From ef473c95d98c314051febcda668d0a1cebc8923d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 19:59:47 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 129 new, 1 updated, 143 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 811008 -> 868352 bytes .../wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md | 60 ++++++++++++++++++ .../wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md | 26 ++++++++ .../wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md | 46 ++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md | 55 ++++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md | 23 +++++++ .../wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md | 48 ++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md | 48 ++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md | 22 +++++++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md | 49 ++++++++++++++ .../Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md | 45 +++++++++++++ .../Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md | 50 +++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md | 31 +++++++++ .../wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md | 27 ++++++++ .../wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md | 42 ++++++++++++ 15 files changed, 572 insertions(+) create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md 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z8-;z@*~P`>M5B8deMm>fK}0d!KwRu?SmawB7%A2F5=9=oD)3d4BGtZT2awFx+6~km zm1G*yDbyO31DK$MiL7r`*5DS(cK8m9nlEWaTbFZg;UlS_y8*~ZrDS=)QN&l|d?W2lH)dJT#oRW4o(X+y8(m&zF84S;lozo_!%di^MafmApdbQD9sI_u$B%SFGQY| z2{WkJd3MJ3h6YiS^Bg2e+W;LoKZ75DCCYF3dPcQB*T*L>RQxE3x6}9{7P?t4=eVd3 zg4ck5XZ0Com@Ivs*;GlmU|LADW{craP=ZEy-VW7jv_zg{hNnIH7bcihJ{CvE@iM)@80OUA;@Q$Nub wiQT;S(m%PwH*!C9-ya^szn5B`dJRBKKVM9KzDfNXOW*W<9NsX}-mgynFLDPbtpET3 diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..501e13cb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "All models are wrong" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:23.855720+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"All models are wrong" is a common aphorism in statistics. It is often expanded as "All models are wrong, but some are useful". The aphorism acknowledges that statistical models always fall short of the complexities of reality but can still be useful nonetheless. The aphorism is generally attributed to George E. P. Box, a British statistician, although the underlying concept predates Box's writings. + + +== History == + +The phrase "all models are wrong" was attributed to George Box who used the phrase in a 1976 paper to refer to the limitations of models, arguing that while no model is ever completely accurate, simpler models can still provide valuable insights if applied judiciously. +In their 1983 book on generalized linear models, Peter McCullagh and John Nelder stated that while modeling in science is a creative process, some models are better than others, even though none can claim eternal truth. In 1996, an Applied Statistician's Creed was proposed by M.R. Nester, which incorporated the aphorism as a central tenet. +The longer form appears on in a 1987 book by Box and Norman Draper in a section "The Use of Approximating Functions,": + +"The fact that the polynomial is an approximation does not necessarily detract from its usefulness because all models are approximations. Essentially, all models are wrong, but some are useful." + + +== Discussions == +Box used the aphorism again in 1979, where he expanded on the idea by discussing how models serve as useful approximations, despite failing to perfectly describe empirical phenomena. He reiterated this sentiment in his later works, where he discussed how models should be judged based on their utility rather than their absolute correctness. +David Cox, in a 1995 commentary, argued that stating all models are wrong is unhelpful, as models by their nature simplify reality. He emphasized that statistical models, like other scientific models, aim to capture important aspects of systems through idealized representations. +In their 2002 book on statistical model selection, Burnham and Anderson reiterated Box's statement, noting that while models are simplifications of reality, they vary in usefulness, from highly useful to essentially useless. +J. Michael Steele used the analogy of city maps to explain that models, like maps, serve practical purposes despite their limitations, emphasizing that certain models, though simplified, are not necessarily wrong. In response, Andrew Gelman acknowledged Steele's point but defended the usefulness of the aphorism, particularly in drawing attention to the inherent imperfections of models. +Philosopher Peter Truran, in a 2013 essay, discussed how seemingly incompatible models can make accurate predictions by representing different aspects of the same phenomenon, illustrating the point with an example of two observers viewing a cylindrical object from different angles. +In 2014, David Hand reiterated that models are meant to aid in understanding or decision-making about the real world, a point emphasized by Box's famous remark. + + +== See also == +Anscombe's quartet – Four data sets with the same descriptive statistics, yet very different distributions +Bonini's paradox – As a model of a complex system becomes more complete, it becomes less understandable +Lie-to-children – Teaching a complex subject via simpler models +Map–territory relation – Relationship between an object and a representation of that object +Pragmatism – Philosophical tradition +Reification (fallacy) – Fallacy of treating an abstraction as if it were a real thing +Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models +Statistical model – Type of mathematical model +Statistical model validation – Evaluating whether a chosen statistical model is appropriate or not +Verisimilitude – Resemblance to reality + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Anderson, C. (23 June 2008), "The end of theory", Wired +Box, G. E. P. (1999), "Statistics as a catalyst to learning by scientific method Part II—A discussion", Journal of Quality Technology, 31: 16–29, doi:10.1080/00224065.1999.11979890 +Enderling, H.; Wolkenhauer, O. (2021), "Are all models wrong?", Computational and Systems Oncology, 1 (1) e1008, doi:10.1002/cso2.1008, PMC 7880041, PMID 33585835 +Saltelli, A.; Funtowicz, S. (Winter 2014), "When all models are wrong", Issues in Science and Technology, 30 + + +== External links == +"All Models are Right, Most are Useless"—Andrew Gelman blog +All models are wrong—Peter Coles blog \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c0528f155 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "And yet it moves" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:24.971266+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve] ('And yet it moves' or 'Although it does move') is an Italian phrase commonly attributed to the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). The Catholic Church persecuted Galileo for promoting the Copernican model of the Solar System in which the Earth moves around the Sun, which contradicted Catholic orthodoxy that the Earth remained fixed in the center of the universe. +According to popular legend, Galileo muttered this in 1633 after the Roman Inquisition forced him to recant his claims, though this is likely apocryphal. + + +== History == +According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri. +The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition. +The event was first reported in English print in 1757 by Giuseppe Baretti in his book The Italian Library: + +The moment he was set at liberty, he looked up to the sky and down to the ground, and, stamping with his foot, in a contemplative mood, said, Eppur si muove, that is, still it moves, meaning the Earth. +The book became widely published in Querelles Littéraires in 1761. +In 1911, the words E pur si muove were found on a painting which had just been acquired by an art collector, Jules van Belle, of Roeselare, Belgium. This painting is dated 1643 or 1645 (the last digit is partially obscured), within a year or two of Galileo's death. The signature is unclear but van Belle attributed it to the seventeenth century Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo. The painting would seem to show that some variant of the Eppur si muove anecdote was in circulation immediately after his death, when many who had known him were still alive to attest to it, and that it had been circulating for over a century before it was published. However, this painting, whose whereabouts is currently unknown, was discovered to be nearly identical to one painted in 1837 by Eugene van Maldeghem, and, basing their opinions on the style, many art experts doubt that the van Belle painting was painted by Murillo, or even that it was painted before the nineteenth century. +United States Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia gave an "E pur si muove" award to district court judges whose opinions were overturned by appellate courts but later vindicated by the Supreme Court. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f52ecb1a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Houston, we have a problem" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:33.118419+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"Houston, we have a problem" is a popular misquote of a phrase spoken during Apollo 13, a NASA mission in the Apollo space program and the third mission intended to land on the Moon. After an explosion occurred on board the spacecraft en route to the Moon around 56 hours into the mission, Jack Swigert, the command module pilot, reported to Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas: "Okay, Houston ... we've had a problem here." After Swigert was prompted to repeat his words by Jack R. Lousma, the capsule communicator at Mission Control, Jim Lovell, the mission commander, responded: "Ah, Houston, we've had a problem." +The 1995 film Apollo 13 used the slight misquotation "Houston, we have a problem" in its dramatization of the mission, since it had become the popularly expected phrase. The phrase has been informally used to describe the emergence of an unforeseen problem, often with a sense of ironic understatement. + + +== Background == + +The Apollo 13 Flight Journal lists the timestamps and dialogue between the astronauts and Mission Control. + +055:55:19 Swigert: Okay, Houston ... +055:55:19 Lovell: ... Houston... +055:55:20 Swigert: ... we've had a problem here. [Pause.] +055:55:28 Lousma: This is Houston. Say again, please. +055:55:35 Lovell: [Garble.] Ah, Houston, we've had a problem. We've had a Main B Bus Undervolt. + +In Chapter 13 of Apollo Expeditions to the Moon (1975), Jim Lovell recalls the event: "Jack Swigert saw a warning light that accompanied the bang, and said, 'Houston, we've had a problem here.' I came on and told the ground that it was a main B bus undervolt. The time was 21:08 hours on April 13." + + +== In media == + +In the 1995 film Apollo 13, the actual quote was shortened to "Houston, we have a problem". Screenwriter William Broyles Jr. explained that the verb tense actually used "wasn't as dramatic". Broyles and linguist Naomi S. Baron noted that the actual line spoken would not work well in a suspense movie. Movie viewers already knew what had happened, while Mission Control did not at the time. The quote ranked at No. 50 on AFI's 100 Greatest Movie Quotes in June 2005. + + +== See also == +"One small step" (quote) + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == + + +== External links == + +"¿Cuándo se pronunció la famosa frase "Houston, tenemos un problema"?" [When was the famous phrase "Houston, we have a problem" uttered?] (in Spanish). April 13, 2010. Archived from the original on August 22, 2016. Retrieved July 5, 2016. +"Spacelog Apollo 13". Archived from the original on June 6, 2016. Retrieved July 5, 2016. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c27c3a1b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Information wants to be free" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:35.542788+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"Information wants to be free" is an expression that means either that all people should be able to access information freely, or that information (formulated as an actor) naturally strives to become as freely available among people as possible. It is often used by technology activists to criticize laws that limit transparency and general access to information. People who criticize intellectual property law say the system of such government-granted monopolies conflicts with the development of a public domain of information. The expression is often credited to Stewart Brand, who was recorded saying it at a Hackers Conference in 1984. + + +== History == +The phrase is attributed to Stewart Brand, who, in the late 1960s, founded the Whole Earth Catalog and argued that technology could be liberating rather than oppressing. What is considered the earliest recorded occurrence of the expression was at the first Hackers Conference in 1984, although the video recording of the conversation shows that what Brand actually said is slightly different. Brand told Steve Wozniak: + +On the one hand you have—the point you’re making Woz—is that information sort of wants to be expensive because it is so valuable—the right information in the right place just changes your life. On the other hand, information almost wants to be free because the costs of getting it out is getting lower and lower all of the time. So you have these two things fighting against each other. +Brand's conference remarks are transcribed accurately by Joshua Gans in his research on the quote as used by Steve Levy in his own history of the phrase. +A later form appears in his The Media Lab: Inventing the Future at MIT: + +Information Wants To Be Free. Information also wants to be expensive. ...That tension will not go away. +According to historian Adrian Johns, the slogan expresses a view that had already been articulated in the mid-20th century by Norbert Wiener, Michael Polanyi and Arnold Plant, who advocated for the free communication of scientific knowledge, and specifically criticized the patent system. + + +== Gratis versus libre == + +The various forms of the original statement are ambiguous: the slogan can be used to argue the benefits of propertied information, of liberated, free, and open information, or of both. It can be taken amorally as an expression of a fact of information-science: once information has passed to a new location outside of the source's control there is no way of ensuring it is not propagated further, and therefore will naturally tend towards a state where that information is widely distributed. Much of its force is due to the anthropomorphic metaphor that imputes desire to information. In 1990 Richard Stallman restated the concept normatively, without the anthropomorphization: + +I believe that all generally useful information should be free. By "free" I am not referring to price, but rather to the freedom to copy the information and to adapt it to one's own uses ... When information is generally useful, redistributing it makes humanity wealthier no matter who is distributing and no matter who is receiving. +Stallman's reformulation incorporates a political stance into Brand's value-neutral observation of social trends. + + +== Cypherpunk == + +Brand's attribution of will to an abstract human construct (information) has been adopted within a branch of the cypherpunk movement, whose members espouse a particular political viewpoint of anarchism. The construction of the statement takes its meaning beyond the simple judgmental observation, "Information should be free", by acknowledging that the internal force or entelechy of information and knowledge makes it essentially incompatible with notions of proprietary software, copyrights, patents, subscription services, etc. They believe that information is dynamic, ever-growing and evolving and cannot be contained within (any) ideological structure. +According to this philosophy, hackers, crackers, and phreakers are liberators of information which is being held hostage by agents demanding money for its release. Other participants in this network include cypherpunks who educate people to use public-key cryptography to protect the privacy of their messages from corporate or governmental snooping and programmers who write free software and open source code. Still others create Free-Nets allowing users to gain access to computer resources for which they would otherwise need an account. They might also break copyright law by swapping music, movies, or other copyrighted materials over the Internet. +Chelsea Manning is alleged to have said "Information should be free" to Adrian Lamo when explaining a rationale for US government documents to be released to WikiLeaks. The narrative goes on with Manning wondering if she is a "'hacker', 'cracker', 'hacktivist', 'leaker' or what". + + +== Literary usage == +In the "Fall Revolution" series of science-fiction books, author Ken Macleod riffs and puns on the expression by writing about entities composed of information actually "wanting", as in desiring, freedom and the machinations of several human characters with differing political and ideological agendas, to facilitate or disrupt these entities' quest for freedom. +In the Warcross duology by Marie Lu, the virtual space "The Pirate's Den" sports the slogan. +In the cyberpunk world of post-singularity transhuman culture described by Charles Stross in his books like Accelerando and Singularity Sky, the wish of information to be free is a law of nature. + + +== See also == + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Does the cyberpunk movement represent a political resistance? Archived 22 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine +Roger Clarke \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8d6b41b57 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Knismesis and gargalesis" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:36.846504+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Knismesis and gargalesis are the scientific terms, coined in 1897 by psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin, used to describe the two types of tickling. Knismesis refers to the light, feather-like type of tickling. This type of tickling generally does not induce laughter and is often accompanied by an itching sensation. Gargalesis refers to harder, laughter-inducing tickling, and involves the repeated application of high pressure to sensitive areas. +While the two terms are used in academic papers, they do not appear in many dictionaries and their origin is rarely declared. The term knismesis comes from the Ancient Greek κνισμός (knismós) meaning 'itching'. The term gargalesis stems from the Ancient Greek γαργαλίζω (gargalízō) meaning 'to tickle'. The suffix -esis is used to form nouns of action or process. + + +== Knismesis == +The knismesis phenomenon requires low levels of stimulation to sensitive parts of the body, and can be triggered by a light touch or by a light electric current. Knismesis can also be triggered by crawling insects or parasites, prompting scratching or rubbing at the ticklish spot, thereby removing the pest. It is possible that this function explains why knismesis produces a similar response in many different kinds of animals. In a famous example, described in Peter Benchley's Shark!, it is possible to tickle the area just under the snout of a great white shark, putting it into a near-hypnotic trance. + + +== Gargalesis == +The gargalesis type of tickle works on primates (which include humans), and possibly on other species. For example, ultrasonic vocalizations described as "chirping", which play into social behavior and even have therapeutic effects, are reported in rats in response to human tickling. However, adult female rats may find the tickling sensation adverse. Because the nerves involved in transmitting "light" touch and itch differ from those nerves that transmit "heavy" touch, pressure and vibration, it is possible that the difference in sensations produced by the two types of tickle is due to the relative proportion of itch sensation versus touch sensation. While it is possible to trigger a knismesis response in oneself, it is usually impossible to produce gargalesthesia, the gargalesis tickle response, in oneself. Hypergargalesthesia is the condition of extreme sensitivity to tickling. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4658d55fb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Knowledge is power" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:38.098438+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia" or also "scientia potestas est") is a Latin aphorism meaning "knowledge is power", commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon. The expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase "scientia potentia est" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man. The related phrase "sapientia est potentia" is often translated as "wisdom is power". + +== History == + +=== Origins and parallels === +A proverb in practically the same wording is found in Hebrew, in the Biblical Book of Proverbs (24:5): גֶּבֶר-חָכָם בַּעוֹז; וְאִישׁ-דַּעַת, מְאַמֶּץ-כֹּחַ. This was translated in the Latin Vulgata as "vir sapiens fortis est et vir doctus robustus et validus" and in the King James Version as "A wise man is strong, a man of knowledge increaseth strength". The Persian poet Ferdowsi (940–1019/1025) wrote +توانا بود هر که دانا بود (tavânâ bûd har ke dânâ bûd) "Mighty is the one who has knowledge." + +=== Thomas Hobbes === +The first known reference of the exact phrase appeared in the Latin edition of Leviathan (1668; the English version had been published in 1651). This passage from Part 1 ("De Homine"), Chapter X ("De Potentia, Dignitate et Honore") occurs in a list of various attributes of man which constitute power; in this list, "sciences" or "the sciences" are given a minor position: + +Scientia potentia est, sed parva; quia scientia egregia rara est, nec proinde apparens nisi paucissimis, et in paucis rebus. Scientiae enim ea natura est, ut esse intelligi non possit, nisi ab illis qui sunt scientia praediti +In the English version this passage reads as thus: + +The sciences are small powers; because not eminent, and therefore, not acknowledged in any man; nor are at all, but in a few, and in them, but of a few things. For science is of that nature, as none can understand it to be, but such as in a good measure have attained it. +On a later work, De Corpore (1655), also written in Latin, Hobbes expanded the same idea: + +The end or scope of philosophy is, that we may make use to our benefit of effects formerly seen ... for the commodity of human life ... The end of knowledge is power ... lastly, the scope of all speculation is the performing of some action, or thing to be done. +In Hobbes and the social contract tradition (1988), Jean Hampton indicates that this quote is 'after Bacon' and in a footnote, that 'Hobbes was Bacon's secretary as a young man and had philosophical discussions with him' (Aubrey 1898, 331). + +=== Francis Bacon === + +The closest expression in Bacon's works is, perhaps, the expression "ipsa scientia potestas est", found in his Meditationes Sacrae (1597), which is translated as "knowledge itself is power": + +statuuntque latiores terminos scientiae Dei quam potestatis, vel potius ejus partis potestatis Dei (nam et ipsa scientia potestas est) qua scit, quam ejus qua movet et agit: ut praesciat quaedam otiose, quae non praedestinet et praeordinet. +One of many differing English translations of this section includes the following: + +This canon is the mother of all canons against heresies. The cause of error is twofold : ignorance of the will of God, and ignorance or superficial consideration of the power of God. The will of God is more revealed through the Scriptures… his power more through his creatures… So is the plenitude of God's power to be asserted, as not to involve any imputation upon his will. So is the goodness of his will to be asserted, as not to imply any derogation of his power. +… Atheism and Theomachy rebels and mutinies against the power of God; not trusting to his word, which reveals his will, because it does not believe in his power, to whom all things are possible… But of the heresies which deny the power of God, there are, besides simple atheism, three degrees… +The third degree is of those who limit and restrain the former opinion to human actions only, which partake of sin: which actions they suppose to depend substantively and without any chain of causes upon the inward will and choice of man; and who give a wider range to the knowledge of God than to his power; or rather to that part of God's power (for knowledge itself is power) whereby he knows, than to that whereby he works and acts; suffering him to fore know some things as an unconcerned looker on, which he does not predestine and preordain : a notion not unlike the figment which Epicurus introduced into the philosophy of Democritus, to get rid of fate and make room for fortune; namely the sidelong motion of the Atom; which has ever by the wiser sort been accounted a very empty device. + +Interpretation of the notion of power meant by Bacon must therefore take into account his distinction between the power of knowing and the power of working and acting, the opposite of what is assumed when the maxim is taken out of context. Indeed, the quotation has become a cliche. +In the better-known Novum Organum, Bacon wrote, "Human knowledge and human power meet in one; for where the cause is not known the effect cannot be produced. Nature to be commanded must be obeyed; and that which in contemplation is as the cause is in operation as the rule." + +=== Ralph Waldo Emerson === +Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote in his essay Old Age, included in the collection Society and Solitude (1870): + +Skill to do comes of doing; knowledge comes by eyes always open, and working hands; and there is no knowledge that is not power. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cc2028906 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "Knowledge is power" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:38.098438+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Wissen ist Macht in Germany === +After the 1871 unification of Germany, "Wissen ist Macht, geographisches Wissen ist Weltmacht" (Knowledge is power, geographical knowledge is world power) was often used in German geopolitics and the public discussion to support efforts for a German colonial empire after 1880. Julius Perthes, for example, used the motto for his publishing house. However, this installation of geographical research followed popular requests and was not imposed by the government. In particular, Count Bismarck was not much interested in German colonial adventures; his envoy Gustav Nachtigal started with the first protectorates, but was more interested in ethnological aspects. +After World War I, German geopolitics tried to contribute to efforts to regain world power. Scholars like Karl Haushofer, a former general, and his son Albrecht Haushofer (both in close contact with Rudolf Hess) got worldwide attention with their concept of geopolitics. Associations of German geographers and schoolteachers welcomed the Machtergreifung and hoped to get further influence in the new regime. +Germany's postwar geopolitics was much more cautious; concepts of political geography and projection of power had not been widespread scholarly topics in Germany until 1989. +Geographical knowledge is however still of importance in Germany. Germans tend to mock US politicians' and celebrities' comparable lack of interest in the topic. A Sponti (Außerparlamentarische Opposition) version of the slogan is "Wissen ist Macht, nichts wissen macht auch nichts", a pun about the previous motto meaning "Knowledge is power, knowing nothing is no problem, either." +The German Bundeswehr Bataillon Elektronische Kampfführung 932, an electronic warfare unit based in Frankenberg (Eder), still uses the Latin version Scientia potentia est as its motto. + +== Theories == +In the modern and contemporary inquiries of the proposition, Stephen Gill furthered Robert Cox's deconstructive statement on the ontology of knowledge, with an objective epistemological statement that "any theory of knowledge production needs to have a power dimension". + +== See also == +Information warfare +Intelligence (information gathering) +List of Latin phrases +Power-knowledge +Rationality and power +Sapiens dominabitur astris + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Thomas Hobbes, Opera philosophica, quae latine scripsit, omnia in unum corpus nunc primum collecta studio et labore Gulielmi Molesworth, Bart. (London: Bohn, 1839–45). +Thomas Hobbes, The English Works of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury; Now First Collected and Edited by Sir William Molesworth, Bart. (London: Bohn, 1839–45). 11 vols. +Ralph Waldo Emerson, Society and Solitude. Twelve Chapters, Boston, The Riverside Press, 1892. + +== Further reading == +Haas, Ernst B. When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations. University of California, 1990. ISBN 0-520-06646-4. +Higdon, Lee. "Knowledge is power." University Business, September 2005. +Higdon argues that because the U.S. economy is a knowledge economy the decline in enrollment of non-U.S. students in U.S. universities "has serious long-term implications for the United States." +"Knowledge is power (But only if you know how to acquire it)." The Economist, May 8, 2003. +A report on corporate knowledge management. +Peterson, Ryan. "Michel Foucault: Power/Knowledge." Colorado State University Resource Centre for Communications Studies. +An exploration of what Peterson terms Foucault's "new model of the relations of power and knowledge" that contradicts Bacon. +Powers, Rod. "Knowledge is power in the military." U.S. Military: The Orderly Room. Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine + +== External links == + The dictionary definition of knowledge is power at Wiktionary +Scientiaestex Archived 2022-10-05 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..46f114a4d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Noli turbare circulos meos!" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:41.514157+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"Nōlī turbāre circulōs meōs!" is a Latin phrase, meaning "Do not disturb my circles!" It is said to have been uttered by Archimedes—in reference to a geometric figure he had outlined on the sand—as he was about to be killed by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse. + + +== Origin == +According to Valerius Maximus, the phrase was uttered by the ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Archimedes. When the Romans conquered the city of Syracuse after the siege of 214–212 BC, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus gave the order to retrieve Archimedes. Some soldiers entered the house of Archimedes and one of the soldiers asked Archimedes who he was. But, according to Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7), Archimedes just answered "Noli, obsecro, istum disturbare" ("Do not, I entreat you, disturb that (sand)"), because he was so engrossed in the circles drawn on the sand in front of him. After that, one of the soldiers killed Archimedes, despite the order of Marcus Claudius Marcellus. + + +== Authenticity == +Plutarch does not mention the quote in his Parallel Lives. Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7) attests the Latin form "noli ... istum disturbare" ("I ask you not to disturb that sand"). Valerius's is the only version of the phrase that survives from antiquity. In the modern era, it was paraphrased as "Noli turbare circulos meos" and then translated to Katharevousa Greek as "μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε!" ("Mē mou tous kuklous taratte!"). + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..25e7f6beb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "One small step" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:45.217914+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On July 21, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the Moon, he said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind". Recordings of Armstrong's Apollo 11 transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", leading to some controversy about whether he said the word or not. +After years of Armstrong and NASA insisting that the static obscured it, Armstrong conceded that he must have dropped the "a" after carefully listening to the recording. Several scientific analyses have been conducted with some suggesting that he did say the "a" and others suggesting that he did not. As a result, the "a" is often included in brackets in the quote. + + +== Background == +The Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11 in 1969. After Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder. At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a Lunar Module landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now." He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56 UTC July 21, 1969, then said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. +When Armstrong made his proclamation, Voice of America was rebroadcast live by the BBC and many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530 million people viewed the event, 20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6 billion. + + +== Wording == +Armstrong prepared his famous epigram on his own. In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words "just prior to leaving the LM". In a 1983 interview in Esquire magazine, he explained to George Plimpton: "I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty ... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing." +In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch. Historian Andrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his book A Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. +People have speculated that the line was inspired by The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien, in which Bilbo Baggins's jump over Gollum is described as "not a great leap for a man, but a leap in the dark". After leaving NASA in 1971 and moving to a farm in Lebanon, Ohio, Armstrong named the farm "Rivendell", a valley in Tolkien's works. In the 1990s Armstrong also had email address related to Tolkien. Armstrong however said that it was only after Apollo 11 that he read the works of Tolkien. People have also speculated that the idea for the quote may have come from an April 19, 1969, memo by Willis Shapley in which he wrote "the first lunar landing as an historic step forward for all mankind". Armstrong said that he did not remember reading the memo. +Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", resulting in "man" having the same perceived meaning as "mankind" rather than "a person". NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeatedly listening to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the "a". Armstrong later said he "would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been". +There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing "a". Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say "a man", but the "a" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time. Ford and James R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis. Armstrong found Ford's analysis "persuasive". Linguists David Beaver and Mark Liberman wrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blog Language Log. A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article. NASA's transcript continues to show the "a" in parentheses. + + +== Protection by Armstrong == +Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981, MTV wanted to use his quote in its station identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness. He sued Hallmark Cards in 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the "one small step" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue University. + + +== Legacy and cultural impact == +When Pete Conrad of Apollo 12 became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed "Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me." +Things named after the quote include a 1999 Star Trek: Voyager episode, the 2008 documentary film One Small Step: The Story of the Space Chimps, as well as a 2018 animated short film, a 1990 novella and the 2019 non-fiction book One Giant Leap. +The sculpture of Armstrong at Purdue University has an inscription of the quote. +The quote has been described by Richard Gray for weather.com as the most famous disputed quote in history. Ian Crouch of The New Yorker has described the quote as "among the most famous proclamations of the [20th] century". +In December 2020, the One Small Step to Protect Human Heritage in Space Act was enacted, to protect American lunar landing sites. + + +== See also == +"We choose to go to the Moon", 1962 speech by John F. Kennedy +"Houston, we have a problem", a 1970 quote attributed to Jack Swigert and Jim Lovell during the Apollo 13 mission and shortened to this well-known form for the 1995 Apollo 13 film +"Where no man has gone before", quotation from Star Trek + + +== References == + + +== Sources == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..52292854c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Standing on the shoulders of giants" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:47.601142+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is a metaphor which means "using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress". +It is a metaphor of a person who wants to reach higher, standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nani gigantum humeris insidentes) and expresses the meaning of "discovering truth by building on previous discoveries". This concept has been dated to the 12th century and, according to John of Salisbury, is attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Its most familiar and popular expression occurs in a 1675 letter by Isaac Newton: "if I have seen further [than others], it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." + +== Early references == + +=== Middle Ages === +The earliest documented attestation of this aphorism appears in 1123 in William of Conches's Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae. Where Priscian says quanto juniores, tanto perspicaciores (young men simply can see more sharply), William comments: The ancients had only the books which they themselves wrote, but we have all their books and moreover all those which have been written from the beginning until our time.… Hence we are like a dwarf perched on the shoulders of a giant. The former sees further than the giant, not because of his own stature, but because of the stature of his bearer. Similarly, we [moderns] see more than the ancients, because our writings, modest as they are, are added to their great works. + +The same aphorism was attributed to Bernard of Chartres by John of Salisbury, who in 1159 wrote: + +Bernard of Chartres used to compare us to dwarfs perched on the shoulders of giants. He pointed out that we see more and farther than our predecessors, not because we have keener vision or greater height, but because we are lifted up and borne aloft on their gigantic stature. +According to medieval historian Richard William Southern, Bernard was comparing contemporary 12th century scholars to the ancient scholars of Greece and Rome. A similar conceit also appears in a contemporary work on church history by Ordericus Vitalis. + +[The phrase] sums up the quality of the cathedral schools in the history of learning, and indeed characterizes the age which opened with Gerbert (950–1003) and Fulbert (960–1028) and closed in the first quarter of the 12th century with Peter Abelard. [The phrase] is not a great claim; neither, however, is it an example of abasement before the shrine of antiquity. It is a very shrewd and just remark, and the important and original point was the dwarf could see a little further than the giant. That this was possible was above all due to the cathedral schools with their lack of a well-rooted tradition and their freedom from a clearly defined routine of study. + +== Religious texts == + The visual image (from Bernard of Chartres) appears in the stained glass of the south transept of Chartres Cathedral. The tall windows under the rose window show the four major prophets of the Hebrew Bible (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel) as gigantic figures, and the four New Testament evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) as ordinary-size people sitting on their shoulders. The evangelists, though smaller, "see more" than the huge prophets (since they saw the Messiah about whom the prophets spoke). +The phrase also appears in the works of the Jewish tosaphist Isaiah di Trani (c. 1180 – c. 1250): + +Should Joshua the son of Nun endorse a mistaken position, I would reject it out of hand, I do not hesitate to express my opinion, regarding such matters in accordance with the modicum of intelligence allotted to me. I was never arrogant claiming "My Wisdom served me well". Instead I applied to myself the parable of the philosophers. For I heard the following from the philosophers, The wisest of the philosophers was asked: "We admit that our predecessors were wiser than we. At the same time we criticize their comments, often rejecting them and claiming that the truth rests with us. How is this possible?" The wise philosopher responded: "Who sees further a dwarf or a giant? Surely a giant for his eyes are situated at a higher level than those of the dwarf. But if the dwarf is placed on the shoulders of the giant who sees further? ... So too we are dwarfs astride the shoulders of giants. We master their wisdom and move beyond it. Due to their wisdom we grow wise and are able to say all that we say, but not because we are greater than they. + +== Early modern and modern references == + +=== Isaac Newton === + +Isaac Newton remarked in a letter to his rival Robert Hooke written in 5 February 1675 and published in 1855: + +What Des-Cartes [sic] did was a good step. You have added much several ways, & especially in taking the colours of thin plates into philosophical consideration. If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants. + +This has recently been interpreted by a few writers as a sarcastic remark directed at Hooke's appearance. Although Hooke was not of particularly short stature, he was of slight build and had been afflicted from his youth with a severe kyphosis. + +=== Others === +Juan Luis Vives quotes the phrase "on shoulders of giants" in his De causis corruptarum artium (1531) with disapproval: + +For it is a false and fond similitude, which some writers adopt, though they think it witty and suitable, that we are, compared with the ancients, as dwarfs upon the shoulders of giants. It is not so. Neither are we dwarfs, nor they giants, but we are all of one stature, save that we are lifted up somewhat higher by their means, provided that there be found in us the same studiousness, watchfulness and love of truth, as was in them. If these conditions be lacking, then we are not dwarfs, nor set on the shoulders of giants, but men of a competent stature, grovelling on the earth. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2cfc8836e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Standing on the shoulders of giants" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:47.601142+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Diego de Estella took up the quotation in his 1578 commentary on Gospel of Luke and by the 17th century it had become commonplace. Robert Burton, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy (1624), quotes Stella thus: + +I say with Didacus Stella, a dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than a giant himself. +Later editors of Burton misattributed the quotation to Lucan; in their hands Burton's attribution Didacus Stella, in luc 10, tom. ii "Didacus on the Gospel of Luke, chapter 10; volume 2" became a reference to Lucan's Pharsalia 2.10. No reference or allusion to the quotation is found there. + +In 1634, Marin Mersenne quoted the expression in his Questions harmoniques: ... comme l'on dit, il est bien facile, & mesme necessaire de voir plus loin que nos devanciers, lors que nous sommes montez sur leur espaules ...Blaise Pascal, in the "Preface to the Treatise on the Vacuum" expresses the same idea, without talking about shoulders, but rather about the knowledge handed down to us by the ancients as steps that allow us to climb higher and see farther than they could:C'est de cette façon que l'on peut aujourd'hui prendre d'autres sentiments et de nouvelles opinions sans mépris et sans ingratitude, puisque les premières connaissances qu'ils nous ont données ont servi de degrés aux nôtres, et que dans ces avantages nous leur sommes redevables de l'ascendant que nous avons sur eux; parce que s'étant élevés jusqu'à un certain degré où ils nous ont portés, le moindre effort nous fait monter plus haut, et avec moins de peine et moins de gloire nous nous trouvons au-dessus d'eux. C'est de là que nous pouvons découvrir des choses qu'il leur était impossible d'apercevoir. Notre vue a plus d'étendue; et, quoiqu'ils connussent aussi bien que nous tout ce qu'ils pouvaient remarquer de la nature, ils n'en connaissaient pas tant néanmoins, et nous voyons plus qu'eux.Later in the 17th century, George Herbert, in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), wrote "A dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two." +Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in The Friend (1828), wrote: + +The dwarf sees farther than the giant, when he has the giant's shoulder to mount on. +Against this notion, Friedrich Nietzsche argues that a dwarf (the academic scholar) brings even the most sublime heights down to his level of understanding. In the section of Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1882) entitled "On the Vision and the Riddle", Zarathustra climbs to great heights with a dwarf on his shoulders to show him his greatest thought. Once there however, the dwarf fails to understand the profundity of the vision and Zarathustra reproaches him for "making things too easy on [him]self." If there is to be anything resembling "progress" in the history of philosophy, Nietzsche in "Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks" (1873) writes, it can only come from those rare giants among men, "each giant calling to his brother through the desolate intervals of time", an idea he got from Schopenhauer's work in Der handschriftliche Nachlass. + +== Contemporary references == +Robert King Merton, one of the 'founding fathers' of sociology, titled a book On the Shoulders of Giants: A Shandean Postscript. In it, he traces the history of Newton's famous comment "If I have seen farther, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants" back to centuries earlier, in the rambling style of Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman. +NASA's official film of the Apollo 17 lunar landing mission was titled On the Shoulders of Giants. +R.E.M. references the phrase in the chorus of their song King Of Birds: "Standing on the shoulders of giants leaves me cold" +Umberto Eco writes in his 1980 novel The Name of the Rose, that Nicholas of Morimondo laments, "We no longer have the learning of the ancients, the age of giants is past!" To which the protagonist, William of Baskerville, replies: "We are dwarfs, but dwarfs who stand on the shoulders of those giants, and small though we are, we sometimes manage to see farther on the horizon than they." +The British two pound coin bears the inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS on its edge. +Standing on the Shoulder of Giants is the title of the fourth studio album by English rock band Oasis. The title was actually a misquote by Noel Gallagher after seeing the quote on the British two pound coin while in a pub. +Stephen Hawking stated: "Each generation stands on the shoulders of those who have gone before them, just as I did as a young PhD student in Cambridge, inspired by the work of Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell and Albert Einstein." Additionally, Hawking wrote a book called On the Shoulders of Giants, which explores the major works of physics and astronomy that inspired him. +Google Scholar, a search engine for academic literature, displays the phrase "Stand on the shoulders of giants" below the search field. + +== See also == +Collective intelligence +Derivative work +Distributed cognition +Great Conversation +School of Chartres +Stigler's law of eponymy +William of Ockham's Razor + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Jeauneau, Édouard (1973). Lectio philosophorum: recherches sur l'Ecole de Chartres. Hakkert. +Jeauneau, Édouard (2009). Rethinking the School of Chartres. University of Toronto Press. +Merton, Robert King; Eco, Umberto; Donoghue, Denis (1993). On the shoulders of giants: a Shandean postscript. University of Chicago press. + +== External links == + +Overview of history of the expression \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..20e594d1c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Theories of technology" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:22.333603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Theories of technological change and innovation attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture. Some of the most contemporary theories of technological change reject two of the previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and other, the technological determinism. To challenge the linear model, some of today's theories of technological change and innovation point to the history of technology, where they find evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in creating and shaping technological artifacts. To challenge the so-called "technological determinism", today's theories of technological change emphasize the scope of the need of technical choice, which they find to be greater than most laypeople can realize; as scientists in philosophy of science, and further science and technology often like to say about this "It could have been different." For this reason, theorists who take these positions often argue that a greater public involvement in technological decision-making is desired. + +== Sociological theories == + +Sociological theories and researches of the Society and the Social focus on how human and technology actually interact and may even affect each other. Some theories are about how political decisions are made for both humans and technology, with here humans and technology are seen as an equal field in the political decision, where humans also make, use, and even move ahead with innovations the technology. The interactions that are used in the majority of the theories on this topic look at the individual human interactions with technological equipment, but there is also a sub-group for the group of people interacting with technology. The theories described are, according to some critiques, purposefully made vague and ambiguous, as the circumstances for the theories change with human culture and technological change and innovation. + +=== Descriptive approaches === +Social constructivism and technology argues that technology may not determine the human action, but human action may shape technological use. Key concepts here include: + +interpretive flexibility: "Technological artifacts are culturally constructed and interpreted ... By this, we mean not only is there flexibility in how people think of or interpret artifacts but also there is flexibility in how artifacts are designed." And so the technological artifacts may determine and shape what that specific technology tool will symbolize and represent in society or in a culture. This is in relation to the Social constructivism and technology theory because it shows how humans symbolize technology, by shaping it. +Relevant social group shares a particular set of meanings about a given artifact +Economical stabilization is often about when the relevant social group has reached a consensus, according to technological change and innovation criticism +Wider context: "the sociocultural and political situation of a social group shapes its norms and values, which in turn influence the meaning given to an artifact" +Key authors here include MacKenzie and Wajcman (1985). + +Actor-network theory (ANT) is about a heterogeneous network of humans and even non-humans as equal interrelated actors. It strives for impartiality in the description of human actors and nonhuman technological gadgets, and the reintegration of the natural world and the society. For example, Latour (1992) argues that instead of worrying whether we are making anthropomorphological the technology, and we should embrace it as inherently anthropomorphic as technology is after all made by humans, and substitutes for the actions of humans, and therefore shapes the human action. +What is important is the gradients and the connectivity of actors' actions and their technological competencies, and also the degree to which we choose to have "figurative" representations. Key concepts here include the inscription of beliefs, practices, relations into technology, which is then said to embody them. Key authors include Bruno Latour (1997) and Callon (1999). + +Structuration theory attempts to define the structures also as resources and their rules that are organized with relevant technological system properties at the social level. The theory employs one recursive notion of actions, constrained and enabled by structures which are produced and reproduced by the action. Consequently, in this theory technology can not be rendered as an artifact, so instead examines people and their interacion with technology at their work practices, that enacts structures which shape their emerging and also situated use of that technology. Here, key authors include DeSanctis and Poole (1990), and Orlikowski (1992). +Systems theory considers the historical development of technology and media with an emphasis on inertia and heterogeneity, stressing the connections between the artifact being built and the social, economic, political and cultural factors surrounding it. Key concepts include reverse salients when elements of a system lag in development with respect to others, differentiation, operational closure, and autopoietic autonomy. Key authors include Thomas P. Hughes (1992) and Luhmann (2000). +Activity theory is considering that entire work and also activity system (including included members, teams, organizations, etc.) beyond one user or actor. It also may account for the environment, personal history and supposed culture, "the role of the artifacts", emerged motivations, and sought views on complexity of activities in real-life. One of the strengths of AT is that it bridges the gap between the individual subject and the social reality—it studies both through the mediating activity. The unit of analysis in AT is the concept of object-oriented, collective and culturally mediated human activity, or activity system. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e9d6bdfa0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Theories of technology" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:22.333603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Approaches of the critical theory === +Critical theory attempts, according to some, to go beyond the descriptiveness of one account that may show of how things are, the exam and question of why they have come to be that way and how they might otherwise be. Critical theory asks whose interests are being served by the questioned status quo and assesses the potentials of a future, that alternates and propose "to better" both the technological service, and even social justice. Here Geuss's definition is given, where "a critical theory, then, is a reflective theory which gives agents a kind of knowledge inherently productive of enlightenment and emancipation" (1964). Thus Marcuse argued that while technology matters and design are often presented as neutral technical choices, in fact, they manifest political or moral values. Critical theory is seen as a "form of archaeology" that attempt to get beneath common-sense understandings in order to reveal the power relationships and interests determining particular technological configuration and use. +Perhaps the most developed contemporary critical theory of technology is contained in the works of Andrew Feenberg included in his book 'Transforming Technology' (2002). + +Values in Design asks how do we ensure a place for values (alongside technical standards such as speed, efficiency, and reliability) as criteria by which we judge the quality and acceptability of information systems and new media. How do values such as privacy, autonomy, democracy, and social justice become integral to conception, design, and development, not merely retrofitted after completion? Key thinkers include Helen Nissenbaum (2001). + +=== Social Group Theories === + +There are also a number of technologically related science and society theories that also address even on how media affects group developments or otherwise processes. Broadly speaking, these technological theories are said to be concerned with the social effects of communication media (e.g., media richness) are concerned with questions of media choice (when to use what medium effectively). Other theories (social presence and "media naturalness") are concerned with the consequences of those media choices (i.e., what are the social effects of using particular communication media). + +Social presence theory (Short, et al., 1976) is a "seminal theory" of the viewed social effects of communications technology. And its main concern is, naturally, with telephony and telephone, but also even conferencing (and the research here was found among the sponsored by the General Post Office, now British Telecom). It argues that the social impact of a communication medium depend on the social presence it allows communicators to have. Social presence is defined as a property of the medium itself: the degree of acoustic, visual, and physical contact that it allows. The theory assumes that more contact will increase the key components of "presence": greater intimacy, immediacy, warmth and inter-personal rapport. As a consequence of social presence, social influence is expected to increase. In the case of communication technology, the assumption is that more text-based forms of interaction (e-mail, instant messaging) are less social, and therefore less conducive to social influence. +Media richness theory (Daft & Lengel, 1986) shares some characteristics with social presence theory. It posits that the amount of information communicated differs with respect to a medium's richness. The theory assumes that resolving ambiguity and reducing uncertainty are the main goals of communication. Because communication media differ in the rate of understanding they can achieve in a specific time (with "rich" media carrying more information), they are not all capable of resolving uncertainty and ambiguity well. The more restricted the medium's capacity, the less uncertainty and equivocality it is able to manage. It follows that the richness of the media should be matched to the task so as to prevent over simplification or complication. +Media naturalness theory (Kock, 2001; 2004) builds on human evolution ideas and has been proposed as an alternative to media richness theory. Media naturalness theory argues that since our Stone Age hominid ancestors have communicated primarily face-to-face, evolutionary pressures have led to the development of a brain that is consequently designed for that form of communication. Other forms of communication are too recent and unlikely to have posed evolutionary pressures that could have shaped our brain in their direction. Using communication media that suppress key elements found in face-to-face communication, as many electronic communication media do, thus ends up posing cognitive obstacles to communication. This is particularly the case in the context of complex tasks (e.g., business process redesign, new product development, online learning), because such tasks seem to require more intense communication over extended periods of time than simple tasks. + +Media synchronicity theory (MST, Dennis & Valacich, 1999) redirects richness theory towards the synchronicity of the communication. +The social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) (Postmes, Spears and Lea 1999; Reicher, Spears and Postmes, 1995; Spears & Lea, 1994 ) was developed as a response to the idea that anonymity and reduced presence made communication technology socially impoverished (or "deindividuated"). It provided an alternative explanation for these "deindividuation effects" based on theories of social identity (e.g., Turner et al., 1987). The SIDE model distinguishes cognitive and strategic effects of a communication technology. Cognitive effects occur when communication technologies make "salient" particular aspects of personal or social identity. For example, certain technologies such as email may disguise characteristics of the sender that individually differentiate them (i.e., that convey aspects of their personal identity) and as a result more attention may be given to their social identity. The strategic effects are due to the possibilities, afforded by communication technology, to selectively communicate or enact particular aspects of identity, and disguise others. SIDE therefore sees the social and the technological as mutually determining, and the behavior associated with particular communication forms as the product or interaction of the two. +Time, interaction, and performance (TIP; McGrath, 1991) theory describes work groups as time-based, multi-modal, and multi-functional social systems. Groups interact in one of the modes of inception, problem solving, conflict resolution, and execution. The three functions of a group are production (towards a goal), support (affective) and well-being (norms and roles). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3c9e6a1e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Theories of technology" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:59:22.333603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Other Stances === +Additionally, many authors have posed technology so as to critique and or emphasize aspects of technology as addressed by the mainline theories. For example, Steve Woolgar (1991) considers technology as text in order to critique the sociology of scientific knowledge as applied to technology and to distinguish between three responses to that notion: the instrumental response (interpretive flexibility), the interpretivist response (environmental/organizational influences), the reflexive response (a double hermeneutic). Pfaffenberger (1992) treats technology as drama to argue that a recursive structuring of technological artifacts and their social structure discursively regulate the technological construction of political power. A technological drama is a discourse of technological "statements" and "counterstatements" within the processes of technological regularization, adjustment, and reconstitution. +An important philosophical approach to technology has been taken by Bernard Stiegler, whose work has been influenced by other philosophers and historians of technology including Gilbert Simondon and André Leroi-Gourhan. +In the Schumpeterian and Neo-Schumpeterian theories technologies are critical factors of economic growth (Carlota Perez). + +== Analytical theories == +There are theories of technological change and innovation which are not defined or claimed by a proponent, but are used by authors in describing existing literature, in contrast to their own or as a review of the field. +For example, Markus and Robey (1988) propose a general technology theory consisting of the causal structures of agency (technological, organizational, imperative, emergent), its structure (variance, process), and the level (micro, macro) of analysis. +Orlikowski (1992) notes that previous conceptualizations of technology typically differ over scope (is technology more than hardware?) and role (is it an external objective force, the interpreted human action, or an impact moderated by humans?) and identifies three models: + +The technological imperative: focuses on organizational characteristics which can be measured and permits some level of contingency +Strategic choices: focuses on how technology is influenced by the context and strategies of decision-makers and users +Technology as maker of structural changes:: views technology as a social object +DeSanctis and Poole (1994) similarly write of three views of technology's effects: + +Decision-making: the view of engineers associated with positivist, rational, systems rationalization, and deterministic approaches +Institutional school: technology is an opportunity for change, focuses on social evolution, social construction of meaning, interaction and historical processes, interpretive flexibility, and an interplay between technology and power +An integrated perspective (social technology): soft-line determinism, with joint social and technological optimization, structural symbolic interaction theory +Bimber (1998) addresses the determinacy of technology effects by distinguishing between the: + +Normative: an autonomous approach where technology is an important influence on history only where societies attached cultural and political meaning to it (e.g., the industrialization of society) +Nomological: a naturalistic approach wherein an inevitable technological order arises based on laws of nature (e.g., steam mill had to follow the hand mill) +Unintended consequences: a fuzzy approach that is demonstrative that technology is contingent (e.g., a car is faster than a horse, but unbeknownst to its original creators become a significant source of pollution) + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Bentley, Raymond (2019). Technological Change In The German Democratic Republic, Routledge +Denis, A. and Valacich, J. (1999). Rethinking media richness: towards a theory of media synchronicity. Proceedings of the 32nd Hawaii International Conference on Systems Science. +Desanctis, G. and Poole, M. S. (1990). Understanding the use of group decision support systems: the theory of adaptive structuration. In J. Fulk, C. S., editor, Organizations and Communication Technology, pages 173–193. Sage, Newbury Park, CA. +MacKensie, D. and Wajcman, J (1985) The Social Shaping of Technology, Milton Keynes, Open University Press. +Pinch, T. and Bijker, W. (1992). The social construction of facts and artifacts: or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other. In Bijker, W. and Law, J., editors, Shaping Technology/Building Society, pages 17–50. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. \ No newline at end of file