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+title: "Absent-minded professor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absent-minded_professor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:27.636609+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The absent-minded professor is a stock character of popular fiction, usually portrayed as a talented scholar whose academic brilliance is accompanied by below-par functioning in other areas, leading to forgetfulness and mistakes. One explanation of this is that highly-talented individuals often have unevenly distributed capabilities, being brilliant in their field of choice but below average on other measures of ability. Alternatively, they are considered to be so engrossed in their field of study that they forget their surroundings. The phrase is also commonly used in English to describe people who are so engrossed in their own world that they fail to keep track of their surroundings. It is a common stereotype that professors get so obsessed with their research that they pay little attention to anything else.
+The archetype is sometimes mixed with that of the mad scientist, often for comic effect, as in the Jerry Lewis film The Nutty Professor or the Professor Bacterio in the Mortadelo y Filemón comics and movies. However, a distinction is usually made that absent-minded professors are forgetful and careless rather than maliciously causing harm.
+
+
+== Examples of real scholars ==
+
+The archetype is very old: the ancient Greek biographer Diogenes Laërtius wrote that the philosopher Thales walked at night with his eyes focused on the heavens and, as a result, fell down a well. A similar story is recounted of the ancient Indian philosopher Akṣapāda Gautama, the author of the Nyaya Sutras. As per the story, Gautama was always so engrossed in contemplation, that he would not even see things directly in front of him. Owing to this, Brahmā granted him with eyes (akṣa) on his feet (pāda), so that he could navigate himself, thus giving him the name Akṣapāda.
+Thomas Aquinas, Isaac Newton, Adam Smith, André-Marie Ampère, Jacques Hadamard, Sewall Wright, Nikola Tesla, Norbert Wiener, Archimedes, Pierre Curie and Albert Einstein were all scholars considered to be absent-minded – their attention absorbed by their academic studies. William Archibald Spooner, who gave his name to the spoonerism, was known for his absent-mindedness and eccentricity.
+
+
+== Fictitious examples ==
+The fictional absent-minded professor is often a college professor of science or engineering; in the fantasy genre, a similar character may appear as a wizard. Examples of this include the characterisation of Merlin in The Sword in the Stone (particularly in the Disney adaptation) and Albus Dumbledore in the Harry Potter series. "Doc" Emmett Brown from Back to the Future is an example of an absent-minded scientist-inventor character. He is depicted as strange, eccentric, or insane. Another example is the title character in the film The Absent-Minded Professor and its less successful film remakes, all based on the short story "A Situation of Gravity" by Samuel W. Taylor. Examples in television include Professor Farnsworth in Futurama, Professor Frink in The Simpsons, Walter Bishop in the Fox television series Fringe, and Professor Von Schlemmer in Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog. Multo, one of the characters in the children's series The Zula Patrol, is another example of an absent-minded professor.
+Professor Kokintz in The Mouse That Roared by Leonard Wibberley is an example from literature. Professor Branestawm, created in the 1930s by Norman Hunter, is an earlier example of the archetype, and Jacques Paganel from the Jules Verne's 1867 novel In Search of the Castaways is probably the codifier of the archetype in the modern literature. Professor Caractacus Potts in the story of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang qualifies as an absent-minded inventor. Comic strip examples include Professor Calculus in The Adventures of Tintin; Eli Eon in Little Orphan Annie; the Professor in British comic Rupert Bear; and Professor Edgewise, a minor recurring character in Marvel Family stories. Isaac Kleiner from the Half-Life saga, Professor E. Gadd from the Luigi's Mansion series and Professor Harold MacDougal from Red Dead Redemption are examples in video games.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Asperger syndrome
+Autism
+Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive
+Creativity and mental illness
+Savant syndrome
+Wise old man
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_scientists_(meme)-0.md

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+---
+title: "British scientists (meme)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_scientists_(meme)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:30.272337+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In modern Russian culture, "British scientists" (Russian: Британские учёные, Britanskiye uchyonyye) is a running joke used as an ironic reference to absurd news reports about scientific discoveries: "British scientists managed to establish that..." It has also become a Russian internet meme. A similar joke, "British research" (Chinese: 英国研究 yīngguó yánjiū), exists in Chinese-speaking countries.
+
+
+== Description ==
+
+The crowdsourced Russian internet subculture encyclopedia Lurkmore defined the term as "a synonym for researchers working on pseudoscientific projects that are bonkers, idiotic and have absolutely no practical value".
+James Harkin wrote: "When they hear the phrase 'British scientists', Russians don't tend to think of Newton, Darwin or Faraday; nor do they think of Stephen Hawking or Peter Higgs. Instead, they are much more likely to think of psychologist Richard Stephens of Keele University, who determined that swearing can help reduce pain, or Olli Loukola of Queen Mary University of London, who has taught bumblebees how to play football".
+Typical news about "Британские учёные" [Britanskiye uchyonyye, "British scientists"] report that they:
+
+found out that people start lying as early as at 6 years old
+debunked the myth that mice love cheese
+invented non-stick bubble gum
+designed an ideal sandwich
+developed a universal vaccine
+
+
+== History ==
+Lurkmore writes that the meme started proliferating somewhere in 2003–2004 and attributes its spreading to a Pleshner, a user of dirty.ru who had made multiple posts all over runet. However, Russian linguist Maksim Krongauz remarks that all discoveries of "British scientists" reported by Pleshner have already been published in Russian media earlier. During the peak of popularity of the meme there were several websites (british.powernet.ru, british-science.ru, etc.) dedicated to the revelations of "British scientists".
+Krongauz writes that, as it goes with other internet memes, it is pointless to try to figure out why British, why not Japanese, nor American, not even English. The only thing is sure, he notes, that once the meme took off, it started to self-proliferate because journalists started putting slight spins on science news in its favor. For example, if there is a report about a British-American team, in the Russian version only British would be mentioned by nation, and of course, the title or the lede will most definitely say that British scientists did this or that. A similar opinion was expressed during a minipoll on what British scientists think about "British scientists" carried out in 2019 by the London-based Russophone Zima Magazine: popular media are routinely twisting the reports about scientific discoveries to make them clickbaity. For this reason Krongauz considers "British scientists" to be a special type of media virus, which not only thrives in reality but also slightly modifies it.
+Internet statistics seems to corroborate the approximate date of the emergence of the meme: before 2004 the terms "английские ученые" [English scientists] and "британские ученые" [British scientists] appeared with about the same frequency, but since the second half of 2004 the British ones took the lead, with the gap ever increasing.
+In 2015–2016 Russian popular science TV channel Science 2.0 [Наука 2.0] released a series of reports from England titled "British Scientists Have Proven..." [Британские ученые доказали] about real research projects that look weird or funny. Capitalizing on the meme, the channel suggests that the term is in fact similar to the concept of "mad scientist".
+The founder of the Ig Nobel Prize, Marc Abrahams suggested to  BBC News Russian that there is a rationale under the meme, which lies in a trait of British character: positive attitude to eccentricity. For this reason British scientists are not afraid to do and publish various kinds of eccentric research: sometimes it is simply funny, but sometimes this gives "a chance to do something really wonderful".
+
+
+== British analog ==
+The British have a similar concept referring to trivial, useless research, "University of the Bleedin' Obvious", coined in 2009 by two editors of The Independent, Steve Connor and Jeremy Lawrence, in a review of this kind of research. The "groundbreaking" reports they listed include:
+
+Images of bikini-clad women make men more sexist
+The fitter you are, the longer you will live
+Hurrying makes people less attentive
+Binge drinkers are more likely to fall over
+
+
+== See also ==
+Gulliver's Travels, the land of Laputa, where scientists were busy with various weird and utterly fruitless research, such as attempting to soften stones to use as pillows
+Ig Nobel Prize, annual satiric prize for unusual or trivial achievements in scientific research. There is a whole category:Ironic and humorous awards
+Junk science,  spurious or fraudulent scientific data, research, or analysis
+Blue skies research, scientific research which seems to have no practical value
+Florida Man, alleged prevalence of people performing irrational or maniacal actions in the U.S. state of Florida
+
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "European Platform of Women Scientists"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Platform_of_Women_Scientists"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:22.350149+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The European Platform of Women Scientists EPWS is an umbrella organisation bringing together networks of women scientists and organisations committed to gender equality in research in all disciplines in Europe 27 and the countries associated to the European Union's Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development. The Platform welcomes researchers working in any discipline and working in science in its widest sense, ranging from natural to social sciences, including, but not restricted to, science, engineering and technology. EPWS currently counts more than 100 member organisations, together working for more than 12.000 women researchers all over Europe active in academia and in industrial research.
+
+
+== Purpose ==
+Legally established as an international non-profit organisation under Belgian law (AISBL) in November 2005 and governed by an international, multidisciplinary Board of Administration of 11 high ranking women scientists, EPWS constitutes a new strategic instrument in European research policy, complementing various initiatives taken at the European level to ensure a better participation of women scientists in research and in the research policy process as well as the inclusion of the gender dimension in research.
+
+
+== Goals ==
+The platform's main goals are to:
+
+Network existing networks of women scientists and networks engaged in promoting women scientists in all disciplines and promote networking among women scientists, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe and in the private sector.
+Increase the participation of women scientists in European research and its decision-making bodies – as project researchers, leaders, and coordinators, in review and evaluation panels as well as high level expert groups.
+Increase the participation of women scientists in national and European research programmes, especially in the Seventh EU Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7).
+Promote the understanding and the inclusion of the gender dimension in science and research policy in all scientific fields as well as an inclusive, gender-sensitive notion of excellence and innovation.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

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+---
+title: "Frankenstein"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00"
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+---
+
+Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is an 1818 Gothic novel written by English author Mary Shelley. Frankenstein tells the story of Victor Frankenstein, a young scientist who creates a sapient creature from different body parts in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18 and staying in Bath, and the first edition was published anonymously in London on 1 January 1818, when she was 20. Her name first appeared in the second edition, which was published in Paris in 1821.
+Shelley travelled through Europe in 1815, moving along the river Rhine in Germany, and stopping in Gernsheim, 17 kilometres (11 mi) away from Frankenstein Castle, where, about a century earlier, Johann Konrad Dippel, an alchemist, had engaged in experiments. She then journeyed to the region of Geneva, Switzerland, where much of the story takes place. Galvanism and occult ideas were topics of conversation for her companions, particularly for her lover and future husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley.
+In 1816—at the suggestion of Lord Byron—Mary, Percy, John Polidori and Byron himself, each agreed to try writing a ghost story. 
+After thinking for days, Shelley was inspired to write Frankenstein after imagining a scientist who created life and was horrified by what he had made. The novel was first published anonymously in 1818, and in 1831, a revised edition was published under Mary Shelley's name. This version included significant stylistic revisions, a new preface describing the story's conception, and a more explicitly moral tone.
+Frankenstein is one of the best-known works of English literature. Infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement, it has had a considerable influence on literature and on popular culture, spawning a complete genre of horror stories, films, and plays. Since the publication of the novel, the name Frankenstein has often been used to refer to the monster.
+
+== Plot summary ==
+
+Victor Frankenstein, born in late 18th-century Naples to an upper-class Genevese family, spends his youth obsessed with alchemy. As he grows older, he develops an interest in modern sciences such as chemistry and electricity. After his mother Caroline dies of scarlet fever, Victor leaves home to attend the University of Ingolstadt. Through his studies, Victor discovers a new way to create life, assembling human body parts stolen from charnel houses and fresh graves, which he uses to create a large and grotesque humanoid creature. When the creature awakens, Victor is repelled by it and flees in terror, returning the next day to find the creature gone.
+The newly conscious creature runs away, discovers fire, and learns to avoid humans, who find him frightening. He finds a hovel attached to a small house, which lets him observe a family while remaining unseen. As the family teaches their language to a foreigner, the creature also learns to speak and write. He also finds a collection of books, including Paradise Lost, and learns to read. He reads some papers that had been in the clothes he had taken from Ingolstadt, through which he learns the truth of his origin and the identity of his creator. He finally reveals himself to the family's blind father while he is alone, who treats him with kindness. When the rest of the family return however, they are horrified by his appearance and chase him away. The creature then saves a young girl from drowning, only to be shot by her father, who had misunderstood, and thought the creature had attacked her. 
+Embittered by humanity, the creature travels to Geneva to confront his creator; upon arrival, he encounters Victor's younger brother, William. Realizing that William belongs to the same family, the creature kills him, then frames the family's servant Justine for his death. Victor suspects his creature was responsible, but does not intervene while Justine is tried and executed. Later, while hiking on Mer de Glace, Victor once more encounters the creature. The creature relays his story and asks Victor to create a female companion, which he believes will be his only chance at happiness. Victor consents to this.
+
+Victor and his friend Henry Clerval leave the European mainland for Britain, where Victor establishes a laboratory in Orkney. While working on the female creature, Victor imagines his creations giving birth, and fearfully decides to destroy the incomplete female. The original creature issues a warning that he will meet Victor on his wedding night, and murders Henry in an act of revenge. 
+Victor suffers a mental breakdown, then returns home. Back in Geneva, Victor marries Elizabeth Lavenza, a childhood friend born in Italy. Fulfilling his threat, the creature murders her on the wedding night. Days later, Victor's father Alphonse dies of grief. With no remaining family (besides his other brother Ernest), Victor vows revenge and pursues the creature, eventually following him to the Arctic.
+Chasing the creature across Arctic ice, Victor nearly dies from exhaustion and hypothermia, but is rescued by Captain Robert Walton, who is leading an expedition to the North Pole. Victor recounts his story to Walton and encourages the crew to continue their expedition; instead, they decide to abandon their journey and turn back. Victor vows that he will go on chasing the creature, but in his weakened state, he dies aboard the ship. As the ship leaves the Arctic, the creature comes on board. He mourns Victor's death, tells Walton he plans to burn himself on a pyre, and departs.
+
+== Author's background ==

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+---
+title: "Frankenstein"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00"
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+---
+
+Mary Shelley's mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, died from infection eleven days after giving birth to her. Shelley grew close to her father, William Godwin. Godwin hired a nurse, who briefly cared for her and her half-sister, before marrying his second wife, Mary Jane Clairmont, who did not like the close bond between Shelley and her father. The resulting friction caused Godwin to favour his other children.
+Shelley's father was a famous author of the time, and her education was of great importance to him, although it was not formal. Shelley grew up surrounded by her father's friends, writers, and persons of political importance, who often gathered at the family home. This inspired her authorship at an early age. Mary, at the age of sixteen, met Percy Bysshe Shelley (who later became her husband) while he was visiting her father. Godwin disapproved of the relationship between his daughter and an older, married man, so they fled to France along with her stepsister, Claire Clairmont. On 22 February 1815, Shelley gave birth prematurely to her first child, Clara, who died two weeks later.
+In the summer of 1816, Mary, Percy, and Claire took a trip to visit Claire's lover, Lord Byron, in Geneva. Poor weather conditions, more akin to winter, forced Byron and the visitors to stay indoors. Byron suggested that he, Mary, Percy, and Byron's physician, John Polidori, each try writing a ghost story. Mary was 20 years old when her novel Frankenstein was published.
+
+== Literary influences ==
+Shelley's work was heavily influenced by that of her parents. Her father was famous for his 1793 book Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and her mother famous for the 1792 essay A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Her father's novels also influenced her writing of Frankenstein. These novels included Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams (1794), St. Leon, and Fleetwood. All of these books were set in Switzerland, similar to the setting in Frankenstein. Some major themes of social affections and the renewal of life that appear in Shelley's novel stem from these works she had in her possession. Other literary influences that appear in Frankenstein are Pygmalion et Galatée by Madame de Genlis, and Ovid, with the use of individuals identifying the problems with society. Ovid also inspires the use of Prometheus in the book's subtitle.
+The influence of John Milton's Paradise Lost and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner are evident in the novel. In The Frankenstein of the French Revolution, author Julia Douthwaite posits that Shelley probably acquired some ideas for Frankenstein's character from Humphry Davy's book Elements of Chemical Philosophy, in which he had written that,
+
+science has ... bestowed upon man powers which may be called creative; which have enabled him to change and modify the beings around him ... 
+References to the French Revolution run through the novel; a possible source is François-Félix Nogaret's Le Miroir des événemens actuels, ou la Belle au plus offrant (1790), a political parable about scientific progress featuring an inventor named "Wak-wik-vauk-an-son-frankésteïn", then abridged as Frankésteïn, who creates a life-sized automaton. However there is no evidence Shelley had read it.
+Both Frankenstein and the monster quote passages from Percy Shelley's 1816 poem, "Mutability", and its theme of the role of the subconscious is discussed in prose. Percy Shelley's name never appears as the author of the poem, although the novel credits other quoted poets by name. Coleridge's poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1798) is associated with the theme of guilt and William Wordsworth's "Tintern Abbey" (1798) with that of innocence.
+Many writers and historians have attempted to associate several then-popular natural philosophers (now called physical scientists) with Shelley's work because of several notable similarities. Two of the most noted natural philosophers among Shelley's contemporaries were Italian Giovanni Aldini, who made many public attempts at human reanimation through bio-electric Galvanism in London, and Johann Konrad Dippel, who was supposed to have developed chemical means to extend the life span of humans. While Shelley was aware of both of these men and their activities, she makes no mention of or reference to them or their experiments in any of her published or released notes.
+Ideas about life and death discussed by Percy and Byron were of great interest to scientists of the time. They drew on the theories of Erasmus Darwin and the experiments of Luigi Galvani, as well as the work of James Lind. Mary joined these conversations, and the ideas of Darwin, Galvani, and perhaps Lind are reflected in her novel.
+Shelley's personal experiences also influenced the themes within Frankenstein. The themes of loss, guilt, and the consequences of defying nature present in the novel all developed from Mary Shelley's own life. The loss of her mother, the relationship with her father, and the death of her first child are thought to have inspired the monster and his separation from parental guidance. In a 1965 issue of The Journal of Religion and Health a psychologist proposed that the theme of guilt stemmed from her not feeling good enough for Percy because of the loss of their child.
+
+== Composition ==

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+---
+title: "Frankenstein"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00"
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+---
+
+During the rainy summer of 1816, the "Year Without a Summer", the world was locked in a long, cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815. Mary Shelley, aged 18, and her lover (and future husband), Percy Bysshe Shelley, visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva, in the Swiss Alps. The weather was too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until dawn.
+Sitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book Fantasmagoriana. Byron proposed that they "each write a ghost story." Unable to think of a story, Mary Shelley became anxious. She recalled being asked "Have you thought of a story?" each morning, and every time being "forced to reply with a mortifying negative." During one evening in the middle of summer, the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life. "Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated," Mary noted, "galvanism had given token of such things". It was after midnight before they retired and, unable to sleep, she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the "grim terrors" of her "waking dream".
+
+I saw the pale student of unhallowed arts kneeling beside the thing he had put together. I saw the hideous phantasm of a man stretched out, and then, on the working of some powerful engine, show signs of life, and stir with an uneasy, half vital motion. Frightful must it be; for supremely frightful would be the effect of any human endeavour to mock the stupendous mechanism of the Creator of the world.
+In September 2011, astronomer Donald Olson, after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa in the previous year and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars, concluded that her "waking dream" took place between 2 a.m. and 3 a.m. on 16 June 1816, several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a ghost story.
+
+Mary Shelley began writing what she assumed would be a short story, but with Percy Shelley's encouragement, she expanded the tale into a fully-fledged novel. She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment "when I first stepped out from childhood into life." Shelley wrote the first four chapters in the weeks following the suicide of her half-sister Fanny. This was one of many personal tragedies that impacted Shelley's work. Shelley's first child died in infancy, and when she began composing Frankenstein in 1816, she was probably nursing her second child, who was also dead by the time of Frankenstein's publication. 
+Shelley wrote much of the book while residing in a lodging house in the centre of Bath, England in 1816. According to The Guardian, "By all accounts, Shelley came to Bath to hide. Yet she found deep wells of inspiration while living in the shadow of the city's gothic abbey, particularly among Bath's medical community. Significantly, she was a contemporary of Dr Charles Wilkinson, a pioneer of medical electricity, and attended lectures at his laboratory around the corner from her lodgings when she was writing about Victor Frankenstein breaking taboos by using galvanism to shock life into a creature stitched together from dead body parts."
+Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans, and from this John Polidori created The Vampyre (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre. Thus two seminal horror tales originated from the conclave.
+The group talked about Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment ideas as well. Mary Shelley believed the Enlightenment idea that society could progress and grow if political leaders used their powers responsibly; however, she also believed the Romantic idea that misused power could destroy society.
+Shelley's manuscripts for the first three-volume edition in 1818 (written 1816–1817), as well as the fair copy for her publisher, are now housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The Bodleian acquired the papers in 2004, and they belong now to the Abinger Collection. In 2008, the Bodleian published a new edition of Frankenstein, edited by Charles E. Robinson, that contains comparisons of Mary Shelley's original text with Percy Shelley's additions and interventions alongside.
+
+== Frankenstein and the Monster ==
+
+=== The Creature ===
+
+Although the Creature was described in later works as a composite of whole body parts grafted together from cadavers and reanimated by the use of electricity, this description is not consistent with Shelley's work; both the use of electricity and the cobbled-together image of Frankenstein's monster were more the result of James Whale's popular 1931 film adaptation of the story and other early motion-picture works based on the creature. The impact of James Whale's adaptation is noteworthy enough that in a 2025 publication of Frankenstein, the introduction by Jeanette Winterson erroneously references the use of a massive jolt of electricity to imbue life in the creature. In Shelley's original work, Victor Frankenstein discovers a previously unknown but elemental principle of life, and that insight allows him to develop a method to imbue vitality into inanimate matter, though the exact nature of the process is left ambiguous. After a great deal of hesitation in exercising this power, Frankenstein spends two years painstakingly constructing the Creature's body (one anatomical feature at a time, from raw materials supplied by "the dissecting room and the slaughter-house"), which he then brings to life using his unspecified process. 
+
+Frankenstein does not give him a name. Instead, Frankenstein's creation is referred to by words such as "wretch", "monster", "creature", "demon", "devil", "fiend", and "it". When Frankenstein converses with the creature, he addresses him as "vile insect", "abhorred monster", "fiend", "wretched devil", and "abhorred devil".

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+---
+title: "Frankenstein"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the novel, the creature is compared to Adam, the first man in the Garden of Eden. The monster also compares himself with the fallen angel. Speaking to Frankenstein, the monster says "I ought to be thy Adam, but I am rather the fallen angel". That angel would be Lucifer (meaning "light-bringer") in Milton's Paradise Lost, which the monster has read. Adam is also referred to in the epigraph of the 1818 edition:
+Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay
+To mould Me man? Did I solicit thee
+From darkness to promote me?
+Some have posited the creature as a composite of Percy Shelley and Thomas Paine. If the creature's hatred for Victor and his desire to raise a child mirror Percy's filial rebelliousness and his longing to adopt children, his desire to do good and his persecution can be said to echo Paine's utopian visions and fate in England.
+The Creature has often been mistakenly called Frankenstein. In 1908, one author said "It is strange to note how well-nigh universally the term 'Frankenstein' is misused, even by intelligent people, as describing some hideous monster." Edith Wharton's The Reef (1916) describes an unruly child as an "infant Frankenstein". David Lindsay's "The Bridal Ornament", published in The Rover, 12 June 1844, mentioned "the maker of poor Frankenstein." After the release of Whale's cinematic Frankenstein, the public at large began speaking of the Creature itself as "Frankenstein". This misnomer continued with the successful sequel Bride of Frankenstein (1935), as well as in film titles such as Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein.
+
+=== Origin of Victor Frankenstein's name ===
+Mary Shelley maintained that she derived the name Frankenstein from a dream-vision. This claim has since been disputed and debated by scholars that have suggested alternative sources for Shelley's inspiration. The German name Frankenstein means "stone of the Franks", and is associated with various places in Germany, including Frankenstein Castle (Burg Frankenstein) in Darmstadt, Hesse, and Frankenstein Castle in Frankenstein, a village in the Palatinate. There is also a castle called Frankenstein in Bad Salzungen, Thuringia, and a municipality called Frankenstein in Saxony. The town of Frankenstein in Silesia (now Ząbkowice, Poland) was the site of a scandal involving gravediggers in 1606, and this has been suggested as an inspiration to the author. Finally, the name is borne by the aristocratic House of Franckenstein from Franconia.
+Radu Florescu argued that Mary and Percy Shelley visited Frankenstein Castle near Darmstadt in 1814, where alchemist Johann Konrad Dippel had experimented with human bodies, and reasoned that Mary suppressed mention of her visit to maintain her public claim of originality. A literary essay by A.J. Day supports Florescu's position that Mary Shelley knew of and visited Frankenstein Castle before writing her debut novel. Day includes details of an alleged description of the Frankenstein castle in Mary Shelley's "lost journals". However, according to Jörg Heléne, Day's and Florescu's claims cannot be verified.
+A possible interpretation of the name "Victor" is derived from Paradise Lost by John Milton, a great influence on Shelley (a quotation from Paradise Lost is on the opening page of Frankenstein and Shelley writes that the monster reads it in the novel). Milton frequently refers to God as "the victor" in Paradise Lost, and Victor's creation of life in the novel is compared to God's creation of life in Paradise Lost. In addition, Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in Paradise Lost; and, the monster says in the story, after reading the epic poem, that he empathizes with Satan's role.
+Parallels between Victor Frankenstein and Mary's husband, Percy Shelley, have also been drawn. Percy Shelley was the first-born son of Member of Parliament Timothy Shelley, a country squire with strong political connections, and grandson of Sir Bysshe Shelley, 1st Baronet of Castle Goring. Similarly, Victor's family is one of the most distinguished of that republic and his ancestors were counsellors and syndics. Percy's sister and Victor's adopted sister were both named Elizabeth. There are many other similarities, from Percy's usage of "Victor" as a pen name for Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire, a collection of poetry he wrote with Elizabeth, to Percy's days at Eton, where he had "experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions," and the way in which Percy's rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment.
+
+=== Modern Prometheus ===
+The Modern Prometheus is the novel's subtitle (though modern editions now drop it, only mentioning it in introduction). Prometheus, in versions of Greek mythology, was the Titan who created humans in the image of the gods so that they could have a spirit breathed into them at the behest of Zeus. Prometheus then taught humans to hunt, but after he tricked Zeus into accepting "poor-quality offerings" from humans, Zeus kept fire from humankind. Prometheus took back the fire from Zeus to give to humanity. When Zeus discovered this, he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally punished by fixing him to a rock of Caucasus, where each day an eagle pecked out his liver, only for the liver to regrow the next day because of his immortality as a god.
+As a Pythagorean, or believer in An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty by Joseph Ritson, Mary Shelley saw Prometheus not as a hero but rather as something of a devil, and blamed him for bringing fire to humanity and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat. Percy wrote several essays on what became known as vegetarianism including A Vindication of Natural Diet.
+Byron was particularly attached to the play Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus, and Percy Shelley soon wrote his own Prometheus Unbound (1820). The term "Modern Prometheus" was derived from Immanuel Kant, who described Benjamin Franklin as the "Prometheus of modern times" in reference to his experiments with electricity.

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+---
+title: "Frankenstein"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Publication ==
+Shelley completed her writing in April/May 1817, and Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was published on 1 January 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard "triple-decker" format for 19th-century first editions.
+
+A French translation (Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne, translated by Jules Saladin) appeared as early as 1821. The second English edition of Frankenstein was published on 11 August 1823 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker) following the success of the stage play Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake. This edition credited Mary Shelley as the book's author on its title page.
+On 31 October 1831, the first "popular" edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley. This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley, partially to make the story less radical. It included a lengthy new introduction by the author, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition is the one most widely published and read now, although a few editions follow the 1818 text. Some scholars such as Anne K. Mellor prefer the original version, arguing that it preserves the spirit of Mary Shelley's vision.
+
+== Reception ==
+Contemporary critical reviews were varied. Walter Scott, writing in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, praised the novel as an "extraordinary tale, in which the author seems to us to disclose uncommon powers of poetic imagination," although he was less convinced about the way in which the monster gains knowledge about the world and language. La Belle Assemblée described the novel as "very bold fiction" and the Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany hoped to see "more productions ... from this author". On the other hand, John Wilson Croker, writing anonymously in the Quarterly Review, although conceding that "the author has powers, both of conception and language," described the book as "a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity."
+The British Critic, a conservative and high-church journal, attacked the novel's flaws as the fault of the author: 
+
+The writer of it is, we understand, a female; this is an aggravation of that which is the prevailing fault of the novel; but if our authoress can forget the gentleness of her sex, it is no reason why we should; and we shall therefore dismiss the novel without further comment. 
+The Literary Panorama and National Register attacked the novel as a "feeble imitation of Mr. Godwin's novels" produced by the "daughter of a celebrated living novelist."
+
+Despite these reviews, Frankenstein achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known, especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations. The first adaptation, Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein, a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, was performed thirty-seven times at the English Opera House in the West End during the 1823 season. The acclaim it received caused a second printing of Shelley's novel and other theatrical adaptations. Shelley attended a performance on 29 August 1823 and following the success of the play she wrote, "lo & behold! I found myself famous!".
+Critical reception of Frankenstein has been largely positive since the mid-20th century. Major critics such as M. A. Goldberg and Harold Bloom have praised the "aesthetic and moral" relevance of the novel, although there have also been critics, such as Germaine Greer, who criticized the novel for technical and narrative defects: for example, she claimed that its three narrators all speak in the same way. In more recent years the novel has become a popular subject for psychoanalytic and feminist criticism: Lawrence Lipking states: "[E]ven the Lacanian subgroup of psychoanalytic criticism, for instance, has produced at least half a dozen discrete readings of the novel". Frankenstein has frequently been recommended on Five Books, with literary scholars, psychologists, novelists, and historians citing it as an influential text. Today, the novel is generally considered to be a landmark work as one of the greatest Romantic and Gothic novels, as well as one of the first science fiction novels.
+Brian Aldiss has argued for regarding it as the first true science-fiction story. In contrast to previous stories with fantastical elements resembling those of later science fiction, Aldiss states, the central character "makes a deliberate decision" and "turns to modern experiments in the laboratory" to achieve fantastic results.
+Film director Guillermo del Toro describes Frankenstein as "the quintessential teenage book", noting that the feelings that "You don't belong. You were brought to this world by people that don't care for you and you are thrown into a world of pain and suffering, and tears and hunger" are an important part of the story. He adds that "it's an amazing book written by a teenage girl. It's mind-blowing." Professor of philosophy Patricia MacCormack says that the Creature addresses the most fundamental human questions: "It's the idea of asking your maker what your purpose is. Why are we here, what can we do?"
+On 5 November 2019, BBC News included Frankenstein in its list of the 100 most influential novels. In 2018, Jersey Post released series of 8 stamps celebrating the 200th anniversary of Frankenstein. In 2021 it was one of six classic science fiction novels by British authors selected by Royal Mail to be featured on a series of UK postage stamps.
+
+== Films, plays, television and comic books ==

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+---
+title: "Frankenstein"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The 1931 film, with Boris Karloff playing the monster, is considered the most well-known portrayal of Frankenstein. The Hammer Horror films focused on the character of Dr Frankenstein (played by Peter Cushing in six films beginning with the 1957 film) rather than his monster.
+In December 1945, the Gilberton Company issued a comic book version of Frankenstein as No. 26 in its long-running Classics Illustrated series, with illustrations by Robert Hayward Webb and Ann Brewster. The title went through nineteen printings between 1945 and 1971, and has been praised by comics historian Mike Benton as "probably the most faithful adaptation of the original novel -- movies included."
+Manga artist and writer Junji Ito, best known for his horror work, published a comics adaptation of Frankenstein, which won an Eisner Award in 2019 for “Best Adaptation from Another Medium.”
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Holmes, Richard (21 December 2017). "Out of Control". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 14 December 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2024. After two hundred years, how exactly are we to go back to Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein' itself, as distinct from its proliferating, multimedia myth?, review of:
+Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, Or, The Modern Prometheus: Annotated for Scientists, Engineers, and Creators of All Kinds, edited by David H. Guston, Ed Finn, and Jason Scott Robert, MIT Press, 277 pp.
+Mary Shelley, The New Annotated Frankenstein, edited and with a foreword and notes by Leslie S. Klinger, Liveright, 352 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp. 38, 40–41.
+
+=== Editions ===
+
+==== 1818 text ====
+Frankenstein: 1818 text (Oxford University Press, 2009). Edited with an introduction and notes by Marilyn Butler.
+The New Annotated Frankenstein. (Overnight, 2017). Edited and with supplementary texts by Leslie S. Klinger.
+Frankenstein: The 1818 Text (Penguin Books, 2018). Edited with an introduction by Charlotte Gordon.
+Frankenstein, Or, The Modern Prometheus: Annotated for Scientists, Engineers, and Creators of All Kinds, edited by David H. Guston, Ed Finn, and Jason Scott Robert, MIT Press, 277 pp. doi:10.7551/mitpress/10815.001.0001
+
+==== 1831 text ====
+Three Gothic Novels (Penguin English Library, 1968). Edited by Peter Fairclough, With an introductory essay by Mario Praz. Also includes the full texts of Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto and William Beckford's Vathek.
+Frankenstein (Oxford University Press, 2008). Edited with an introduction and notes by M. K. Joseph.
+
+=== Differences between 1818 and 1831 text ===
+Changes include: 
+
+The epigraph from Milton's Paradise Lost has been removed.
+Chapter One is expanded and split into two chapters.
+Elizabeth is changed from Victor's cousin to an orphan.
+Victor is portrayed more kindly in the original text. In the 1831 edition, Shelley is more critical of his decisions and actions.
+Shelley removed many references to scientific ideas which were popular around the time she wrote the 1818 edition of the book.
+Characters in the 1831 version have some dialogue removed entirely, while others receive new dialogue.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley: Chronology and Resources at Romantic Circles
+"Frankenstein: a hypertext resource". English Department. University of Saskatchewan.
+Frankenstein at SparkNotes
+Editions
+
+ Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus 1818 edition at Project Gutenberg
+
+ Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus 1831 edition at Project Gutenberg
+Frankenstein at Romantic Circles
+online texts of 1818 and 1831 editions and copious annotations
+ Frankenstein public domain audiobook at LibriVox
+Frankenstein at Standard Ebooks
+Sources
+
+Shelley's notebooks with her handwritten draft of Frankenstein
+Volume one Archived 10 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine
+Volume two Archived 30 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine
+Reception
+
+On Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, a review by Percy Bysshe Shelley

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graf_Zeppelin_(march)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Graf Zeppelin (march)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graf_Zeppelin_(march)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:33.892714+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Graf Zeppelin-Marsch" is a German military march, written by military music composer Carl Teike. The name refers to Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin.
+It was originally composed in 1903 under the title "March of the Teutons" (March of the Teutons). Joachim Toeche-Mittler, a German authority on the history of German military music, regarded the march as an "immortal" piece. The march was published by Carl Fischer Music in the United States under the name "The Conqueror" in 1912, arranged by Canadian  composer Louis-Philippe Laurendeau. To avoid confusion, the march was often called "Graf Zeppelin  (The Conqueror)" (ツェッペリン伯爵（征服者）) in CDs published in Japan. The march was especially popular in the Soviet Union. It was sometimes called "March of the Air Fleet" (Воздушный флот) in Russian. It was once used as the Swedish navy's parade march.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"Graf Zeppelin" (Teike): Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
+Video on YouTube

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-0.md

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+---
+title: "The Big Bang Theory"
+chunk: 1/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Big Bang Theory is an American television sitcom created by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady for CBS. It aired from September 24, 2007, to May 16, 2019, running for 12 seasons and 279 episodes.
+The show originally centered on five characters living in Pasadena, California: Leonard Hofstadter (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons), both physicists at the California Institute of Technology, who share an apartment; Penny (Kaley Cuoco), a waitress and aspiring actress who lives across the hall; and Leonard and Sheldon's similarly geeky and socially awkward friends and coworkers, aerospace engineer Howard Wolowitz (Simon Helberg) and astrophysicist Raj Koothrappali (Kunal Nayyar). Over time, supporting characters were promoted to starring roles, including neuroscientist Amy Farrah Fowler (Mayim Bialik), microbiologist Bernadette Rostenkowski (Melissa Rauch), and comic book store owner Stuart Bloom (Kevin Sussman).
+The series was filmed in front of a live audience and produced by Chuck Lorre Productions, with Warner Bros. Television handling distribution. While the first season received mixed reviews, critical reception improved in subsequent seasons. Seven seasons ranked within the top ten of the final-season ratings, and the series reached the No. 1 spot in its eleventh season. It was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series from 2011 to 2014 and won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series four times for Parsons, totaling seven Emmy Awards from 46 nominations. Parsons also won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Television Comedy Series in 2011.
+The success of The Big Bang Theory launched a multimedia franchise. A prequel series focusing on Parsons' character Sheldon Cooper, Young Sheldon, aired from 2017 to 2024, with Parsons narrating as the adult Sheldon. The third series in the franchise, a sequel to Young Sheldon titled Georgie & Mandy's First Marriage, premiered in October 2024 and follows Sheldon's older brother, Georgie, and his wife, Mandy. A fourth series, following Stuart Bloom and his girlfriend Denise, along with geologist Bert Kibbler titled Stuart Fails to Save the Universe, is currently in development for HBO Max.
+
+== Plot ==
+
+=== Seasons 1–4 ===
+The series centers on the evolving relationships between socially awkward physicists Leonard Hofstadter and Sheldon Cooper, their neighbor Penny, and their friends Howard Wolowitz and Raj Koothrappali. The central romantic storyline begins when Leonard becomes immediately attracted to Penny, an aspiring actress and waitress who moves in across the hall. Throughout the first season, Leonard attempts various schemes to win Penny's affection while she dates a series of conventionally attractive but intellectually incompatible men.
+The group's friendship dynamics are established as they navigate their shared interests in science fiction, comic books, and video games, often clashing with their limited social skills. Sheldon's rigid personality and numerous quirks create ongoing conflicts with his roommate Leonard, while Howard's inappropriate behavior toward women and his unhealthy relationship with his mother provide additional comedic tension. Raj's selective mutism around women becomes a recurring obstacle to his romantic pursuits.
+Leonard and Penny's relationship experiences its first major development when Leonard returns from a three-month Arctic expedition in the season three premiere, leading to their first serious romantic relationship. However, the relationship becomes strained when Leonard prematurely declares his love for Penny, who cannot reciprocate the sentiment. Their subsequent breakup leads Leonard to pursue a relationship with Raj's sister Priya during much of season four, creating tension within the friend group and jealousy from Penny.
+
+=== Seasons 5–8 ===
+The series expands its core cast with the introduction of Amy Farrah Fowler, a neurobiologist matched with Sheldon through online dating, and Bernadette Rostenkowski, a microbiologist who begins dating Howard. These additions create new relationship dynamics and storylines while allowing for character development among the original cast members.
+Sheldon and Amy's relationship develops slowly from a purely intellectual connection to a romantic partnership, with Sheldon gradually overcoming his aversion to physical contact and emotional intimacy. Their relationship is marked by formal agreements and scientific approaches to romance, reflecting both characters' analytical personalities.
+Howard's relationship with Bernadette leads to significant character growth as he learns to become more mature and less dependent on his mother. Their relationship culminates in marriage during the fifth season finale, coinciding with Howard's departure for a space mission to the International Space Station.
+Leonard and Penny reconcile and resume their romantic relationship, though it faces various challenges including Leonard's insecurities and Penny's career struggles. Leonard's multiple attempts to propose marriage are initially rejected by Penny, who feels unprepared for such commitment. The relationship dynamics continue to evolve as both characters mature and better understand each other's needs and perspectives.
+
+=== Seasons 9–12 ===
+The final seasons focus on the progression of established relationships toward marriage and long-term commitment. Leonard and Penny finally marry in the season nine premiere, though their wedding is preceded by Leonard's confession of kissing a co-worker during his Arctic expedition. Despite this obstacle, they successfully navigate married life and eventually move into their own apartment when Sheldon relocates.
+Sheldon and Amy's relationship reaches several major milestones, including their first sexual encounter on Amy's birthday and eventual cohabitation. After a temporary breakup caused by Sheldon's fear of commitment, they reunite and become engaged. Their wedding in the season eleven finale represents the culmination of Sheldon's character development from an emotionally closed individual to someone capable of love and partnership.
+The series concludes with the characters achieving personal and professional fulfillment. The final episode reveals Penny's pregnancy while focusing on Sheldon and Amy receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics, bringing the characters' scientific careers full circle while emphasizing the importance of their personal relationships and friendships that have sustained them throughout the series.
+
+== Cast and characters ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-1.md

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+---
+title: "The Big Bang Theory"
+chunk: 2/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Johnny Galecki as Leonard Hofstadter: An experimental physicist with an IQ of 173, who received his Ph.D. when he was 24 years old. Leonard is a nerd who loves video games, comic books, and Dungeons & Dragons. Leonard is the straight man of the series, sharing an apartment in Pasadena, CA, with Sheldon Cooper. Leonard is smitten with his new neighbor, Penny, when they first meet, and they eventually marry.
+Jim Parsons as Sheldon Cooper: Originally from Galveston, Texas, Sheldon was a child prodigy with an eidetic memory who began college at the age of eleven and earned a Ph.D. at age sixteen. He is a theoretical physicist researching quantum mechanics and string theory, and, despite his IQ of 187, he finds many routine aspects of social situations difficult to grasp. He is determined to have his own way, continually boasts of his intelligence, and has an extremely ritualized way of living. Despite these quirks, he begins a relationship with Amy Farrah Fowler, and they eventually marry.
+Kaley Cuoco as Penny: An aspiring actress from Omaha, Nebraska. Penny moves in across the hall from Sheldon and Leonard. She waits tables and occasionally tends the bar at The Cheesecake Factory. After giving up hope of becoming a successful actress, Penny becomes a pharmaceutical sales representative. Penny becomes friends with Bernadette and Amy, and they often hang out in each other's apartments. Penny and Leonard form a relationship and eventually marry.
+Simon Helberg as Howard Wolowitz: An aerospace engineer who got his master's degree at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Howard is Jewish and lived with his mother, Debbie (Carol Ann Susi). Unlike Sheldon, Leonard, Raj, Bernadette, and Amy, Howard does not hold a doctorate. He trains as an astronaut and goes into space as a payload specialist on the International Space Station. Howard initially fancies himself as a ladies man, but he later starts dating Bernadette, and they get engaged and married. Howard also has a tendency to waste money on toys and argues with Bernadette because of his oddly low income as an engineer and her high income as a pharmaceutical biochemist.
+Kunal Nayyar as Rajesh "Raj" Koothrappali: A particle astrophysicist originally from New Delhi, India. Initially, Raj had selective mutism, rendering him unable to talk to or be around women unless under the influence of alcohol. Raj also has very feminine tastes and often takes on a stereotypical female role in his friendship with Howard as well as in the group of four men. Raj later dates Lucy (Kate Micucci), who also suffers from social anxiety, but it eventually ends. He later speaks to Penny without alcohol, overcoming his selective mutism. He begins dating Emily Sweeney, and their relationship later becomes exclusive. In the series' final season, Raj has an on-again, off-again engagement with a hotel concierge named Anu (Rati Gupta). He also has a Yorkshire Terrier named Cinnamon, given by Howard and Bernadette.
+Sara Gilbert as Leslie Winkle (recurring season 1, starring season 2, guest seasons 3, 9): A physicist who works in the same lab as Leonard. In appearance, she is essentially Leonard's female counterpart and has conflicting scientific theories with Sheldon. Leslie has casual sex with Leonard and later Howard. Gilbert was promoted to a main cast member during the second season but resumed guest star status because producers could not come up with enough material for the character. Gilbert returned to The Big Bang Theory for its 200th episode.
+Melissa Rauch as Bernadette Rostenkowski-Wolowitz (recurring season 3, starring seasons 4‍–‍12): A young woman who initially is a co-worker at The Cheesecake Factory with Penny to pay her way through graduate school, where she is studying microbiology. Bernadette is introduced to Howard by Penny; at first, they do not get along, apparently having nothing in common. They date and later get engaged and married. Although generally a sweet and good-natured person, Bernadette has a short fuse and can be vindictive and lash out when provoked.
+Mayim Bialik as Amy Farrah Fowler (guest star season 3, starring seasons 4‍–‍12): A woman selected by an online dating site as Sheldon's perfect mate, Amy is from Glendale, California. While she and Sheldon initially share social cluelessness, after befriending Penny and Bernadette, she eventually becomes more interested in social and romantic interaction. Her relationship with Sheldon slowly progresses to the point where Sheldon considers her his girlfriend, and eventually, they get married. Amy believes she and Penny are best friends, a sentiment that Penny does not initially share. Amy has a Ph.D. in neurobiology.
+Kevin Sussman as Stuart Bloom (recurring seasons 2‍–‍5, 7, starring seasons 6, 8‍–‍12): A mild-mannered, under-confident owner of a comic book store. A competent artist, Stuart is a graduate of the prestigious Rhode Island School of Design. Though he is socially awkward, he possesses slightly better social skills. Stuart implies he is in financial trouble and that the comic book store now also is his home. He is later invited to join the guys' group while Howard is in space. Stuart gets a new job caring for Howard's mother later. After Mrs. Wolowitz's death, Stuart continues to live in her home, along with Howard and Bernadette, until he finds a place of his own.
+Laura Spencer as Emily Sweeney (recurring seasons 7‍–‍8, 10, starring season 9): A dermatologist at Huntington Hospital. Emily went to Harvard and delights in the macabre, and she states that she likes her job because she can cut things with knives. Prior to meeting Raj, Emily was set up on a blind date with Howard. After finding Emily's online dating profile, Raj has Amy contact her as his wingman instead. Their relationship becomes exclusive, but Raj later breaks up with Emily when he becomes infatuated with Claire (Alessandra Torresani), a bartender and children's author.
+
+== Episodes ==
+
+== Production ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-10.md

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+---
+title: "The Big Bang Theory"
+chunk: 11/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In January 2024, it was announced that there will be a spin-off series of Young Sheldon focused on Georgie Cooper and Mandy McAllister The series premiered on CBS on October 17, 2024.
+
+==== Stuart Fails to Save the Universe ====
+
+On April 12, 2023, it was announced that a spin-off of the original series was in development. On October 10, 2024, it was announced that the third spin-off would feature Stuart Bloom, Denise, and Bert Kibbler, with Kevin Sussman, Lauren Lapkus, and Brian Posehn reprising their roles. On March 19, 2025, it was announced that the title of the show would be Stuart Fails to Save the Universe. In the premise of the series, Stuart is "tasked with restoring reality after he breaks a device built by Sheldon and Leonard, accidentally bringing about a multiverse Armageddon." John Ross Bowie will reprise his role as Barry Kripke. Filming for the show began in September 2025 and was completed by February 2026.
+
+=== Television special ===
+On May 16, 2019, a television special titled Unraveling the Mystery: A Big Bang Farewell aired following the series finale of The Big Bang Theory. It is a backstage retrospective featuring Johnny Galecki and Kaley Cuoco.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website 
+The Big Bang Theory at IMDb 
+The Big Bang Theory at Rotten Tomatoes
+The Big Bang Theory at Discogs (list of releases)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-2.md

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+---
+title: "The Big Bang Theory"
+chunk: 3/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The show's pilot episode premiered on September 24, 2007. This was the second pilot produced for the show. A different pilot was produced for the 2006‍–‍07 television season but never aired. The structure of the original unaired pilot was different from the series' eventual form. The only main characters retained in both pilots were Leonard (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon (Jim Parsons), who are named after Sheldon Leonard, a longtime figure in episodic television as a producer, director, and actor. A minor character, Althea (Vernee Watson), appeared in the first scene of both pilots that was retained generally as-is. The first pilot included two female lead characters - Katie, "a street-hardened, tough-as-nails woman with a vulnerable interior" (played by Canadian actress Amanda Walsh), and Gilda, a scientist colleague and friend of the male characters (played by Iris Bahr). Sheldon and Leonard meet Katie after she breaks up with a boyfriend, and they invite her to share their apartment. Gilda is threatened by Katie's presence. Test audiences reacted negatively to Katie, but they liked Sheldon and Leonard. The original pilot used Thomas Dolby's hit "She Blinded Me with Science" as its theme song.
+Although the original pilot was not picked up, its creators were given an opportunity to retool it and produce a second pilot. They brought in the remaining cast and retooled the show to its final format. Katie was replaced by Penny (Kaley Cuoco). The original unaired pilot has never been officially released, but it has circulated on the Internet. On the evolution of the show, Chuck Lorre said, "We did the 'Big Bang Pilot' about two and a half years ago, and it sucked ... but there were two remarkable things that worked perfectly, and that was Johnny and Jim. We rewrote the thing entirely, and then we were blessed with Kaley and Simon and Kunal." As to whether the world will ever see the original pilot on a future DVD release, Lorre said, "Wow, that would be something. We will see. Show your failures..."
+The first and second pilots of The Big Bang Theory were directed by James Burrows, who did not continue with the show. The reworked second pilot led to a 13-episode order by CBS on May 14, 2007. Prior to its airing on CBS, the pilot episode was distributed on iTunes free of charge. The show premiered on September 24, 2007, and was picked up for a full 22-episode season on October 19, 2007. The show was filmed in front of a live audience, and it is produced by Chuck Lorre Productions and Warner Bros. Television. Production was halted on November 6, 2007, due to the Writers Guild of America strike. Nearly three months later, on February 4, 2008, the series was temporarily replaced by a short-lived sitcom, Welcome to The Captain. The series returned on March 17, 2008, in an earlier time slot, and ultimately only 17 episodes were produced for the first season.
+After the strike ended, the show was picked up for a second season, airing in the 2008‍–‍2009 season, premiering in the same time slot on September 22, 2008. With increasing ratings, the show received a two-year renewal through the 2010‍–‍11 season in 2009. In 2011, the show was picked up for three more seasons. In March 2014, the show was renewed again for three more years through the 2016‍–‍17 season. This marked the second time the series gained a three-year renewal. In March 2017, the series was renewed for two additional seasons, bringing its total to 12, and running through the 2018‍–‍19 television season.
+Several of the actors on The Big Bang Theory previously worked together on the sitcom Roseanne, including Johnny Galecki, Sara Gilbert, Laurie Metcalf (who plays Sheldon's mother, Mary Cooper), and Meagen Fay (who plays Bernadette's mother). Additionally, Lorre was a writer on the series for several seasons.
+
+=== Science consultants ===
+
+David Saltzberg, a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, checked scripts and provided dialogue, mathematics equations, and diagrams used as props. According to series co-creator Bill Prady, Sheldon was given an actual equation to be worked on throughout the first season, with the actual progress displayed on whiteboards in Sheldon and Leonard's apartment. Saltzberg, who has a Ph.D. in physics, served as the science consultant for the show for six seasons and attended every taping. He saw early versions of scripts that needed scientific information added to them, and he also pointed out where the writers, despite their knowledge of science, had made a mistake. He was usually not needed during a taping unless a lot of science, and especially the whiteboard, was involved.
+Saltzberg sometimes consulted with Mayim Bialik, who has a Ph.D. in neuroscience, on the subject of biology.
+
+=== Theme song ===

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+
+The Canadian alternative rock band Barenaked Ladies wrote and recorded the show's theme song, which describes the history and formation of the universe and the Earth. Co-lead singer Ed Robertson was asked by Lorre and Prady to write a theme song for the show after the producers attended one of the band's concerts in Los Angeles. Coincidentally, Robertson had recently read Simon Singh's 2004 book Big Bang, and at the concert he improvised a freestyle rap about the origins of the universe. Lorre and Prady phoned him shortly thereafter and asked him to write the theme song. Having been asked to write songs for other films and shows, but ending up being rejected because producers favored songs by other artists, Robertson agreed to write the theme only after learning that Lorre and Prady had not asked anyone else.
+In October 2007, a full-length (1 minute and 45 seconds) version of the song was released commercially. Although some unofficial pages identify the song title as "History of Everything," the cover art for the single identifies the title as "Big Bang Theory Theme." A music video also was released via special features on The Complete Fourth Season DVD and Blu-ray set. The theme was included on the band's greatest hits album, Hits from Yesterday & the Day Before, released on September 27, 2011. In September 2015, TMZ uncovered court documents showing that Steven Page sued former bandmate Robertson over the song, alleging that he was promised 20 percent of the proceeds, but that Robertson has kept that money for himself.
+
+=== Actors' salaries ===
+For the first three seasons, Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco, the three main stars of the show, received up to $60,000 per episode. Their salaries rose to $200,000 per episode for the fourth season, then went up an additional $50,000 in each of the following three seasons, culminating in $350,000 per episode in the seventh season. In September 2013, Bialik and Rauch renegotiated the contracts they held since they were introduced to the series in 2010. On their old contracts, each was making $20,000–$30,000 per episode, while the new contracts doubled that, beginning at $60,000 per episode, increasing steadily to $100,000 per episode by the end of the contract, as well as adding another year for both.
+By season seven, Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco were also receiving 0.25 percent of the series' back-end money. Before production began on the eighth season, the three plus Helberg and Nayyar looked to renegotiate new contracts, with Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco seeking around $1 million per episode, as well as more back-end money. Contracts were signed in the beginning of August 2014, giving the three principal actors an estimated $1 million per episode for three years, with the possibility to extend for a fourth year. The deals also include larger pieces of the show, signing bonuses, production deals, and advances towards the back-end. Helberg and Nayyar were also able to renegotiate their contracts, giving them a per-episode pay in the "mid-six-figure range", up from around $100,000 per episode they each received in years prior. The duo, who were looking to have salary parity with Parsons, Galecki, and Cuoco, signed their contracts after the studio and producers threatened to write the characters out of the series if a deal could not be reached before the start of production on season eight. By season 10, Helberg and Nayyar reached the $1 million per episode parity with Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco, due to a clause in their deals signed in 2014.
+In March 2017, the main cast members (Galecki, Parsons, Cuoco, Helberg, and Nayyar) took a 10 percent pay cut to allow Bialik and Rauch an increase in their earnings. This put Galecki, Parsons, Cuoco, Helberg and Nayyar at $900,000 per episode, with Parsons, Galecki, and Helberg also receiving overall deals with Warner Bros. Television. By the end of April, Bialik and Rauch had signed deals to earn $500,000 per episode each, with the deals also including a separate development component for both actors. The deal was an increase from the $175,000–$200,000 the duo had been making per episode.
+
+== Recurring themes and elements ==
+
+=== Science ===
+Much of the series focuses on science, particularly physics. The four main male characters are employed at Caltech and have science-related occupations, as do Bernadette and Amy. The characters frequently banter about scientific theories or news (notably around the start of the show) and make science-related jokes.
+Science has also interfered with the characters' romantic lives. Leslie breaks up with Leonard when he sides with Sheldon in his support for string theory rather than loop quantum gravity. When Leonard joins Sheldon, Raj, and Howard on a three-month Arctic research trip, it separates Leonard and Penny at a time when their relationship is budding. When Bernadette takes an interest in Leonard's work, it makes both Penny and Howard envious and results in Howard confronting Leonard and Penny asking Sheldon to teach her physics. Sheldon and Amy also briefly end their relationship after an argument over which of their fields is superior.
+As the theme of the show revolves around science, many distinguished and high-profile scientists have appeared as guest stars on the show. Astrophysicist and Nobel laureate George Smoot had a cameo appearance in the second season. Chemical engineer and Nobel laureate Frances Arnold portrayed herself in the 12th season. Theoretical physicist Brian Greene appeared in the fourth season, as well as astrophysicist, science popularizer, and physics outreach specialist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who also appeared in the twelfth season. Cosmologist Stephen Hawking made a short guest appearance in a fifth-season episode; in the eighth season, Hawking video conferences with Sheldon and Leonard, and he makes another appearance in the 200th episode. In the fifth and sixth seasons, NASA astronaut Michael J. Massimino played himself multiple times in the role of Howard's fellow astronaut. In the sixth season, NASA astronaut Buzz Aldrin had a cameo appearance. Bill Nye appeared in the seventh and twelfth seasons.
+
+=== "Nerd" media ===

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+The four main male characters are all avid fans of nerd culture. Among their shared interests are science fiction, fantasy, comic books, and collecting memorabilia.
+Star Trek in particular is referred to frequently, and Sheldon identifies strongly with the character of Spock, so much so that when he is given a used napkin signed by Leonard Nimoy as a Christmas gift from Penny, he is overwhelmed with excitement and gratitude ("I possess the DNA of Leonard Nimoy?!"). Star Trek: The Original Series cast members William Shatner and George Takei have made guest appearances, and Leonard Nimoy made a guest appearance as the voice of Sheldon's vintage Mr. Spock action figure. Star Trek: The Next Generation cast members Brent Spiner and LeVar Burton have had guest appearances as themselves, while Wil Wheaton has a recurring role as a fictionalized version of himself. Leonard and Sheldon have had conversations in Klingon.
+They are also fans of Star Wars, Battlestar Galactica, and Doctor Who. James Earl Jones, Carrie Fisher and Mark Hamill made guest appearances. In the episode "The Ornithophobia Diffusion", when there is a delay in watching Star Wars on Blu-ray, Howard complains, "If we don't start soon, George Lucas is going to change it again" (referring to Lucas' controversial alterations to the films). In "The Hot Troll Deviation", Katee Sackhoff of Battlestar Galactica appeared as Howard's fantasy dream girl. The characters have different tastes in franchises, with Sheldon praising Firefly but disapproving of Leonard's enjoyment of Babylon 5. With regard to fantasy, the four make frequent references to The Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter novels and movies. Additionally, Howard can speak Sindarin, one of the two Elvish languages from The Lord of the Rings.
+Wednesday night is the group's designated "comic book night" because that is the day of the week when new comic books are released. The comic book store is run by fellow geek and recurring character Stuart. On a number of occasions, the group members have dressed up as pop culture characters, including The Flash, Aquaman, Frodo Baggins, Superman, Batman, Spock, The Doctor, Green Lantern, and Thor. As a consequence of losing a bet to Stuart and Wil Wheaton, the group members are forced to visit the comic book store dressed as Catwoman, Wonder Woman, Batgirl, and Supergirl. DC Comics announced that, to promote its comics, the company would sponsor Sheldon wearing Green Lantern T-shirts.
+Various games have been featured, as well as referred to, on the series (e.g. World of Warcraft, Halo, Mario, Donkey Kong, etc.), including fictional games like Mystic Warlords of Ka'a (which became a reality in 2011) and Rock-paper-scissors-lizard-Spock.

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+
+=== Leonard and Penny's relationship ===
+One of the recurring plot lines is the relationship between Leonard and Penny. Leonard becomes attracted to Penny in the pilot episode, and his need to do favors for her is a frequent point of humor in the first season. Meanwhile, Penny dates a series of muscular, stereotypically "attractive," unintelligent, and insensitive jocks. Their first long-term relationship begins when Leonard returns from a three-month expedition to the North Pole in the season 3 premiere. However, when Leonard tells Penny that he loves her, she realizes she cannot say it back, and they break up. Both Leonard and Penny go on to date other people, most notably with Leonard dating Raj's sister Priya for much of season 4. This relationship is jeopardized when Leonard mistakenly comes to believe that Raj has slept with Penny, and it ultimately ends when Priya sleeps with a former boyfriend in "The Good Guy Fluctuation".
+Penny, who admits to missing Leonard in "The Roommate Transmogrification", accepts his request to renew their relationship in "The Beta Test Initiation". After Penny suggests having sex in "The Launch Acceleration", Leonard breaks the mood by proposing to her. Penny says "no" but does not break up with him. She stops a proposal a second time in "The Tangible Affection Proof". In the sixth-season episode, "The 43 Peculiarity", Penny finally tells Leonard that she loves him. Although they both feel jealousy when the other receives significant attention from the opposite sex, Penny is secure in their relationship, even when he leaves on a four-month expedition to the North Sea in "The Bon Voyage Reaction". After he returns, the relationship blossoms over the seventh season. In the penultimate episode "The Gorilla Dissolution", Penny admits that they should marry and when Leonard realizes that she is serious, he proposes with a ring that he has been carrying for years. Leonard and Penny decide to elope to Las Vegas in the season 8 finale, but beforehand, wanting no secrets, Leonard admits to kissing another woman, Mandy Chow (Melissa Tang) while on the expedition. Despite this, Leonard and Penny finally marry in the season 9 premiere and remain happy. By the Season 9 finale, Penny and Leonard decide to have a second wedding ceremony for their family and friends, to make up for eloping. In season 10, Sheldon moves into Penny's old apartment with Amy, allowing Penny and Leonard to finally live on their own as husband and wife.
+In season 12, Penny announces that she does not want to have any children and Leonard reluctantly supports her decision. Later, her old boyfriend Zack and his new wife want Leonard to be a surrogate father to their kid since Zack is infertile. Penny reluctantly agrees to let Leonard donate his sperm. However, when she tries to seduce Leonard despite knowing he has to be abstinent for a few days, her visiting father, Wyatt, points out to Penny that her own actions suggest she is more conflicted over having kids than she lets on, and she admits she feels bad about letting him and Leonard down if she never has children. He says that despite her flaws, parenthood is the best thing that ever happened to him, and he does not want her to miss out, but that he will support her no matter what she does. Leonard eventually changes his mind, not wanting a child in the world that he cannot raise. In the series finale, Penny is pregnant with Leonard's baby, and she has changed her mind about not wanting children.

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+
+=== Sheldon and Amy's relationship ===
+In the third-season finale, Raj and Howard sign Sheldon up for online dating to find a woman compatible with Sheldon, and they discover neurobiologist Amy Farrah Fowler. Like Sheldon, she has a history of social ineptitude and participates in online dating only to fulfill an agreement with her mother. This spawns a story line in which Sheldon and Amy communicate daily while insisting to Leonard and Penny that they are not romantically involved. In "The Agreement Dissection", Sheldon and Amy talk in her apartment after a night of dancing, and she kisses him on the lips. Instead of getting annoyed, Sheldon says "fascinating" and later asks Amy to be his girlfriend in "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition". The same night he draws up "The Relationship Agreement" to verify the ground rules of him as her boyfriend and vice versa (similar to his "Roommate Agreement" with Leonard). Amy agrees but later regrets not having had a lawyer read through it.
+In "The Launch Acceleration", Amy tries to use her "neurobiology bag of tricks" to increase the attraction between herself and Sheldon. Her efforts appear to be working because Sheldon is not happy, but he makes no attempt to stop her. In the fifth-season finale, "The Countdown Reflection", Sheldon takes Amy's hand as Howard is launched into space. In the sixth-season premiere, "The Date Night Variable", after a dinner in which Sheldon fails to live up to this expectation, Amy gives Sheldon an ultimatum that their relationship is over unless he tells her something from his heart. Amy accepts Sheldon's romantic speech even after learning that it is a line from the first Spider-Man movie. In "The Cooper/Kripke Inversion", Sheldon states that he has been working on his discomfort about physical contact and admits that "it's a possibility" that he could one day have sex with Amy. Amy is revealed to have similar feelings in "The Love Spell Potential". Sheldon explains that he never thought about intimacy with anyone before Amy.
+"The Locomotive Manipulation" is the first episode in which Sheldon initiates a kiss with Amy. Although initially done in a fit of sarcasm, he discovers that he enjoys the feeling. Consequently, Sheldon slowly starts to open up over the rest of the season, and he starts a more intimate relationship with Amy. However, in the season finale, Sheldon leaves town temporarily to cope with several changes and Amy becomes distraught. However, 45 days into the trip, Sheldon gets mugged and calls for Leonard to drive him home, only to be confronted by Amy, who is upset over not being contacted by him in weeks. When Sheldon admits he did not call her because he was too embarrassed to admit that he could not make it on his own, Amy accepts that he is not perfect. In "The Prom Equivalency", Sheldon hides in his room to avoid going to a mock prom reenactment with her. In the resulting standoff, Amy is about to confess that she loves Sheldon, but he surprises her by saying that he loves her too. This prompts Amy to have a panic attack.
+In the season-eight finale, Sheldon and Amy get into a fight about commitment on their fifth anniversary. Amy tells Sheldon that she needs to think about the future of their relationship, unaware that Sheldon was about to propose to her. Season nine sees Sheldon harassing Amy about making up her mind until she breaks up with him. Both struggle with singlehood and trying to be friends for the next few weeks until they reunite in episode ten and have sex for the first time on Amy's birthday. In season ten, Amy's apartment is flooded, and she and Sheldon decide to move in together into Penny's apartment as part of a five-week experiment to determine compatibility with each other's living habits. It goes well and they decide to make the arrangement permanent.
+In the Season 11 premiere, Sheldon proposes to Amy, and she accepts. The two get married in the eleventh-season finale.
+
+=== "Soft Kitty" ===
+The song "Soft Kitty", which is sung by Sheldon, Penny, Leonard, Mary Cooper, and Amy during the series, is described by Sheldon as a song sung by his mother (Mary) when he was ill. Its repeated use in the series popularized the song. A scene showing the origin of the song in Sheldon's childhood is depicted in an episode of Young Sheldon, which aired on February 1, 2018. It shows Sheldon's mother, Mary, singing the song to her son, who has the flu.
+
+=== Howard's mother ===
+In scenes set at Howard's home, he interacts with his rarely seen mother (voiced by Carol Ann Susi until her death) by shouting from room to room in the house. She similarly interacts with other characters in this manner. She reflects the Jewish mother stereotype in some ways, such as being overly controlling of Howard's adult life and sometimes trying to make him feel guilty about causing her trouble. She is dependent on Howard, as she requires him to help her with her wig and makeup in the morning. Howard, in turn, is attached to his mother to the point where she still cuts his meat for him, takes him to the dentist, does his laundry and "grounds" him when he returns home after briefly moving out. Until Howard's marriage to Bernadette in the fifth-season finale, Howard's former living situation led Leonard's psychiatrist mother to speculate that he may suffer from some type of pathology and Sheldon to refer to their relationship as Oedipal. In season 8, Howard's mother dies in her sleep while in Florida, which devastates Howard and Stuart, who briefly lived with Mrs. Wolowitz.

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+
+=== Apartment building elevator ===
+In the apartment building where Sheldon, Leonard, and Penny (and later Amy) live, the elevator has been out of order throughout most of the series, forcing characters to have to use the stairs. Stairway conversations between the characters as they walk up the three flights to their apartments occur in almost every episode, often serving as a transition between longer scenes. The Season 3 episode, "The Staircase Implementation" reveals that the elevator was broken when Leonard was experimenting with rocket fuel. In the penultimate episode of the series, the elevator is returned to an operational state, causing Sheldon some angst, until he realizes that the fixed elevator reverted things to the "status quo".
+
+=== Vanity cards ===
+Like most shows created by Chuck Lorre, The Big Bang Theory ends by showing for one second a vanity card written by Lorre after the credits, followed by the Warner Bros. Television closing logo. These cards are archived on Lorre's website. The series' final vanity card reads simply "The End".
+
+== Release ==
+
+=== Broadcast ===
+The Big Bang Theory premiered in the United States on September 24, 2007, on CBS. The series debuted in Canada on CTV in September 2007. On February 14, 2008, the series debuted in the United Kingdom on channels E4 and Channel 4. In Australia, the first seven seasons of the series began airing on the Seven Network and 7mate from October 2015 and also gained the rights to season 8 in 2016, although the Nine Network has rights to air seasons nine & ten. On January 22, 2018, it was announced that Nine had acquired the rights to Season 1–8.
+
+=== Syndication and streaming ===
+In May 2010, it was reported that the show had been picked up for syndication, mainly among Fox's owned and operated stations and other local stations, with Warner Bros. Television's sister cable network TBS holding the show's cable syndication rights. Although details of the syndication deal have not been revealed, it was reported the deal "set a record price for a cable off-network sitcom purchase".
+On September 17, 2019, as part of an extension of the TBS agreement through 2028, Warner Bros.' then-upcoming streaming service HBO Max acquired the exclusive American streaming rights to the series. In December 2024, it was announced that CBS parent company Paramount Global had acquired non-exclusive cable rights to The Big Bang Theory for Nick at Nite and MTV, beginning December 24, 2024 and January 1, 2025 respectively; Deadline Hollywood reported that the current contract with TBS had made the linear television rights non-exclusive, allowing them to be shared with other broadcasters. Beginning in 2025 The Big Bang Theory was made available on Disney+ in certain regions via the Star hub alongside its spin-off Young Sheldon in an unprecedented move.
+
+=== Home media ===
+
+The first and second seasons were only available on DVD at their time of release in 2008 and 2009. Starting with the release of the third season in 2010 and continuing every year with every new season, a Blu-ray disc set has also been released in conjunction with the DVD. In 2012, Warner Bros. released the first two seasons on Blu-ray, marking the first time that all episodes were available on the Blu-ray disc format.
+
+== Reception ==
+
+=== Critical response ===
+Although the initial reception was mixed, the show went on to receive a more positive reception. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports an 81% approval rating from critics. On Metacritic, the series holds a score of 61 out of 100, based on reviews from 27 critics, indicating generally favorable reviews. In 2013, TV Guide ranked the series #52 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.

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+
+=== American ratings ===
+The Big Bang Theory started off slowly in the ratings, failing to make the top 50 in its first season (ranking 68th), and ranking 40th in its second season. When the third season premiered on September 21, 2009, however, The Big Bang Theory ranked as CBS's highest-rated show of that evening in the adults 18–49 demographic (4.6/10) along with a then-series-high 12.83 million viewers. After the first three seasons aired at different times on Monday nights, CBS moved the show to Thursdays at 8:00 ET for the 2010‍–‍2011 schedule, to be in direct competition with NBC's Comedy Block and Fox's American Idol (then the longest reigning leading primetime show on American television from 2004 to 2011). During its fourth season, it became television's highest rated comedy, just barely beating out  Two and a Half Men (which held the position for the past 8 years). However, in the age 18–49 demographic (the show's target age range), it was the second highest-rated comedy, behind ABC's Modern Family. The fifth season opened with viewing figures of over 14 million.
+The sixth season boasts some of the highest-rated episodes for the show so far, with a then-new series high set with "The Bakersfield Expedition", with 20 million viewers, a first for the series, which along with NCIS, made CBS the first network to have two scripted series reach that large an audience in the same week since 2007. In the sixth season, the show became the highest rated and viewed scripted show in the 18–49 demographic, trailing only the live regular NBC Sunday Night Football coverage, and was third in total viewers, trailing NCIS and Sunday Night Football. Season seven of the series opened strong, continuing the success gained in season six, with the second episode of the premiere, "The Deception Verification", setting the new series high in viewers with 20.44 million.
+Showrunner Steve Molaro, who took over from Bill Prady with the sixth season, credits some of the show's success to the sitcom's exposure in off-network syndication, particularly on TBS, while Michael Schneider of TV Guide attributes it to the timeslot move two seasons earlier. Chuck Lorre and CBS Entertainment president Nina Tassler also credit the success to the influence of Molaro, in particular the deepening exploration of the firmly established regular characters and their interpersonal relationships, such as the on-again, off-again relationship between Leonard and Penny. Throughout much of the 2012‍–‍13 season, The Big Bang Theory placed first in all of the syndication ratings, receiving formidable competition from only Judge Judy and Wheel of Fortune (first-run syndication programs). By the end of the 2012‍–‍13 television season, The Big Bang Theory had dethroned Judge Judy as the ratings leader in all of the syndicated programming with 7.1, Judy descending to second place for that season with a 7.0. The Big Bang Theory did not place first in syndication ratings for the 2013‍–‍14 television season, beaten out by Judge Judy.
+
+=== UK distribution and ratings ===
+The show made its United Kingdom debut on Channel 4 on February 14, 2008. The show was also shown as a 'first-look' on Channel 4's digital offshoot E4 prior to the main channel's airing. While the show's ratings were not deemed strong enough to warrant broadcast on the main channel, they were considered the opposite for E4. For each following season, all episodes were shown first-run on E4, with episodes only aired on the main channel in a repeat capacity, usually on a weekend morning. From the third season, the show aired in two parts, being split so that it could air new episodes for longer throughout the year. This was due to rising ratings. The first part began airing on December 17, 2009, at 9:00 p.m. while the second part, containing the remaining eleven episodes, began airing in the same time period from May 6, 2010. The first half of the fourth season began airing on November 4, 2010, at 9:00 p.m., drawing 877,000 viewers, with a further 256,000 watching on the E4+1 hour service. This gave the show an overall total of 1.13 million viewers, making it E4's most-watched programme for that week. The increased ratings continued over subsequent weeks.
+The fourth season's second half began on June 30, 2011. Season 5 began airing on November 3, 2011, at 8:00 p.m. as part of E4's Comedy Thursdays, acting as a lead-in to the channel's newest comedy, Perfect Couples. Episode 19, the highest-viewed episode of the season, attracted 1.4 million viewers. Season 6 premiered on November 15, 2012, with 1.89 million viewers and a further 469,000 on the time shift channel, bringing the total to 2.31 million, E4's highest viewing ratings of 2012, and the highest the channel had received since June 2011. The sixth season returned in mid-2013 to finish airing the remaining episodes. Season 7 premiered on E4 on October 31, 2013, at 8:30 pm and hit multiple ratings records this season. The second half of season seven aired in mid 2014. The eighth season premiered on E4 on October 23, 2014, at 8:30 pm. During its eighth season, The Big Bang Theory shared its 8:30 pm time period with fellow CBS comedy, 2 Broke Girls. Following the airing of the first eight episodes of that show's fourth season, The Big Bang Theory returned to finish airing its eighth season on March 19, 2015.
+Netflix UK & Ireland announced on February 13, 2016, that seasons 1‍–‍8 would be available to stream from February 15, 2016.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-9.md

@@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
+---
+title: "The Big Bang Theory"
+chunk: 10/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Canadian ratings ===
+The Big Bang Theory initially had moderate success in Canada, but gained wider popularity in later seasons. The series is broadcast on the CTV Television Network, often through simultaneous substitution with cross-border CBS affiliates. It also aired in daily reruns on the Canadian cable channel The Comedy Network.
+The season 4 premiere garnered an estimated 3.1 million viewers across Canada. This was the largest audience for a sitcom since the series finale of Friends. The show later increased in viewership and became the most-watched entertainment television show in Canada.
+
+=== Accolades ===
+
+In August 2009, the sitcom won the best comedy series TCA award and Jim Parsons (Sheldon) won the award for individual achievement in comedy. In 2010, the show won the People's Choice Award for Favorite Comedy, while Parsons won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 16, 2011, Parsons was awarded a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series – Comedy or Musical, an award that was presented by co-star Kaley Cuoco. On September 18, 2011, Parsons was again awarded an Emmy for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 9, 2013, the show won People's Choice Award for Favorite Comedy for the second time. August 25, 2014, Jim Parsons was awarded an Emmy for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. The Big Bang Theory also won the 2016 People's Choice Awards for under Favorite TV Show and Favorite Network TV Comedy with Jim Parsons winning Favorite Comedic TV Actor. On January 20, 2016, The Big Bang Theory also won the International category at the UK's National Television Awards.
+
+== Merchandise ==
+On March 16, 2014, a Lego Ideas project portraying the living room scene in Lego style with the main cast as mini-figures reached 10,000 supporters on the platform, which qualified it to be considered as an official set by the Lego Ideas review board. On November 7, 2014, Lego Ideas approved the design and began refining it. The set was released in August 2015, with an exclusive pre-sale taking place at San Diego Comic-Con.
+
+== Offshoots ==
+
+=== Plagiarized series ===
+Through the use of his vanity cards at the end of episodes, Lorre alleged that the program had been plagiarized by a show produced and aired in Belarus in 2010. Officially titled Теоретики (The Theorists), the show features "clones" of the main characters, a similar opening sequence, and what appears to be a very close Russian translation of the scripts. Lorre expressed annoyance and described his inquiry with the Warner Bros. legal department about options. The television production company and station's close relationship with the Belarus government was cited as the reason that any attempt to claim copyright infringement would be in vain because the company copying the episodes is operated by the government.
+
+However, no legal action was required to end production of the other show: as soon as it became known that the show was unlicensed, the actors quit and the producers canceled it. Dmitriy Tankovich (who plays Leonard's counterpart, "Seva") said in an interview, I'm upset. At first, the actors were told all legal issues were resolved. We didn't know it wasn't the case, so when the creators of The Big Bang Theory started talking about the show, I was embarrassed. I can't understand why our people first do, and then think. I consider this to be the rock bottom of my career. And I don't want to take part in a stolen show.
+
+=== Spin-offs ===
+
+==== Young Sheldon ====
+
+In November 2016, it was reported that CBS was in negotiations to create a spin-off of The Big Bang Theory centered on Sheldon as a young boy. The prequel series, described as "a Malcolm in the Middle-esque single-camera family comedy" would be executive-produced by Lorre and Molaro, with Prady expected to be involved in some capacity, and intended to air in the 2017‍–‍18 season alongside The Big Bang Theory. The initial idea for the series came from Parsons, who passed it along to The Big Bang Theory producers. In early March 2017, Iain Armitage was cast as the younger Sheldon, as well as Zoe Perry as his mother, Mary Cooper. Perry is the real-life daughter of Laurie Metcalf, who portrays Mary Cooper on The Big Bang Theory.
+On March 13, 2017, CBS ordered the spin-off Young Sheldon series. Jon Favreau directed and executive produced the pilot. Created by Lorre and Molaro, the series follows 9-year-old Sheldon Cooper as he attends high school in East Texas. Alongside Armitage as 9-year-old Sheldon Cooper and Perry as Mary Cooper, Lance Barber stars as George Cooper, Sheldon's father; Raegan Revord stars as Missy Cooper, Sheldon's twin sister; and Montana Jordan stars as George Cooper Jr., Sheldon's older brother. Jim Parsons reprises his role as adult Sheldon Cooper, as narrator for the series. Parsons, Lorre, Molaro and Todd Spiewak also serve as executive producers on the series, for Chuck Lorre Productions and Warner Bros. Television. The show's pilot episode premiered on September 25, 2017. Subsequent weekly episodes began airing on November 2, 2017, following the broadcast of the 237th episode of The Big Bang Theory.
+Armitage appeared on the series' 265th episode, "The VCR Illumination", by way of a videotape recorded by the younger Sheldon and viewed by the current-day Sheldon.
+On January 6, 2018, the show was renewed for a second season. On February 22, 2019, CBS renewed the series for both the third and fourth seasons. On March 30, 2021, CBS renewed the series for a fifth, sixth, and seventh season.
+The prequel series came to an end on May 16, 2024, with an hour long episode which included George Cooper's funeral and a cameo from Parsons and Mayim Bialik as their older characters. The audience learns that Young Sheldon has been a memoir of Sheldon's life all along.
+
+==== Georgie & Mandy's First Marriage ====

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreamers_(novella)-0.md

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+---
+title: "The Dreamers (novella)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreamers_(novella)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:31.500345+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Dreamers is a novella by Stephen King, first published in King's 2024 collection You Like It Darker.
+
+
+== Plot summary ==
+
+In June 1971, Vietnam War veteran William Davis is discharged from the military; his wartime experiences have left him "empty", with his "emotions scrubbed". After staying with his mother in Skowhegan, Maine, Davis relocates to Portland, Maine and finds work as a stenographer for Temp-O. The following year, Davis responds to a job advertisement posted by Elgin, a self-described gentleman scientist in Castle Rock, Maine. Elgin hires Davis as an assistant for his experiments, which aim to "go under" the "wall of sleep".
+Elgin and Davis begin their experiments, which entail administering the hypnotic drug Flurazepam to a human test subject who is instructed to study a picture of a red house with a green door in a forest. The subject is then instructed to dream of the house, and then to enter the house and attempt to lift up the living room floor and see what is beneath. Elgin and Davis watch the subject through a one-way mirror, with Davis transcribing the subject's remarks.
+Davis witnesses the teeth of the first subject, Althea Gibson, grow larger. After awakening, she states that upon lifting the living room floor in her dream, she saw "darkness" and smelled a "stench". Elgin explains to Davis that the drug rendered Althea suggestible, enabling her to access "the reality beneath the dream". Elgin theorizes that dreams are a barrier between humans and the "matrix of existence", and that his experiments will enable him to look past this barrier.
+The second and third experiments are unsuccessful, while the fourth test subject does not appear. The fifth subject, Hiram Gaskill, writes "the moon is full of demons" in Vietnamese on a writing pad while asleep. Davis grows apprehensive and advises Elgin to terminate the experiment; Elgin refuses. Davis himself ultimately decides to remain Elgin's assistant, seeing his curiosity in the experiment as a sign that his humanity remains. The sixth subject, Annette Crosby, awakens screaming, having dreamed of opening the green door to encounter a disembodied voice that uttered a word resembling "tantullah" or "tamtusha".
+The final test subject is Burt Devereaux. During the experiment, Devereaux's eyeballs turn black, swell and split, emitting floating black filaments. He is left catatonic. Davis drives Devereaux to a rest area off Maine State Route 119 and abandons him there in his car, then hitchhikes back to Castle Rock. When he arrives back at Elgin's house, he finds Elgin in the test room with his head swathed in the filaments. As Davis watches, the filaments spell out his name on the one-way mirror. Davis turns on the house's gas stove and uses his lighter to ignite an explosion that destroys the house.
+Davis returns to Temp-O. When he is eventually interviewed by the police, he maintains that he left Elgin's employ some time before the explosion. In September 1972, Davis relocates to Nebraska, where he begins working on a farm. Davis dreams of standing outside the red house with the green door; he knows that one day he will open the door and enter the house, where "there will be no mercy".
+
+
+== Publication ==
+
+Paying tribute to author Cormac McCarthy upon his death in June 2023, King previewed The Dreamers, a story he had written while reading McCarthy's 2022 book The Passenger. He described The Dreamers as "very much under the influence of McCarthy's prose" and "very much in McCarthy's style", also saying "I stole his style for that story; it made the story possible". In August 2023, King noted The Dreamers as a rare example of one of his stories that he himself was scared by, describing it as "so creepy" that he "couldn't think about it at night". The Dreamers was published in 2024 as part of King's collection You Like It Darker. The story was dedicated to McCarthy, and to the fantasy author Evangeline Walton.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Jenn Adams (reviewing You Like It Darker for Bloody Disgusting) ranked The Dreamers as the "most classically scary" story in the volume, describing it as "pure Lovecraftian horror" and "shocking horror and nihilism at its best, reminiscent of King's 2014 novel Revival." Gorian Delpâture (writing for RTBF) described The Dreamers as "both a tribute to Cormac McCarthy (in style) and to HP Lovecraft (in theme)". Sassan Niasseri (writing for Rolling Stone) also noted the Lovecraftian influence and the resemblance to Revival, as well as noting the influence of Cormac McCarthy and the contrast between McCarthy's "laconic" writing style and King's "flowery" style. Mike Finn suggested that the story "...worked because it focused more on the struggle of a young man who has recently returned from the war in Vietnam and who has grown so used to numbing his feelings that he is now unable to connect with life and the living. His fatalism and his emotional distance gave this story of a scientist meddling with things best left alone a depth that surprised me." Eric Eisenberg described The Dreamers as "one of the scariest stories that Stephen King has written in the 21st century". Ali Karim of Shots magazine described The Dreamers as "a superbly realised cosmic horror piece", while Brandon Truitt of USA Today  described The Dreamers as "good old-fashioned cosmic terror". Bev Vincent noted The Dreamers as an example of the "common theme in King's stories [...] that the other universes that abut against ours are not nice places."
+A less positive review was received from Justin Hamelin, who stated that The Dreamers "...just missed the honor roll for me", noting "the outright mention of Lovecraft and one of his strongest works pulled me out of the story a bit, even for only a paragraph or so." SFX described the story as "a baffling attempt to merge HP Lovecraft and mad scientist movies."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Stephen King short fiction bibliography
+"Beyond the Wall of Sleep"
+Lovecraftian horror
+Revival
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Dreamers at StephenKing.com
+The Dreamers title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Timeline of women in science"
+chunk: 1/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a timeline of women in science, spanning from ancient history up to the 21st century. While the timeline primarily focuses on women involved with natural sciences such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, and physics, it also includes women from the social sciences (e.g. sociology, psychology), and the formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, computer science), as well as notable science educators and medical scientists. The chronological events listed in the timeline relate to both scientific achievements and gender equality within the sciences.
+
+== Ancient history ==
+
+1900 BCE: Aganice, also known as Athyrta, was an Egyptian princess during the Middle Kingdom (about 2000–1700 BCE) working on astronomy and natural philosophy.
+c. 1505–1458 BCE: Hatshepsut, also known as the Queen Doctor, promoted a botanical expedition searching for officinal plants.
+1200 BCE: The Mesopotamian perfume-maker Tapputi-Belatekallim was referenced in the text of a cuneiform tablet. She is often considered the world's first recorded chemist.
+500 BCE: Theano was a Pythagorean philosopher.
+c. 150 BCE: Aglaonice became the first female astronomer to be recorded in Ancient Greece.
+
+== Early post-classical history ==
+1st century BCE: A woman known only as Fang became the earliest recorded Chinese female alchemist. She is credited with "the discovery of how to turn mercury into silver" – possibly the chemical process of boiling off mercury in order to extract pure silver residue from ores.
+1st century CE: Mary the Jewess was among the world's first alchemists.
+3rd century CE: Cleopatra the Alchemist, an early figure in chemistry and practical alchemy, is credited as inventing the alembic.
+c. 300–350 CE: Greek mathematician Pandrosion develops a numerical approximation for cube roots.
+c. 350–415 CE: Greek astronomer, mathematician and philosopher Hypatia became renowned as a respected academic teacher, commentator on mathematics, and head of her own science academy.
+
+== Middle Ages ==
+
+c. 620: Rufaida Al-Aslamia, Was recognized as the first Muslim nurse in history.
+c. 975: Chinese alchemist Keng Hsien-Seng was employed by the Royal Court. She distilled perfumes, utilized an early form of the Soxhlet process to extract camphor into alcohol, and gained recognition for her skill in using mercury to extract silver from ores.
+10th century: Al-ʻIjliyyah manufactured astrolabes for the court of Sayf al-Dawla in Aleppo.
+11th century: Li Shao Yun, Chinese chemist
+11th century: Zhang Xiaoniang, Chinese physician.
+c. 1098–1179: Hildegard of Bingen was a founder of scientific natural history in Germany.
+fl. 1119–1182: Sun Bu'er, Chinese chemist.
+fl. 1122–1131: Dobrodeia of Kiev, a Rus' princess and Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire, was the first woman to write a treatise on medicine.
+1159: The Alsatian nun Herrad of Landsberg (1130–1195) compiled the scientific compendium Hortus deliciarum.
+fl. 1176: Helvidis, French physician
+fl. 1200: Rebecca Guarna, Italian physician and was known as one of the "Women of Salerno".
+Early 12th century: The Italian medical practitioner Trota of Salerno compiled medical works on women's ailments and skin diseases.
+12th century: Adelle of the Saracens taught at the Salerno School of Medicine.
+fl. 1249–1259: Magistra Hersend, French surgeon.
+fl. 1265 Stephanie de Lyon, French physician
+fl. 1291 Théophanie, French barber surgeon
+fl. 1292 Denice, French barber-surgeon
+fl. 1292 Isabiau la Mergesse, French-Jewish physician
+fl. ca. 13th century Demud, German physician
+fl. 1292–1319: Dame Péronelle, French herbalist.
+13th century Shen Yu Hsiu, Chinese chemist
+fl. 1300 Gilette de Narbonne, French physician. Giovanni Boccaccio wrote of her in ‘’The Decameron’’, calling her ‘Donna Medica’; Alfred Duru and Henri Chivot wrote a comic opera about her called Gillette de Narbonne.
+f. 1307 Trotta da Toya, Napolitan physician
+fl. 1308 Francisca di Vestis, Napolian physician
+fl. 1309 Maria Gallicia, licensed surgeon
+fl. 1313–1325: Ameline la Miresse, French physician
+fl. 1318–1324: Adelmota of Carrara was a physician in Padua, Italy.
+fl. 1318: Alessandra Giliani, Italian anatomist
+1320: Raymunda da Taberna, licensed Napolitan surgeon
+fl. 1322: Fava of Manosque, French-Jewish physician
+fl. 1322: Jacobina Félicie, Italian physician
+fl. 1326: Sara de Sancto Aegidio, French physician.
+fl. 1326: Sarah de St Giles, French-Jewish physician and medical teacher
+fl. 1333: Constanza, Italian surgeon, mentioned in Pope Sixtus IV edict regarding physicians and surgeons.
+fl. 1333: Francisca da Romana, Napolitan physician.
+fl. 1333: Isabella da Ocre, Napolitan surgeon.
+fl. 1333: Lauretta Ponte da Saracena Calabria, Napolitan physician.
+fl. 1333: Margarita da Venosa, licensed Napolitan surgeon, who studied at the University of Salerno She was considered a noteworthy practitioner and counted Ladislaus, king of Naples, as a patient.
+fl. 1333: Maria Incarnata, Italian surgeon, mentioned in Pope Sixtus IV edict regarding physicians and surgeons.
+fl. 1333: Sibyl of Benevento, Napolitan physician specializing in the plague buboes 
+fl. 1333: Thomasia de Mattio, Italian physician, mentioned in Pope Sixtus IV edict regarding physicians and surgeons.
+fl. 1335: Polisena da Troya, licensed Napolitan surgeon
+d. 1366: Jeanne d'Ausshure, French surgeon
+fl. 1374: Floreta La-Noga, Aragonese physician
+fl. 1376: Virdimura of Catania, Jewish-Sicilian physician
+fl. 1380: Bellayne Gallipapa, Zaragoza, Spanish-Jewish physician
+fl. 1384: Dolcich Gallipapa, Leyda, Spanish-Jewish physician
+fl. 1384: Juana Sarrovia, Barcelona, Spanish physician
+fl. 1387: Na Pla Gallipapa, Zaragoza, Spanish-Jewish physician
+late 13th century: Margherita di Napoli, Napolitan oculist active in Frankfurt-am-Main
+fl. 1390: Dorotea Bucca, Italian professor of medicine
+1386–1408: Maesta Antonia, Florentine physician
+14th century: Abella, Italian physician
+14th century: Mercuriade, Italian physician and surgeon
+fl. 1400: Antonia Daniello, Florentine-Jewish physician
+fl. 13th century: Brunetta de Siena, Italian-Jewish physician
+fl. 13th century: Caterina of Florence, Florentine physician
+fl. 1411: Peretta Peronne, also called Perretta Petone, French surgeon
+fl. 1415: Constance Calenda, Italian surgeon specializing in diseases of the eye.
+fl. 1438: Jeanne de Cusey, French barber-surgeon
+fl. 1460: Marguerite Saluzzi, Napolitan licensed herbalist physician
+fl. 1479: Guillemette du Luys, French royal surgeon
+d. 1498: Gentile Budrioli (or Gentile Cimieri), Italian astrologer and herbalist
+15th century: Clarice di Durisio, Italian physician.
+15th century Francesca, muller de Berenguer Satorra, Catalan physician
+c. 1494–1526: Katherine Briçonnet French architect.
+
+== 16th century ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-1.md

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+---
+title: "Timeline of women in science"
+chunk: 2/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+1561: Italian alchemist Isabella Cortese published her popular book The Secrets of Lady Isabella Cortese. The work included recipes for medicines, distilled oils and cosmetics, and was the only book published by a female alchemist in the 16th century.
+1572: Italian botanist Loredana Marcello died from the plague – but not before developing several effective palliative formulas for plague sufferers, which were used by many physicians.
+1572: Danish scientist Sophia Brahe (1556–1643) assisted her brother Tycho Brahe with his astronomical observations.
+1590: After her husband's death, Caterina Vitale took over his position as chief pharmacist to the Order of St John, becoming the first female chemist and pharmacist in Malta.
+
+== 17th century ==
+
+1609: French midwife Louise Bourgeois Boursier became the first woman to write a book on childbirth practices.
+1636: Anna Maria van Schurman is the first woman ever to attend university lectures. She had to sit behind a screen so that her male fellow students would not see her.
+1642: Martine Bertereau, the first recorded female mineralogist, was imprisoned in France on suspicion of witchcraft. Bertereau had published two written works on the science of mining and metallurgy before being arrested.
+1650: Silesian astronomer Maria Cunitz published Urania Propitia, a work that both simplified and substantially improved Johannes Kepler's mathematical methods for locating planets. The book was published in both Latin and German, an unconventional decision that made the scientific text more accessible for non-university educated readers.
+1656: French chemist and alchemist Marie Meurdrac published her book La Chymie Charitable et Facile, en Faveur des Dames (Useful and Easy Chemistry, for the Benefit of Ladies).
+1667: Margaret Lucas Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle upon Tyne (1623 – 15 December 1673) was an English aristocrat, philosopher, poet, scientist, fiction-writer, and playwright during the 17th century. She was the first woman to attend a meeting at the Royal Society of London, in 1667, and she criticised and engaged with members and philosophers Thomas Hobbes, René Descartes, and Robert Boyle.
+1668: After separating from her husband, French polymath Marguerite de la Sablière established a popular salon in Paris. Scientists and scholars from different countries visited the salon regularly to discuss ideas and share knowledge, and Sablière studied physics, astronomy and natural history with her guests.
+1680: French astronomer Jeanne Dumée published a summary of arguments supporting the Copernican theory of heliocentrism. She wrote "between the brain of a woman and that of a man there is no difference".
+1685: Frisian poet and archaeologist Titia Brongersma supervised the first excavation of a dolmen in Borger, Netherlands. The excavation produced new evidence that the stone structures were graves constructed by prehistoric humans – rather than structures built by giants, which had been the prior common belief.
+1690: German-Polish astronomer Elisabetha Koopman Hevelius, widow of Johannes Hevelius, whom she had assisted with his observations (and, probably, computations) for over twenty years, published in his name Prodromus Astronomiae, the largest and most accurate star catalog to that date.
+1693–1698: German astronomer and illustrator Maria Clara Eimmart created more than 350 detailed drawings of the moon phases.
+1699: German entomologist Maria Sibylla Merian, the first scientist to document the life cycle of insects for the public, embarked on a scientific expedition to Suriname, South America. She subsequently published Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium, a groundbreaking illustrated work on South American plants, animals and insects.
+
+== 18th century ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-10.md

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+---
+title: "Timeline of women in science"
+chunk: 11/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+1950s: Chinese-American medical scientist Tsai-Fan Yu co-founded a clinic at Mount Sinai Medical Center for the study and treatment of gout. Working with Alexander B. Gutman, Yu established that levels of uric acid were a factor in the pain experienced by gout patients, and subsequently developed multiple effective drugs for the treatment of gout.
+1950: Chinese-American particle physicist Chien-Shiung Wu proved the validity of Quantum entanglement which counters Albert Einstein's EPR Paradox and published her work on the new year of the new decade. She also proved the validity of beta decay around this time.
+1950: Ghanaian, Matilda J. Clerk became the first woman in Ghana and West Africa to attend graduate school, earning a postgraduate diploma at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.
+1950: Isabella Abbott became the first Native Hawaiian woman to receive a PhD in any science; hers was in botany.
+1950: American microbiologist Esther Lederberg became the first to isolate lambda bacteriophage, a DNA virus, from Escherichia coli K-12.
+1951: Ghana's Esther Afua Ocloo became the first person of African ancestry to obtain a cooking diploma from the Good Housekeeping Institute in London and to take the post-graduate Food Preservation Course at Long Ashton Research Station, Department of Horticulture, Bristol University.
+1952: American computer scientist Grace Hopper completed what is considered to be the first compiler, a program that allows a computer user to use a human-readable high-level programming language instead of machine code. It was known as the A-0 compiler.
+1952: Photograph 51, an X-ray diffraction image of crystallized DNA, was taken by Raymond Gosling in May 1952, working as a PhD student under the supervision of British chemist and biophysicist Rosalind Franklin; it was critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA.
+1952: Canadian agriculturalist Mary MacArthur became the first female Fellow of the Agricultural Institute of Canada for her contributions to the science of food dehydration and freezing.
+1953: Canadian-British radiobiologist Alma Howard co-authored a paper proposing that cellular life transitions through four distinct periods. This became the first concept of the cell cycle.
+1954: Lucy Cranwell was the first female recipient of the Hector Medal from the Royal Society of New Zealand. She was recognized for her pioneering work with pollen in the emerging field of palynology.
+1955: Moira Dunbar became the first female glaciologist to study sea ice from a Canadian icebreaker ship.
+1955: Japanese geochemist Katsuko Saruhashi published her research on measuring carbonic acid levels in seawater. The paper included "Saruhashi's Table", a tool of measurement she had developed that focused on using water temperature, pH level, and chlorinity to determine carbonic acid levels. Her work contributed to global understanding of climate change, and Saruhashi's Table was used by oceanographers for the next 30 years.
+1955–1956: Soviet marine biologist Maria Klenova became the first female scientist to work in the Antarctic, conducting research and assisting in the establishment of the Mirny Antarctic station.
+1956: Canadian zoologist and feminist Anne Innis Dagg began pioneering behavioural research on wild giraffes in South Africa in Kruger National Park. She researched and published on feminism and anti-nepotism laws at academic institutions in North America.
+1956: Chinese-American physicist Chien-Shiung Wu conducted a nuclear physics experiment in collaboration with the Low Temperature Group of the US National Bureau of Standards. It was an important foundation for the Standard Model in particle physics and brought the first answer to the question of the universe's existence by virtue of matter's predominance over antimatter. The experiment, becoming known as the Wu experiment, showed that parity could be violated in weak interaction. The Nobel Prize was given only to her male colleagues soon after the headlines of the discovery were released.
+1956: Dorothy Hill became the first Australian woman elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science.
+1956: English zoologist and geneticist Margaret Bastock published the first evidence that a single gene could change behavior.
+1957–1958: Chinese scientist Lanying Lin produced China's first germanium and silicon mono-crystals, subsequently pioneering new techniques in semiconductor development.
+1959: Chinese astronomer Ye Shuhua led the development of the Joint Chinese Universal Time System, which became the Chinese national standard for measuring universal time.
+1959: Susan Ofori-Atta, the first female Ghanaian physician, became a founding member of the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences.
+
+=== 1960s ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-11.md

@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+---
+title: "Timeline of women in science"
+chunk: 12/16
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+1960: British primatologist Jane Goodall began studying chimpanzees in Tanzania; her study of them continued for over 50 years. Her observations challenged previous ideas that only humans made tools and that chimpanzees had a basically vegetarian diet.
+Early 1960s: German-Canadian metallurgist Ursula Franklin studied levels of radioactive isotope strontium-90 that were appearing in the teeth of children as a side effect of nuclear weapons testing fallout. Her research influenced the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963.
+1960s: American mathematician Katherine Johnson calculated flight paths at NASA for crewed space flights.
+1961: Indian chemist Asima Chatterjee became the first female recipient of a Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize. She was recognized in the Chemical Sciences category for her contributions to phytomedicine.
+1962: Rachel Louise Carson was an American marine biologist, author, and conservationist whose book Silent Spring and other writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement.
+1962: South African botanist Margaret Levyns became the first female president of the Royal Society of South Africa.
+1962: French physicist Marguerite Perey became the first female Fellow elected to the Académie des Sciences.
+1963: Elsa G. Vilmundardóttir became the first female Icelandic geologist, completing her studies at Stockholm University.
+1963: Maria Goeppert Mayer became the first American woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with J. Hans D. Jensen "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure" and Eugene Paul Wigner "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles".
+1964: American mathematician Irene Stegun completed the work which led to the publication of Handbook of Mathematical Functions, a widely used and widely cited reference work in applied mathematics.
+1964: British chemist Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances".
+1964: Scottish virologist June Almeida made the first identification of a human coronavirus.
+1965: Sister Mary Kenneth Keller became the first American woman to receive a Ph.D. in computer science. Her thesis was titled "Inductive Inference on Computer Generated Patterns".
+1966: Japanese immunologist Teruko Ishizaka, working with Kimishige Ishizaka, discovered the antibody class Immunoglobulin E (IgE).
+1966: Serbian astrophysicist Mirjana Vukićević-Karabin founded the School of Astrophysics at the University of Belgrade
+1967: British astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell co-discovered the first radio pulsars.
+1967: Sue Arnold became the first female British Geological Survey person to go to sea on a research vessel.
+1967: South African radiobiologist Tikvah Alper discovered that scrapie, an infectious brain disease affecting sheep, did not spread via DNA or RNA like a viral or bacterial disease. The discovery enabled scientists to better understand diseases caused by prions.
+1967: Yvonne Brill, a Canadian-American rocket and jet propulsion engineer, invented the hydrazine resistojet propulsion system.
+1968: Japanese pioneer of molecular biology Tsuneko Okazaki studied DNA replication and discovered Okazaki fragments.
+1969: Beris Cox became the first female paleontologist in the British Geological Survey.
+1969: Ukrainian-born astronomer Svetlana Gerasimenko co-discovered the 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko comet.
+
+=== 1970s ===
+1970: Dorothy Hill became the first female president of the Australian Academy of Science.
+1970: Samira Islam became the first Saudi Arabian person to earn a PhD in pharmacology.
+1970: Astronomer Vera Rubin published the first evidence for dark matter.
+1970: Polish geologist Franciszka Szymakowska became widely known because of her unique and detailed geological drawings that are still used today.
+1973: American physicist Anna Coble became the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in biophysics, completing her dissertation at University of Illinois.
+1974: Dominican marine biologist Idelisa Bonnelly founded the Dominican Republic Academy of Science.
+1975: Indian chemist Asima Chatterjee was elected the General President of the Indian Science Congress Association. She simultaneously became the first female scientist ever elected a member of the congress.
+1975: Indian geneticist Archana Sharma received the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, the first female recipient in the Biological Sciences category.
+1975: Female officers of the British Geological Survey no longer had to resign upon getting married.
+1975: Chien-Shiung Wu became the first female president of the American Physical Society.
+1976: Filipino-American microbiologist Roseli Ocampo-Friedmann traveled to the Antarctic with Imre Friedmann and discovered micro-organisms living within the porous rock of the Ross Desert. These organisms – cryptoendoliths – were observed surviving extremely low temperatures and humidity, assisting scientific research into the possibility of life on Mars.
+1976: Margaret Burbidge was named the first female president of the American Astronomical Society.
+1977: American medical physicist Rosalyn Yalow received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones" along with Roger Guillemin and Andrew V. Schally who received it "for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain".
+1977: Friederike Victoria Joy Adamson (née Gessner, 20 January 1910 – 3 January 1980) was a naturalist, artist and author. Her book, Born Free, an international bestseller, describes her experiences raising a lion cub named Elsa. It was made into an Academy Award-winning movie of the same name. In 1977, she was awarded the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art.
+1977: The Association for Women Geoscientists was founded.
+1977: Argentine-Canadian scientist Veronica Dahl became the first graduate at Université d'Aix-Marseille II (and one of the first women in the world) to earn a PhD in artificial intelligence.
+1977: Canadian-American Elizabeth Stern published her research on the link between birth control pills – which contained high levels of estrogen at the time – and the increased risk of cervical cancer development in women. Her data helped pressure the pharmaceutical industry into providing safer contraceptive pills with lower hormone doses.
+1978: Anna Jane Harrison became the first female president of the American Chemical Society.
+1978: Mildred Cohn served as the first female president of the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, then called the American Society of Biological Chemists.
+
+=== 1980s ===

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+title: "Timeline of women in science"
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+---
+
+1980: Japanese geochemist Katsuko Saruhashi became the first woman elected to the Science Council of Japan.
+1980: Nigerian geophysicist Deborah Ajakaiye became the first woman in any West African country to be appointed a full professor of physics. Over the course of her scientific career, she became the first female Fellow elected to the Nigerian Academy of Science, and the first female dean of science in Nigeria.
+1981: Vera Rubin was the second female astronomer elected to the National Academy of Science. Beginning her academic career as the sole undergraduate in astronomy at Vassar College, Rubin went on to graduate studies at Cornell University and Georgetown University, where she observed deviations from Hubble flow in galaxies and provided evidence for the existence of galactic superclusters.
+1982: Nephrologist Leah Lowenstein became the first female dean of a co-educational medical school in the United States.
+1982: Janet Vida Watson FRS FGS (1923–1985) was a British geologist. She was a professor of geology at Imperial College, London. A fellow of the Royal Society, she is well known for her contribution to the understanding of the Lewisian complex and as an author and co-author of several books. In 1982 she was elected president of the Geological Society of London, the first woman to occupy that position.
+1983: American cytogeneticist Barbara McClintock received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of genetic transposition; she was the first woman to receive that prize without sharing it, and the first American woman to receive any unshared Nobel Prize.
+1983: Brazilian agronomist Johanna Döbereiner became a founding Fellow of the World Academy of Sciences.
+1983: Indian immunologist Indira Nath became the first female scientist to receive the Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Award in the Medical Sciences category.
+1983: Geologist Sudipta Sengupta and marine biologist Aditi Pant became the first Indian women to visit the Antarctic.
+1985: After identifying HIV as the cause of AIDS, Chinese-American virologist Flossie Wong-Staal became the first scientist to clone and genetically map the HIV virus, enabling the development of the first HIV blood screening tests.
+1986: Italian neurologist Rita Levi-Montalcini received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with Stanley Cohen, "for their discoveries of growth factors".
+1988: American biochemist and pharmacologist Gertrude B. Elion received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with James W. Black and George H. Hitchings "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment".
+1988: American scientist and inventor Patricia Bath (born 1942) became the first African-American to patent a medical device, namely the Laserphaco Probe for improving the use of lasers to remove cataracts.
+
+=== 1990s ===
+
+1991: Doris Malkin Curtis became the first female president of the Geological Society of America.
+1991: Indian geologist Sudipta Sengupta became the first female scientist to receive the Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Award in the Earth Sciences category.
+Helen Patricia Sharman, CMG, OBE, HonFRSC (born 30 May 1963) is a chemist who became the first British astronaut (and in particular, the first British cosmonaut) as well as the first woman to visit the Mir space station in May 1991.
+1992: Mae Carol Jemison is an American engineer, physician, and former NASA astronaut. She became the first black woman to travel into space when she served as a mission specialist aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour. Jemison joined NASA's astronaut corps in 1987 and was selected to serve for the STS-47 mission, during which she orbited the Earth for nearly eight days on September 12–20, 1992.
+1992: Edith M. Flanigen became the first woman awarded the Perkin Medal (widely considered the highest honor in American industrial chemistry) for her outstanding achievements in applied chemistry. The medal especially recognized her syntheses of aluminophosphate and silicoaluminophosphate molecular sieves as new classes of materials.
+1995: German biologist Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with Edward B. Lewis and Eric F. Wieschaus, "for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development".
+1995: British geomorphologist Marjorie Sweeting published the first comprehensive Western account of China's karst, entitled Karst in China: its Geomorphology and Environment.
+1995: Israeli-Canadian mathematical biologist Leah Keshet became the first female president of the international Society for Mathematical Biology.
+1995: Jane Plant became the first female deputy director of the British Geological Survey.
+1995: Inspectors from the United Nations Special Commission discovered that Iraqi microbiologist Rihab Taha, nicknamed "Dr. Germ", had been overseeing a secret 10-year biological warfare development program in Iraq.
+1996: American planetary scientist Margaret G. Kivelson led a team that discovered the first subsurface, saltwater ocean on an alien world, on the Jovian moon Europa.
+1997: Lithuanian-Canadian primatologist Birutė Galdikas received the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement for her research and rehabilitation work with orangutans. Her work with orangutans, eventually spanning over 30 years, was later recognized in 2014 as one of the longest continuous scientific studies of wild animals in history.
+1997: Chilean astronomer María Teresa Ruiz discovered Kelu 1, one of the first observed brown dwarfs. In recognition of her discovery, she became the first woman to receive the Chilean National Prize for Exact Sciences.
+1998: Nurse Fannie Gaston-Johansson became the first African-American woman tenured full professor at Johns Hopkins University.
+Late 1990s: Ethiopian-American chemist Sossina M. Haile developed the first solid acid fuel cell.
+
+== 21st century ==

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+---
+
+=== 2000s ===
+2000: Venezuelan astrophysicist Kathy Vivas presented her discovery of approximately 100 "new and very distant" RR Lyrae stars, providing insight into the structure and history of the Milky Way galaxy.
+2003: American geophysicist Claudia Alexander oversaw the final stages of Project Galileo, a space exploration mission that ended at the planet Jupiter.
+2004: American biologist Linda B. Buck received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system".
+2006: Chilean biochemist Cecilia Hidalgo Tapia became the first woman to receive the Chilean National Prize for Natural Sciences.
+2006: Chinese-American biochemist Yizhi Jane Tao led a team of researchers to become the first to map the atomic structure of Influenza A, contributing to antiviral research.
+2006: Parasitologist Susan Lim became the first Malaysian scientist elected to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
+2006: Merieme Chadid became the first Moroccan person and the first female astronomer to travel to Antarctica, leading an international team of scientists in the installation of a major observatory in the South Pole.
+2006: American computer scientist Frances E. Allen won the Turing Award for "pioneering contributions to the theory and practice of optimizing compiler techniques that laid the foundation for modern optimizing compilers and automatic parallel execution". She was the first woman to win the award.
+2006: Canadian-American computer scientist Maria Klawe became the president of Harvey Mudd College.
+2007: Using satellite imagery, Egyptian geomorphologist Eman Ghoneim discovered traces of an 11,000-year-old mega lake in the Sahara Desert. The discovery shed light on the origins of the largest modern groundwater reservoir in the world.
+2007: Physicist Ibtesam Badhrees was the first Saudi Arabian woman to become a member of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).
+2008: French virologist Françoise Barré-Sinoussi received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with Harald zur Hausen and Luc Montagnier, "for their discovery of HIV, human immunodeficiency virus".
+2008: American-born Australian Penny Sackett became Australia's first female chief scientist.
+2008: American computer scientist Barbara Liskov won the Turing Award for "contributions to practical and theoretical foundations of programming language and system design, especially related to data abstraction, fault tolerance, and distributed computing".
+2009: American molecular biologist Carol W. Greider received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Elizabeth H. Blackburn and Jack W. Szostak "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase".
+2009: Israeli crystallographer Ada E. Yonath, along with Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas A. Steitz, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome".
+2009: Chinese geneticist Zeng Fanyi and her research team published their experiment results proving that induced pluripotent stem cells can be used to generate whole mammalian bodies – in this case, live mice.

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+---
+
+=== 2010s ===
+2010: Marcia McNutt became the first female director of the United States Geological Survey.
+2011: Kazakhstani neuroscience student and computer hacker Alexandra Elbakyan launched Sci-Hub, a website that provides users with pirated copies of scholarly scientific papers. Within five years, Sci-Hub grew to contain 60 million papers and recorded over 42 million annual downloads by users. Elbakyan was finally sued by major academic publishing company Elsevier, and Sci-Hub was subsequently taken down, but it reappeared under different domain names.
+2011: Taiwanese-American astrophysicist Chung-Pei Ma led a team of scientists in discovering two of the largest black holes ever observed.
+2012: Computer scientist and cryptographer Shafi Goldwasser won the Turing award for her contributions to cryptography and complexity theory.
+2013: Canadian genetic specialist Turi King identified the 500-year-old skeletal remains of King Richard III.
+2013: Kenyan ichthyologist Dorothy Wanja Nyingi published the first guide to freshwater fish species of Kenya.
+2013: Canadian teenagers Miranda Wang and Jeanny Yao jointly identify a bacteria in British Columbia's Fraser River that breaks down phthalates.
+2014: Norwegian psychologist and neuroscientist May-Britt Moser received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with Edvard Moser and John O'Keefe, "for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain".
+2014: American paleoclimatologist and marine geologist Maureen Raymo became the first woman to be awarded the Wollaston Medal, the highest award of the Geological Society of London.
+2014: American theoretical physicist Shirley Ann Jackson was awarded the National Medal of Science. Jackson had been the first African-American woman to receive a PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the early 1970s, and the first woman to chair the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
+2014: Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman to receive the Fields Medal, for her work in "the dynamics and geometry of Riemann surfaces and their moduli spaces".
+2015: The International Day of Women and Girls in Science is an annual observance adopted by the United Nations General Assembly to promote the full and equal access and participation of women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields; the United Nations General Assembly passed resolution 70/212 on 22 December 2015, which proclaimed the 11th day of February as the annual commemoration of the observance.
+2015: Chinese medical scientist Tu Youyou received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura; she received it "for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy against Malaria".
+2015: Asha de Vos became the first Sri Lankan person to receive a PhD in marine mammal research, completing her thesis on "Factors influencing blue whale aggregations off southern Sri Lanka" at the University of Western Australia.
+2016: Marcia McNutt became the first female president of the American National Academy of Sciences.
+2018: British astrophysicists Hiranya Peiris and Joanna Dunkley and Italian cosmologist Licia Verde were among 27 scientists awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for their contributions to "detailed maps of the early universe that greatly improved our knowledge of the evolution of the cosmos and the fluctuations that seeded the formation of galaxies".
+2018: British astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell received the special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for her scientific achievements and "inspiring leadership", worth $3 million. She donated the entirety of the prize money towards the creation of scholarships to assist women, underrepresented minorities and refugees who are pursuing the study of physics.
+2018: Canadian physicist Donna Strickland received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics"; she shared it with Arthur Ashkin and Gérard Mourou.
+2018: Frances Arnold received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the directed evolution of enzymes"; she shared it with George Smith and Gregory Winter, who received it "for the phage display of peptides and antibodies". This made Frances the first American woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
+2018: For the first time in history, women received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the Nobel Prize in Physics in the same year.
+2019: Mathematician Karen Uhlenbeck became the first woman to win the Abel Prize for "her pioneering achievements in geometric partial differential equations, gauge theory, and integrable systems, and for the fundamental impact of her work on analysis, geometry and mathematical physics".
+2019: Imaging scientist Katie Bouman developed an algorithm that made the first visualization of a black hole possible using the Event Horizon Telescope. She was part of the team of over 200 people who implemented the project.

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+title: "Timeline of women in science"
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+---
+
+=== 2020s ===
+2020: The Nigerian Academy of Science elected epidemiologist/parasitologist Ekanem Braide as its first female president.
+2020: Brazilian Scientist and Researcher Jaqueline Goes de Jesus, sequenced COVID-19 genome in 12 hours.
+2020: Biochemists Jennifer Doudna (American) and Emmanuelle Charpentier (French) received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on CRISPR genome editing tool.
+2020: Andrea M. Ghez received the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of a supermassive compact object.
+2020: German-Turkish scientist Özlem Türeci is the co-founder and chief medical officer of BioNTech. Her team developed BNT162b2 (tozinameran (INN)), commonly known as the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine.
+2020: British vaccinologist Sarah Gilbert leads the development and testing of a vaccine which becomes the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine.
+2021: Catherine Heymans was appointed as the first female Astronomer Royal for Scotland.
+2022: American chemist Carolyn R. Bertozzi received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her development of Bioorthogonal chemistry.
+2023: Australian geomicrobiologist Jillian Banfield became the first female recipient of the van Leeuwenhoek Medal, which she received for her studies of complex microbial communities and their interaction with the environment.
+2025: South African-born physicist and space scientist Michele Dougherty is appointed Astronomer Royal for the United Kingdom, becoming the first woman appointed to the role in its 350-year history.
+2025: American biologist Mary E. Brunkow receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her studies of the FOXP3 gene, which was significant to future studies of peripheral immune tolerance. She shared this award with immunologists Fred Ramsdell and Shimon Sakaguchi.
+
+== See also ==
+List of female scientists before the 20th century
+Lists of women in science
+Timeline of women in geology
+Timeline of women's education
+Timeline of women in computing
+Timeline of women in library science
+Timeline of women in mathematics in the United States
+Timeline of women in mathematics
+Timeline of women in science in the United States
+Women in physics
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Famous female scientists: A timeline of pioneering women in science from the website of Dr Helen Klus

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+
+1702: Pioneering English entomologist Eleanor Glanville captured a butterfly specimen in Lincolnshire, which was subsequently named the Glanville fritillary in her honour. Her extensive butterfly collection impressed fellow entomologist William Vernon, who called Glanville's work "the noblest collection of butterflies, all English, which has sham'd us". Her butterfly specimens became part of early collections in the Natural History Museum.
+1702: German astronomer Maria Kirch became the first woman to discover a comet.
+c. 1702–1744: In Montreal, Canada, French botanist Catherine Jérémie collected plant specimens and studied their properties, sending the specimens and her detailed notes back to scientists in France.
+1732: At the age of 20, Italian physicist Laura Bassi became the first female member of the Bologna Academy of Sciences. One month later, she publicly defended her academic theses and received a PhD. Bassi was awarded an honorary position as professor of physics at the University of Bologna. She was the first female physics professor in the world.
+1738: French polymath Émilie du Châtelet became the first woman to have a paper published by the Paris Academy, following a contest on the nature of fire.
+1740: French polymath Émilie du Châtelet published Institutions de Physique (Foundations of Physics) providing a metaphysical basis for Newtonian physics.
+1748: Swedish agronomist Eva Ekeblad became the first female member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Two years earlier, she had developed a new process of using potatoes to make flour and alcohol, which subsequently lessened Sweden's reliance on wheat crops and decreased the risk of famine.
+1751: 19-year-old Italian physicist Cristina Roccati received her PhD from the University of Bologna.
+1753: Jane Colden, an American, was the only female biologist mentioned by Carl Linnaeus in his masterwork Species Plantarum.
+1754: Dorothea Erxleben was the first female to be awarded a doctor in medicine in Germany (University of Halle, then Kingdom of Prussia). She practiced medicine from 1747 to 1762 in Quedlinburg.
+1755: After the death of her husband, Italian anatomist Anna Morandi Manzolini took his place at the University of Bologna, becoming a professor of anatomy and establishing an internationally known laboratory for anatomical research.
+1757: French astronomer Nicole-Reine Lepaute worked with mathematicians Alexis Clairaut and Joseph Lalande to calculate the next arrival of Halley's Comet.
+1760: American horticulturalist Martha Daniell Logan began corresponding with botanic specialist and collector John Bartram, regularly exchanging seeds, plants and botanical knowledge with him.
+1762: French astronomer Nicole-Reine Lepaute calculated the time and percentage of a solar eclipse that had been predicted to occur in two years time. She created a map to show the phases, and published a table of her calculations in the 1763 edition of Connaissance des Temps.
+1766: French chemist Geneviève Thiroux d'Arconville published her study on putrefaction. The book presented her observations from more than 300 experiments over the span of five years, during which she attempted to discover factors necessary for the preservation of beef, eggs, and other foods. Her work was recommended for royal privilege by fellow chemist Pierre-Joseph Macquer.
+c. 1775: Herbalist/botanist Jeanne Baret becomes the first woman to circumnavigate the globe.
+c. 1775: French chemist, scientific artist and translator, Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier began working with her husband chemist Antoine Lavoisier. She was instrumental in the 1789 publication of her husband’s groundbreaking Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, which presented a unified view of chemistry as a field, as she drew diagrams of all the equipment used, and kept strict records that lended validity to the findings. She also translated and critiqued Richard Kirwan's 'Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids' which led to the discovery of oxygen gas.
+1776: At the University of Bologna, Italian physicist Laura Bassi became the first woman appointed as chair of physics at a university.
+1776: Christine Kirch received a respectable salary of 400 Thaler for calendar-making. See also her sister Margaretha Kirch
+1782–1791: French chemist and mineralogist Claudine Picardet translated more than 800 pages of Swedish, German, English and Italian scientific papers into French, enabling French scientists to better discuss and utilize international research in chemistry, mineralogy and astronomy.
+c. 1787–1797: Self-taught Chinese astronomer Wang Zhenyi published at least twelve books and multiple articles on astronomy and mathematics. Using a lamp, a mirror and a table, she once created a famous scientific exhibit designed to accurately simulate a lunar eclipse.
+1786–1797: German astronomer Caroline Herschel discovered eight new comets, along with numerous other discoveries.
+1789: French astronomer Louise du Pierry, the first Parisian woman to become an astronomy professor, taught the first astronomy courses specifically open to female students.
+1794: British chemist Elizabeth Fulhame invented the concept of catalysis and published a book on her findings.
+c. 1796–1820: During the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor, astronomer Huang Lü became the first Chinese woman to work with optics and photographic images. She developed a telescope that could take simple photographic images using photosensitive paper.
+1797: English science writer and schoolmistress Margaret Bryan published A Compendious System of Astronomy, including an engraving of herself and her two daughters. She dedicated the book to her students.
+
+== Early 19th century ==

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+
+1808: Anna Sundström began assisting Jacob Berzelius in his laboratory, becoming one of the first Swedish women chemists.
+1809: Sabina Baldoncelli earned her university degree in pharmacy but was allowed to work only in the Italian orphanage where she resided.
+1815: English archaeologist Lady Hester Stanhope used a medieval Italian manuscript to locate a promising archaeological site in Ashkelon, becoming the first archaeologist to begin an excavation in the Palestinian region. It was one of the earliest examples of the use of textual sources in field archaeology.
+1816: French mathematician and physicist Sophie Germain became the first woman to win a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her work on elasticity theory.
+1823: English palaeontologist and fossil collector Mary Anning discovered the first complete Plesiosaurus.
+1831: Italian botanist Elisabetta Fiorini Mazzanti published her best-known work Specimen Bryologiae Romanae.
+1830–1837: Belgian botanist Marie-Anne Libert published her four-volume Plantae cryptogamicae des Ardennes, a collection of 400 species of mosses, ferns, lichen, algae and fungi from the Ardennes region. Her contributions to systemic cryptogamic studies were formally recognized by Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm III, and Libert received a gold medal of merit.
+1832: French marine biologist Jeanne Villepreux-Power invented the first glass aquarium, using it to assist in her scientific observations of Argonauta argo.
+1833: English phycologists Amelia Griffiths and Mary Wyatt published two books on local British seaweeds. Griffiths had an internationally respected reputation as a skilled seaweed collector and scholar, and Swedish botanist Carl Agardh had earlier named the seaweed genus Griffithsia in her honour.
+1833: Orra White Hitchcock (March 8, 1796 – May 26, 1863) was one of America's earliest women botanical and scientific illustrators and artists, best known for illustrating the scientific works of her husband, geologist Edward Hitchcock (1793–1864), but also notable for her own artistic and scientific work. The most well known appear in her husband's seminal works, the 1833 Report on the Geology, Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology of Massachusetts and its successor, the 1841 Final Report produced when he was State Geologist. For the 1833 edition, Pendleton's Lithography (Boston) lithographed nine of Hitchcock's Connecticut River Valley drawings and printed them as plates for the work. In 1841, B. W. Thayer and Co., Lithographers (Boston) printed revised lithographs and an additional plate. The hand-colored plate "Autumnal Scenery. View in Amherst" is Hitchcock's most frequently seen work.
+1835: Scottish polymath Mary Somerville and German astronomer Caroline Herschel were elected the first female members of the Royal Astronomical Society.
+1836: Early English geologist and paleontologist Etheldred Benett, known for her extensive collection of several thousand fossils, was appointed a member of the Imperial Natural History Society of Moscow. The society – which only admitted men at the time – initially mistook Benett for a man due to her reputation as a scientist and her unusual first name, addressing her diploma of admission to "Dominum" (Master) Benett.
+1840: Scottish fossil collector and illustrator Lady Eliza Maria Gordon-Cumming invited geologists Louis Agassiz, William Buckland and Roderick Murchison to examine her collection of fish fossils. Agassiz confirmed several of Gordon-Cumming's discoveries as new species.
+1843: During a nine-month period in 1842–43, English mathematician Ada Lovelace translated Luigi Menabrea's article on Charles Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended a set of notes. Her notes were labelled alphabetically from A to G. In note G, she describes an algorithm for the Analytical Engine to compute Bernoulli numbers. It is considered the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and Ada Lovelace has often been cited as the first computer programmer for this reason. The engine was never completed, so her program was never tested.
+1843: British botanist and pioneering photographer Anna Atkins self-published her book Photographs of British Algae, illustrating the work with cyanotypes. Her book was the first book on any subject to be illustrated by photographs.
+1846: British zoologist Anna Thynne built the first stable, self-sustaining marine aquarium.
+1848: American astronomer Maria Mitchell became the first woman elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; she had discovered a new comet the year before.
+1848–1849: English scientist Mary Anne Whitby, a pioneer in western silkworm cultivation, collaborated with Charles Darwin in researching the hereditary qualities of silkworms.
+1850: The American Association for the Advancement of Sciences accepted its first women members: astronomer Maria Mitchell, entomologist Margaretta Morris, and science educator Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps.
+
+== Late 19th century ==

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+
+1854: Mary Horner Lyell was a conchologist and geologist. She is most well known for her scientific work in 1854, where she studied her collection of land snails from the Canary Islands. She was married to the notable British geologist Charles Lyell and assisted him in his scientific work. It is believed by historians that she likely made major contributions to her husband's work.
+1854–1855: Florence Nightingale organized care for wounded soldiers during the Crimean War. She was an English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. Her pie charts clearly showed that most deaths resulted from disease rather than battle wounds or "other causes," which led the general public to demand improved sanitation at field hospitals.
+1855: Working with her father, Welsh astronomer and photographer Thereza Dillwyn Llewelyn produced some of the earliest photographs of the moon.
+1856: American atmospheric scientist Eunice Newton Foote presented her paper "Circumstances affecting the heat of the sun's rays" at an annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences. She was an early researcher of the greenhouse effect.
+1862: Belgian botanist Marie-Anne Libert became the first woman to join the Royal Botanical Society of Belgium. She was named an honorary member.
+1863: German naturalist Amalie Dietrich arrived in Australia to collect plant, animal and anthropological specimens for the German Godeffroy Museum. She remained in Australia for the next decade, discovering a number of new plant and animal species in the process, but also became notorious in later years for her removal of Aboriginal skeletons – and the possible incitement of violence against Aboriginal people – for anthropological research purposes.
+1865: English geologist Elizabeth Carne was elected the first female Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.
+
+=== 1870s ===
+1869/1870: American beekeeper Ellen Smith Tupper became the first female editor of an entomological journal.
+1870: Katharine Murray Lyell was a British botanist, author of an early book on the worldwide distribution of ferns, and editor of volumes of the correspondence of several of the era's notable scientists.
+1870: Ellen Swallow Richards became the first American woman to earn a degree in chemistry.
+1870: Russian chemist Anna Volkova became the first female member of the Russian Chemical Society.
+1874: Julia Lermontova became the first Russian woman to receive a PhD in chemistry.
+1875: Hungarian archaeologist Zsófia Torma excavated the site of Turdaș-Luncă in Hunedoara County, today in Romania. The site, which uncovered valuable prehistoric artifacts, became one of the most important archaeological discoveries in Europe.
+1876–1878: American naturalist Mary Treat studied insectivorous plants in Florida. Her contributions to the scientific understanding of how these plants caught and digested prey were acknowledged by Charles Darwin and Asa Gray.
+1878: English entomologist Eleanor Anne Ormerod became the first female Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society. A few years afterwards, she was appointed as Consulting Entomologist to the Royal Agricultural Society.
+
+=== 1880s ===
+1880: Self-taught German chemist Agnes Pockels began investigating surface tension, becoming a pioneering figure in the field of surface science. The measurement equipment she developed provided the basic foundation for modern quantitative analyses of surface films.
+1883: American ethnologist Erminnie A. Smith, the first female field ethnographer, published her collection of Iroquois legends Myths of the Iroquois.
+1884: English zoologist Alice Johnson's paper on newt embryos became the first paper authored by a woman to appear in the Proceedings of the Royal Society.
+1885: British naturalist Marian Farquharson became the first female Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society.
+1886: Botanist Emily Lovira Gregory became the first female member of the American Society of Naturalists.
+1887: Rachel Lloyd became the first American woman to receive a PhD in chemistry, completing her research at the Swiss University of Zurich.
+1888: Russian scientist Sofia Kovalevskaya discovered the Kovalevskaya top, one of a brief list of known rigid body motion examples that are tractable by manipulating equations by hand.
+1888: American chemist Josephine Silone Yates was appointed head of the Department of Natural Sciences at Lincoln Institute (later Lincoln University), becoming the first black woman to head a college science department.
+1889: Geologist Mary Emilie Holmes became the first female Fellow of the Geological Society of America.

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+
+=== 1890s ===
+1890: Austrian-born chemist Ida Freund became the first woman to work as a university chemistry lecturer in the United Kingdom. She was promoted to full lecturer at Newnham College, Cambridge.
+1890: Popular science educator and author Agnes Giberne co-founded the British Astronomical Association. Subsequently, English astronomer Elizabeth Brown was appointed the director of the association's Solar Section, well known for her studies in sunspots and other solar phenomena.
+1890: Mathematician Philippa Fawcett became the first woman to obtain the highest score in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos examinations, a score "above the Senior Wrangler". (At the time, women were ineligible to be named Senior Wrangler.)
+1891: American-born astronomer Dorothea Klumpke was appointed as Head of the Bureau of Measurements at the Paris Observatory. For the next decade, in addition to completing her doctorate of science, she worked on the Carte du Ciel mapping project. She was recognized for her work with the first Prix de Dames award from the Société astronomique de France and named an Officier of the Paris Academy of Sciences.
+1892: American psychologist Christine Ladd-Franklin presented her evolutionary theory on the development of colour vision to the International Congress of Psychology. Her theory was the first to emphasize colour vision as an evolutionary trait.
+1893: Florence Bascom became the second woman to earn her PhD in geology in the United States, and the first woman to receive a PhD from Johns Hopkins University. Geologists consider her to be the "first woman geologist in this country (America)".
+1893: American botanist Elizabeth Gertrude Britton became a charter member of the Botanical Society of America.
+1894: American astronomer Margaretta Palmer becomes the first woman to earn a doctorate in astronomy.
+1895: English physiologist Marion Bidder became the first woman to speak and present her own paper at a meeting of the Royal Society.
+1896: Florence Bascom became the first woman to work for the United States Geological Survey.
+1896: English mycologist and lichenologist Annie Lorrain Smith became a founding member of the British Mycological Society. She later served as president twice.
+1896: Russian ophthalmologist Rosa Kerschbaumer-Putjata graduates from Universität Bern. She becomes the first female doctor permitted to practice in Austria due to a special permit granted by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. She campaigned for women's right to study medicine in Austria.
+1897: American cytologists and zoologists Katharine Foot and Ella Church Strobell started working as research partners. Together, they pioneered the practice of photographing microscopic research samples and invented a new technique for creating thin material samples in colder temperatures.
+1897: American physicist Isabelle Stone became the first woman to receive a PhD in physics in the United States. She wrote her dissertation "On the Electrical Resistance of Thin Films" at the University of Chicago.
+1898: Danish physicist Kirstine Meyer was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.
+1898: Italian malacologist Marianna Paulucci donated her collection of specimens to the Royal Museum of Natural History in Florence, Italy (Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze). Paulucci was the first scientist to compile and publish a species list of Italian malacofauna.
+1899: American physicists Marcia Keith and Isabelle Stone became charter members of the American Physical Society.
+1899: Irish physicist Edith Anne Stoney was appointed a physics lecturer at the London School of Medicine for Women, becoming the first female medical physicist. She later became a pioneering figure in the use of X-ray machines on the front lines of World War I.
+
+== Early 20th century ==
+
+=== 1900s ===

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+
+1900: American botanist Anna Murray Vail became the first librarian of the New York Botanical Garden. A key supporter of the institution's establishment, she had earlier donated her entire collection of 3000 botanical specimens to the garden.
+1900: Physicists Marie Skłodowska–Curie and Isabelle Stone attended the first International Congress of Physics in Paris, France. They were the only two women out of 836 participants.
+1901: American Florence Bascom became the first female geologist to present a paper before the Geological Survey of Washington.
+1901: Czech botanist and zoologist Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková became the first woman in the Czech Republic to receive a PhD.
+1901: American astronomer Annie Jump Cannon published her first catalog of stellar spectra, which classified stars by temperature. This method was universally and permanently adopted by other astronomers.
+1903: Grace Coleridge Frankland née Toynbee was an English microbiologist. Her most notable work was Bacteria in Daily Life. She was one of the nineteen female scientists who wrote the 1904 petition to the Chemical Society to request that they should create some female fellows of the society.
+1903: Polish-born physicist and chemist Marie Skłodowska–Curie became the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize when she received the Nobel Prize in Physics along with her husband, Pierre Curie, "for their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel", and Henri Becquerel, "for his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity".
+1904: American geographer, geologist and educator Zonia Baber published her article "The Scope of Geography", in which she laid out her educational theories on the teaching of geography. She argued that students required a more interdisciplinary, experiential approach to learning geography: instead of a reliance on textbooks, students needed field-trips, lab work and map-making knowledge. Baber's educational ideas transformed the way schools taught geography.
+1904: British chemists Ida Smedley, Ida Freund and Martha Whiteley organized a petition asking the Chemical Society to admit women as Fellows. A total of 19 female chemists became signatories, but their petition was denied by the society.
+1904: Marie Stopes (15 October 1880 – 2 October 1958) was a British author, palaeobotanist and campaigner for women's rights. She made significant contributions to plant palaeontology and coal classification. She held the post of Lecturer in Palaeobotany at the University of Manchester from 1904 to 1910; in this capacity she became the first female academic of that university. In 1909 she was elected to the Linnean Society of London. She was 26 at the time of her election to Fellowship (the youngest woman admitted at that time).
+1904: In a December meeting, the Linnean Society of London elected its first women Fellows. These initial women included horticulturalist Ellen Willmott, ornithologist Emma Turner, biologist Lilian Jane Gould, mycologists Gulielma Lister and Annie Lorrain Smith, and botanists Mary Anne Stebbing, Margaret Jane Benson and Ethel Sargant.
+1905: American geneticist Nettie Stevens discovered sex chromosomes.
+1906: Following the San Francisco earthquake, American botanist and curator Alice Eastwood rescued almost 1500 rare plant specimens from the burning California Academy of Sciences building. Her curation system of keeping type specimens separate from other collections – unconventional at the time – allowed her to quickly find and retrieve the specimens.
+1906: Russian chemist Irma Goldberg published a paper on two newly discovered chemical reactions involving the presence of copper and the creation of a nitrogen-carbon bond to an aromatic halide. These reactions were subsequently named the Goldberg reaction and the Jourdan-Ullman-Goldberg reaction.
+1906: English physicist, mathematician and engineer Hertha Ayrton became the first female recipient of the Hughes Medal from the Royal Society of London. She received the award for her experimental research on electric arcs and sand ripples.
+1906: After her death, English lepidopterist Emma Hutchinson's collection of 20,000 butterflies and moths was donated to the London Natural History Museum. She had published little during her lifetime, and was barred from joining local scientific societies due to her gender, but was honoured for her work when a variant form of the comma butterfly was named hutchinsoni.
+1909: Alice Wilson became the first female geologist hired by the Geological Survey of Canada. She is widely credited as being the first Canadian female geologist.
+1909: Danish physicist Kirstine Meyer became the first Danish woman to receive a doctorate degree in natural sciences. She wrote her dissertation on the topic of "the development of the temperature concept" within the history of physics.
+
+=== 1910s ===

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+1911: Polish-born physicist and chemist Marie Curie became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which she received "[for] the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element". This made her the first person to win the Nobel Prize twice. As of 2022, she is the only woman to win it twice and the only person to win the Nobel Prize in two scientific fields.
+1911: Norwegian biologist Kristine Bonnevie became the first woman member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
+1912: American astronomer Henrietta Swan Leavitt studied the bright-dim cycle periods of Cepheid stars, then found a way to calculate the distance from such stars to Earth.
+1912: Canadian botanist and geneticist Carrie Derick was appointed a professor of morphological botany at McGill University. She was the first woman to become a full professor in any department at a Canadian university.
+1913: Regina Fleszarowa became the first Polish woman to receive a PhD in natural sciences.
+1913: Izabela Textorisová, the first Slovakian female botanist, published "Flora Data from the County of Turiec" in the journal Botanikai Közlemények. Her work uncovered more than 100 previously unknown species of plants from the Turiec area.
+1913: Canadian physician and chemist Maud Menten co-authored a paper on enzyme kinetics, leading to the development of the Michaelis–Menten kinetics equation.
+1914–1918: During World War I, a team of seven British women chemists conducted pioneering research on chemical antidotes and weaponized gases. The project leader, Martha Annie Whiteley, was awarded the Order of the British Empire for her wartime contributions.
+1914-1918: Dame Helen Gwynne-Vaughan,  (née Fraser) was a prominent English botanist and mycologist. For her wartime service she was the first woman to be awarded a military DBE in January 1918. She served as Commandant of the Women's Royal Air Force (WRAF) from September 1918 until December 1919.
+1914: British-born mycologist Ethel Doidge became the first woman in South Africa to receive a doctorate in any subject, receiving her doctorate of science degree from the University of the Good Hope. She wrote her thesis on "A bacterial disease of mango".
+1916: Isabella Preston became the first female professional plant hybridist in Canada, producing the George C. Creelman trumpet lily. Her lily later received an Award of Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society.
+1916: Chika Kuroda became the first Japanese woman to earn a bachelor of science degree, studying chemistry at the Tohoku Imperial University. After graduation, she was subsequently appointed an assistant professor at the university.
+1917: American zoologist Mary J. Rathbun received her PhD from the George Washington University. Despite never having attended college – or any formal schooling beyond high school – Rathbun had authored more than 80 scientific publications, described over 674 new species of crustacean, and developed a system for crustacean-related records at the Smithsonian Museum.
+1917: Dutch biologist and phytopathologist Johanna Westerdijk became the first female university professor in the Netherlands. She was appointed an extraordinary professor of phytopathology at the University of Utrecht.
+1918: German physicist and mathematician Emmy Noether created Noether's theorem explaining the connection between symmetry and conservation laws.
+1919: Dutch biologist and geneticist Jantina Tammes became the university professor in the Netherlands. She was appointed an extraordinary professor of variability and heredity at the University of Groningen. She became the first person in the Netherlands to occupy a chair in genetic. Moreover, she became the second female professor in the country, and the first one at the University of Groningen. She held this position until 1937, when she resigned at the age of sixty-six.
+1919: Justicia Espada Acuña graduates from Universidad de Chile, becoming the first woman with degree in civil engineer in South America
+1919: Kathleen Maisey Curtis became the first New Zealand woman to earn a Doctorate of Science degree (DSc), completing her thesis on Synchytrium endobioticum (potato wart disease) at the Imperial College of Science and Technology. Her research was cited as "the most outstanding result in mycological research that had been presented for ten years".
+
+=== 1920s ===

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+1920: Louisa Bolus was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of South Africa for her contributions to botany. Over the course of her lifetime, Bolus identified and named more than 1,700 new South African plant species - more species than any other botanist in South Africa.
+1921: Edelmira Inés Mórtola (1894–1973), the first woman to become a geologist in Argentina was awarded her PhD at the University of Buenos Aires, the first woman to received her doctorate there. The university named the Mórtola Mineralogy Museum in her honor.
+1923: María Teresa Ferrari, an Argentine physician, earned the first diploma awarded to a woman by the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris for her studies of the urinary tract.
+1924: Florence Bascom became the first woman elected to the Council of the Geological Society of America.
+1925: Mexican-American botanist Ynes Mexia embarked on her first botanical expedition into Mexico, collecting over 1500 plant specimens. Over the course of the next thirteen years, Mexia collected more than 145,000 specimens from Mexico, Alaska, and multiple South American countries. She discovered 500 new species.
+1925: American medical scientist Florence Sabin became the first woman elected to the National Academy of Sciences.
+1925: British-American astronomer and astrophysicist Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin established that hydrogen is the most common element in stars, and thus the most abundant element in the universe.
+1926: American scientist Katharine Burr Blodgett became the first woman to earn a PhD in physics at the University of Cambridge, under the supervision of Sir Ernest Rutherford.
+1927: Kono Yasui became the first Japanese woman to earn a doctorate in science, studying at the Tokyo Imperial University and completing her thesis on "Studies on the structure of lignite, brown coal, and bituminous coal in Japan".
+1927: Bohumila Bednářová, the first Czech woman to become professionally involved in astronomy, co-founds the Prague Observatory
+1928: Alice Evans became the first woman elected president of the Society of American Bacteriologists.
+1928: Helen Battle became the first woman to earn a PhD in marine biology in Canada.
+1928: British biologist Kathleen Carpenter published the first English-language textbook devoted to freshwater ecology: Life in Inland Waters.
+1929: American botanist Margaret Clay Ferguson became the first female president of the Botanical Society of America.
+1929: Scottish-Nigerian Agnes Yewande Savage became the first West African woman to graduate from medical school, obtaining her degree at the University of Edinburgh.
+
+=== 1930s ===
+
+1930: Concepción Mendizábal Mendoza became the first woman in Mexico to earn a civil engineering degree.
+1932: Michiyo Tsujimura became the first Japanese woman to earn a doctorate in agriculture. She studied at the Tokyo Imperial University, and her doctoral thesis was entitled "On the Chemical Components of Green Tea".
+1933: Hungarian scientist Elizabeth Rona received the Haitinger Prize from the Austrian Academy of Sciences for her method of extracting polonium.
+1933: American bacteriologist Ruth Ella Moore became the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in the natural sciences, completing her doctorate in bacteriology at Ohio State University.
+1933: Egyptian medical doctor Tawhida Abdel-Rahman becomes the first female doctor employed by the Egyptian Government Health Ministry.
+1935: French chemist Irène Joliot-Curie received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with Frédéric Joliot-Curie "for their synthesis of new radioactive elements".
+1935: American plant hybridist Grace Sturtevant, the "First Lady of Iris", received the American Iris Society's gold medal for her lifetime's work.
+1936: Edith Patch became the first female president of the Entomological Society of America.
+1936: Mycologist Kathleen Maisey Curtis was elected the first female Fellow at the Royal Society of New Zealand.
+1936: Danish seismologist and geophysicist Inge Lehmann discovered that the Earth has a solid inner core distinct from its molten outer core.
+1937: Canadian forensic pathologist Frances Gertrude McGill assisted the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in establishing their first forensic detection laboratory.
+1937: Suzanne Comhaire-Sylvain became the first female Haitian anthropologist and the first Haitian person to complete a PhD, receiving her doctoral degree from the University of Paris.
+1937: Marietta Blau and her student Hertha Wambacher, both Austrian physicists, received the Lieben Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for their work on cosmic ray observations using the technique of nuclear emulsions.
+1938: Elizabeth Abimbola Awoliyi became the first woman to be licensed to practise medicine in Nigeria after graduating from Trinity College Dublin and the first West African female medical officer with a license of the Royal Surgeon (Dublin).
+1938: Geologist Alice Wilson became the first woman appointed as Fellow to the Royal Society of Canada.
+1938: South African naturalist Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer discovered a living coelacanth fish caught near the Chalumna river. The species had been believed to be extinct for over 60 million years. It was named latimeria chalumnae in her honour.
+1938: Botanists Elzada U Clover and Lois Jotter were the first women to catalog plant life in the Grand Canyon and the first to raft the entire length of the Colorado River
+1939: Austrian-Swedish physicist Lise Meitner, along with Otto Hahn, led the small group of scientists who first discovered nuclear fission of uranium when it absorbed an extra neutron; the results were published in early 1939.
+1939: French physicist Marguerite Perey discovered francium.
+1939: Kamala Sohonie was an Indian biochemist who in 1939 became the first Indian woman to receive a PhD in a scientific discipline.
+
+=== 1940s ===

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+
+1940: Turkish Archaeologist, Sumerologist, Assyriologist, and writer Muazzez İlmiye Çığ. Upon receiving her degree in 1940, she began a multi-decade career at Museum of the Ancient Orient, one of three such institutions comprising Istanbul Archaeology Museums, as a resident specialist in the field of cuneiform tablets, thousands of which were being stored untranslated and unclassified in the facility's archives. In the intervening years, due to her efforts in the deciphering and publication of the tablets, the museum became a Middle Eastern languages learning center attended by ancient history researchers from every part of the world.
+1941: American scientist Ruth Smith Lloyd became the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in anatomy.
+1942: Austrian-American actress and inventor Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil developed a radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes that used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers. Although the US Navy did not adopt the technology until the 1960s, the principles of their work are incorporated into Bluetooth technology and are similar to methods used in legacy versions of CDMA and Wi-Fi. This work led to their induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014.
+1942: American geologist Marguerite Williams became the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in geology in the United States. She completed her doctorate, entitled A History of Erosion in the Anacostia Drainage Basin, at Catholic University.
+1942: Native American aerospace engineer Mary Golda Ross became employed at Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, where she provided troubleshooting for military aircraft. She went on to work for NASA, developing operational requirements, flight plans, and a Planetary Flight Handbook for spacecraft missions such as the Apollo program.
+1943: British geologist Eileen Guppy was promoted to the rank of assistant geologist, therefore becoming the first female geology graduate appointed to the scientific staff of the British Geological Survey.
+1943: American geologist and crystallographer Elizabeth A. Wood became the first female to be hired as a member of the technical staff (MTS) at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey.
+1944: Indian chemist Asima Chatterjee became the first Indian woman to receive a doctorate of science, completing her studies at the University of Calcutta. She went on to establish the Department of Chemistry at Lady Brabourne College.
+1945: American physicists and mathematicians Frances Spence, Ruth Teitelbaum, Marlyn Meltzer, Betty Holberton, Jean Bartik and Kathleen Antonelli programmed the electronic general-purpose computer ENIAC, becoming some of the world's first computer programmers. (The first were uncredited operators, mostly members of the Women's Royal Naval Service, of the Colossus computer in 1943–1945, but that machine was not a stored-program computer and its existence was a state secret until the 1970s.)
+1945: Marjory Stephenson and Kathleen Lonsdale were elected as the first female Fellows of the Royal Society.
+1947: Austrian-American biochemist Gerty Cori became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, which she received along with Carl Ferdinand Cori "for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen", and Bernardo Alberto Houssay "for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar".
+1947: American biochemist Marie Maynard Daly became the first African-American woman to complete a PhD in chemistry in the United States. She completed her dissertation, entitled "A Study of the Products Formed by the Action of Pancreatic Amylase on Corn Starch" at Columbia University.
+1947: Berta Karlik, an Austrian physicist, was awarded the Haitinger Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for her discovery of astatine.
+1947: Susan Ofori-Atta became the first Ghanaian woman to earn a medical degree when she graduated from the University of Edinburgh.
+1948: Canadian plant pathologist and mycologist Margaret Newton became the first woman to be awarded the Flavelle Medal from the Royal Society of Canada, in recognition of her extensive research in wheat rust fungal disease. Her experiments led to the development of rust-resistant strains of wheat.
+1948: American limnologist Ruth Patrick of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia led a multidisciplinary team of scientists on an extensive pollution survey of the Conestoga River watershed in Pennsylvania. Patrick would become a leading authority on the ecological effects of river pollution, receiving the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement in 1975.
+1949: Botanist Valida Tutayug became the first Azerbaijani woman to receive a PhD in biological studies. She went on to write the first national Azerbaijani-language textbooks on botany and biology.
+1949: Winifred Goldring (February 1, 1888 – January 30, 1971), was an American paleontologist and became the first female president of the Paleontological Society, her work included a description of stromatolites, as well as the study of Devonian crinoids. She was the first woman in the US to be appointed as a State Paleontologist.
+
+== Late 20th century ==
+
+=== 1950s ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WISE_Campaign-0.md

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+---
+title: "WISE Campaign"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WISE_Campaign"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:24.777776+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The WISE Campaign (Women into Science and Engineering) is a United Kingdom-based organization that encourages women and girls to value and pursue science, technology, engineering and maths-related courses in school or college and to move on into related careers and progress. Its mission statement aims to facilitate understanding of these disciplines among women and girls and the opportunities which they present at a professional level. It is operated by UKRC trading as WISE (company number 07533934).
+
+
+== Formation ==
+The campaign began on 17 January 1984, headed by The Baroness Platt of Writtle, a qualified mechanical engineer, at which time women made up 7% of graduate engineers and 3% of professional engineers in the UK.  It was a collaboration between the Engineering Council and the Equal Opportunities Commission, originally viewed as a one-year campaign "Women into Science and Engineering" WISE'84.
+
+
+== Activities ==
+One of WISE's main objectives is to listen to students and women qualified or working in these sectors, and understand and voice their opinions to academic institutions, policy-makers and employers.  It then works creatively with delivery agencies and others, offering models, tools and approaches to support them in challenging traditional approaches, so as to demonstrate equitable involvement.  WISE combats gender stereotypes to get more girls and women involved in careers where female participation was once considered near impossible.
+In 1986, as part of her at WISE,Thames Polytechnic lecturer, Pamela Morton, conducted research that found that the number of women enrolling in Computer Science degrees had halved during the previous decade and was continuing to decline, despite the WISE Campaign. She approached the IT Skills Agency with a view to organising a campaign to increase the number of women entering the IT industry. These efforts contributed to the development of the PITCOM's 1989 Women in IT Campaign.
+WISE operates throughout the UK, with specialist committees in Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland.  Volunteers, from industry and relevant organisations, attend the various WISE committee meetings, and undertake projects with WISE.
+In 2011 the UKRC - an organisation specialising in gender equality in science, engineering and technology - became part of WISE.  Trudy Norris-Grey, the Chair of UKRC since 2007 then became Chair of WISE.  WISE counts The Princess Royal, Dame Julia Higgins, Kate Bellingham and Joanna Kennedy as its patrons. The Founding Chair and Patron The Baroness Platt of Writtle died on 1 February 2015, aged 91.
+
+
+== Young Professionals' Board ==
+The WISE Campaign has an advisory Board to the main Board called the WISE Young Professionals' Board, formerly the WISE Young Women's Board, with a mandate to act as a sounding board to the WISE Campaign and promote the visibility of young women in STEM.
+Notable members and former members include:
+
+Jess Wade was a Young Professionals' Board member 2015-2018 and is a campaigner for Women in STEM and promoting early career researchers.
+
+
+== Structure ==
+It is headquartered at Leeds College of Building, though has been based at the UKRC (UK Resource Centre for Women in Science, Engineering, and Technology) in Bradford.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website of WISE Campaign
+UK Parliament Business, Innovation and Skills Committee: Written evidence submitted by the Women into Science and Engineering (WISE) Campaign 11 Oct 2012
+Ingenia March 2010, issue 42 pp 48–50 "Engaging girls in engineering"

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+---
+title: "Women in Antarctica"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Women have been exploring the regions around Antarctica for many centuries. The most celebrated "first" for women in Antarctica was in 1935 when Caroline Mikkelsen became the first woman to set foot on one of Antarctica's islands. Early male explorers, such as Richard Byrd, named areas of Antarctica after wives and female heads of state. As Antarctica moved from a place of exploration and conquest to a scientific frontier, women worked to be included in the sciences. The first countries to have female scientists working in Antarctica were the Soviet Union, South Africa and Argentina.
+Besides exploring and working as scientists, women have also played supportive roles as wives, fund-raisers, publicists, historians, curators and administrators of organizations and services that support Antarctic operations. Many early women on Antarctica were the wives of explorers. Some women worked with Antarctica from afar, crafting policies for a place they had never seen. Women who wished to have larger roles in Antarctica and on the continent itself had to "overcome gendered assumptions about the ice and surmount bureaucratic inertia". As women began to break into fields in Antarctica, they found that it could be difficult to compete against men who already had the "expeditioner experience" needed for permanent science positions. Women who were qualified for expeditions or jobs in Antarctica were less likely to be selected than men, even after a 1995 study by Jane Mocellin showed that women cope better than men with the Antarctic environment.
+
+== Historic barriers against inclusion ==
+
+Most early policies and practices, including the construction and creation of Antarctic organizations, were created initially by men. Women were originally excluded from early exploration in Antarctica based on the opinion that women could not handle the extremes in temperature or crisis situations. Vivian Fuchs, who was in charge of the British Antarctic Survey in the 1960s, believed that women could not carry heavy equipment and that Antarctic facilities were unsuitable for women. The United States believed for many years that the climate of Antarctic was too harsh for women.
+Antarctica was seen by many men as a place where men could imagine themselves heroic conquerors. In Western culture, frontier territories are often associated with masculinity. Antarctica itself was envisioned by many male explorers as a "virginal woman" or "monstrous feminine body" to be conquered by men. Women were often "invoked in terms of place naming and territorial conquest and later even encouraged to have babies in Antarctica." Using women as territorial conquest is literal in the way that Argentina flew pregnant women to Antarctica to give birth and stake a national claim to the area.
+Silvia Morella de Palma was the first woman to give birth in Antarctica, delivering 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz) Emilio Palma at the Argentine Esperanza base 7 January 1978.
+Men enjoyed having a space that was free of women and which, in the late 1940s, "allowed them to continue the kind of male companionship and adventure they had enjoyed during the Second World War."  In one news article about Antarctica written in 1958, the writer describes the use of dazzlement: "On the womanless continent, the purpose of the dazzlement is not to catch the eye of a flirtatious blonde, but to attract spotters in the event that the explorers become lost in the frozen waste." Men's space in Antarctica resisted change. In the 1980s, there was an attempt by men to memorialize the "Sistine ceiling" of the Weddell hut in Antarctica as an Australian national heritage site of "high significance." The "Sistine ceiling" was covered in 92 different pinups of women from the 1970s and 1980s. This represented a "male's only club" in which participants believed women would spoil the "purity of a homosocial work, and play, environment." In 1983, the San Bernardino County Sun newspaper published an article about Antarctica stating that it "is still one of the last macho redoubts, where men are men and women are superfluous." One scientist, Lyle McGinnis, who had been going to Antarctica since 1957, resented women in the field saying that "men never grouse." He believed that women complained and needed "comfort." Not all men felt that way. Other men felt that women's presence made life in Antarctica better and one male engineer stated that without women around, "men are pigs." Sociologist Charles Moskos stated that as more women are introduced to a group, there is less aggression and a "more civil culture develops."
+Many of the careers in Antarctica are in the sciences and women faced barriers there as well. As women attempted to work in science, arguments using biological determinism, evolutionary psychology and popular notions of neurobiology were used as excuses as to why there were fewer women in the sciences. These arguments described how "women are ill-adapted on evolutionary grounds for science and the competitive environment of the laboratory." Some women described feeling that they were "a bit of a joke" working in Antarctica and felt that men regarded them as incapable.
+Antarctic exploration and science research was often facilitated by national navies, who often did not want women on their ships. The United States Navy used the excuse that "sanitation facilities were too primitive" on Antarctica as an excuse to bar women. The U.S. Navy also considered Antarctica a "male-only bastion." Admiral George Dufek said in 1956 that "women would join American Teams in the Antarctic over his dead body." He also believed that women's presence on Antarctica "would wreck men's illusions of being heroes and frontiersmen." Military groups also were worried about "sexual misconduct."
+Change was slow as women began to try to become part of Antarctic exploration and research. An article run in The Daily Herald newspaper of Chicago in 1974 described women finally coming to Antarctica as integrating the "land with a definite feminine touch." The article described women's perfumed smells, ways of entertaining guests on Antarctica and the "dainty feet" of Caroline Mikkelsen. Eventually both the "presence and impact of female Antarctic researchers has increased rapidly."

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+---
+title: "Women in Antarctica"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Early women involved in Antarctica ==
+
+Oral records from Oceania indicate that women explorers may have traveled to the Antarctic regions like male explorers Ui-te-Rangiora around 650 CE and Te Ara-tanga-nuku in 1000 CE, but this is unconfirmed. The first western woman to visit the Antarctic region was Louise Séguin, who sailed on the Roland with Yves Joseph de Kerguelen in 1773.
+The oldest known human remains in Antarctica was a skull that belonged to a young Indigenous Chilean woman on Yamana Beach at the South Shetland Islands, which dates back to 1819 to 1825. Her remains were found by the Chilean Antarctic Institute in 1985.
+In the early twentieth century, women were interested in going to Antarctica. When Ernest Shackleton advertised his 1914 Antarctic expedition, three women wrote to him, requesting to join. The women never became part of the journey. In 1919, newspapers reported that women wanted to go to Antarctica, writing that "several women were anxious to join, but their applications were refused." Later, in 1929, twenty-five women applied to the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE). They were also rejected. When a privately funded British Antarctic Expedition was proposed in 1937, 1,300 women applied to join. None of those 1,300 were accepted. After 3 years of attempted funding the expedition was cancelled with the onset of World War Two.
+Women who were wives of explorers who were left behind "endured years of loneliness and anxiety." Women like Kathleen Scott raised money for their husbands' journeys.
+The first women involved in exploration of Antarctica were wives and companions of male travelers and explorers. Women accompanied men as "whaling wives" to Antarctic waters. The first women to see the continent of Antarctica was Norwegian Ingrid Christensen and her companion, Mathilde Wegger, both of whom were traveling with Christensen's husband. The first woman to step onto the land of Antarctica, an island, was Caroline Mikkelsen in 1935. Mikkelsen only briefly went ashore and was also there with her husband. Later, after her husband died, Mikkelsen remarried and didn't talk about her experience in Antarctica in order "to spare his feelings." Christensen went back to Antarctica three times after her first glimpse of the land. She eventually landed at Scullin monolith, becoming the first woman to set foot on the Antarctic mainland. She was followed by her daughter, Augusta Sofie Christensen, and two other women, Lillemor Rachlew and Solveig Widerøe. Because the women believed the landing wasn't an actual "first," they didn't make much of their accomplishment.
+In the years of 1946 and 1947, Jackie Ronne and Jennie Darlington were the first women to spend the year in Antarctica. When Ronne and Darlington decided to accompany their husbands in 1946 to Antarctica, men on the expedition "signed a petition trying to stop it happening." Ronne worked as the mission's "recorder." Ronne and Darlington both wrote about their experiences on the ice and, in the case of Darlington's book, about how conflict between team members also "strained relations between the two women." One of the ways that Darlington tried to fit in with the men of the group was to make herself as "inconspicuous within the group as possible." One man, first seeing Darlington arrive at the Antarctic base, "fled in fright, thinking that he'd gone mad." Both women, upon returning from Antarctica, downplayed their own roles letting "their husbands take most of the honour."
+In 1948, the British diplomat, Margaret Anstee, was involved in the Falkland Islands Dependency Survey (FIDS) and helped make policy for the program.
+
+== Further exploration and science ==

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+---
+title: "Women in Antarctica"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Women scientists first began researching Antarctica from ships. The first woman scientist, Maria V. Klenova of the Soviet Union, worked on the ships Ob and Lena just off the Antarctic coastline in 1955 to 1956. Klenova's work helped create the first Antarctic atlas. Women served on Soviet Union ships going to Antarctica after 1963. The first women to visit a US station and the first to fly to Antarctica were Pat Hepinstall and Ruth Kelley, Pan Am flight attendants who spent four hours on the ground at the McMurdo Station on 15 October 1957.
+Often women going to Antarctica had to be approved in both official and unofficial ways. An early candidate for becoming one of the first women scientists to go to Antarctica was geologist Dawn Rodley. She had been approved of not only by the expedition sponsor, Colin Bull, but also by the wives of the male team-members. Rodley was set to go in 1958, but the United States Navy, who were in charge of Operation Deep Freeze, refused to take her to Antarctica.
+The Navy decided that sending a four-woman team would be acceptable and Bull began to build a team including Lois Jones, Kay Lindsay, Eileen McSaveney and Terry Tickhill. These four women were part of the group who became the first women to visit the South Pole. Jones's team worked mainly in Wright Valley. After their return, Bull found that several of his male friends resented the addition of women and even called him a "traitor".
+The first United States all-female team was led by Jones in 1969. Her team, which included the first women to set foot on the South Pole, were used by the navy as a publicity stunt. They were "paraded around" and called "Powderpuff explorers". The first United States woman to step into the Antarctic interior in 1970 was engineer Irene C Peden, who also faced various barriers to her working on the continent. Peden described how a "mythology had been created about the women who'd gone to the coast – that they had been a problem," and that since they had not published their work within the year, they were "heavily criticized." Men in the Navy in charge of approving her trip to Antarctica were "dragging their feet", citing that there were not women's bathrooms available and that without another female companion, she would not be allowed to go. The admiral in charge of transportation to Antarctica suggested that Peden was trying to go there for adventure, or to find a husband, rather than for her research. Despite her setbacks, including not receiving critical equipment in Antarctica, Peden's research on the continent was successful.
+
+The first two U.S. woman to winter at a U.S. Antarctic research station were Mary Alice McWhinnie and Mary Odile Cahoon. Mary Alice was the station science leader (chief scientist) at McMurdo Station in 1974 and Mary Odile was a nun and biologist. United States women in 1978 were still using equipment and arctic clothing designed for men, although "officials said that problem is being quickly remedied." American Ann Peoples became the manager of the Berg Field Center in 1986, becoming the first woman to serve in a "significant leadership role". 
+British women had similar problems to the Americans. The director of the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) from 1959 to 1973 was Vivian Fuchs, who "firmly believed that the inclusion of women would disrupt the harmony and scientific productivity of Antarctic stations." British women scientists started working on curating collections as part of the BAS prior to being allowed to visit Antarctica. Women who applied to the BAS were discouraged. A letter from BAS personnel sent to a woman who applied in the 1960s read, "Women wouldn't like it in Antarctica as there are no shops and no hairdresser." The first BAS woman to go to Antarctica was Janet Thomson in 1983 who described the ban on women as a "rather improper segregation." Women were still effectively barred from using UK bases and logistics in 1987. Women didn't overwinter at the Halley Research Station until 1996, forty years after the British station was established.
+Argentina sent four women scientists, biologist Irene Bernasconi, bacteriologist María Adela Caría, biologist Elena Martinez Fontes and algae expert Carmen Pujals, to Antarctica in 1968. They were the first group of female scientists to conduct research in Antarctica. Bernasconi was the first woman to lead an Antarctic expedition. She was aged 72 at the time. Later, in 1978, Argentina sent a pregnant woman, Silvia Morello de Palma, to the Esperanza Base to give birth and to "use the baby to stake [their] territorial claims" to Antarctica.
+Once Australia opened up travel to Antarctica for women, Elizabeth Chipman, who first worked as a typist at Casey Station in 1976, chronicled all of the women to travel there up to 1984. Chipman worked to find the names of all women who had ever been to or even near Antarctica and eventually donated 19 folio boxes of her research to the National Library of Australia.
+
+== Women gain ground ==

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+---
+title: "Women in Antarctica"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The National Science Foundation (NSF) started long-range planning in 1978, looking towards facilities that could accommodate a population made up of 25% women. In the 1979–1980 season, there were only 43 women on the continent. By 1981, there were nearly one woman for every ten men in Antarctica. In 1983, the ratio was back to 20 men for every woman. In the 1980s, Susan Solomon's research in Antarctica on the ozone layer and the "ozone hole" causes her to gain "fame and acclaim."
+In Spain, Josefina Castellví, helped coordinate and also participated in her country's expedition to Antarctica in 1984. Later, after a Spanish base was constructed in 1988, Castellví was put in charge after the leader, Antoni Ballester, had a stroke.
+The first female station leader on Antarctica was Australian, Diana Patterson, head of Mawson Station in 1989. The first woman station leader in charge of an American Antarctic station was LT Trina Baldwin, CEC, USN (Civil Engineer Corps, United States Navy). The first all-female overwintering group was from Germany and spent the 1990–1991 winter at Georg von Neumayer. The first German female station leader and medical doctor was Monika Puskeppeleit. In 1991 In-Young Ahn was the first female leader of an Asian research station (King Sejong Station) and the first South Korean woman to step onto Antarctica.
+There were approximately 180 women in Antarctica during the 1990–1991 season. Women from several different countries were regular members of overwintering teams by 1992. The first all-women expedition reached the South Pole in 1993. Diana Patterson, the first female station leader on Antarctica, saw change coming in 1995. She felt that many of the sexist views of the past had given way so that women were judged not by the fact that they were women, but "by how well you did your job."
+During the 1994 austral winter, women managed all three of the American Antarctic stations: Janet Phillips at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, Karen Schwall at McMurdo Station and Ann Peoples at Palmer Station.
+Social scientist, Robin Burns, studied the social structures of Antarctica in the 1995–1996 season. She found that while many earlier women struggled, there was more acceptance of women in Antarctica during the 1995 - 1996 season. One of the station managers, Ann Peoples, felt that a tipping point had been reached during the 1990s and that life for women on Antarctica became more normal. There were still men in Antarctica who were not afraid to voice their opinion that women should not "be on the ice," but many others enjoyed having "women as colleagues and friends." Women around this time began to feel like it was "taken for granted now that women go to the Antarctic."
+Studies done in the early 2000s showed that women's inclusion in Antarctic groups were beneficial overall. In the early 2000s, Robin Burns had found that female scientists who enjoyed their experience in Antarctica, were the ones who were able to finish their scientific work and to complete their projects.
+
+== Recent history ==
+
+American Lynne Cox swam a mile in Antarctic water in 2003.
+In 2005, writer Gretchen Legler described how there were many more women in Antarctica that year and that some were lesbians. International Women's Day in 2012 saw more than fifty women celebrating in Antarctica and who made up 70% of the International Antarctic Expedition. In 2013, when the Netherlands opened their first Antarctic Lab, Corina Brussaard was there to help set it up.
+Homeward Bound was a 10-year program designed to encourage women's participation in science and planned to send the first large (78 member) all-women expedition to Antarctica in 2016. The first group, consisting of 76 women, arrived in Antarctica for three weeks in December 2016. Fabian Dattner and Jess Melbourne-Thomas founded the project and the Dattner Grant provided funding. Each participant contributed $15,000 to the project. Homeward bound included businesswomen and scientists who look at climate change and women's leadership. The plan was to create a network of 1,000 women who would become leaders in the sciences. The first voyage departed South America in December 2016
+An all-woman team of United Kingdom Army soldiers, called Exercise Ice Maiden, started recruiting members in 2015 to cross the continent under their own power in 2017. It intended to study women's performance in the extreme antarctic summer environment. A team of six women completed the journey in 62 days after starting on 20 November 2017.
+Currently, women make up 55% of membership in the Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS). In 2016, nearly a third of all researchers at the South Pole were women. The Australian Antarctic Program (AAP) makes a "conscious effort to recruit women."
+A social media network has recently been created, "Women in Polar Science". It aims to connect women working in the Arctic and Antarctic sciences and provides them with a platform to share and exchange knowledge, experiences and opportunities.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-4.md

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+---
+title: "Women in Antarctica"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Sexual harassment and sexism ==
+When heavy equipment operator, Julia Uberuaga, first went to Antarctica in the late 70s and early 80s, she recalled that "the men stared at her, or leered at her, or otherwise let her know she was unwelcome on the job." Rita Matthews, who went to Antarctica during the same period, said that the "men were all over the place. There were some that would never stop going after you." In 1983, Marilyn Woody described living at McMurdo station and said, "It makes your head spin, all this attention from all these men." Then she said, "You realize you can put a bag over your head and they'll still fall in love with you."
+Another scientist, Cynthia McFee, had been completely shut out of the "male camaraderie" at her location and had to deal with loneliness for long periods of time. Martha Kane, the second woman to overwinter at the South Pole, experienced "negative pressure" from men with "some viewing her as an interloper who had insinuated herself into a male domain."
+In the 1990s, some women experienced stigma in Antarctica. These women were labeled "whores" for interacting with men and those who did not interact with men were called "dykes."
+In the late 1990s and early 2000s, women felt that Antarctic operations were "not at all sympathetic to the needs of mothers and that there is a deep concern lest a pregnant woman give birth in Antarctica."
+Sexual harassment is still a problem for women working in Antarctica, with many women scientists fielding unwanted sexual advances over and over again. Women continue to be outnumbered in many careers in Antarctica, including fleet operations and trades.
+Some organizations, such as the Australian Antarctic Division, have created and adopted policies to combat sexual harassment and discrimination based on gender. The United States Antarctic Program (USAP) encourages women and minorities to apply.
+
+== Women record-breakers ==
+Silvia Morella de Palma was the first woman to give birth in Antarctica, delivering 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz) Emilio Palma at the Argentine Esperanza base on 7 January 1978.
+In 1988 American Lisa Densmore became the first woman to reach the summit Mount Vinson.
+In 1993, American Ann Bancroft led the first all woman expedition to the South Pole. Bancroft, and Norwegian Liv Arnesen, were the first women to ski across Antarctica in 2001.
+In 2010, the first female chaplain to serve on the continent of Antarctica was Chaplain, Lt Col Laura Adelia of the U.S. Air Force, where she served the people at McMurdo Station.
+Maria Leijerstam became the first person to cycle to the South Pole from the edge of the continent in 2013. She cycled on a recumbent tricycle.
+Anja Blacha set the record for the longest solo, unsupported, unassisted polar expedition by a woman in 2020.
+
+== Honors and awards ==
+In 1975, Eleanor Honnywill became the first woman to be awarded the Fuchs Medal from the British Antarctic Survey (BAS).
+The first woman to receive a Polar Medal was Virginia Fiennes, in 1986. She was honored for her work in the Transglobe Expedition. She was also the first woman to "winter in both polar regions."
+Denise Allen was the first woman awarded the Australian Antarctic Medal in 1989.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Citations ===
+
+=== Sources ===
+Blackadder, Jesse (2013b). "Heroines of the Ice" (PDF). Australian Geographic (113): 88–98. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
+Blackadder, Jesse (2015). "Frozen Voices: Women, Silence and Antarctica" (PDF). In Hince, Bernadette; Summerson, Rupert; Wiesel, Arnan (eds.). Antarctica: Music, Sounds, and Cultural Connections. Canberra: ANU Press.
+Burns, Robin (2000). "Women in Antarctic Science: Forging New Practices and Meanings". Women's Studies Quarterly. 28 (1): 165–180. JSTOR 40004452.
+Burns, Robin (2001). Just Tell Them I Survived!: Women in Antarctica. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1865083827.
+Burns, Robin (2007). "Women in Antarctica: From Companions to Professionals". In Riffenburgh, Beau (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Antarctic. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415970242.
+Collins, Christy (2009). "The Australian Antarctic Territory: A Man's World?" (PDF). Signs. 34 (3): 514–519. doi:10.1086/593379. S2CID 129881739. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
+Dodds, Kaus (2009). "Settling and Unsettling Antarctica". Signs. 34 (3): 505–509. doi:10.1086/593340. JSTOR 10.1086/593340. S2CID 143450248.
+Hulbe, Christina L.; Wang, Weili; Ommanney, Simon (2010). "Women in Glaciology, a Historical Perspective" (PDF). Journal of Glaciology. 56 (200): 944–964. Bibcode:2010JGlac..56..944H. doi:10.3189/002214311796406202. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
+Legler, Gretchen (2004). "The Sky, the Earth, the Sea, the Soul". In Allister, Mark Christopher (ed.). Eco-man: New Perspectives on Masculinity and Nature. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0813923048.
+Lewander, Lisbeth (2009). "Women and Civilisation on Ice". In Hansson, Heidi; Norberg, Cathrine (eds.). Cold Matters: Cultural Perceptions of Snow, Ice and Cold. Umea: Umea University. pp. 89–102.
+Peden, Irene C. (1998). "If You Fail, There Won't Be Another Woman on the Antarctic Continent for a Generation". In Rothblum, Esther D.; Weinstock, Jacqueline S.; Morris, Jessica F. (eds.). Women in the Antarctic. New York: The Haworth Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0789002471.
+Rothblum, Esther D.; Weinstock, Jacqueline S.; Morris, Jessica F. (1998). "Introduction". Women in the Antarctic. New York: The Haworth Press. ISBN 978-0789002471.
+Rossiter, Margaret W. (2012). Women Scientists in America: Forging a New World Since 1972. Vol. 3. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421402338.
+Verbitsky, Jane (2015). "Antarctica as a Community". In Wilson, Stacey-Ann (ed.). Identity, Culture and the Politics of community Development. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443871204.
+Walker, Gabrielle (2013). Antarctica: An Intimate Portrait of a Mysterious Continent. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 9780151015207.
+
+== External links ==
+Women in Antarctica
+Guide to the Papers of Elizabeth Chipman
+Women in Antarctic science editathons
+Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
+Women in Red