants, gas stations, airports, and emergency services. The widths of the roads themselves are often exaggerated to make the routes more conspicuous.
|
||||
|
||||
roadstead
|
||||
A body of water, natural or man-made, that is sheltered from rip currents, spring tides, and swells, and is therefore a known general station in which ships can safely be anchored without dragging or snatching.
|
||||
|
||||
rôche moutonnée
|
||||
See sheepback.
|
||||
|
||||
rock mill
|
||||
See pothole.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)"
|
||||
chunk: 10/21
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
rose
|
||||
A diagram printed on a map consisting of a set of lines radiating from a point and marked so as to indicate velocity or some other quantity having direction; e.g. a compass rose or current rose.
|
||||
|
||||
route
|
||||
1. A way or course taken in getting from one place to another; an established or selected course of travel or action; a line of travel or means of access, especially when marked by a path, track, road, or rail.
|
||||
2. A circuit traveled in delivering, selling, or collecting goods, e.g. by a mail carrier.
|
||||
|
||||
routefinding
|
||||
The determination of a viable route or line of travel between two places, especially in rugged or unexplored areas such as mountainous terrain or in conditions of poor visibility, and especially when done without the benefits of prior knowledge of the area, maps, or other technology that might aid orienteering, instead relying entirely on recognition of natural features and landmarks and quick estimations of distance, scale, ease, and safety.
|
||||
|
||||
rural
|
||||
An adjective describing any geographic area located outside areas of significant human population such as towns and cities; all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area is often said to be rural. Rural areas are typified by low population densities, very small settlements, and expansive areas of agricultural land or wilderness.
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
|
||||
sabkha
|
||||
Also sebkha.
|
||||
A mudflat or sandflat in the supratidal zone of an arid or semiarid coastal plain in which large amounts of mineral salts accumulate; or, more generally, any flat area, coastal or interior, where salts or other evaporites readily precipitate at or near the land surface. The term is used primarily in Western Asia and Africa, though the landforms it describes occur worldwide. See also salt pan, salt marsh, and playa.
|
||||
|
||||
saddle
|
||||
For a given pair of mountain summits, the region surrounding the elevational low point or col on the ridge connecting the two summits; mathematically, it is the critical point that is simultaneously a relative minimum in one axial direction (e.g. between the peaks) and a relative maximum in the perpendicular direction. Assuming it is navigable, a saddle can be thought of as the area surrounding the highest point on the lowest route which one could use to pass between the two summits.
|
||||
|
||||
salient
|
||||
Also panhandle, chimney (if protruding northward), or bootheel (if protruding southward).
|
||||
Any narrow, elongated protrusion of a larger territory, either physical or political, such as a state.
|
||||
|
||||
salt marsh
|
||||
Also tidal flat, sea marsh, or salt swamp.
|
||||
A natural coastal marsh ecosystem in the upper intertidal zone, between land and open seawater or brackish water, that is regularly flooded by the tide at high water. Salt marshes support dense stands of terrestrial salt-tolerant plants, especially grasses and low shrubs, which trap and bind sediments from the ocean and help protect the nearby shoreline from coastal erosion.
|
||||
|
||||
salt pan
|
||||
Also salt flat.
|
||||
A large, flat expanse of land naturally covered with mineral salts and/or other evaporites, usually to the exclusion of virtually all vegetation. Salt pans are common in deserts, where they form by the precipitation of dissolved mineral solids as a large body of water evaporates. See also playa.
|
||||
|
||||
saltwater
|
||||
Also seawater.
|
||||
Any naturally occurring water, especially the water from a sea or ocean, characterized by high concentrations (between 3 and 5% by volume) of dissolved salts, primarily sodium and chloride ions, relative to fresh water or brackish water. Salt water in the Earth's oceans has an average salinity of about 3.5%; it is both denser and freezes at a lower temperature than fresh water.
|
||||
|
||||
sand dune
|
||||
See dune.
|
||||
|
||||
sand sea
|
||||
See erg.
|
||||
|
||||
sandbar
|
||||
See shoal.
|
||||
|
||||
sandplain
|
||||
A flat area where the soil or ground surface is covered with or composed of sand that has been transported from elsewhere and deposited by wind or oceans, rather than by weathering of the local bedrock.
|
||||
|
||||
sandur
|
||||
See outwash plain.
|
||||
|
||||
satellite navigation
|
||||
Also satnav.
|
||||
A method of navigation or an autonomous geospatial positioning system that relies on artificial satellites in orbit around the Earth to transmit time signals at radio frequencies along a line of sight to electronic receivers on the surface, which can then use this information to determine the receiver's location, direction, and the current local time to high precision. Satnav systems operate independently of telephonic or internet connectivity, though simultaneous use of these technologies can enhance the accuracy and usefulness of the positioning information generated.
|
||||
|
||||
satellite state
|
||||
A formally independent state or polity which nevertheless depends economically, politically, or militarily upon, or is strongly influenced or controlled by, another, more powerful state.
|
||||
|
||||
savanna
|
||||
Also savannah.
|
||||
A mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem characterized by scattered trees and bushes that are sufficiently widely spaced that the canopy does not close, permitting enough sunlight to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer of primarily xerophytic grasses. The term is used especially to refer to the vast, hot, arid grasslands covering parts of equatorial Africa, South America, and northern Australia, but is also sometimes applied more broadly.
|
||||
|
||||
scale
|
||||
1. The relationship between a linear measurement on a map and the distance it represents on the Earth's surface.
|
||||
2. The level at which a geographical phenomenon occurs or is described.
|
||||
|
||||
scarp
|
||||
Also escarpment.
|
||||
A steep cliff face or slope terminating an elevated surface of low relief, formed either because of faulting or by the erosion of inclined rock strata.
|
||||
|
||||
schrund
|
||||
See bergschrund.
|
||||
|
||||
scroll
|
||||
Also scroll bar.
|
||||
1. A narrow stretch of floodplain added to the outer end and downstream side of spurs between enclosed meanders on a river.
|
||||
2. A type of point bar consisting of a low, narrow ridge running in line with the curve of a meander, formed when the river overflows its banks.
|
||||
|
||||
sea
|
||||
1. Any large body of salt water surrounded in whole or in part by land.
|
||||
2. Any large subdivision of the World Ocean. "The sea" is the colloquial term for the entire interconnected system of salty bodies of water, including oceans, that covers the Earth.
|
||||
40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)-0.md
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40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)-0.md
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@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Guild (ecology)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild_(ecology)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:33.654559+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A guild (or ecological guild) is any group of species that exploit the same resources, or that exploit different resources in related ways. It is not necessary that the species within a guild occupy the same, or even similar, ecological niches.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Details ==
|
||||
Guilds are defined according to the locations, attributes, or activities of their component species. For example, the mode of acquiring nutrients, the mobility, and the habitat zones that the species occupy or exploit can be used to define a guild. The number of guilds occupying an ecosystem is termed its disparity. Members of a guild within a given ecosystem could be competing for resources, such as space or light, while cooperating in resisting wind stresses, attracting pollinators, or detecting predators, such as happens among savannah-dwelling antelope and zebra.
|
||||
A guild does not typically have strict, or even clearly defined boundaries, nor does it need to be taxonomically cohesive. A broadly defined guild will almost always have constituent guilds; for example, grazing guilds will have some species that concentrate on coarse, plentiful forage, while others concentrate on low-growing, finer plants. Each of those two sub-guilds may be regarded as guilds in appropriate contexts, and they might, in turn, have sub-guilds in more closely selective contexts. Some authorities even speak of guilds in terms of a fractal resource model. This concept arises in several related contexts, such as the metabolic theory of ecology, the scaling pattern of occupancy, and spatial analysis in ecology, all of which are fundamental concepts in defining guilds.
|
||||
An ecological guild is not to be confused with a taxocene, a group of phylogenetically related organisms in a community that do not necessarily share the same or similar niches (for example, "the insect community"). Nor is a guild the same as a trophic species, which is a functional group of taxa sharing the same set of predators and prey within a food web.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Microbial guilds ===
|
||||
Some authors have used the term guild to analyze microbial communities. However, precisely because of the pointed lack of concretion in the original definition, it has been used with different connotations. Recently, some effort has been made to address this issue. Some authors have proposed a formal definition for guilds that avoids this inherent ambiguity of niche exploitation, and a quantification method considering the problems arising from degeneracy in protein functions. According to the authors, any organism that performs a function, regardless of its phylogenetic lineage, its environmental preferences or how it carries it out, would be regarded as a representative member of the guild. This contrasts with the definitions used for the study of macro organisms, where membership demanded that the different forms of exploitation of the resource were related or similar.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Alpha vs Beta guilds ===
|
||||
The term guild is a broad term to describe the relationship between different species using the same resource. Since it is difficult to classify a guild it can be broken down into two more specific categories, alpha guilds and beta guilds.
|
||||
Alpha guild is specifically related to species that share a resource used within the same community. Species in an alpha guild do not typically coexist in the same area, as the competitive exclusion principle prevents this. If species are grouped into an alpha guild together one of them will need to change the way they use this resource or change the resources they use to survive.
|
||||
Beta guild is specifically related to species that are found in the same environmental conditions. Species in a beta guild are typically found in the same space and time together, as their environmental range is the same. Species grouped into the same beta guild still may use the same resources but not competitively.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Example guilds ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Functional group (ecology)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Footnotes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
35
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-0.md
Normal file
35
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Habitat destruction"
|
||||
chunk: 1/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved elsewhere, or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide.
|
||||
Humans contribute to habitat destruction through the use of natural resources, agriculture, industrial production and urbanization (urban sprawl). Other activities include mining, logging and trawling. Environmental factors can contribute to habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes, climate change, introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient depletion, water and noise pollution are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an initial habitat fragmentation. Fragmentation and loss of habitat have become one of the most important topics of research in ecology as they are major threats to the survival of endangered species.
|
||||
|
||||
== Observations ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== By region ===
|
||||
|
||||
Biodiversity hotspots are chiefly tropical regions that feature high concentrations of endemic species and, when all hotspots are combined, may contain over half of the world's terrestrial species. These hotspots are suffering from habitat loss and destruction. Most of the natural habitat on islands and in areas of high human population density has already been destroyed (WRI, 2003). Islands suffering extreme habitat destruction include New Zealand, Madagascar, the Philippines, and Japan. South and East Asia—especially China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Japan—and many areas in West Africa have extremely dense human populations that allow little room for natural habitat. Marine areas close to highly populated coastal cities also face degradation of their coral reefs or other marine habitat. Forest City, a township in southern Malaysia built on Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) Rank 1 wetland is one such example, with irreversible reclamation proceeding prior to environmental impact assessments and approvals. Other such areas include the eastern coasts of Asia and Africa, northern coasts of South America, and the Caribbean Sea and its associated islands.
|
||||
Regions of unsustainable agriculture or unstable governments, which may go hand-in-hand, typically experience high rates of habitat destruction. South Asia, Central America, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Amazonian tropical rainforest areas of South America are the main regions with unsustainable agricultural practices and/or government mismanagement.
|
||||
Areas of high agricultural output tend to have the highest extent of habitat destruction. In the U.S., less than 25% of native vegetation remains in many parts of the East and Midwest. Only 15% of land area remains unmodified by human activities in all of Europe.
|
||||
Currently, changes occurring in different environments around the world are changing the specific geographical habitats that are suitable for plants to grow. Therefore, the ability for plants to migrate to suitable environment areas will have a strong impact on the distribution of plant diversity. However, at the moment, the rates of plant migration that are influenced by habitat loss and fragmentation are not as well understood as they could be.
|
||||
|
||||
=== By type of ecosystem ===
|
||||
|
||||
Tropical rainforests have received most of the attention concerning the destruction of habitat. From the approximately 16 million square kilometers of tropical rainforest habitat that originally existed worldwide, less than 9 million square kilometers remain today. The current rate of deforestation is 160,000 square kilometers per year, which equates to a loss of approximately 1% of original forest habitat each year.
|
||||
Other forest ecosystems have suffered as much or more destruction as tropical rainforests. Deforestation for farming and logging have severely disturbed at least 94% of temperate broadleaf forests; many old growth forest stands have lost more than 98% of their previous area because of human activities. Tropical deciduous dry forests are easier to clear and burn and are more suitable for agriculture and cattle ranching than tropical rainforests; consequently, less than 0.1% of dry forests in Central America's Pacific Coast and less than 8% in Madagascar remain from their original extents.
|
||||
|
||||
Plains and desert areas have been degraded to a lesser extent. Only 10–20% of the world's drylands, which include temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands, scrub, and deciduous forests, have been somewhat degraded. But included in that 10–20% of land is the approximately 9 million square kilometers of seasonally dry-lands that humans have converted to deserts through the process of desertification. The tallgrass prairies of North America, on the other hand, have less than 3% of natural habitat remaining that has not been converted to farmland.
|
||||
|
||||
Wetlands and marine areas have endured high levels of habitat destruction. More than 50% of wetlands in the U.S. have been destroyed in just the last 200 years. Between 60% and 70% of European wetlands have been completely destroyed. In the United Kingdom, there has been an increase in demand for coastal housing and tourism which has caused a decline in marine habitats over the last 60 years. The rising sea levels and temperatures have caused soil erosion, coastal flooding, and loss of quality in the UK marine ecosystem. About one-fifth (20%) of marine coastal areas have been highly modified by humans. One-fifth of coral reefs have also been destroyed, and another fifth has been severely degraded by overfishing, pollution, and invasive species; 90% of the Philippines' coral reefs alone have been destroyed. Finally, over 35% of the mangrove ecosystems worldwide have been destroyed.
|
||||
|
||||
== Natural causes ==
|
||||
|
||||
Habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire, and climate change is well documented in the fossil record. One study shows that habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.
|
||||
Gamma ray bursts are potential cause for the habitat destruction by depleating ozone layer in upper atmosphere of a planet.
|
||||
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-1.md
Normal file
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Habitat destruction"
|
||||
chunk: 2/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Causes due to human activities ==
|
||||
Habitat destruction caused by humans includes land conversion from forests, etc. to arable land, urban sprawl, infrastructure development, and other anthropogenic changes to the characteristics of land. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and pollution are aspects of habitat destruction caused by humans that do not necessarily involve over destruction of habitat, yet result in habitat collapse. Desertification, deforestation, and coral reef degradation are specific types of habitat destruction for those areas (deserts, forests, coral reefs).
|
||||
Studies show that deforestation in forests, desertification in drylands, and the degradation of coral reefs in marine environments each contribute to habitat destruction and the loss of biodiversity.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Overarching drivers ===
|
||||
The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as drivers of habitat destruction. Demographic, economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural drivers all contribute to habitat destruction.
|
||||
Demographic drivers include the expanding human population; rate of population increase over time; spatial distribution of people in a given area (urban versus rural), ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning, gender, and education status of people in certain areas. Most of the exponential human population growth worldwide is occurring in or close to biodiversity hotspots. This may explain why human population density accounts for 87.9% of the variation in numbers of threatened species across 114 countries, providing indisputable evidence that people play the largest role in decreasing biodiversity. The boom in human population and migration of people into such species-rich regions are making conservation efforts not only more urgent but also more likely to conflict with local human interests. The high local population density in such areas is directly correlated to the poverty status of the local people, most of whom lacking an education and family planning.
|
||||
According to the Geist and Lambin (2002) study, the underlying driving forces were prioritized as follows (with the percent of the 152 cases the factor played a significant role in): economic factors (81%), institutional or policy factors (78%), technological factors (70%), cultural or socio-political factors (66%), and demographic factors (61%). The main economic factors included commercialization and growth of timber markets (68%), which are driven by national and international demands; urban industrial growth (38%); low domestic costs for land, labor, fuel, and timber (32%); and increases in product prices mainly for cash crops (25%). Institutional and policy factors included formal pro-deforestation policies on land development (40%), economic growth including colonization and infrastructure improvement (34%), and subsidies for land-based activities (26%); property rights and land-tenure insecurity (44%); and policy failures such as corruption, lawlessness, or mismanagement (42%). The main technological factor was the poor application of technology in the wood industry (45%), which leads to wasteful logging practices. Within the broad category of cultural and sociopolitical factors are public attitudes and values (63%), individual/household behavior (53%), public unconcern toward forest environments (43%), missing basic values (36%), and unconcern by individuals (32%). Demographic factors were the in-migration of colonizing settlers into sparsely populated forest areas (38%) and growing population density—a result of the first factor—in those areas (25%).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Forest conversion to agriculture ===
|
||||
|
||||
Geist and Lambin (2002) assessed 152 case studies of net losses of tropical forest cover to determine any patterns in the proximate and underlying causes of tropical deforestation. Their results, yielded as percentages of the case studies in which each parameter was a significant factor, provide a quantitative prioritization of which proximate and underlying causes were the most significant. The proximate causes were clustered into broad categories of agricultural expansion (96%), infrastructure expansion (72%), and wood extraction (67%). Therefore, according to this study, forest conversion to agriculture is the main land use change responsible for tropical deforestation. The specific categories reveal further insight into the specific causes of tropical deforestation: transport extension (64%), commercial wood extraction (52%), permanent cultivation (48%), cattle ranching (46%), shifting (slash and burn) cultivation (41%), subsistence agriculture (40%), and fuel wood extraction for domestic use (28%). One result is that shifting cultivation is not the primary cause of deforestation in all world regions, while transport extension (including the construction of new roads) is the largest single proximate factor responsible for deforestation.
|
||||
Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species. Even the simplest forms of agriculture affect diversity – through clearing or draining the land, discouraging weeds and pests, and encouraging just a limited set of domesticated plant and animal species.
|
||||
There are also feedbacks and interactions among the proximate and underlying causes of deforestation that can amplify the process. Road construction has the largest feedback effect, because it interacts with—and leads to—the establishment of new settlements and more people, which causes a growth in wood (logging) and food markets. Growth in these markets, in turn, progresses the commercialization of agriculture and logging industries. When these industries become commercialized, they must become more efficient by utilizing larger or more modern machinery that often has a worse effect on the habitat than traditional farming and logging methods. Either way, more land is cleared more rapidly for commercial markets. This common feedback example manifests just how closely related the proximate and underlying causes are to each other.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Climate change ===
|
||||
|
||||
Climate change contributes to destruction of some habitats, endangering various species. For example:
|
||||
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-2.md
Normal file
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Habitat destruction"
|
||||
chunk: 3/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Climate change causes rising sea levels which will threaten natural habitats and species globally.
|
||||
Melting sea ice destroys habitat for some species. For example, the decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty‐first century, with a decline rate of 4.7% per decade (it has declined over 50% since the first satellite records). One well known example of a species affected is the polar bear, whose habitat in the Arctic is threatened. Algae can also be affected when it grows on the underside of sea ice.
|
||||
Warm-water coral reefs are very sensitive to global warming and ocean acidification. Coral reefs provide a habitat for thousands of species. They provide ecosystem services such as coastal protection and food. But 70–90% of today's warm-water coral reefs will disappear even if warming is kept to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). For example, Caribbean coral reefs – which are biodiversity hotspots – will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current rate.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Habitat fragmentation ===
|
||||
|
||||
== Impacts ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== On animals and plants ===
|
||||
When a habitat is destroyed, the carrying capacity for indigenous plants, animals, and other organisms is reduced so that populations decline, sometimes up to the level of extinction.
|
||||
Habitat loss is perhaps the greatest threat to organisms and biodiversity. Temple (1986) found that 82% of endangered bird species were significantly threatened by habitat loss. Most amphibian species are also threatened by native habitat loss, and some species are now only breeding in modified habitat. Endemic organisms with limited ranges are most affected by habitat destruction, mainly because these organisms are not found anywhere else in the world, and thus have less chance of recovering. Many endemic organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be found within a certain ecosystem, resulting in their extinction. Extinction may also take place very long after the destruction of habitat, a phenomenon known as extinction debt. Habitat destruction can also decrease the range of certain organism populations. This can result in the reduction of genetic diversity and perhaps the production of infertile youths, as these organisms would have a higher possibility of mating with related organisms within their population, or different species. One of the most famous examples is the impact upon China's giant panda, once found in many areas of Sichuan. Now it is only found in fragmented and isolated regions in the southwest of the country, as a result of widespread deforestation in the 20th century.
|
||||
As habitat destruction of an area occurs, the species diversity offsets from a combination of habitat generalists and specialists to a population primarily consisting of generalist species. Invasive species are frequently generalists that are able to survive in much more diverse habitats. Habitat destruction leading to climate change offsets the balance of species keeping up with the extinction threshold leading to a higher likelihood of extinction.
|
||||
Habitat loss is one of the main environmental causes of the decline of biodiversity on local, regional, and global scales. Many believe that habitat fragmentation is also a threat to biodiversity however some believe that it is secondary to habitat loss. The reduction of the amount of habitat available results in specific landscapes that are made of isolated patches of suitable habitat throughout a hostile environment/matrix. This process is generally due to pure habitat loss as well as fragmentation effects. Pure habitat loss refers to changes occurring in the composition of the landscape that causes a decrease in individuals. Fragmentation effects refer to an addition of effects occurring due to the habitat changes. Habitat loss can result in negative effects on the dynamic of species richness. The order Hymenoptera is a diverse group of plant pollinators who are highly susceptible to the negative effects of habitat loss, this could result in a domino effect between the plant-pollinator interactions leading to major conservation implications within this group. It is observed from the worlds longest running fragmentation experiment over 35 years that habitat fragmentation has caused a decrease in biodiversity from 13% to 75%.
|
||||
|
||||
=== On human population ===
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-3.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-3.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Habitat destruction"
|
||||
chunk: 4/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Habitat destruction can vastly increase an area's vulnerability to natural disasters like flood and drought, crop failure, spread of disease, and water contamination. On the other hand, a healthy ecosystem with good management practices can reduce the chance of these events happening, or will at least mitigate adverse impacts. Eliminating swamps—the habitat of pests such as mosquitoes—has contributed to the prevention of diseases such as malaria.
|
||||
Completely depriving an infectious agent (such as a virus) of its habitat—by vaccination, for example—can result in eradicating that infectious agent.
|
||||
Agricultural land can suffer from the destruction of the surrounding landscape. Over the past 50 years, the destruction of habitat surrounding agricultural land has degraded approximately 40% of agricultural land worldwide via erosion, salinization, compaction, nutrient depletion, pollution, and urbanization. Humans also lose direct uses of natural habitat when habitat is destroyed. Aesthetic uses such as birdwatching, recreational uses like hunting and fishing, and ecotourism usually rely upon relatively undisturbed habitat. Many people value the complexity of the natural world and express concern at the loss of natural habitats and of animal or plant species worldwide.
|
||||
Probably the most profound impact that habitat destruction has on people is the loss of many valuable ecosystem services. Habitat destruction has altered nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon cycles, which has increased the frequency and severity of acid rain, algal blooms, and fish kills in rivers and oceans and contributed tremendously to global climate change. One ecosystem service whose significance is becoming better understood is climate regulation. On a local scale, trees provide windbreaks and shade; on a regional scale, plant transpiration recycles rainwater and maintains constant annual rainfall; on a global scale, plants (especially trees in tropical rainforests) around the world counter the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by sequestering carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Other ecosystem services that are diminished or lost altogether as a result of habitat destruction include watershed management, nitrogen fixation, oxygen production, pollination (see pollinator decline),
|
||||
waste treatment (i.e., the breaking down and immobilization of toxic pollutants), and nutrient recycling of sewage or agricultural runoff.
|
||||
The loss of trees from tropical rainforests alone represents a substantial diminishing of Earth's ability to produce oxygen and to use up carbon dioxide. These services are becoming even more important as increasing carbon dioxide levels is one of the main contributors to global climate change. The loss of biodiversity may not directly affect humans, but the indirect effects of losing many species as well as the diversity of ecosystems in general are enormous. When biodiversity is lost, the environment loses many species that perform valuable and unique roles in the ecosystem. The environment and all its inhabitants rely on biodiversity to recover from extreme environmental conditions. When too much biodiversity is lost, a catastrophic event such as an earthquake, flood, or volcanic eruption could cause an ecosystem to crash, and humans would obviously suffer from that. Loss of biodiversity also means that humans are losing animals that could have served as biological-control agents and plants that could potentially provide higher-yielding crop varieties, pharmaceutical drugs to cure existing or future diseases (such as cancer), and new resistant crop-varieties for agricultural species susceptible to pesticide-resistant insects or virulent strains of fungi, viruses, and bacteria.
|
||||
The negative effects of habitat destruction usually impact rural populations more directly than urban populations. Across the globe, poor people suffer the most when natural habitat is destroyed, because less natural habitat means fewer natural resources per capita, yet wealthier people and countries can simply pay more to continue to receive more than their per capita share of natural resources.
|
||||
Another way to view the negative effects of habitat destruction is to look at the opportunity cost of destroying a given habitat. In other words, what do people lose out on with the removal of a given habitat? A country may increase its food supply by converting forest land to row-crop agriculture, but the value of the same land may be much larger when it can supply natural resources or services such as clean water, timber, ecotourism, or flood regulation and drought control.
|
||||
|
||||
== Outlook ==
|
||||
The rapid expansion of the global human population is increasing the world's food requirement substantially. Simple logic dictates that more people will require more food. In fact, as the world's population increases dramatically, agricultural output will need to increase by at least 50%, over the next 30 years. In the past, continually moving to new land and soils provided a boost in food production to meet the global food demand. That easy fix will no longer be available, however, as more than 98% of all land suitable for agriculture is already in use or degraded beyond repair.
|
||||
The impending global food crisis will be a major source of habitat destruction. Commercial farmers are going to become desperate to produce more food from the same amount of land, so they will use more fertilizers and show less concern for the environment to meet the market demand. Others will seek out new land or will convert other land-uses to agriculture. Agricultural intensification will become widespread at the cost of the environment and its inhabitants. Species will be pushed out of their habitat either directly by habitat destruction or indirectly by fragmentation, degradation, or pollution. Any efforts to protect the world's remaining natural habitat and biodiversity will compete directly with humans' growing demand for natural resources, especially new agricultural lands.
|
||||
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction-4.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Habitat destruction"
|
||||
chunk: 5/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:34.860854+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Solutions ==
|
||||
Attempts to address habitat destruction are in international policy commitments embodied by Sustainable Development Goal 15 "Life on Land" and Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water". However, the United Nations Environment Programme report on "Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of these efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals.
|
||||
Tropical deforestation: In most cases of tropical deforestation, three to four underlying causes are driving two to three proximate causes. This means that a universal policy for controlling tropical deforestation would not be able to address the unique combination of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation in each country. Before any local, national, or international deforestation policies are written and enforced, governmental leaders must acquire a detailed understanding of the complex combination of proximate causes and underlying driving forces of deforestation in a given area or country. This concept, along with many other results of tropical deforestation from the Geist and Lambin study, can easily be applied to habitat destruction in general.
|
||||
Shoreline erosion: Coastal erosion is a natural process as storms, waves, tides and other water level changes occur. Shoreline stabilization can be done by barriers between land and water such as seawalls and bulkheads. Living shorelines are gaining attention as a new stabilization method. These can reduce damage and erosion while simultaneously providing ecosystem services such as food production, nutrient and sediment removal, and water quality improvement to society
|
||||
|
||||
Preventing an area from losing its specialist species to generalist invasive species depends on the extent of the habitat destruction that has already taken place. In areas where the habitat is relatively undisturbed, halting further habitat destruction may be enough. In areas where habitat destruction is more extreme (fragmentation or patch loss), restoration ecology may be needed.
|
||||
Education of the general public is possibly the best way to prevent further human habitat destruction. Changing the dull creep of environmental impacts from being viewed as acceptable to being seen a reason for change to more sustainable practices. Education about the necessity of family planning to slow population growth is important as greater population leads to greater human caused habitat destruction. Habitat restoration can also take place through the following processes; extending habitats or repairing habitats. Extending habitats aims to counteract habitat loss and fragmentation whereas repairing habitats counteracts degradation.
|
||||
The preservation and creation of habitat corridors can link isolated populations and increase pollination. Corridors are also known to reduce the negative impacts of habitat destruction.
|
||||
The biggest potential to solving the issue of habitat destruction comes from solving the political, economical and social problems that go along with it such as, individual and commercial material consumption, sustainable extraction of resources, conservation areas, restoration of degraded land and addressing climate change.
|
||||
Governmental leaders need to take action by addressing the underlying driving forces, rather than merely regulating the proximate causes. In a broader sense, governmental bodies at a local, national, and international scale need to emphasize:
|
||||
|
||||
Considering the irreplaceable ecosystem services provided by natural habitats.
|
||||
Protecting remaining intact sections of natural habitat.
|
||||
Finding ecological ways to increase agricultural output without increasing the total land in production.
|
||||
Reducing human population and expansion. Apart from improving access to contraception globally, furthering gender equality also has a great benefit. When women have the same education (decision-making power), this generally leads to smaller families.
|
||||
It is argued that the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation can be counteracted by including spatial processes in potential restoration management plans. However, even though spatial dynamics are incredibly important in the conservation and recovery of species, a limited amount of management plans are taking the spatial effects of habitat restoration and conservation into consideration.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Impacts of shipping on marine wildlife and habitats in Southeast Asia
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayduke-0.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Hayduke"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayduke"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:36.242587+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Hayduke is a term and verb used among environmental activists and people who cite cult "revenge" books.
|
||||
It derives from the name of George Washington Hayduke, a fictional character based on Edward Abbey's friend Doug Peacock in Abbey's cult classics The Monkey Wrench Gang and Hayduke Lives!. The Hayduke character personified the "no compromise in defense of the Earth" approach to environmentalism, made real in early Earth First! activism.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Background ==
|
||||
A complete series of revenge books using the pseudonym George Hayduke exist, mostly published by the Paladin Press, including The Big Book of Revenge, Get Even, Make 'Em Pay, Up Yours and Screw Unto Others. Each describe various methods of committing mischief and mayhem against those who have wronged others in a manner reminiscent of The Anarchist Cookbook. "Haydukery" refers to committing such acts in general.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Hajduk – a name for highwaymen or guerrilla freedom fighters in parts of Europe during the late 16th to mid 19th century
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
43
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-0.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Hemerochory"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:37.619457+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Hemerochory (Ancient Greek ἥμερος, hemeros: 'tame, ennobled, cultivated, cultivated' and Greek χωρίς choris: separate, isolated), or anthropochory, is the distribution of cultivated plants or their seeds and cuttings, consciously or unconsciously, by humans into an area that they could not colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but are able to maintain themselves without specific human help in their new habitat.
|
||||
Hemerochory is one of the main propagation mechanisms of a plant. Hemerochoric plants can both increase and decrease the biodiversity of a habitat.
|
||||
|
||||
== Categorisation ==
|
||||
Hemerochoric plants are classified according to the manner of introduction into, for example:
|
||||
|
||||
Ethelochory: the conscious introduction by seed or young plants.
|
||||
Speirochory: the unintentional introduction by contaminated seed. Examples are the true chamomile and the cornflower.
|
||||
Agochory: the introduction by unintentional transport with, among other things, ships, trains and cars. These plants are common in port areas, roadsides, stations and railways.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Division ===
|
||||
Chronologically the hemerochoric plants are divided in:
|
||||
|
||||
Archaeophytes: plants that were introduced before the onset of world trade around the year 1500, or before the year 1492 (discovery of America).
|
||||
Neophytes: plants that were introduced later.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Related terms ===
|
||||
Anthropochory is often used synonymously but does not mean exactly the same. Anthropochory is the spread by humans. The spread through domestic animals does not belong to the anthropochoric, but to the hemerochoric, because domestic animals belong to the human culture. Strictly speaking, anthropochoric means the spread through humans as a transport medium. These can also be native species that were either adapted from the outset to locations created by human cultural activity or have adapted to them afterwards; As a result, their area of distribution has often, but not always, increased.
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
Hemerochorous spread of plants through human cultural activity very likely already happened in the Stone Age, but demonstrably at the latest in antiquity, namely along old trade routes. Fruits such as apples and pears gradually made their way along the Silk Road from the area around the Altai Mountains to Greece and from there to the gardens of the Romans, who in turn brought these cultivated plants to Central Europe, and some of these plants were eventually able to survive outside the culture. Many useful plants, such as tomato, potato, pumpkin and French bean did not reach Central Europe until the 16th century, after the American continent was discovered, and are now grown worldwide.
|
||||
In the last 400 to 500 years the spread has expanded through trade and military campaigns, through explorers and missionaries. The latter brought countless plants with them from their travels both out of an interest in exotic plants, which were often included in the plant collections of princely courts, and for purely scientific purposes. In the context of botanical studies, the interest was often in the possible healing effects of these plants, but also in the expansion of botanical knowledge, or the plants were only used for collecting (herbaria).
|
||||
Some ornamental plants also came to Europe because they promised a lucrative business. This applies, for example, to the camellias, one of which is also grown as a tea plant in Japan and China. While this species turned out to be not cultivable in Central Europe, people very quickly discovered the aesthetic appeal of the other camellia species as an ornamental plant. Botanical gardens played a major role in the acclimatization of such plants from distant habitats.
|
||||
|
||||
== Forms ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Agochory ===
|
||||
|
||||
Agochoric plants are those that are spread through accidental transport. Unlike speirochoric plants, they are usually not sown on human-prepared soil. On land, agochoric plants used to be common in harbors, at train stations or along railway lines.
|
||||
However, mainly aquatic plants are spread through agochory. Ballast water plays a major role in the agochoric spread of aquatic plants. Around the world, around ten billion tons of seawater and the organisms it contains are shipped in this way. Exporting countries in particular are affected by the spread of organisms through ballast water. The ships arrive at the ports with empty cargo hold, but fully pumped ballast tanks. In the draining of this ballast water, these ports receive thousands of cubic meters of seawater brimming with alien creatures now in a new environment. The seaweed Undaria pinnatifida, which is native to the Japanese coast, reached the Tasmanian coast via ballast water and has formed dense kelp forests along the coast since 1988, displacing the native flora and fauna. Caulerpa taxifolia is one of those plants that are often spread by ballast water. It is also spread by the fact that ships tear off parts of the algae with their anchors.
|
||||
Australia was the first country to introduce a ballast water policy back in 1990 and is now the most determined to address this problem. Ships were asked not to take in ballast water in shallow and polluted bays and not to refuel with ballast water during the night, since then many marine organisms that are otherwise on the seabed rise to the surface of the water. Ships should also exchange their ballast water 200 kilometers away from the coastal waters, so that on the one hand the offshore species are not introduced into the more sensitive coastal waters and, on the other hand, no inhabitants of the coastal zone are transported to other continents.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ethelochory ===
|
||||
27
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory-1.md
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---
|
||||
title: "Hemerochory"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemerochory"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:37.619457+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Ethelochory is intentional transportation of plants or seeds to different regions for agricultural and gardening purposes. Numerous crops that are important for human nutrition have been willingly spread by humans. Wheat, barley, lentil, beans, flax and poppy seeds, for example, are not typical plants for Central Europe, although they are all archaeotypes. People brought them after the beginning of the Neolithic (about 6,500 years ago) gradually from the eastern Mediterranean to central Europe and the rest of the world through the upcoming centuries. In central Europe, it is especially Cyperus esculentus which has been classified since the 1980s among the invasive species, because their tubers have been spread en masse, by sticking to vehicles or machines.
|
||||
Many of the old cultivated plants have spread around the world, primarily through emigrants from Europe. Grown for at least 4,000 years, wheat was introduced to America in the 16th century and Australia in the 19th century. Orange, lemons, apricots and peaches were originally native to China. They probably came via the Silk Road as early as the 3rd century BC. In Asia Minor and from there through the Romans to the Mediterranean. European settlers, in turn, used these species to grow fruit in suitable regions of America.
|
||||
From the 16th century, ornamental plants were grown more and more. Species native to Europe were first introduced as garden plants. These include, for example, the gladioli, the ornamental onion, European bluebell, the snowdrop native to southeast Europe and the common clematis. Ornamental plants from more distant regions were added later. From East Asia in particular, a number of plants were introduced to Europe as exotic or for economic reasons.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Speirochory ===
|
||||
|
||||
Some plants were unintentionally introduced in this process; this unwanted hemerochory as a seed companion is called speirochory. Since every seed packet also contains seeds of the herbs of the field from which it comes, their competitors, the "weeds", were also sold through the trade in the seeds of the useful plant. The real chamomile is one of the plants that were unintentionally spread as a companion to seeds.
|
||||
Speirochoric plants are sown on human-prepared soil and are competitors of the crops. Plants that are considered to be archaeophytes, such as the poppy, native to the Mediterranean area, the real chamomile, the cornflower and field buttercup, spread through the seeds with the grain in Central Europe. In the meantime, the seeds are cleaned more thoroughly using modern methods and the cultivation is hardly contaminated by pesticides or other control techniques.
|
||||
In spite of this, Cuscuta campestris, which is classified as a problematic weed in Australia, was accidentally imported into the country together with basil seeds in 1981, 1988 and 1990.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Assisted colonization
|
||||
Escaped plant
|
||||
Volunteer plant
|
||||
Adventive plant
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
45
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-0.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Hyperaccumulator"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:38.913323+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Metallophytes ==
|
||||
A metallophyte is a type of plant capable of surviving in metal-rich soil. Metallophytes are classified as metal indicators, excluders, or hyperaccumulators. Such plants range between obligate metallophytes and facultative metallophytes. Obligate metallophytes can only survive in the presence of heavy metals while facultative metallophytes can tolerate such conditions but are not confined to them.
|
||||
|
||||
== Hyperaccumulators ==
|
||||
|
||||
A hyperaccumulator is a category of metallophyte that is capable of growing in soil or water with a higher concentration of metals, absorbing the metals through its roots and storing it in its foliage. The metals are concentrated at levels that are toxic to closely related species not adapted to growing on the metalliferous soils. Approximately 85-90% of hyperaccumulators are obligate metallophytes.
|
||||
Compared to non-hyperaccumulating species, hyperaccumulator roots extract the metal from the soil at a higher rate, transfer it more quickly to their shoots, and store large amounts in leaves and roots. The ability to hyperaccumulate toxic metals compared to related species has been shown to be due to differential gene expression and regulation of the same genes in both plants. Hyperaccumulators are regularly discussed within the context of phytoremediation, although their commercialization remains aspirational. 450 plant species, including the model organisms Arabidopsis and Brassicaceae, have demonstrated the capacity to uptake and sequester metals such as Arsenic (As), Cobalt (Co), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Selenium (Se), Manganese (Mn), Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn), and Molybdenum (Mo) in 100–1000 times the concentration found in sister species or populations.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Table on Hyperaccumulators ===
|
||||
|
||||
Note that it is under debate as to whether Allium, Amaranthus, Iris, Lonicera, Rorippa, Salsola and Solanum are truly hyperaccumulators or metallophytes at all as their hyperaccumulation was recorded in labs, not nature.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Applications of Hyperaccumulators ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Phytoremediation ====
|
||||
Hyperaccumulating plants are of interest in the context of phytoremediation: to detoxify contaminated soils. Phytoextraction is a subprocess of phytoremediation in which plants remove metal ions from soil or water. Phytoextraction could in principle be used to remove contaminants from an ecosystem. For example, water hyacinth have been demonstrated to remove arsenic from water. Cadmium accumulation has also received attention as this metal is usually toxic.
|
||||
Caesium-137 and strontium-90 were removed from a pond using sunflowers after the Chernobyl accident.
|
||||
The remediation of metal-contaminated soils recognizes that metals cannot be degraded, they must be removed. Organic pollutants can be, and are generally the major targets for phytoremediation. Field trials support the feasibility of using plants for environmental cleanup.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Phytomining ====
|
||||
|
||||
Phytomining, sometimes called agromining, is the concept of extracting heavy metals from the soil using hyperaccumulating plants. Once the hyperaccumulation has proceeded to some extent, the metals are collected from the plant matter and then refined for sale or disposed of.
|
||||
Phytomining typically follows three steps: 1) Phytoextraction, where metals are sequestered from soil into plants; 2) Enrichment, where plant biomass is eliminated and heavy metals are enriched as solids; 3) Extraction, where the solid remains are processed into more accessible forms.
|
||||
Phytomining would, in principle, minimize environmental effects compared to conventional mining. Phytomining could also remove low-grade heavy metals from mine waste. A 2021 review concluded that the commercial viability of phytomining was "limited" because it is a slow and inefficient process. Its purpose is either:
|
||||
(i) gathering the metals for economic use
|
||||
(ii) gathering toxic metals to improve the soil.
|
||||
Phytomining was proposed in 1983 by Rufus Chaney, a USDA agronomist. He and Alan Baker, a University of Melbourne professor, first tested it in 1996. They, as well as Jay Scott Angle and Yin-Ming Li, filed a patent on the process in 1995 which expired in 2015.
|
||||
Several startups are investigating the process for mining surface-available heavy metals. In 2025, Genomines received 45 million dollars of Series A funding to commercialize nickel phytomining from mine tailings. The French company Econick and the Albanian company MetalPlant both have nickel phytomining projects. As of mid-2024, MetalPlant had extracted less than a kilo of usable nickel, using Odontarrhena plants.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Physiological advantage for hyperaccumulation ===
|
||||
The biological advantage of hyperaccumulation may be that the toxic levels of heavy metals in leaves deter herbivores or increase the toxicity of other anti-herbivory metabolites. The plant defense hypothesis, "the elemental defense hypothesis", provided by Poschenrieder, suggested that the expression of these genes assist in antiherbivory or pathogen defenses by making tissues toxic to organisms attempting to feed on that plant. Another hypothesis, "the joint hypothesis", provided by Boyd, suggests that expression of these genes assists in systemic defense. The benefit for a plant to hyperaccumulate may be that root-to-shoot transport system drives hyper-accumulation by creating a metal deficiency response in roots.
|
||||
|
||||
=== T. caerulescens ===
|
||||
As a hyperaccumulator variously of Cd, Pb, and Zn, T. caerulescens, pennycress, has received particular attention. Its leaves accumulate up to 380 mg/kg Cd. On the other hand, the presence of copper seems to impair its growth. It is found mostly in Zn/Pb-rich soils, as well as serpentines and non-mineralized soils. When grown on mildly polluted soils, a closely related species, Thlaspi ochroleucum, is a heavy metal-tolerant plant, but it accumulates much less Zn in the shoots than T. caerulescens. Thus, T. ochroleucum is a non-hyperaccumulator and of the same family T. caerulescens is a hyperaccumulator. The transfer of Zn from roots to shoots varied significantly between these two species. T. caerulescens had much higher shoot/root Zn concentration levels than T. ochroleucum, which always had higher Zn concentrations in the roots. When Zn was withheld, the amount of Zn previously accumulated in the roots in T. caerulescens decreased even more than in T. ochroleucum, with a concomitantly greater rise in the amount of Zn in the shoots. The decreases in Zn in roots may be mostly due to transport to shoots, since the volume of Zn in shoots increased during the same time span.
|
||||
53
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-1.md
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53
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator-1.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Hyperaccumulator"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulator"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:38.913323+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Genetic basis of hyperaccumulation ===
|
||||
An overexpression of a Zn transporter gene, ZNT1, in root and shoot tissue is an essential component of the Zn hyperaccumulation trait in T. caerulescens. This increased gene expression has been shown to be the basis for increased Zn2+ uptake from the soil in T. caerulescens roots, and it is possible that the same process underpins the enhanced Zn2+ uptake into leaf cells.The proteins are coded by genes in the ZIP family, however other families such as the HMA (heavy metal ATPase), MATE, YSL and MTP families have also been observed to be involved. The ZIP gene family encodes Cd, Mn, Fe and Zn transporters. The ZIP family plays a role in supplying Zn to metalloproteins.
|
||||
In one study on Arabidopsis, it was found that the metallophyte Arabidopsis halleri expressed a member of the ZIP family that was not expressed in a non-metallophyte sister species. This gene was an iron-regulated transporter (IRT-protein) that encoded several primary transporters involved with cellular uptake of cations above the concentration gradient. When this gene was transformed into yeast, hyperaccumulation was observed. This suggests that overexpression of ZIP family genes that encode cation transporters is a characteristic genetic feature of hyperaccumulation.
|
||||
Another gene family that has been observed ubiquitously in hyperaccumulators are the ZTP and ZNT families. A study on T. caerulescens identified the ZTP family as a plant specific family with high sequence similarity to other zinc transporter. Both the ZTP and ZNT families, like the ZIP family, are zinc transporters. It has been observed in hyperaccumulating species, that these genes, specifically ZNT1 and ZNT2 alleles are chronically overexpressed.
|
||||
AhHMHA3 is expressed in hyperaccumulating individuals. AhHMHA3 has been identified to be expressed in response to and aid of Zn detoxification. In another study, using metallophytic and non-metallophytic Arabidopsis populations, back crosses indicated pleiotropy between Cd and Zn tolerances. This response suggests that plants are unable to detect specific metals, and that hyperaccumulation is likely a result of an overexpressed Zn transportation system.
|
||||
One of the most well-documented HMAs is HMA4, which belongs to the Zn/Co/Cd/Pb HMA subclass and is localized at xylem parenchyma plasma membranes. HMA4 is upregulated when plants are exposed to high levels of Cd and Zn, but it is downregulated in its non-hyperaccumulating relatives. Also, when the expression of HMA4 is increased there is a correlated increase in the expression of genes belonging to the ZIP (Zinc regulated transporter Iron regulated transporter Proteins) family.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Genetic Engineering of Hyperaccumulators ===
|
||||
Genetic engineering has been used to research potential improvements towards hyperaccumulation efficiency and species resistance to biological side effects of metal uptake. Methods have included engineering overexpression of pollutant degrading enzymes or proteins associated with heavy metal transportation pathways, and transgenesis, where genes from hyperaccumulators are inserted into the genome of other hyperaccumulators to target specific metals or metals previously inaccessible to that species.
|
||||
For example, Sedum plumbizinicicola is a hyperaccumulator of Cd using the heavy metal transporter genes SpHMA2, SpHMA3, and SpNramp6. In 2023, Yang et al. inserted these genes into Brassica napus, or Rapeseed plants, resulting in high uptake efficiency and sequestration of Cd compared to the wild-type rapeseed.
|
||||
Transgenic phytoextractors theoretically function to combine favorable traits like high biomass production with hyperaccumulation, showing the potential to improve the speed of phytoremediation. However, research reports often do not include long term data of artificial phytoextraction by transgenic plants to see if they can actually survive their entire life cycle intaking hyperaccumulator-levels of contaminants. Site implementation of transgenic plants for phytoremediation is also controversial, due to how these plants could negatively impact native biodiversity.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Molecular pathway ===
|
||||
Often hyperaccumulation is the result of promiscuous zinc binding, i.e. protein-based sequestrants, transporters, etc with a high affinity for zinc that will bind other metal ions. Metals ions in solution are susceptible to extraction. For example, ligands secreted by plant - phytosiderophores, organic acids, or carboxylates -can selectively binds certain ions.
|
||||
|
||||
== Metal Excluders ==
|
||||
A metal excluder is a category of metallophyte that absorbs metals at only their roots.
|
||||
|
||||
== Metal Indicators ==
|
||||
A metal indicator is a metallophyte that accumulates heavy metal concentration in shoots and leaves.While good at absorbing metals, they eventually succumb to the metals' toxicity.
|
||||
|
||||
== Other Examples ==
|
||||
Alpine pennycress (Thlaspi caerulescens), the zinc violet (Viola calaminaria), spring sandwort (Minuartia verna), sea thrift (Armeria maritima), Cochlearia, common bent (Agrostis capillaris), and plantain (Plantago lanceolata).
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
K.B. Axelsen and M.G. Palmgren, Inventory of the superfamily of P-Type ion pumps in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol., 126 (1998), pp. 696–706.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Biohydrometallurgy
|
||||
Calaminarian grassland
|
||||
Chara baltica
|
||||
Cladophora socialis
|
||||
Coccotylus
|
||||
Furcellaria
|
||||
Polysiphonia
|
||||
Stuckenia pectinata
|
||||
Zannichellia palustris
|
||||
List of hyperaccumulators
|
||||
Phytoremediation
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
13. Souri Z, Karimi N, Luisa M. Sandalio. 2017. Arsenic Hyperaccumulation Strategies: An Overview. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 5, 67. DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2017.00067.
|
||||
38
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-0.md
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|
||||
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|
||||
title: "Intact forest landscape"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An intact forest landscape (IFL) is an unbroken natural landscape of a forest ecosystem and its habitat–plant community components, in an extant forest zone. An IFL is a natural environment with no signs of significant human activity or habitat fragmentation, and of sufficient size to contain, support, and maintain the complex of indigenous biodiversity of viable populations of a wide range of genera and species, and their ecological effects.
|
||||
IFLs are estimated to cover 23 percent of forest ecosystems (13.1 million km2). Two biomes hold almost all of these IFLs: dense tropical and subtropical forests (45 percent) and boreal forests (44 percent), while the proportion of IFLs in temperate broadleaf and mixed forests is very small. IFLs remain in 66 of the 149 countries that could potentially have them. Three of these countries, Canada, Russia, and Brazil, contain 64 percent of the total IFL area in the world. Nineteen percent of the global IFL area is under some form of protection, but only 10 percent is strictly protected, i.e., belongs to IUCN protected areas categories I–III. It is estimated that the planet has lost seven percent of its IFLs since 2000.
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
The term "intact forest landscape" was developed by a group of environmental non-governmental organizations including Greenpeace, the World Resources Institute, Biodiversity Conservation Center, International Socio-Ecological Union, and Transparent World. IFL has been used in regional and global forest monitoring projects such as Intact-Forests.org, and in scientific forest ecology research.
|
||||
|
||||
== Definition ==
|
||||
The concept of an intact forest landscape and its technical definition were developed to help create, implement, and monitor policies concerning the human impact on forest landscapes at the regional or country levels.
|
||||
Technically, an IFL is defined as an area which contains forest and non-forest ecosystems minimally influenced by human economic activity, with an area of at least 500 km2 (50,000 ha) and a minimal width of 10 km (measured as the diameter of a circle that is entirely inscribed within the boundaries of the territory).
|
||||
Areas with evidence of certain types of human influence are considered "disturbed" and not eligible for inclusion in an IFL:
|
||||
|
||||
Settlements (including a buffer zone of one kilometer)
|
||||
Infrastructure used for transportation between settlements or for industrial development of natural resources, including roads (except unpaved trails), railways, navigable waterways (including seashore), pipelines, and power transmission lines (including in all cases a buffer zone of one kilometer on either side)
|
||||
Agriculture and timber production
|
||||
Industrial activities during the last 30–70 years, such as logging, mining, oil and gas exploration and extraction, peat extraction
|
||||
Areas with evidence of low intensity and old disturbances are treated as subject to "background" influence and are eligible for inclusion in an IFL. Sources of background influence include local shifting cultivation activities, diffuse grazing by domesticated animals, low-intensity selective logging and hunting.
|
||||
This definition builds on and refines the concept of a frontier forest as has been used by the World Resources Institute.
|
||||
|
||||
== Conservation value ==
|
||||
|
||||
Most of the world's original forests have either been lost to conversion or altered by logging and forest management. Forests that still combine large size with insignificant human influence are becoming increasingly important as their global extent continues to shrink.
|
||||
Ecosystems are generally better able to support their natural biological diversity and ecological processes the lower their exposure to humans and the greater their area. They are also better able to absorb and recover from disturbance (resistance and resilience).
|
||||
Fragmentation and loss of natural habitats are the main factors threatening plant and animal species with extinction. Forest biodiversity largely depends on intact forest landscapes. Large roaming animals (such as forest elephants, great apes, bears, wolves, tigers, jaguars, eagles, deer, etc.) especially require that intact forest landscapes be preserved. Loss of natural habitat can occur through introduction of forest monoculture or by even aged timber management, which are also destructive of biodiversity and wildlife abundance. For example, many wildlife species such as the wild turkey depend upon variegation of tree ages and sizes for its optimal sub-canopy flight; forests that have been managed for even aged composition fail to achieve abundance values of the wild turkey and many other organisms.
|
||||
Large natural forest areas are also important for maintaining ecological processes and supplying ecosystem services like water and air purification, nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, erosion and flood control.
|
||||
The conservation value of forest landscapes that are free from human disturbance is therefore high, although it varies among regions. At the same time the cost of conserving large unpopulated areas is often low. The same factors that have kept them from being developed, such as remoteness and low economic value, also help to reduce the cost of protecting them.
|
||||
Several international initiatives to protect forest biodiversity (CBD), to reduce carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (IGBP, REDD), and to stimulate use of sustainable forest management practices (FSC) require that large natural forest areas be preserved. Mapping, conservation and monitoring of intact forest landscapes is a therefore a task of global importance.
|
||||
|
||||
== IFL mapping initiatives ==
|
||||
47
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape-1.md
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||||
---
|
||||
title: "Intact forest landscape"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:40.195479+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Several attempts have been made since the 1990s to map the remaining extent of large natural forests. At the global level, these include: wilderness area maps by McCloskey and Spalding; human footprint map by Sanderson, et al.; and frontier forests map by Bryant, et al. These efforts have generally combined already existing maps and information to identify areas of low human impact at a coarse scale, typically no finer than 1:16 million.
|
||||
The IFL mapping initiatives differ from these by using the IFL definition mentioned above, by using information from satellites in addition to other sources, and by producing results at a much finer scale, approximately 1:1 million.
|
||||
The first regional IFL map was presented by Greenpeace Russia in 2001, covering northern European Russia. The report also contains a complete description of the IFL concept and the mapping algorithm.
|
||||
A number of regional IFL maps were presented in 2002–2006, using similar methods, by a group of scientists and environmental non-governmental organizations under the framework of Global Forest Watch, an initiative of the World Resources Institute.
|
||||
Using the same method, a global IFL map was prepared in 2005–2006 under the leadership of Greenpeace, with contributions from the Biodiversity Conservation Center, International Socio-Ecological Union, Transparent World (Russia), Finnish Nature League, Forest Watch Indonesia, and Global Forest Watch.
|
||||
The global IFL map relies on publicly available high spatial resolution satellite imagery provided by Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) and USGS and on a simple and consistent set of criteria.
|
||||
|
||||
== Implementation of the IFL concept ==
|
||||
The IFL concept is a useful tool for making, implementing, and monitoring policy in the realms of sustainable forest management, conservation and climate, as shown by the following examples.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Forest degradation assessed by IFL monitoring ===
|
||||
The distinction between intact and non-intact forest landscapes can be used to account for losses of carbon from forest degradation, as proposed by Mollicone, et al. The global IFL map provides a geographically explicit baseline with several advantages:
|
||||
|
||||
it provides a globally consistent and highly detailed snapshot of the ecological integrity of the world's forest biomes at the beginning of the new millennium (approximately year 2000)
|
||||
the method that was used to create the map can easily be adapted into a monitoring method that uses high spatial resolution satellite images
|
||||
its high precision and fine scale make it a meaningful baseline for assessment of small-scale disturbances that can be detected by remotely sensed data
|
||||
|
||||
=== Nature conservation strategies formulated using IFL maps ===
|
||||
|
||||
Conservation of large IFLs is a robust and cost-effective way to protect biodiversity and maintain ecological integrity and should therefore be an important component of a global conservation strategy. The remoteness and large size of these areas provide the best guarantee for their continued intactness. Withdrawing remaining intact areas from the production base would lead to small or negligible economic loss.
|
||||
Russian NGOs have, for example, used IFL maps to argue that the most valuable of the remaining intact natural landscapes of northern European Russia and Far East be preserved, and to propose several new national parks: Kutsa and Hibiny (Murmansk Region), Kalevalsky (Karelia Republic) and Onezhskoye Pomorye (Arkhangelsk Region).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sustainable forest management underpinned by IFL maps ===
|
||||
Several boreal countries are using the IFL concept in the context of forest certification. One of the categories of High Conservation Value Forest used by the Forest Stewardship Council is analogous to that of IFLs. The formulation used in the Canadian and Russian national FSC standards—globally, nationally, or regionally significant forest landscapes, un-fragmented by permanent infrastructure and of a size to maintain viable populations of most species—calls for IFL maps for implementation. IFLs are directly mentioned among other categories of High Conservation Value Forest in the FSC Controlled Wood standard.
|
||||
Several retailers, including IKEA and Lowe's, have committed not to use wood from IFLs unless intactness values are preserved. Others, such as Bank of America, invest only in companies that maintain such values. These companies use regional IFL maps to implement their policies.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Intactforests.org
|
||||
World Intact Forest map and publications
|
||||
Global Forest Watch publications Archived 2012-06-13 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Intact Forest Landscapes
|
||||
A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: High Conservation Value Areas
|
||||
Greenpeace: Our disappearing forests Archived 2008-12-28 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
29
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-0.md
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29
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-0.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Invasive species"
|
||||
chunk: 1/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. Since the 20th century, invasive species have become serious economic, social, and environmental threats worldwide.
|
||||
Invasion of long-established ecosystems by organisms is a natural phenomenon, but human-facilitated introductions have greatly increased the rate, scale, and geographic range of invasion. For millennia, humans have served as both accidental and deliberate dispersal agents, beginning with their earliest migrations, accelerating in the Age of Discovery, and accelerating again with the spread of international trade.
|
||||
Notable plant species that are invasive in many parts of the world include the kudzu vine (Pueraria), water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes), common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), and yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis). Notable animal species that are invasive include European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), domestic cats (Felis catus), and red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii).
|
||||
|
||||
== Terminology ==
|
||||
|
||||
Invasive species are the subset of established non-native species that pose a threat to native species and biodiversity. The term "invasive" is poorly defined and often very subjective. Invasive species may be plants, animals, fungi, and microbes; some include native species that have invaded human habitats such as farms and landscapes. Some broaden the term to include indigenous or "native" species that have colonized natural areas. Some sources name Homo sapiens as an invasive species, but broad appreciation of human learning capacity and their behavioral potential and plasticity may argue against any such fixed categorization.
|
||||
The definition of "native" can also be controversial. For example, the ancestors of modern horses (Equus ferus) evolved in North America and radiated to Eurasia before becoming extinct in North America. Their reintroduction to North America, by Spanish conquistadors, led to a 1943 debate over whether the feral horses were native or exotic to the continent of their evolutionary ancestors.
|
||||
While invasive species can be studied within many subfields of biology, most research on invasive organisms has been in ecology and biogeography. Much of the work has been influenced by Charles Elton's 1958 book The Ecology of Invasion by Animals and Plants which creates a generalized picture of biological invasions. Studies remained sparse until the 1990s. This research, largely field observational studies, has disproportionately been concerned with terrestrial plants. The rapid growth of the field has driven a need to standardize the language used to describe invasive species and events. Despite this, little standard terminology exists. The field lacks any official designation but is commonly referred to as "invasion ecology" or more generally "invasion biology". This lack of standard terminology has arisen due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field, which borrows terms from disciplines such as agriculture, zoology, and pathology, as well as due to studies being performed in isolation.
|
||||
|
||||
In an attempt to avoid the ambiguous, subjective, and pejorative vocabulary that so often accompanies discussion of invasive species, even in scientific papers, Colautti and MacIsaac proposed a new nomenclature system. Based on biogeography rather than on taxa, the proposed system emphasizes ecology over taxonomy, human health, and economic factors. The model evaluated individual populations rather than entire species. It classified each population based on its success in that environment. This model applied equally to indigenous and to introduced species, and did not automatically categorize successful introductions as harmful.
|
||||
The USDA's National Invasive Species Information Center defines invasive species very narrowly. According to Executive Order 13112, "'Invasive species' means an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health."
|
||||
|
||||
== Causes ==
|
||||
Typically, an introduced species must persist at low population densities before it can become invasive in a new environment. At low densities, introduced species often face difficulties in reproducing and sustaining a viable population—sometimes requiring multiple introductions before establishment occurs. Patterns of repeated human movement, such as ship traffic between ports or vehicles travelling along major highways, can create recurring opportunities for arrival and establishment, a phenomenon known as high propagule pressure.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ecosystem-based mechanisms ===
|
||||
In ecosystems, the availability of resources determines the impact of additional species on the ecosystem. Stable ecosystems have a resource equilibrium, which can be changed fundamentally by the arrival of invasive species. When changes such as a forest fire occur, normal ecological succession favors native grasses and forbs. An introduced species that can spread faster than natives can outcompete native species for food, squeezing the natives out. Nitrogen and phosphorus are often the limiting factors in these situations. Every species occupies an ecological niche in its native ecosystem; some species fill large and varied roles, while others are highly specialized. Invading species may occupy unused niches, or create new ones. For example, edge effects describe what happens when part of an ecosystem is disturbed, as in when land is cleared for agriculture. The boundary between the remaining undisturbed habitat and the newly cleared land itself forms a distinct new habitat, creating new winners and losers, and potentially hosting species that would not otherwise thrive outside the boundary habitat.
|
||||
In 1958, Charles S. Elton claimed that ecosystems with higher species diversity were less subject to invasive species because fewer niches remained unoccupied. Other ecologists later pointed to highly diverse, but heavily invaded ecosystems, arguing that ecosystems with high species diversity were more susceptible to invasion. This debate hinged on the spatial scale of invasion studies. Small-scale studies tended to show a negative relationship between diversity and invasion, while large-scale studies tended to show the reverse, perhaps a side-effect of invasives' ability to capitalize on increased resource availability and weaker species interactions that are more common when larger samples are considered. However, this pattern does not seem to hold true for invasive vertebrates.
|
||||
20
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-1.md
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20
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||||
---
|
||||
title: "Invasive species"
|
||||
chunk: 2/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Island ecosystems may be more prone to invasion because their species face few strong competitors and predators, and because their distance from colonizing species populations makes them more likely to have "open" niches. For example, native bird populations on Guam have been decimated by the invasive brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis). However, the geographical distance and open water characteristic of island ecosystems can also delay colonisation by invasive species. For example, island nations such as Australia and the Galapagos have a high proportion of their island ecology consisting of endemic species due to immigration of other species being limited by oceans and their geographical isolation.
|
||||
In New Zealand the first invasive species were the dogs and rats brought by Polynesian settlers around 1300. These and other introductions devastated endemic New Zealand species. The colonization of Madagascar brought similar harm to its ecosystems. Logging has caused harm directly by destroying habitat, and has allowed non-native species such as prickly pear (Opuntia) and silver wattle (Acacia dealbata) to invade. The water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) forms dense mats on water surfaces, limiting light penetration and hence harming aquatic organisms, and creating substantial management costs. The shrub lantana (Lantana camara) is now considered invasive in over 60 countries, and has invaded large geographies in several countries prompting aggressive federal efforts to control it.
|
||||
Along with island ecosystems, intensively managed fenced areas are more prone to invasion. One reason is that species can enter through ways that fences cannot block. In the case of many plant species, dispersal can occur through wind, water, and birds carrying seeds either internally or externally. Small animals or insects are sometimes also able to make it through fenced areas. Another reason is that intensive management methods create opportunities for these invasive species to thrive. When fenced areas are established, they are intensively managed through clearing vegetation, mowing, and disturbing the soil. This reduces competition from the native plant species in the area and exposes the soil so that invasive species can easily populate the area. The purpose of these fenced areas is often to keep unwanted herbivores out of the areas. Because there are no threats to the invasive plants that can take over intensively managed fenced areas, they can flourish without predatory threats. Finally, in general, invasive species have traits that favor their survival. Most invasive species are extremely resilient and have traits that favor their establishment in areas where they are not native. These traits, along with the intensive management of the fenced areas, create an ideal environment in which these invasive species can thrive.
|
||||
Primary geomorphological effects of invasive plants are bioconstruction and bioprotection. For example, kudzu (Pueraria montana), a vine native to Asia, was widely introduced in the southeastern United States in the early 20th century to control soil erosion. The primary geomorphological effects of invasive animals are bioturbation, bioerosion, and bioconstruction. For example, invasions of the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) have resulted in higher bioturbation and bioerosion rates.
|
||||
A native species can also become harmful and effectively invasive to its native environment after human alterations to its food web. This has been the case with the purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus), which has decimated kelp forests along the northern California coast due to overharvesting of its natural predator, the California sea otter (Enhydra lutris).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Species-based mechanisms ===
|
||||
|
||||
Invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases, these characteristics include rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases, invasive species interact with native species other more directly. One study found that 86% of invasive species could be identified from such traits alone. Another study found that invasive species often had only a few of the traits, and that noninvasive species had these also. Common invasive species traits include fast growth and rapid reproduction, such as vegetative reproduction in plants; association with humans; and prior successful invasions. Domestic cats (Felis catus) are effective predators of wildlife. They have become feral and invasive in places such as the Florida Keys.
|
||||
An introduced species might become invasive if it can outcompete native species for resources. If these species evolved under great competition or predation, then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate. Ecosystems used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero-sum systems, in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native. However, such unilateral competitive superiority (and extinction of native species with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule.
|
||||
27
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-2.md
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27
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Invasive species"
|
||||
chunk: 3/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An invasive species might be able to use resources previously unavailable to native species, such as deep water accessed by a long taproot, or to live on previously uninhabited soil types. For example, barbed goatgrass (Aegilops triuncialis) was introduced to California on serpentine soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high magnesium/calcium ratio, and possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to show low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils and crowd out native species.
|
||||
Invasive species may also alter their environment by releasing chemical compounds, modifying abiotic factors, or affecting the behavior of herbivores, all of which can impact other species. Some, like mother of thousands (Kalanchoe daigremontana), produce allelopathic compounds that inhibit competitors. Others like the toad plant (Stapelia gigantea) facilitate the growth of seedlings of other species in arid environments by providing appropriate microclimates and preventing herbivores from eating seedlings.
|
||||
Changes in fire regimens are another form of facilitation. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), originally from Eurasia, is highly fire-adapted. It spreads rapidly after burning, and increases the frequency and intensity of fires by providing large amounts of dry detritus during the fire season in western North America. Where it is widespread, it has altered the local fire regimen so much that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing it to become dominant in its introduced range.
|
||||
Ecological facilitation occurs where one species, including invasive species, physically modifies a habitat in ways advantageous to other species. For example, zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) increase habitat complexity on lake floors, providing crevices in which invertebrates live. This increase in complexity, together with the nutrition provided by the waste products of mussel filter-feeding, increases the density and diversity of benthic invertebrate communities.
|
||||
Introduced species may spread rapidly and unpredictably. When bottlenecks and founder effects cause a great decrease in the population size and may constrict genetic variation, individuals begin to show additive variance as opposed to epistatic variance. This conversion can lead to increased variance in the founding populations, which permits rapid evolution. Selection may then act on the capacity to disperse as well as on physiological tolerance to new stressors in the environment, such as changed temperature and different predators and prey.
|
||||
Rapid adaptive evolution through intraspecific phenotypic plasticity, pre-adaptation, and post-introduction evolution lead to offspring that have higher fitness. Critically, plasticity permits changes to better suit the individual to its environment. Pre-adaptations and evolution after the introduction reinforce the success of the introduced species.
|
||||
The enemy release hypothesis states that evolution leads to ecological balance in every ecosystem. No single species can occupy a majority of an ecosystem due to the presences of competitors, predators, and diseases. Introduced species moved to a novel habitat can become invasive, with rapid population growth, when these controls do not exist in the new ecosystem.
|
||||
|
||||
== Vectors ==
|
||||
Non-native species have many vectors, but most are associated with human activity. Natural range extensions are common, but humans often carry specimens faster and over greater distances than natural forces. An early human vector occurred when prehistoric humans introduced the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) to Polynesia.
|
||||
Humans have historically acted as vectors, both deliberately and accidentally. During the colonial era, there were acclimatization societies that aimed to deliberately establish animals and plants that were recognizable to Europeans. These societies felt that this would be an "improvement" to nature by adding species that were nostalgic and valuable. Another reason for deliberate introduction was that some species are thought to act as biocontrol. The cane toad was introduced in Australia in hopes of controlling the cane beetle population. Cane beetles are pests of the sugar cane crop. While only 100 toads were initially imported, there are now over 200 million present in Australia. Another example of animal introduction is the Indian mongoose, which was introduced in Hawaii to control the rat population as the rats were damaging sugar cane yields. This, however, ended up being ineffective because rats are nocturnal while the mongoose is diurnal. Their introduction ended up causing new problems for the island's ecosystems.
|
||||
|
||||
Vectors also include plants or seeds imported for horticulture. The pet trade moves animals across borders, where they can escape and become invasive. Organisms may also stow away on transport vehicles. Incidental human assisted transfer is the main cause of introductions – other than in polar regions. Diseases may be vectored by invasive insects: the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri) carries the bacterial disease citrus greening. The arrival of invasive propagules to a new site is a function of the site's invasibility.
|
||||
Many invasive species, once they are dominant in the area, become essential to the ecosystem of that area, and their removal could be harmful. Economics plays a major role in exotic species introduction. High demand for the valuable Chinese mitten crab is one explanation for the possible intentional release of the species in foreign waters.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Within the aquatic environment ===
|
||||
Maritime trade has rapidly affected the way marine organisms are transported within the ocean; new means of species transport include hull fouling and ballast water transport. In fact, Molnar et al. 2008 documented the pathways of hundreds of marine invasive species and found that shipping was the dominant mechanism for the transfer of invasive species.
|
||||
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-3.md
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|
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title: "Invasive species"
|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Many marine organisms can attach themselves to vessel hulls. Such organisms are easily transported from one body of water to another, and are a significant risk factor for a biological invasion event. Controlling for vessel hull fouling is voluntary and there are no regulations currently in place to manage hull fouling. However, the governments of California and New Zealand have announced more stringent control for vessel hull fouling within their respective jurisdictions.
|
||||
Another vector of non-native aquatic species is ballast water taken up at sea and released in port by transoceanic vessels. Some 10,000 species are transported via ballast water each day. Many of these are harmful. For example, freshwater zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) from Eurasia most likely reached the Great Lakes via ballast water. The mussels outcompete native organisms for oxygen and food, and can be transported in the small puddle left in a supposedly empty ballast tank. Regulations attempt to mitigate such risks, not always successfully.
|
||||
Climate change is causing an increase in ocean temperature. These changes to the environment in turn cause range shifts in organisms, creating new species interactions. For example, organisms in a ballast tank of a ship traveling from the temperate zone through tropical waters may experience temperature fluctuations as much as 20 °C. Heat challenges during transport may enhance the stress tolerance of species in their non-native range, by selecting for genotypes that will survive a second applied heat stress, such as increased ocean temperature in the founder population.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Effects of wildfire and firefighting ===
|
||||
Invasive species often exploit disturbances to an ecosystem (wildfires, roads, foot trails) to colonize an area. Large wildfires can sterilize soils, while adding nutrients.
|
||||
Invasive plants that can regenerate from their roots then have an advantage over natives that rely on seeds for propagation.
|
||||
|
||||
== Adverse effects ==
|
||||
Invasive species can affect the invaded habitats, communities, and ecosystems adversely, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ecological ===
|
||||
The European Union defines "Invasive Alien Species" as those that are outside their natural distribution area, and that threaten biological diversity. Biotic invasion is one of the five top drivers for global biodiversity loss, and is increasing because of tourism and globalization. This may be particularly true in inadequately regulated fresh water systems, though quarantines and ballast water rules have improved the situation.
|
||||
|
||||
Invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via competitive exclusion, niche displacement, or hybridization with related native species. Therefore, besides their economic ramifications, alien invasions may result in extensive changes in the structure, composition and global distribution of the biota at sites of introduction, leading ultimately to the homogenization of the world's fauna and flora and the loss of biodiversity. It is difficult to unequivocally attribute extinctions to a species invasion, though for example there is strong evidence that the extinction of about 90 amphibian species was caused by the chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) spread by international trade.
|
||||
Multiple successive introductions of different non-native species can worsen the total effect, as with the introductions of the amethyst gem clam (Gemma gemma) and the European green crab (Carcinus maenas). The gem clam was introduced into California's Bodega Harbor from the US East Coast a century ago. On its own, it did not displace native clams (Nutricola spp.). However, in the mid-1990s, the introduction of the European green crab resulted in an increase of the amethyst gem at the expense of the native clams. In India, multiple invasive plants have invaded 66% of natural areas, reducing the densities of native forage plants, declining the habitat-use by wild herbivores and threatening the long-term sustenance of dependent carnivores, including tigers.
|
||||
Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the fire regime (e.g., cheatgrass, Bromus tectorum), nutrient cycling (e.g., smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora), and hydrology (e.g.,Tamarix) in native ecosystems. Invasive species that are closely related to rare native species have the potential to hybridize with the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinction of native species. For example, hybridization with introduced cordgrass threatens the existence of California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa) in San Francisco Bay. Invasive species cause competition for native species, and because of this 400 of the 958 endangered species under the Endangered Species Act are at risk.
|
||||
|
||||
The unintentional introduction of forest pest species and plant pathogens can change forest ecology and damage the timber industry. Overall, forest ecosystems in the U.S. are widely invaded by exotic pests, plants, and pathogens.
|
||||
The Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) was first introduced into the U.S. in 1996, and was expected to infect and damage millions of acres of hardwood trees. As of 2005 thirty million dollars had been spent in attempts to eradicate this pest and protect millions of trees in the affected regions. The woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) has inflicted damage on old-growth spruce, fir and hemlock forests and damages the Christmas tree industry. Chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch elm disease (Ascomycota) are plant pathogens with serious impacts. Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) is one of the most problematic invasive plant species in eastern North American forests, where it is highly invasive of the understory, reducing the growth rate of tree seedlings and threatening to modify the forest's tree composition.
|
||||
|
||||
Native species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution. Genetic pollution is unintentional hybridization and introgression, which leads to homogenization or replacement of local genotypes as a result of either a numerical or fitness advantage of the introduced species. Genetic pollution occurs either through introduction or through habitat modification, where previously isolated species are brought into contact with the new genotypes. Invading species have been shown to adapt to their new environments in a remarkably short amount of time. The population size of invading species may remain small for a number of years and then experience an explosion in population, a phenomenon known as "the lag effect".
|
||||
29
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|
||||
title: "Invasive species"
|
||||
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|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
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instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Hybrids resulting from invasive species interbreeding with native species can incorporate their genotypes into the gene pool over time through introgression. Similarly, in some instances a small invading population can threaten much larger native populations. For example, cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) was introduced in the San Francisco Bay and hybridized with native California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa). The higher pollen count and male fitness of the invading species resulted in introgression that threatened the native populations due to lower pollen counts and lower viability of the native species. Reduction in fitness is not always apparent from morphological observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal, and preserves constellations of genes and genotypes. An example of this is the interbreeding of migrating coyotes (Canis latrans) with the critically endangered red wolf (Canis rufus), in areas of eastern North Carolina where the red wolf was reintroduced, reducing wolf numbers.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Environmental ===
|
||||
In South Africa's Cape Town region, analysis demonstrated that the restoration of priority source water sub-catchments through the removal of thirsty alien plant invasions (such as Australian acacias, pines, eucalyptus, and Australian black wattle) would generate expected annual water gains of 50 billion liters within 5 years compared to the business-as-usual scenario (which is important as Cape Town experiences significant water scarcity). This is the equivalent to one-sixth of the city's current supply needs. These annual gains will double within 30 years. The catchment restoration is significantly more cost-effective then other water augmentation solutions (1/10 the unit cost of alternative options). A water fund has been established, and these exotic species are being eradicated.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Human health ===
|
||||
Invasive species can affect human health. With the alteration in ecosystem functionality (due to homogenization of biota communities), invasive species have resulted in negative effects on human well-being, which includes reduced resource availability, unrestrained spread of human diseases, recreational and educational activities, and tourism. Alien species have caused diseases including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), monkey pox, and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).
|
||||
Invasive species and accompanying control efforts can have long term public health implications. For instance, pesticides applied to treat a particular pest species could pollute soil and surface water. Encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems has exposed exotic diseases such as HIV to the wider population. Introduced birds (e.g. pigeons), rodents, and insects (e.g. mosquito, flea, louse and tsetse fly pests) can serve as vectors and reservoirs of human afflictions. Throughout recorded history, epidemics of human diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, typhus, and bubonic plague, spread via these vectors. A recent example of an introduced disease is the spread of the West Nile virus, which killed humans, birds, mammals, and reptiles. The introduced Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) are carriers of Asian lung fluke. Waterborne disease agents, such as cholera bacteria (Vibrio cholerae), and causative agents of harmful algal blooms are often transported via ballast water.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Economic ===
|
||||
|
||||
Globally, invasive species management and control are substantial economic burdens, with expenditures reaching approximately $1.4 trillion annually. The economic impact of invasive species alone was estimated to exceed $423 billion annually as of 2019. This cost has exhibited a significant increase, quadrupling every decade since 1970, underscoring the escalating financial implications of these biological invasions.
|
||||
Invasive species contribute to ecological degradation, altering ecosystem functionality and reducing the services ecosystems provide. This necessitates additional expenditures to control the spread of biological invasions, mitigate further impacts, and restore affected ecosystems. For example, the damage caused by 79 invasive species between 1906 and 1991 in the United States has been estimated at US$120 billion. Similarly, in China, invasive species have been reported to reduce the country's gross domestic product (GDP) by 1.36% per year.
|
||||
The management of biological invasions can be costly. In Australia, for instance, the expense to monitor, control, manage, and research invasive weed species is approximately AU$116.4 million per year, with costs directed solely to central and local governments.
|
||||
While, in some cases, invasive species may offer economic benefits—such as the potential for commercial forestry from invasive trees—these benefits are generally overshadowed by the substantial costs associated with biological invasions. In most cases, the economic returns from invasive species are far less than the costs they impose.
|
||||
|
||||
==== United States ====
|
||||
In the Great Lakes region the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) is an invasive species. In its original habitat, it had co-evolved as a parasite that did not kill its host. However, in the Great Lakes region, it acts as a predator and can consume up to 40 pounds of fish in its 12–18 month feeding period. Sea lampreys prey on all types of large fish such as lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and salmon. The sea lampreys' destructive effects on large fish negatively affect the fishing industry and have helped cause the collapse of the population of some species.
|
||||
Economic costs from invasive species can be separated into direct costs through production loss in agriculture and forestry, and management costs. Estimated damage and control costs of invasive species in the U.S. amount to more than $138 billion annually. Economic losses can occur through loss of recreational and tourism revenues. When economic costs of invasions are calculated as production loss and management costs, they are low because they do not consider environmental damage; if monetary values were assigned to the extinction of species, loss in biodiversity, and loss of ecosystem services, costs from impacts of invasive species would drastically increase. It is often argued that the key to invasive species management is early detection and rapid response. However, early response only helps when the invasive species is not frequently reintroduced into the managed area, and the cost of response is affordable.
|
||||
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|
||||
title: "Invasive species"
|
||||
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|
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Weeds reduce yield in agriculture. Many weeds are accidental introductions that accompany imports of commercial seeds and plants. Introduced weeds in pastures compete with native forage plants, threaten young cattle (e.g., leafy spurge, Euphorbia virgata) or are unpalatable because of thorns and spines (e.g., yellow starthistle, Centaurea solstitialis). Forage loss from invasive weeds on pastures amounts to nearly US$1 billion in the U.S. A decline in pollinator services and loss of fruit production has been caused by honey bees (Apis mellifera) infected by the invasive varroa mite (Varroa destructor). Introduced rats (Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus) have become serious pests on farms, destroying stored grains. The introduction of leaf miner flies (Agromyzidae), including the American serpentine leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii), to California has caused losses in California's floriculture industry, as the larvae of these invasive species feed on ornamental plants.
|
||||
Invasive plant pathogens and insect vectors for plant diseases can suppress agricultural yields and harm nursery stock. Citrus greening is a bacterial disease vectored by the invasive Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri). As a result, citrus is under quarantine and highly regulated in areas where the psyllid has been found.
|
||||
Invasive species can impact outdoor recreation, such as fishing, hunting, hiking, wildlife viewing, and water-based activities. They can damage environmental services including water quality, plant and animal diversity, and species abundance, though the extent of this is under-researched. Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) in parts of the US, fills lakes with plants, complicating fishing and boating. The loud call of the introduced common coqui (Eleutherodactylus coqui) depresses real estate values in affected neighborhoods of Hawaii. The large webs of the orb-weaving spider (Zygiella x-notata), invasive in California, disrupts garden work.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Europe ====
|
||||
The overall economic cost of invasive alien species in Europe between 1960 and 2020 has been estimated at around US$140 billion (including potential costs that may or may not have actually materialized) or US$78 billion (only including observed costs known to have materialized). These estimates are very conservative. Models based on these data suggest a true annual cost of around US$140 billion in 2020.
|
||||
Italy is one of the most invaded countries in Europe, with an estimate of more than 3,000 alien species. The impacts of invasive alien species on the economy has been wide-ranging, from management costs, to loss of crops, to infrastructure damage. The overall economic cost of invasions to Italy between 1990 and 2020 was estimated at US$819.76 million (EUR€704.78 million). However, only 15 recorded species have more reliably estimated costs, hence the actual cost may be much larger than the aforementioned sum.
|
||||
France has an estimated minimum of 2,750 introduced and invasive alien species. Renault et al. (2021) obtained 1,583 cost records for 98 invasive alien species and found that they caused a conservative total cost between US$1.2 billion and 11.5 billion over the period 1993–2018. This study extrapolated costs for species invading France, but for which costs were reported only in other countries but not in France, which yielded an additional cost ranging from US$151 million to $3.03 billion. Damage costs were nearly eight times higher than management expenditure. Insects, and in particular the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and the yellow fever mosquito (A. aegypti), created the highest economic costs, followed by non-graminoid terrestrial flowering and aquatic plants (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Ludwigia sp. and Lagarosiphon major). Over 90% of alien species currently recorded in France had no costs reported in the literature, resulting in high biases in taxonomic, regional and activity sector coverages. However, the lack of reports does not mean there are no negative consequences or costs.
|
||||
|
||||
== Favorable effects ==
|
||||
|
||||
The consensus of the scientific community is that the effects of invasive species on biodiversity are primarily negative, despite the potential for some favorable impacts. The entomologist Chris D. Thomas argues that most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species but this is a minority opinion.
|
||||
Some invasive species can provide a suitable habitat or food source for other organisms. In areas where a native has become extinct or reached a point that it cannot be restored, non-native species can fill their role despite having negative impacts elsewhere. For instance, in the US, the endangered southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii) mainly nests in the non-native tamarisk.
|
||||
The introduced mesquite (Neltuma juliflora) is an aggressive invasive species in India, but is the preferred nesting site of native waterbirds in small cities like Udaipur in Rajasthan. Similarly, Ridgway's rail (Rallus obsoletus) has adapted to the invasive hybrid of Spartina alterniflora and Spartina foliosa, which offers better cover and nesting habitat. In Australia, saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus), which had become endangered, have recovered by feeding on introduced feral pigs (Sus domesticus).
|
||||
Non-native species can provide ecosystem services, functioning as biocontrol agents to limit the effects of invasive agricultural pests. Some species have invaded an area so long ago that they are considered to have naturalised there. In the US, the endangered Taylor's checkerspot butterfly (Euphydryas editha taylori) has come to rely on invasive ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata) as the food plant for its caterpillars.
|
||||
Some invasions offer potential commercial benefits. For instance, silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) can be harvested for human food and exported to markets already familiar with the product, or processed into pet foods or mink feed. Water hyacinth (Pontederia crassipes) can be turned into fuel by methane digesters, and other invasive plants can be harvested and utilized as a source of bioenergy.
|
||||
|
||||
== Control, eradication, and study ==
|
||||
Humans are versatile enough to remediate adverse effects of species invasions. The public is motivated by invasive species that impact their local area.
|
||||
The control of alien species populations is important in the conservation of biodiversity in natural ecosystem. Previous studies and control programs that target invasives are the most effective during the earlier phases of invasion, such as eliminating founder population quickly before the introduced species can spread. One of the most promising methods for controlling alien species is genetic.
|
||||
33
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---
|
||||
title: "Invasive species"
|
||||
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|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cargo inspection and quarantine ===
|
||||
The original motivation was to protect against agricultural pests while still allowing the export of agricultural products. In 1994 the first set of global standards were agreed to, including the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). These are overseen by the World Trade Organization. The International Maritime Organization oversees the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (the Ballast Water Management Convention). Although primarily targeted at other, more general environmental concerns, the Convention on Biological Diversity does specify some steps that its members should take to control invasive species. The CBD is the most significant international agreement on the environmental consequences of invasive species; most such measures are voluntary and unspecific.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Slowing spread ===
|
||||
Firefighters are becoming responsible for decontamination of their own equipment, public water equipment, and private water equipment, due to the risk of aquatic invasive species transfer. In the United States this is especially a concern for wildland firefighters because quagga (Dreissena bugensis) and zebra (Dreissena polymorpha) mussel invasion and wildfires co-occur in the American West.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Reestablishing species ===
|
||||
|
||||
Island restoration deals with the eradication of invasive species on islands. A 2019 study suggests that if eradications of invasive animals were conducted on just 169 islands, the survival prospects of 9.4% of the Earth's most highly threatened terrestrial insular vertebrates would be improved.
|
||||
Invasive vertebrate eradication on islands aligns with United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 and associated targets.
|
||||
Rodents were carried to South Georgia, an island in the southern Atlantic Ocean with no permanent inhabitants, in the 18th century by sealing and whaling ships. They soon wrought havoc on the island's bird population, eating eggs and attacking chicks. In 2018, the South Georgia Island was declared free of invasive rodents after a multi-year extermination effort. Bird populations have rebounded, including the South Georgia pipit (Anthus antarcticus) and South Georgia pintail (Anas georgica georgica), both endemic to the island.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Taxon substitution ===
|
||||
|
||||
Non-native species can be introduced to fill an ecological engineering role that previously was performed by a native species now extinct. The procedure is known as taxon substitution. On many islands, tortoise extinction has resulted in dysfunctional ecosystems with respect to seed dispersal and herbivory. On the offshore islets of Mauritius, tortoises now extinct had served as the keystone herbivores. Introduction of the non-native Aldabra giant tortoises (Aldabrachelys gigantea) on two islets in 2000 and 2007 has begun to restore ecological equilibrium. The introduced tortoises are dispersing seeds of several native plants and are selectively grazing invasive plant species. Grazing and browsing are expected to replace ongoing intensive manual weeding, and the introduced tortoises are already breeding.
|
||||
|
||||
=== By using them as food ===
|
||||
|
||||
The practice of eating invasive species to reduce their populations has been explored. In 2005, Chef Bun Lai of Miya's Sushi in New Haven, Connecticut, created the first menu dedicated to invasive species. At that time, half the items on the menu were conceptual because those invasive species were not yet commercially available. By 2013, Miya's offered invasive aquatic species such as Chesapeake blue catfish (Ictalurus furcatus), Florida lionfish (Pterois sp.), Kentucky silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), Georgia cannonball jellyfish (Stomolophus meleagris), and invasive plants such as Japanese knotweed (Reynoutria japonica) and autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata). Joe Roman, a Harvard and University of Vermont conservation biologist and recipient of the Rachel Carson Environmental award, runs a website named "Eat The Invaders". In the 21st century, organizations including Reef Environmental Educational Foundation and the Institute for Applied Ecology have published cookbooks and recipes using invasive species as ingredients. Invasive plant species have been explored as a sustainable source of beneficial phytochemicals and edible protein.
|
||||
Proponents of eating invasive organisms argue that humans have the ability to eat away any species that it has an appetite for, pointing to the many animals which humans have been able to hunt to extinction—such as the Caribbean monk seal (Neomonachus tropicalis) and the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius). They further point to Jamaica's success in significantly decreasing the population of lionfish by encouraging the consumption of the fish. Skeptics point out that once a foreign species has entrenched itself in a new place—such as the Indo-Pacific lionfish that has now virtually taken over the waters of the western Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico—eradication is almost impossible. Critics argue that encouraging consumption might have the unintended effect of spreading harmful species even more widely.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pesticides and herbicides ===
|
||||
Pesticides are commonly used to control invasives. Herbicides used against invasive plants include fungal herbicides. Although the effective population size of an introduced population is bottlenecked, some genetic variation has been known to provide invasive plants with resistance against these fungal bioherbicides. Invasive populations of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) exist with resistance to Ustilago bullata used as a biocontrol, and a similar problem has been reported in Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium vimineum) subject to Bipolaris microstegii and B. drechsleri. This is not solely a character of invasive plant genetics but is normal for wild plants such as the weed wild flax (Linum marginale) and its fungal pathogen flax rust (Melampsora lini). Crops have another disadvantage over any uncontrolled plant – wild native or invasive – namely their greater uptake of nutrients, as they are deliberately bred to increase nutrient intake to enable increased product output.
|
||||
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-7.md
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|
||||
title: "Invasive species"
|
||||
chunk: 8/9
|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gene drive ===
|
||||
A gene drive could be used to eliminate invasive species and has, for example, been proposed as a way to eliminate invasive mammal species in New Zealand. Briefly put, an individual of a species may have two versions of a gene, one with a desired coding outcome and one not, with offspring having a 50:50 chance of inheriting one or the other. Genetic engineering can be used to inhibit inheritance of the non-desired gene, resulting in faster propagation of the desired gene in subsequent generations. Gene drives for biodiversity conservation purposes are being explored as part of The Genetic Biocontrol of Invasive Rodents program because they offer the potential for reduced risk to non-target species and reduced costs when compared to traditional invasive species removal techniques. A wider outreach network for gene drive research exists to raise awareness of the value of gene drive research for the public good. Some scientists are concerned that the technique could wipe out species in their original native habitats. The gene could mutate, causing unforeseen problems, or hybridize with native species.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Predicting invasive plants ===
|
||||
Accurately predicting the impacts of non-native plants can be an especially effective management option because most introductions of non-native plant species are intentional. Weed risk assessments attempt to predict the chances that a specific plant will have negative effects in a new environment, often using a standardized questionnaire. The resulting total score is associated with a management action such as "prevent introduction". Assessments commonly use information about the physiology, life history, native ranges, and phylogenetic relationships of the species evaluated. The effectiveness of the approach is debated.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Predicting invasive animals ===
|
||||
Invasive alien animal species can seriously affect human well-being and biodiversity. A hierarchical approach underpins the management measures used to lessen these effects, ranging from invasive species management to invasion prevention through early warning and quick response. Currently, a small number of research on invading mammals have employed spatially explicit models, and the majority of them only looked at a small number of species. The majority of the research employed climate matching to assess the appropriateness of global geographic regions or the potential for established species to spread farther. For species that are not yet established but are anticipated to do so, modelling techniques may be a helpful tool to evaluate the risk of establishment; nevertheless, there aren't many research of this kind for mammals.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Returning invasive species to origin country ===
|
||||
In 2025, for the first time in history, a project to return an invasive species to the country it came from has been started in the Hebrides in Scotland. Hedgehogs "native to the UK mainland" were brought to those islands decades ago to fight garden pests, but the introduction caused severe harm to birds which nested on the ground. The authorities decided to move them back to the mainland, helping the birds without harming the hedgehogs.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Government Regulations ===
|
||||
Government regulations offer another way to eradicate invasive species. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission (FWC) sponsors competitions aimed at removing lionfish from Florida waters. The challenge offers divers with prizes contingent on the number of lionfish each competitor successfully removes. Similarly, the FWC encourages local Floridians to collect invasive green iguanas and turn them into local government facilities. When the state undergoes cold snaps, these non-native lizards often freeze and become stunned allowing for the ease of collecting them. The FWC permits the killing of green iguanas year-round to combat the population.
|
||||
The state of Texas classifies feral hogs as invasive species. As such, hunting of these hogs is permitted and highly encouraged by the Texas government year-round. Methods described by the Texas State Government include trapping, corralling, aerial gunning (high-powered rifles discharged from individuals aboard helicopters), and tracking dogs. Many local governments across Texas also provide bounties that encourage hunters to increase pressure on the feral hog populations.
|
||||
The state of Idaho classifies walleye as an invasive species in their waters. These predatory fish pose a threat to native aquatic populations. Idaho Fish and Game officials strongly encourage anglers to harvest caught walleye year-round with no limits regarding amount or size. Similarly, the Indiana Department of Natural Resources classifies thirteen species of fish, including bighead carp and walking catfish, as invasive to Indiana waters and finds anglers not in violation of the Exotic Fish Rule only if the fish are killed immediately after being caught.
|
||||
52
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-8.md
Normal file
52
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species-8.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Invasive species"
|
||||
chunk: 9/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:41.562467+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Criticisms of the invasive species discourse ==
|
||||
The process of removing and classifying animals as invasive species is not without controversy. Several animal welfare movements have attempted to dissuade the eradication of invasive species. A main point of contention for these activists is the treatment of the invasive species during the eradication process. These proponents argue that the stigma surrounding an invasive species seemingly outweighs the notion that all animals are living beings that deserve respect and care. These activists acknowledge that invasive species contribute to more economic and environmental damage than every natural disaster combined but find the removal process largely unethical and cruel.
|
||||
Other animal activists reject the idea of labeling a species as invasive altogether. These activists posit the labeling of a species as ‘invasive’ constitutes wrongful discrimination that permits systemic violence on the creatures. Proponents of this subset of animal activism profess invasive species labeling is inherently arbitrary and a perpetuator of speciesism, a term coined by Peter Singer to describe the “misguided belief that one species is more important than another.” Once a species is determined to be legally invasive, those animals often fail to be protected by anti-cruelty statutes and inhumane killings of the species, like cane toads in Australia, become commonplace.
|
||||
A growing contingent of scientists, ecologists, and animal welfare activists caution utilizing the term ‘invasive’ for species migrating to new ecosystems. Scientists disclose that climate change has begun pushing species such as white-tailed deer, armadillos, lobsters, unicorn snails, and even maple trees to pursue new ecosystems, a migration necessary to survive hotter temperatures. Rather than labeling these species as invasive, this contingent urges these animals should be welcomed as refugees. The term ‘invasive’ compares these species to enemies in war which warps the public perception of the innocent animals’ livelihood and welfare.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Adventive plant
|
||||
Archaeophyte
|
||||
Climate change and invasive species
|
||||
Ecologically based invasive plant management
|
||||
Escaped plant
|
||||
Hemerochory
|
||||
Invasion genetics
|
||||
Lists of invasive species
|
||||
Naturalisation (biology)
|
||||
Neophyte (botany)
|
||||
Seed dispersal
|
||||
100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Attribution ===
|
||||
This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference
|
||||
|
||||
=== Citations ===
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Mitchell, Heidi J.; Bartsch, Detlef (January 21, 2020). "Regulation of GM Organisms for Invasive Species Control". Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 7 454. doi:10.3389/fbioe.2019.00454. PMC 6985037. PMID 32039172.
|
||||
Removing Threat from Invasive Species with Genetic Engineering—Science in the News
|
||||
Sheppard, Andy; et al. (September 4, 2023). "The true damage of invasive alien species was just revealed in a landmark report. Here's how we must act". The Conversation.
|
||||
White, Michael (13 Dec 2017) [6 Dec 2017]. "Should We Fight Invasive Species with Genetic Engineering?" Pacific Standard.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
North American Invasive Species Network, a consortium that uses a coordinated network to advance science-based understanding and enhance management of non-native, invasive species.
|
||||
Great Britain Non-native Species Secretariat (NNNS) website
|
||||
CABI Invasive Species Compendium, an encyclopaedic resource of scientific information
|
||||
Invasive Species, National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library
|
||||
Invasive Species Specialist Group – Global Invasive Species Database
|
||||
Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk project
|
||||
invadingspecies.com of the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunters
|
||||
Aquatic invasive species in Ireland, Inland Fisheries Ireland
|
||||
Invasive alien species in Belgium Belgian Forum on Invasive Species (BFIS)
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_limnology"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:15:40.323130+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:42.892030+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
35
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing-0.md
Normal file
35
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Limbing"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbing"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:45.539083+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Limbing or delimbing is the process of removing branches from a standing or fallen tree trunk.
|
||||
|
||||
In logging, limbing follows felling.
|
||||
Limbing plays a role in fire prevention by removing branches from live trees that can otherwise serve as part of a fuel ladder allowing a fire to climb from the ground into the tree canopy. A California fire prevention guide recommends to "Remove all tree branches at least 6 feet [1.8 meters] from the ground" and "Allow extra vertical space between shrubs and trees."
|
||||
In British English, limbing can be synonymous with snedding. Alternatively, limbing can be used to describe the operation on larger branches, and snedding on smaller.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== In logging ==
|
||||
Options for cutting off the branches include chain saws, harvesters, stroke delimbers and others. Limbing can happen at the stump in log/tree length systems and cut-to-length systems or at the landing in whole-tree logging.
|
||||
|
||||
When the tree is lying on the ground, branches may be storing enormous potential energy through mechanical strain. When a branch is cut, often with a chain saw, this energy can be released suddenly and the branch can jump dangerously. In addition, a branch may be supporting the tree, and the tree can fall or roll when the branch is cut. For these reasons, limbing is a skilled operation requiring careful safety planning.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Axe
|
||||
Chainsaw
|
||||
Felling
|
||||
Fuel ladder
|
||||
Hewing
|
||||
Logging
|
||||
Log bucking
|
||||
Feller buncher
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,167 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of waste management acronyms"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following article contains a list of acronyms and initials used in the waste management industry.
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
AATF Approved Authorised Treatment Facility
|
||||
ABPO Animal By-Products Order
|
||||
ABPR Animal By-Products Regulations
|
||||
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
|
||||
ACE Alliance of Beverage Cartons and the Environment
|
||||
ACL Approved Carriers List
|
||||
ACM Asbestos Containing Material
|
||||
ACoP Approved Code of Practice
|
||||
ACP Advisory Committee on Packaging
|
||||
AD Anaerobic Digestion
|
||||
ADBA Anaerobic Digestion & Biogas Association
|
||||
ADI Acceptable Daily Intake
|
||||
ADR Accord Europeen Relatif aux Transport International des Marchandises Dangereuses par Route, a European treaty concerned with the international carriage of dangerous goods by road
|
||||
AE Approved Exporter
|
||||
AfOR Association for Organics Recycling
|
||||
ALANI Association of Local Authorities in Northern Ireland
|
||||
ALARP As Low As Reasonably Practicable
|
||||
ALCO Association of London Cleansing Officers
|
||||
ANPR Automatic Number Plate Recognition
|
||||
APC Air Pollution Control
|
||||
APCR Air Pollution Control Residue
|
||||
APSRG Associate Parliamentary Sustainable Resource Group
|
||||
AR Accredited Reprocessor
|
||||
ARF Advanced Recycling Fee
|
||||
ARM Alternative Raw Material
|
||||
ASBO Anti Social Behaviour Order
|
||||
ASR Automotive Shredder Residue
|
||||
ASSURE Association for Sustainable Use and Recovery of Resources
|
||||
ATEX Atmosphères Explosives Directive 94/9/EC
|
||||
ATF Authorised Treatment Facility (e.g. for the treatment of end-of-life vehicles (see ELV) and waste electrical and electronic equipment (see WEEE))
|
||||
ATT Advanced Thermal Treatment
|
||||
AV Abandoned Vehicle/s
|
||||
AVAC Automated Vacuum Collection
|
||||
AWC Alternate Weekly Collections
|
||||
AWCS Automated Waste Collection System
|
||||
AWTT Alternative Waste Treatment Technologies
|
||||
AWP Area Waste Plan
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
BAN Basel Action Network
|
||||
BANANA Build absolutely nothing anywhere near anything
|
||||
BAT (NEEC) Best available technique (not entailing excessive costs)
|
||||
BATRRT Best Available Treatment Recycling and Recovery Technology
|
||||
BCS Batteries Compliance Scheme
|
||||
BDF Biodiesel fuel
|
||||
BFR Brominated Flame Retardant
|
||||
BIFM British Institute of Facilities Management
|
||||
BMRA British Metals Recycling Association
|
||||
BMT Biological Mechanical Treatment
|
||||
BMW Biodegradable Municipal Waste
|
||||
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
|
||||
BOO Build Own Operate
|
||||
BOT Build Operate Transfer
|
||||
BPEO Best Practicable Environmental Option
|
||||
BPF British Plastics Federation
|
||||
BPPO Best Practicable Planning Option
|
||||
BRBA Buy Recycled Business Alliance (Australia)
|
||||
BREEAM Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method
|
||||
BREF BAT Reference Note
|
||||
BREW(p) Business Resource Efficiency and Waste programme
|
||||
BRITE Better Regulation in the Environment (Environment Agency initiative)
|
||||
BRE Building Research Establishment
|
||||
BSI British Standards Institute
|
||||
BSI PAS 100 Specification for composted materials
|
||||
BSI PAS 101 Recovered container glass: Specification for quality and guidance for good practice in collection
|
||||
BSI PAS 102 Specification for processed glass for selected secondary end markets
|
||||
BSI PAS 103 Collected waste plastics packaging: Specification for quality and guidance for good practice in collection and preparation for recycling
|
||||
BSI PAS 104 Wood recycling in the panelboard manufacturing industry: Specification for quality and guidance for good practice for the supply of post consumer wood for consumption in the manufacture of panelboard products
|
||||
BSI PAS 105 Recovered paper sourcing and quality for UK end markets
|
||||
BSI PAS 107 Specification for the manufacture and storage of size reduced tyre materials
|
||||
BSI PAS 108 Specification for the production of tyre bales for use in construction
|
||||
BSI PAS 109 Specification for the production of recycled gypsum from waste plasterboard
|
||||
BSI PAS 110 Specification for whole digestate, separated liquor and separated fibre derived from the anaerobic digestion of source-segregated biodegradable materials
|
||||
BSI PAS 111 Specification for the requirements and test methods for processing waste wood
|
||||
BSI PAS 141 Reuse of used and waste electrical and electronic equipment (UEEE and WEEE). Process management - Specification
|
||||
BVPI Best Value Performance Indicator
|
||||
BVPP Best Value Performance Plan
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
CA Civic amenity site
|
||||
CAFÉ Clean Air For Europe programme
|
||||
CATNAP Cheapest Available Technology Narrowly Avoiding Prosecution
|
||||
CATNIP Cheapest Available Technology Not Involving Prosecution
|
||||
CAVE Citizens against virtually everything
|
||||
CBI Confederation of British Industry
|
||||
CBM Compressed Biomethane
|
||||
CCGT Combined cycle gas turbine
|
||||
CCHP Combined cooling, heating and power
|
||||
CCL Climate Change Levy
|
||||
CCT Compulsory Competitive Tendering
|
||||
C&D Construction and demolition (e.g. C&D waste)
|
||||
CDG(CPL) Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail (Classification, Packaging and Labelling) Regulations 1994
|
||||
CEC Commission of the European Communities
|
||||
CEMP Construction Environmental Management Plan
|
||||
CEN Comite Europeen de Normalisation (European Committee for Standardization)
|
||||
CEWEP Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants
|
||||
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
|
||||
CfSH Code for Sustainable Homes
|
||||
CHEM Container Handling Equipment Manufacturers
|
||||
CHIP Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations
|
||||
CHP Combined heat and power
|
||||
CHPA Combined Heat and Power Association
|
||||
C&I Commercial and industrial (e.g. C&I waste)
|
||||
CIPFA Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy
|
||||
CIWEM Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management
|
||||
CIWM Chartered Institution of Wastes Management
|
||||
CIWMB California Integrated Waste Management Board
|
||||
CL:AIRE Contaminated Land: Application In Real Environments CLAIRE
|
||||
CLEA Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment
|
||||
CLO Compost-like output
|
||||
CLR Contaminated Land Register
|
||||
CNEA Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act
|
||||
COD Chemical oxygen demand or certificate of destruction
|
||||
COMAH Control of Major Accident Hazards
|
||||
COPA Control of Pollution Act
|
||||
COPLR Code of Practice for Litter and Refuse
|
||||
CoRWM Committee on Radioactive Waste Management
|
||||
COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
|
||||
CoTC Certificate of Technical Competence
|
||||
CPA Comprehensive Performance Assessment
|
||||
CRC CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme (formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment)
|
||||
CRC Community recycling centre
|
||||
CRN Community Recycling Network
|
||||
CRNS Community Recycling Network for Scotland
|
||||
CRR Campaign for Real Recycling
|
||||
CRT Cathode-ray tube
|
||||
CSER Corporate, social and environmental responsibilities
|
||||
CSR Corporate social responsibility
|
||||
CSTR Continuous stirred-tank reactor
|
||||
CV Calorific value
|
||||
CWMRE Creating Welsh Markets for Recyclates
|
||||
CWP Cheshire Waste Partnership
|
||||
CWR Controlled Waste Regulations
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
DAC Dense Asphaltic Concrete
|
||||
DBFO Design Build Finance and Operate
|
||||
DCF Designated Collection Facility
|
||||
DCLG Department for Communities and Local Government
|
||||
DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change
|
||||
DECLG Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government (Ireland)
|
||||
DEFRA Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
|
||||
DGXI Directorate General of the European Commission responsible for the Environment
|
||||
DLGE Department of Local Government and the Environment (Isle of Man)
|
||||
DMR Dry Mixed Recyclables
|
||||
DoC Duty of Care
|
||||
DOENI Department for the Environment (Northern Ireland)
|
||||
DRI Dynamic Respiration Index
|
||||
DSD Duales System Deutschland
|
||||
DSO Direct Service Organisation
|
||||
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
|
||||
DTLR Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions
|
||||
DTS Distributor Takeback Scheme
|
||||
DWP Dorset Waste Partnership
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,198 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of waste management acronyms"
|
||||
chunk: 2/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
EA Enforcement Agency
|
||||
EBRA European Battery Recycling Association
|
||||
ECN European Compost Network
|
||||
EDIE Environmental Data Interactive Exchange
|
||||
eDoC Electronic Duty of Care
|
||||
EEA European Environment Agency
|
||||
EfW Energy-from-Waste
|
||||
EGSB Expanded Granular Sludge Bed
|
||||
EHO Environmental health officer
|
||||
EHS Environment & Heritage Service (Northern Ireland)
|
||||
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
|
||||
EIC Environmental Industries Commission
|
||||
EIR Environmental Information Regulations
|
||||
ELSEF East London Sustainable Energy Facility
|
||||
ELV End of Life Vehicles
|
||||
ELWA East London Waste Authority
|
||||
EMAS Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
|
||||
EMS Environmental Management System
|
||||
ENTRUST The European Trust Scheme Regulatory Body
|
||||
ENCAMS Environmental Campaigns (umbrella name for former Going for Green and Tidy Britain Group)
|
||||
EP Environmental Permit
|
||||
EPA Environmental Protection Act or Environmental Protection Agency
|
||||
EPERN Electronic Packaging Waste Export Recovery Notes
|
||||
EPOW European Pathway to Zero Waste
|
||||
EPR Environmental Permitting Regulations
|
||||
EPRN Electronic Packaging Waste Recovery Notes
|
||||
EPS Expanded Polystyrene
|
||||
ERFO European Recovered Fuels Organisation
|
||||
ERI Energy Recovery Incineration
|
||||
ES Environmental Statement
|
||||
ESA Environmental Services Association
|
||||
ESWET European Suppliers of Waste-to-Energy Technology
|
||||
ETBC Electronics TakeBack Coalition
|
||||
ETRMA European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers' Association
|
||||
ETS Emissions Trading Scheme
|
||||
ETSU Energy Technology Support Unit
|
||||
EUHWL EU Hazardous Waste List (now incorporated into EWC)
|
||||
EUROPEN European Organization for Packaging and the Environment
|
||||
EWC European Waste Catalogue
|
||||
EWP Essex Waste Partnership
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
FABRA Foodchain & Biomass Renewables Association
|
||||
FAPP Fit And Proper Person
|
||||
FBA Furnace Bottom Ash
|
||||
FCC Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas
|
||||
FEAD Fédération Européenne des Activités du Déchet et de l’Environnement European Federation of Waste Management and Environmental Services
|
||||
FEL Front End Loader
|
||||
FGT Flue Gas Treatment
|
||||
FOE Friends of the Earth
|
||||
FORWARRD Forum for Waste and Resource Research and Development
|
||||
FPN Fixed Penalty Notice
|
||||
Frag Fragmentised Waste (e.g. from the vehicle recycling industry)
|
||||
FTE Full-time equivalent
|
||||
FWD Food Waste Disposer
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
GAIA Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives
|
||||
GCV Gross Calorific Value
|
||||
GHG Greenhouse Gas
|
||||
GIB Green Investment Bank
|
||||
GIS Geographical Information System
|
||||
GLA Greater London Authority
|
||||
GMWDA Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority
|
||||
GWP Global Warming Potential
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
HCRW Healthcare Risk Waste
|
||||
HCW Healthcare Waste
|
||||
HDPE High Density Polyethylene
|
||||
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon
|
||||
HHW Household Hazardous Waste
|
||||
HIPS High Impact Polystyrene
|
||||
HLW High Level Waste
|
||||
HSC Health and Safety Commission
|
||||
HSE Health & Safety Executive
|
||||
HTI High Temperature Incineration
|
||||
HW Household waste
|
||||
HWOL HazWasteOnline (web-based tool for assessing and classifying hazardous waste)
|
||||
HWR Hazardous Waste Regulations
|
||||
HWRA Household Waste Recycling Act
|
||||
HWRC Household Waste Recycling Centre
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
IBA Incinerator Bottom Ash
|
||||
IBAA Incinerator Bottom Ash Aggregate
|
||||
ICE Institution of Civil Engineers
|
||||
ICER Industry Council for Electronic Equipment Recycling
|
||||
ICW International Catering Waste (catering waste from means of transport operating internationally)
|
||||
IED Industrial Emissions Directive
|
||||
ILW Intermediate Level Waste
|
||||
INCPEN Industry Council for Packaging and the Environment
|
||||
IPP Integrated Product Policy
|
||||
IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
|
||||
ISRI Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries
|
||||
ISWA International Solid Waste Association
|
||||
IVC In-vessel Composting
|
||||
IWM Integrated Waste Management or Institute of Wastes Management
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
JMWMS Joint Municipal Waste Management Strategy
|
||||
JWA Joint Waste Authority
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
KAT Kerbside Assessment Tool
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
LA Local Authority
|
||||
LAAPC Local Authority Air Pollution Control
|
||||
LACMW Local Authority Collected Municipal Waste (household and commercial waste where collected by the local authority and which is similar in nature and composition as required by the Landfill Directive)
|
||||
LACW Local Authority Collected Waste (all waste collected by the local authority. This is a slightly broader concept than LACMW as it would include both this and non-municipal fractions such as construction and demolition waste)
|
||||
LAPC Local Air Pollution Control
|
||||
LARAC Local Authority Recycling Advisory Committee
|
||||
LAS Landfill Allowance Scheme
|
||||
LASU Local Authority Support Unit
|
||||
LATS Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme
|
||||
LAWAS Local Authority Waste Arisings Survey
|
||||
LAWDC Local Authority Waste Disposal Company
|
||||
LCA Life Cycle Analysis/Assessment
|
||||
LCF Landfill Communities Fund
|
||||
LCW Low Carbon Waste
|
||||
LCPD Large Combustion Plant Directive
|
||||
LDPE Low Density Polyethylene
|
||||
LEA Local Enforcement Agency
|
||||
LEL Lower Explosive Limit
|
||||
LFD Landfill Directive
|
||||
LFG Landfill Gas
|
||||
LFT Landfill Tax
|
||||
LGA Local Government Association
|
||||
LHIP Landfill and Hazardous Waste Implementation Programme
|
||||
LIM Loose Incinerator Metals
|
||||
LLDPE Linear Low Density Polyethylene e.g. plastic wrap and stretch wrap
|
||||
LLW Low Level Waste
|
||||
LOLER Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998
|
||||
LOW List of Wastes
|
||||
LPSA Local Public Service Agreement
|
||||
LTCS Landfill Tax Credit Scheme
|
||||
LWaRB London Waste and Recycling Board
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
MTD Metric Ton per Day
|
||||
MAC Maximum Allowable Concentration
|
||||
MBI Mass Burn Incineration
|
||||
MBT Mechanical Biological Treatment
|
||||
MCA Municipal Collection Authority
|
||||
MCERTS Monitoring Certification Scheme
|
||||
MCDA Multi Criteria Decision Analysis
|
||||
MDC Metropolitan District Council
|
||||
MDR Mixed Dry Recyclables
|
||||
MEL Maximum Exposure Limit
|
||||
MHSWR Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations
|
||||
MHT Mechanical Heat Treatment
|
||||
MMRCV Multi-Modal Refuse Collection Vehicle
|
||||
MREC Materials Recovery and Energy Centre
|
||||
MRF Materials Recovery Facility (or Recycling or Factory)
|
||||
MRWA Merseyside Recycling and Waste Authority formerly known as Merseyside Waste Disposal Authority
|
||||
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
|
||||
MSWI Municipal Solid Waste Incineration
|
||||
MVDA Motor Vehicle Dismantlers Association
|
||||
MWDA Merseyside Waste Disposal Authority as of December 2011 renamed as Merseyside Recycling and Waste Authority
|
||||
MWLP Minerals and Waste Local Plan
|
||||
MWMS Municipal Waste Management Strategy
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
NAWDO National Association of Waste Disposal Officers
|
||||
NCAS National Compliance Assessment Service
|
||||
NCH National Clearing House
|
||||
NCV Net calorific value
|
||||
NELVS Natural End of Life Vehicles
|
||||
NFFO Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation
|
||||
NGG New Generation Group (CIWM programme renamed New Member Network)
|
||||
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
|
||||
NHHWF National Household Hazardous Waste Forum
|
||||
NIEA Northern Ireland Environment Agency
|
||||
NIMBY Not In My Back-Yard
|
||||
NISP National Industrial Symbiosis Programme
|
||||
NLWA North London Waste Authority
|
||||
NOF New Opportunities Fund
|
||||
NPWD National Packaging Waste Database
|
||||
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission (US)
|
||||
NSIP Nationally significant infrastructure project
|
||||
NVQ National Vocational Qualification
|
||||
NWCPO: National Waste Collection Permit Office (in Ireland)
|
||||
NWMRF National Waste Minimisation & Recycling Fund
|
||||
NWP National Waste Plan or Norfolk Waste Partnership
|
||||
NWPA Nuclear Waste Policy Act
|
||||
NEST Nigerian Environmental Study Action Team
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,209 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of waste management acronyms"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waste_management_acronyms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:19:28.439949+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
OBB Old Boxboard
|
||||
OCC Old Corrugated Containers
|
||||
ODPM Office of the Deputy Prime Minister
|
||||
ODS Ozone Depleting Substance
|
||||
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
|
||||
OFGEM Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Great Britain)
|
||||
OFWAT Office of Water Services (England and Wales)
|
||||
OJEU Official Journal of the European Union
|
||||
OMA Operator Monitoring Assessment
|
||||
OPRA Operator Pollution Risk Appraisal
|
||||
ORA Oil Recycling Association
|
||||
OWP Oxfordshire Waste Partnership
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
PAFA Packaging and Films Association
|
||||
pams Periodicals and Magazines
|
||||
PAS Publicly Available Specification
|
||||
PAYT Pay As You Throw
|
||||
PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl
|
||||
PCS Producer Compliance Scheme
|
||||
PELVs Premature End of Life Vehicles (relatively new cars which have not survived the expected life span that most vehicle manufacturers build into their vehicles)
|
||||
PERN Packaging Export Recovery Note
|
||||
PET Polyethylene Terephthalate
|
||||
PFI Private Finance Initiative
|
||||
PIU Performance and Innovation Unit
|
||||
PM Particulate Matter, airborne (e.g. PM 10 ~ particles under 10 micrometres)
|
||||
PP Polypropylene
|
||||
PP Proximity Principle
|
||||
PPC Pollution Prevention and Control Act
|
||||
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
|
||||
PPG Planning Policy Guidance Notes (e.g. PPG 10 for waste management)
|
||||
PPP Public Private Partnership or Polluter-pays principle
|
||||
PPS Planning Policy Statement
|
||||
PR Producer Responsibility
|
||||
PRF Plastics Reclamation Facility
|
||||
PRN Packaging Recovery Note
|
||||
PS Polystyrene
|
||||
PSA Public Service Agreement
|
||||
PUWER Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations
|
||||
PVB Polyvinyl Butyral
|
||||
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
QMS Quality Management System
|
||||
QP Quality Protocol
|
||||
QUANGO Quasi Autonomous Non-Governmental Organisation
|
||||
QESH Quality, Environment, Safety and Health
|
||||
QUENSH QUality, ENvironment, Safety and Health
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
3Rs Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
|
||||
RAD Rotary Aerobic Digestion
|
||||
RAG Recycling Advisory Group, Scotland
|
||||
RCE Regional Centre of Excellence
|
||||
RCEP Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
|
||||
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (US)
|
||||
RCV Refuse Collection Vehicle
|
||||
RDA Regional Development Agency (all abolished in England on 31 March 2012)
|
||||
RDF Refuse Derived Fuel
|
||||
REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals
|
||||
RECAP Recycling in Cambridgeshire and Peterborough
|
||||
RECOUP Recycling Of Used Plastics
|
||||
REL Rear End Loader
|
||||
REMADE Recycled Market Development
|
||||
REPAC Regional Environmental Protection Advisory Committee
|
||||
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
|
||||
RIA Regulatory Impact Assessment
|
||||
RID Regulations concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail
|
||||
RIDDOR Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995
|
||||
RGN Regulatory Guidance Note
|
||||
RMA U.S. Rubber Manufacturers Association
|
||||
RO Renewables Obligation
|
||||
ROC Renewables Obligation Certificates
|
||||
RoHS Restriction of Hazardous Substances
|
||||
RoRo Rolonof/Roll-on Roll-off, demountable container system
|
||||
ROTATE Recycling and Organic Technology Advisory Team
|
||||
RSA Recycled & Secondary Aggregate
|
||||
RSA Restoring Sustainable Abstraction
|
||||
RTAB Regional Technical Advisory Body
|
||||
RVM Reverse Vending Machine
|
||||
RWM Recycling and Waste Management Exhibition
|
||||
RWMO Radioactive Waste Management Organisation
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
|
||||
SEI Sustainable Electronics Initiative
|
||||
SELCHP South East London Combined Heat and Power
|
||||
SEPA Scottish Environment Protection Agency
|
||||
SGV Soil Guideline Value
|
||||
SIG Special Interest Group of CIWM
|
||||
SLF Secondary Liquid Fuel
|
||||
SLWP South London Waste Partnership
|
||||
SMDSA Sanitary Medical Disposal Services Association
|
||||
SNIFFER Scotland and Northern Ireland Forum for Environmental Research
|
||||
SNRHW Stable Non-Reactive Hazardous Wastes
|
||||
SocEnv Society for the Environment
|
||||
SRB Single Regeneration Budget
|
||||
SRF Secondary Recovered Fuel or Solid or Specified
|
||||
SSWAT Site Specific Waste Analysis Tool
|
||||
STA Source Testing Association
|
||||
SWA Solid Waste Analysis
|
||||
SWAG Scottish Waste Advisory Group
|
||||
SWCN Special Waste Consignment Note
|
||||
SWDF Solid Waste Disposal Facilities
|
||||
SWDWP South West Devon Waste Partnership
|
||||
SWEN Special Waste Explanatory Note
|
||||
SWF Strategic Waste Fund (Scotland)
|
||||
SWM Sustainable Waste Management
|
||||
SWMA Strategic Waste Management Assessment
|
||||
SWP Shropshire Waste Partnership or Somerset Waste Partnership or Surrey Waste Partnership
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
TAC Technical Adaptation Committee
|
||||
TAD Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion
|
||||
TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
|
||||
TAN Technical Advice Note (Wales)
|
||||
TEEP Technically, Environmentally and Economically Practicable
|
||||
TEF Toxic Equivalent Factor
|
||||
TFS Transfrontier Shipment
|
||||
THP Thermal hydrolysis
|
||||
TLS Transfer Loading Station
|
||||
tpa tonnes per annum
|
||||
TRACS Tyre Recovery Activity Compliance Scheme (Ireland)
|
||||
TRAID Textile Recycling for Aid and International Development
|
||||
TRF Thermal Recovery Facility
|
||||
TRIF Technology and Research Innovation Fund
|
||||
TT Thermal Treatment
|
||||
TUPE Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment)
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
UA Unitary Authority
|
||||
UASB Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion
|
||||
UBC Used Beverage Can
|
||||
UDP Unitary Development Plan
|
||||
UEL Upper Explosive Limit
|
||||
UEEE Used Electrical and Electronic Equipment
|
||||
UKELA UK Environmental Law Association
|
||||
UKWIN United Kingdom Without Incineration
|
||||
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
|
||||
UROC United Resource Operators Confederation
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
VCU Vertical Composting Units
|
||||
VLLW Very Low Level Waste
|
||||
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
|
||||
VRQ Vocationally Related Qualification
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
WAC Waste Acceptance Criteria
|
||||
WAG Welsh Assembly Government
|
||||
WAMITAB Waste Management Industry Training & Advisory Board
|
||||
WARRAG Waste And Resources Research Advisory Group
|
||||
WCA Waste Collection Authority
|
||||
WDA Waste Disposal Authority
|
||||
WDF WasteDataFlow (web-based system for municipal waste data reporting by UK local authorities)
|
||||
WEEE Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
|
||||
WET Waste and Emissions Trading Act 2003
|
||||
WFD Waste Framework Directive
|
||||
WID Waste Incineration Directive
|
||||
WIP Waste Implementation Programme
|
||||
WIPP Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
|
||||
WISARD Waste Integrated Systems Assessment for Recovery and Disposal
|
||||
WLP Waste Local Plan
|
||||
WLWA West London Waste Authority
|
||||
WM2 Technical Guidance WM2 Hazardous Waste: Interpretation of the definition and classification of hazardous waste
|
||||
WMF Waste Management Facility
|
||||
WML Waste Management Licence (replaced by Environmental Permits)
|
||||
WMP Waste Management Plan
|
||||
WMPEG Waste Minimisation Performance and Efficiency Grant
|
||||
WMS Waste Management Strategy
|
||||
WRAP Waste and Resources Action Programme
|
||||
WRATE Waste and Resources Assessment Tool for the Environment
|
||||
WRG Waste Recycling Group
|
||||
WRWA Western Riverside Waste Authority
|
||||
WS2007 Waste Strategy for England 2007 (superseded by the Waste Management Plan for England (2013))
|
||||
WSA Waste Strategy Area (e.g. 11 WSAs in Scotland)
|
||||
WtE Waste-to-Energy
|
||||
WTF Waste Transfer Facility
|
||||
WTN Waste Transfer Note
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
XRF X-Ray Fluorescence (i.e. checking for the presence of metals in waste plastics)
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
YNYWMP York and North Yorkshire Waste Management Partnership
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
ZWS Zero Waste Scotland
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Chartered Institution of Wastes Management
|
||||
List of waste management concepts
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Waste management acronyms
|
||||
Waste on All Acronyms
|
||||
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population-0.md
Normal file
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Minimum viable population"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_population"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:46.854078+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Minimum viable population (MVP) is a lower bound on the population of a species, such that it can survive in the wild. This term is commonly used in the fields of biology, ecology, and conservation biology. MVP refers to the smallest possible size at which a biological population can exist without facing extinction from natural disasters or demographic, environmental, or genetic stochasticity. The term "population" is defined as a group of interbreeding individuals in similar geographic area that undergo negligible gene flow with other groups of the species. Typically, MVP is used to refer to a wild population, but can also be used for ex situ conservation (Zoo populations).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Estimation ==
|
||||
There is no unique definition of what constitutes a sufficient population for the continuation of a species, because whether a species survives will depend to some extent on random events. Thus, any calculation of a minimum viable population (MVP) will depend on the population projection model used. A set of random (stochastic) projections might be used to estimate the initial population size needed (based on the assumptions in the model) for there to be, (for example) a 95% or 99% probability of survival 1,000 years into the future. Some models use generations as a unit of time rather than years in order to maintain consistency between taxa. These projections (population viability analyses, or PVA) use computer simulations to model populations using demographic and environmental information to project future population dynamics. The probability assigned to a PVA is arrived at after repeating the environmental simulation thousands of times.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Extinction ==
|
||||
|
||||
Small populations are at a greater risk of extinction than larger populations due to small populations having less capacity to recover from adverse stochastic (i.e. random) events. Such events may be divided into four sources:
|
||||
|
||||
Demographic stochasticity
|
||||
Demographic stochasticity is often only a driving force toward extinction in populations with fewer than 50 individuals. Random events influence the fecundity and survival of individuals in a population, and in larger populations, these events tend to stabilize toward a steady growth rate. However, in small populations there is much more relative variance, which can in turn cause extinction.
|
||||
Environmental stochasticity
|
||||
Small, random changes in the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem that a population inhabits fall under environmental stochasticity. Examples are changes in climate over time and the arrival of another species that competes for resources. Unlike demographic and genetic stochasticity, environmental stochasticity tends to affect populations of all sizes.
|
||||
Natural catastrophes
|
||||
An extension of environmental stochasticity, natural disasters are random, large scale events such as blizzards, droughts, storms, or fires that directly reduce a population within a short period of time. Natural catastrophes are the hardest events to predict, and MVP models often have difficulty factoring them in.
|
||||
Genetic stochasticity
|
||||
Small populations are vulnerable to genetic stochasticity, the random change in allele frequencies over time, also known as genetic drift. Genetic drift can cause alleles to disappear from a population, and this lowers genetic diversity. In small populations, low genetic diversity can increase rates of inbreeding, which can result in inbreeding depression, in which a population made up of genetically similar individuals loses fitness. Inbreeding in a population reduces fitness by causing deleterious recessive alleles to become more common in the population, and also by reducing adaptive potential. The so-called "50/500 rule", where a population needs 50 individuals to prevent inbreeding depression, and 500 individuals to guard against genetic drift at-large, is an oft-used benchmark for an MVP, but 2014 guidance indicates this rule is not applicable across a wide diversity of taxa.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Application ==
|
||||
MVP does not take external intervention into account. Thus, it is useful for conservation managers and environmentalists; a population may be increased above the MVP using a captive breeding program or by bringing other members of the species in from other reserves.
|
||||
There is naturally some debate on the accuracy of PVAs, since a wide variety of assumptions are generally required for forecasting; however, the important consideration is not absolute accuracy but the promulgation of the concept that each species indeed has an MVP, which at least can be approximated for the sake of conservation biology and Biodiversity Action Plans.
|
||||
There is a marked trend for insularity, surviving genetic bottlenecks, and r-strategy to allow far lower MVPs than average. Conversely, taxa easily affected by inbreeding depression –having high MVPs – are often decidedly K-strategists, with low population densities occurring over a wide range. An MVP of 500 to 1,000 has often been given as an average for terrestrial vertebrates when inbreeding or genetic variability is ignored. When inbreeding effects are included, estimates of MVP for many species are in the thousands. Based on a meta-analysis of reported values in the literature for many species, Traill et al. reported concerning vertebrates "a cross-species frequency distribution of MVP with a median of 4,169 individuals (95% CI = 3,577–5,129)."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Effective population size
|
||||
Inbreeding depression
|
||||
Human population
|
||||
Metapopulation
|
||||
Rescue effect
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-0.md
Normal file
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Mycoremediation"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:48.181489+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Mycoremediation (from ancient Greek μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus", and the suffix -remedium, in Latin meaning 'restoring balance') is a form of bioremediation in which fungi-based remediation methods are used to decontaminate the environment. Fungi have been proven to be a cheap, effective and environmentally sound way for removing a wide array of contaminants from damaged environments or wastewater. These contaminants include heavy metals, organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning chemicals and wastewater, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicides in land, fresh water, and marine environments.
|
||||
The byproducts of the remediation can be valuable materials themselves, such as enzymes (like laccase), edible or medicinal mushrooms, making the remediation process even more profitable. Some fungi are useful in the biodegradation of contaminants in extremely cold or radioactive environments where traditional remediation methods prove too costly or are unusable.
|
||||
|
||||
== Pollutants ==
|
||||
|
||||
Fungi, thanks to their non-specific enzymes, are able to break down many kinds of substances including pharmaceuticals and fragrances that are normally recalcitrant to bacteria degradation, such as paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen). For example, using Mucor hiemalis, the breakdown of products which are toxic in traditional water treatment, such as phenols and pigments of wine distillery wastewater, X-ray contrast agents, and ingredients of personal care products, can be broken down in a non-toxic way.
|
||||
Mycoremediation is a cheaper method of remediation, and it doesn't usually require expensive equipment. For this reason, it is often used in small scale applications, such as mycofiltration of domestic wastewater, and industrial effluent filtration.
|
||||
According to a 2015 study, mycoremediation can even help with the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) soil biodegradation. Soils soaked with creosote contain high concentrations of PAH and in order to stop the spread, mycoremediation has proven to be the most successful strategy.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Metals ===
|
||||
Pollution from metals is very common, as they are used in many industrial processes such as electroplating, textiles, paint and leather. The wastewater from these industries is often used for agricultural purposes, so besides the immediate damage to the ecosystem it is spilled into, the metals can enter creatures and humans far away through the food chain. Mycoremediation is one of the cheapest, most effective and environmental-friendly solutions to this problem.
|
||||
Many fungi are hyperaccumulators, therefore they are able to concentrate toxins in their fruiting bodies for later removal. This is usually true for populations that have been exposed to contaminants for a long time, and have developed a high tolerance. Hyperaccumulation occurs via biosorption on the cellular surface, where the metals enter the mycelium passively with very little intracellular uptake.
|
||||
A variety of fungi, such as Pleurotus, Aspergillus, and Trichoderma, have proven to be effective in the removal of lead, cadmium, nickel, chromium, mercury, arsenic, copper, boron, iron and zinc in marine environments, wastewater and on land.
|
||||
Not all the individuals of a species are effective in the same way in the accumulation of toxins. The single individuals are usually selected from an older polluted environment, such as sludge or wastewater, where they had time to adapt to the circumstances, and the selection is carried on in the laboratory. A dilution of the water can drastically improve the ability of biosorption of the fungi.
|
||||
|
||||
The capacity of certain fungi to extract metals from the ground also can be useful for bioindicator purposes, and can be a problem when the mushroom is of an edible variety. For example, the shaggy ink cap (Coprinus comatus), a common edible mushroom found in the Northern Hemisphere, can be a very good bioindicator of mercury. However, as the shaggy ink cap accumulates mercury in its body, it can be toxic to the consumer.
|
||||
The capacity of metals uptake of mushroom has also been used to recover precious metals from medium. For example, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland reported an 80% recovery of gold from electronic waste using mycofiltration techniques.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Organic pollutants ===
|
||||
|
||||
Fungi are amongst the primary saprotrophic organisms in an ecosystem, as they are efficient in the decomposition of matter. Wood-decay fungi, especially white rot, secrete extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are long-chain organic (carbon-based) compounds, structurally similar to many organic pollutants. They achieve this using a wide array of enzymes. In the case of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), complex organic compounds with fused, highly stable, polycyclic aromatic rings, fungi are very effective in addition to marine environments. The enzymes involved in this degradation are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, general lipase, laccase and sometimes intracellular enzymes, especially the cytochrome P450.
|
||||
Other toxins fungi are able to degrade into harmless compounds include petroleum fuels, phenols in wastewater, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in contaminated soils using Pleurotus ostreatus, polyurethane in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, such as conditions at the bottom of landfills using two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis, and more.
|
||||
|
||||
The mechanisms of degradation are not always clear, as the mushroom may be a precursor to subsequent microbial activity rather than individually effective in the removal of pollutants.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pesticides ===
|
||||
Pesticide contamination can be long-term and have a significant impact on decomposition processes and nutrient cycling. Therefore, their degradation can be expensive and difficult. The most commonly used fungi for helping in the degradation of such substances are white rot fungi, which, thanks to their extracellular ligninolytic enzymes like laccase and manganese peroxidase, are able to degrade high quantity of such components. Examples includes the insecticide endosulfan, imazalil, thiophanate methyl, ortho-phenylphenol, diphenylamine, chlorpyrifos in wastewater, and atrazine in clay-loamy soils.
|
||||
39
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-1.md
Normal file
39
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Mycoremediation"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoremediation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:48.181489+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Dyes ===
|
||||
Dyes are used in many industries, like paper printing or textile. They are often recalcitrant to degradation and in some cases, like some azo dyes, carcinogenic or otherwise toxic.
|
||||
The mechanism by which the fungi degrade dyes is via their lignolytic enzymes, especially laccase, therefore white rot mushrooms are the most commonly used.
|
||||
Mycoremediation has proven to be a cheap and effective remediation technology for dyes such as malachite green, nigrosin and basic fuchsin with Aspergillus niger and Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Congo red, a carcinogenic dye recalcitrant to biodegradative processes, direct blue 14 (using Pleurotus).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pentachlorophenol ===
|
||||
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) has been used worldwide as a wood preservative, biocides and for the bleaching of paper or tissues. PCP toxicity and extensive use has placed it among the worst environmental pollutants, and therefore its microbiological degradation to develop bioremediation techniques has been intensively studied.
|
||||
Microorganisms play an important role in the field of environmental science by degrading and transforming PCP into non-toxic or less toxic forms. Naturally how completely and efficiently PCP degradation occurs depends by microorganisms and the environmental conditions.There are numerous studies that focus research efforts on degradation of PCP by pure and mixed cultures of aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Conditions that inhibit and enhance degradation, and pathways, intermediates and enzyme systems implicated essentially in PCP degradation especially by bacteria such as Pseudomonas spp., Flavobacterium spp., Nocardioides spp., Novosphingobium spp., Desulfitobacterium spp., Mycobacterium spp., Sphingomonas sp., Kokuria spp., Bacillus spp., Serratia sp. and Acinetobacter spp. and fungi such as Phanerochaete spp., Anthracophyllum spp., Trametes spp., Mucor spp., Byssochlamys spp. and Scopulariopsis spp.
|
||||
|
||||
== Synergy with phytoremediation ==
|
||||
Phytoremediation is the use of plant-based technologies to decontaminate an area.
|
||||
Most land plants can form a symbiotic relationship with fungi which is advantageous for both organisms. This relationship is called mycorrhiza. Researchers found that phytoremediation is enhanced by mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizal fungi's symbiotic relationships with plant roots help with the uptake of nutrients and the plant's ability to resist biotic and abiotic stress factors such as heavy metals bioavailable in the rhizosphere. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) produce proteins that bind heavy metals and thereby decrease their bioavailability. The removal of soil contaminants by mycorrhizal fungi is called mycorrhizoremediation.
|
||||
Mycorrhizal fungi, especially AMF, can greatly improve the phytoremediation capacity of some plants. This is mostly due to the stress the plants suffer because of the pollutants is greatly reduced in the presence of AMF, so they can grow more and produce more biomass. The fungi also provide more nutrition, especially phosphorus, and promote the overall health of the plants. The mycelium's quick expansion can also greatly extend the rhizosphere influence zone (hyphosphere), providing the plant with access to more nutrients and contaminants. Increasing the rhizosphere overall health also means a rise in the bacteria population, which can also contribute to the bioremediation process.
|
||||
This relationship has been proven useful with many pollutants, such as Rhizophagus intraradices and Robinia pseudoacacia in lead contaminated soil, Rhizophagus intraradices with Glomus versiforme inoculated into vetiver grass for lead removal, AMF and Calendula officinalis in cadmium and lead contaminated soil, and in general was effective in increasing the plant bioremediation capacity for metals, petroleum fuels, and PAHs. In wetlands AMF greatly promote the biodegradation of organic pollutants like benzene-, methyl tert-butyl ether- and ammonia from groundwater when inoculated into Phragmites australis.
|
||||
|
||||
== Viability in extreme environments ==
|
||||
Antarctic fungi species such as Metschnikowia sp., Cryptococcus gilvescens, Cryptococcus victoriae, Pichia caribbica and Leucosporidium creatinivorum can withstand extreme cold and still provide efficient biodegradation of contaminants. Due to the nature of colder, remote environments like Antarctica, usual methods of contaminant remediation, such as the physical removal of contaminated media, can prove costly. Most species of psychrophilic Antarctic fungi are resistant to the decreased levels of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production causing reduced energy availability, decreased levels of oxygen due to the low permeability of frozen soil, and nutrient transportation disruption caused by freeze-thaw cycles. These species of fungi are able to assimilate and degrade compounds such as phenols, n-Hexadecane, toluene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in these harsh conditions. These compounds are found in crude oil and refined petroleum.
|
||||
Some fungi species, like Rhodotorula taiwanensis, are resistant to the extremely low pH (acidic) and radioactive medium found in radioactive waste and can successfully grow in these conditions, unlike most other organisms. They can also thrive in the presence of high concentrations of mercury and chromium. Fungi such as Rhodotorula taiwanensis can possibly be used in the bioremediation of radioactive waste due to their low pH and radiation resistant properties. Certain species of fungi are able to absorb and retain radionuclides such as 137Cs, 121Sr, 152Eu, 239Pu and 241Am. In fact, cell walls of some species of dead fungi can be used as a filter that can adsorb heavy metals and radionuclides present in industrial effluents, preventing them from being released into the environment.
|
||||
|
||||
== Fire management ==
|
||||
Mycoremediation can even be used for fire management with the encapsulation method. This process consists of using fungal spores coated with agarose in a pellet form, which is introduced to a substrate in the burnt forest, breaking down toxins and stimulating growth.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Compost
|
||||
Mycorestoration
|
||||
Mycorrhizal bioremediation
|
||||
Phytoremediation
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_dynamics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:10.796882+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:49.510606+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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