Scrape wikipedia-science: 10759 new, 3607 updated, 14732 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Jun-ichi_Nishizawa_Medal-0.md

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+---
+title: "IEEE Jun-ichi Nishizawa Medal"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Jun-ichi_Nishizawa_Medal"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:49:52.952469+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In 2002, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) added a new award to its already existing program of awards. Each year, one or more nominees are honored with a medal in the name of Jun-ichi Nishizawa, considered to be the father of Japanese microelectronics. Nishizawa was professor, director of two research institutes and the 17th president at Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, and contributed important innovations in the fields of optical communications and semiconductor devices, such as laser and PIN diodes and static induction thyristors for electric power applications.
+This medal is awarded by the IEEE on a yearly basis to nominees in the fields of materials science and device technologies.
+Sponsor of this award is the Federation of Electric Power Companies, Japan.
+
+
+== Recipients ==
+The following have won the award:
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+IEEE Jun-ichi Nishizawa Medal

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Registration_Authority-0.md

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+---
+title: "IEEE Registration Authority"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Registration_Authority"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:49:54.113396+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The IEEE Registration Authority is the administrative body that is responsible for registering and administering organizationally unique identifiers (OUI) and other types of identifiers which are used in the computer and electronics industries (Individual Address Blocks (IAB), Manufacturer IDs, Standard Group MAC Addresses, Unique Registration Numbers (URN), EtherType values, etc.)
+The IEEE Registration Authority was formed in 1986 in response to a need for this service that was recognized by the P802 (LAN/MAN) standards group. The IEEE Registration Authority is currently recognized by ISO/IEC as the authorized registration authority to provide the service of globally assigning, administering, and registering OUIs.
+
+Note: The term 'Registration' as used in this context is "the assignment of unambiguous names to objects in a way which makes the assignment available to interested parties".
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+IEEE OUI FAQ
+IEEE OUI and Company_id assignments
+List of registered OUIs
+The IEEE Frequently Asked Questions, Registration Authority
+The IEEE OUI Search Page

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Richard_Harold_Kaufmann_Award-0.md

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+---
+title: "IEEE Richard Harold Kaufmann Award"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Richard_Harold_Kaufmann_Award"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:49:55.307700+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The IEEE Richard Harold Kaufmann Award is a Technical Field Award of the IEEE that was established by the IEEE Board of Directors in 1986.  This award is presented for outstanding contributions in industrial systems engineering.
+The award may be presented to an individual, or team of up to three people.
+Recipients of this award receive a bronze medal, certificate, and honorarium
+
+
+== Recipients ==
+Source:
+
+1988: Walter C. Huening, Jr.
+1989: Bernard W. Whittington
+1990: Rene Castenschiold
+1991: John R. Dunki-Jacobs
+1992: Kao Chen
+1993: George W. Walsh
+1994: Daniel J. Love
+1995: N. Shan Griffith
+1996: Marcus O. Durham
+1997: Thomas E. Sparling
+1998: James A. Oliver
+1999: Baldwin Bridger, Jr.
+2000: Alton Dewitt Patton
+2001: Louie J. Powell
+2002:	H. Landis Floyd, II
+2003: Edward L. Owen
+2004: Richard L. Nailen
+2005: A. P. Meliopoulos
+2006: George Younkin
+2007: Md. Azizur Rahman
+2008: Hirofumi Akagi, "For pioneering contributions to the theory of instantaneous reactive power in threephase circuits, and its applications to power conditioning"
+2009: Ronald G. Harley, "For contributions to monitoring, control, and optimization of electrical processes, including electrical machines and power networks"
+2010: Gerald T. Heydt, "For contributions to electric power quality, and transmission and distribution engineering"
+2011: David Doyle Shipp, "For contributions to the design, analysis and protection of electrical power systems and personnel in industrial and commercial applications"
+2012: John P. Nelson, "For leadership in grounding and protection design and the advancement of the electrical safety culture"
+2013: Kaushik Rajashekara, "For contributions to the advancement of electrical systems in transportation for higher efficiency and lower emissions"
+2014: Robert D. Lorenz, "For contributions to the development of methodologies and sensors for precision control of electric motor drives and coordinated drive systems"
+2015: Charles John Mozina, "For contributions to the electrical protection of synchronous generators"
+2016: G.S. Peter Castle, "For developments of applied electrostatic devices and processes in industry, agriculture, and environmental protection"
+2017: Erling Hesla, "For leadership in establishing the fundamentals for the protection and safe operation of industrial power systems"
+2018: Greg Charles Stone, "For advancements in rotating machines insulation evaluation and testing"
+2019: Susumu Tadakuma (多田隈 進, Tadakuma Susumu), "For pioneering contributions to high power converters and drives for highspeed-train and industrial applications" His innovations were crucial for MAGLEV and Japanese bullet trains.
+2020: Kouki Matsuse, "For pioneering contributions to the advancement of sensorless vector control of AC drives and multilevel inverters for industrial applications".
+2021: Stephen McArthur, "For innovative contributions to the advancement of intelligent systems for power engineering applications."
+2022: Paresh C. Sen, "For contributions to the theory, practice, education, and development of advanced industrial motor drives and power electronics systems."
+2023: Edwald F Fuchs, "For contributions to power quality in power system operation, electric machines, renewable energy, and drives."
+2024: Giuseppe Buja, "“For fundamental contributions to modulation and control of industrial drives."
+2025: Vladimir Blasko, "For contributions to the theory and applications of bidirectional power converters in high-performance motor drive systems."
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+IEEE Richard Harold Kaufmann Award page at IEEE

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISIRI_13139-0.md

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+---
+title: "ISIRI 13139"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISIRI_13139"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:18.943270+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ISIRI 13139 is a standard published by the Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran (ISIRI) in 2011 based on Directive 2009/61/EC. It defines "Installation of lighting and light-signalling devices on wheeled agricultural and forestry tractors".
+
+
+== Related sources ==
+Other related sources are as follows:
+
+Directive 2003/37/EC of 26 May 2003 on type approval of agricultural or forestry tractors, their trailers and interchangeable towed machinery, together with their systems, components and separate technical units and repealing Directive 74/150/EEC.
+ISO R 1724: 1970- Electrical connections for vehicles with 6 or 12 volt electrical systems applying more specifically to private motor cars and lightweight trailers or caravans.
+ISO R 1185: 1970- Electrical connections between towing and towed vehicles having 24 volt electrical systems used for international commercial transport purposes.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Iran Tractor Manufacturing Company
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_21827-0.md

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+---
+title: "ISO/IEC 21827"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_21827"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:24.967541+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ISO/IEC 21827 (SSE-CMM – ISO/IEC 21827) is an international standard based on the Systems Security Engineering Capability Maturity Model (SSE-CMM) developed by the International Systems Security Engineering Association (ISSEA). 
+ISO/IEC 21827 specifies the Systems Security Engineering - Capability Maturity Model, which describes the characteristics essential to the success of an organization's security engineering process, and is applicable to all security engineering organizations including government, commercial, and academic. ISO/IEC 21827 does not prescribe a particular process or sequence, but captures practices generally observed in industry. The model is a standard metric for security engineering practices covering the following:
+
+Project lifecycles, including development, operation, maintenance, and decommissioning activities
+Entire organizations, including management, organizational, and engineering activities
+Concurrent interactions with other disciplines, such as system software and hardware, human factors, test engineering; system management, operation, and maintenance
+Interactions with other organizations, including acquisition, system management, certification, accreditation, and evaluation.
+
+
+== References ==
+International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)
+International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_24727-0.md

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+---
+title: "ISO/IEC 24727"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_24727"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:26.120541+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ISO/IEC 24727 (Identification cards – Integrated circuit card programming interfaces) is the first international standard to address the need for creation of a layered framework to support interoperability of smart cards providing identification, authentication, and (digital) signature services.
+The standard is split into six parts:
+
+ISO/IEC 24727-1:2014 Part 1: Architecture
+ISO/IEC 24727-2:2008 Part 2: Generic card interface
+ISO/IEC 24727-3:2008 Part 3: Application interface
+ISO/IEC 24727-4:2008 Part 4: Application programming interface (API) administration
+ISO/IEC 24727-5:2011 Part 5: Testing procedures
+ISO/IEC 24727-6:2010 Part 6: Registration authority procedures for the authentication protocols for interoperability
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ISO/IEC 24727-1:2014 Identification cards -- Integrated circuit card programming interfaces -- Part 1: Architecture

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_24744-0.md

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+---
+title: "ISO/IEC 24744"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_24744"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:27.341916+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ISO/IEC 24744 Software Engineering — Metamodel for Development Methodologies is  an ISO/IEC standard for software engineering metamodelling for development methodologies. It defines a metamodel from which development methodologies (software, but not only) can be instantiated.
+In other words, ISO/IEC 24744 provides an agreed-upon set of words (a vocabulary), plus their corresponding meanings (their semantics), that can be used to describe methodologies used to develop software, hardware and other similar products.
+From a technical viewpoint, ISO/IEC 24744 is based on the principles of method engineering and departs from the strict modelling paradigm sponsored by the Object Management Group, using instead an extension of the object-oriented approach that incorporates powertype patterns and clabjects.
+
+
+== External links ==
+ISO/IEC 24744 page in ISO's catalogue

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_4909-0.md

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+---
+title: "ISO/IEC 4909"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_4909"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:22.467938+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ISO/IEC 4909 is a 2006 international standard produced by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for Identification cards — Financial transaction cards — Magnetic stripe data content for track 3. It was reviewed in 2018. The original ISO 4909 standard appeared in 1987. It is one of a number of international bank card standards. The standard is used for credit cards.
+The standard has been adopted in many countries, including (for example)
+Denmark,
+Germany,
+India,
+Netherlands,
+New Zealand,
+Norway,
+United Kingdom,
+etc.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_5218-0.md

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+---
+title: "ISO/IEC 5218"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_5218"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:23.728827+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ISO/IEC 5218 Information technology — Codes for the representation of human sexes is an international standard that defines a representation of human sexes through a language-neutral single-digit code. It can be used in information systems such as database applications.
+The four codes specified in ISO/IEC 5218 are:
+
+0 = Not known;
+1 = Male;
+2 = Female;
+9 = Not applicable.
+The standard specifies that its use may be referred to by the designator "SEX".
+The standard explicitly states that no significance is to be placed on the encoding of male as 1 and female as 2; the encoding merely reflects existing practice in the countries that initiated this standard. The standard also explains that it "meets the requirements of most applications that need to code human sexes. It does not provide codes for sexes that may be required in specific medical and scientific applications or in applications that need to code sex information other than for human beings." Since its 2022 revision, the standard also states that its scope does not cover human gender identities and therefore does not provide codes for those.
+ISO/IEC 5218 was created by ISO's Data Management and Interchange Technical Committee, proposed in November 1976, and updated in June 2022.  The standard is currently maintained by 
+the ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee (ISO/IEC JTC 1) subcommittee on Data management and interchange (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 32).
+
+This standard is used in several national identification numbers. For example, the first digit of the French INSEE number and the first digit of the Republic of China National Identification Card (Chinese: 中華民國國民身分證) are based on ISO/IEC 5218 values.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_17800-0.md

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+---
+title: "ISO 17800"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_17800"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:21.268663+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ISO 17800 is an international standard for the Facility Smart Grid Information Model (FSGIM), which is currently under development. ISO 17800 is one of the International Organization for Standardization's group of standards for building environment design, and is the responsibility of ISO Technical Committee 205 (TC205).
+
+
+== Standard documents ==
+The first edition of ISO 17800 is detailed in the ISO 17800 standard document which was published in December 2017.
+
+According to ISO, the scope of the standard is defined as:ISO 17800:2017 provides the basis for common information exchange between control systems and end use devices found in single - and multi-family homes, commercial and institutional buildings, and industrial facilities that is independent of the communication protocol in use. It provides a common basis for electrical energy consumers to describe, manage and communicate about electrical energy consumption and forecasts.ISO 17800:2017 defines a comprehensive set of data objects and actions that support a wide range of energy management applications and electrical service provider interactions including:a) on-site generation,b) demand response,c) electrical storage,d) peak demand management,e) forward power usage estimation,f) load shedding capability estimation,g) end load monitoring (sub metering),h) power quality of service monitoring,i) utilization of historical energy consumption data, andj) direct load control.In addition to the printed text, the standard also contains a UML (Unified Modeling Language) model of all of the concepts in the standard.
+
+
+== See also ==
+ISO 15118
+IEC 61850
+IEC 61851
+IEC 63110
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impinging_mixer-0.md

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+---
+title: "Impinging mixer"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impinging_mixer"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:49:57.643401+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Impinging mixers combine and disperse resins within each other, and are often used in reaction injection molding (RIM).  Mixing occurs as two high velocity streams collide in a mixing chamber.  High velocity results in a turbulent rather than a laminar flow.
+Impingement mixing is most effective when it occurs at the center of the mixing chamber.
+ Thermosetting plastics cure by a chemical reaction between two resins.  The resins must be mixed immediately before they are injected into a mold.  The mixing can be done by impingement mixing, where two streams to collide at high velocity in a mixing chamber.  As soon as the mixing chamber is full, a piston immediately pushes the mixed resin into the mold, leaving very little mixed resin curing outside the mold.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_facility-0.md

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+---
+title: "Impulse facility"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_facility"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:49:58.838414+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An impulse facility is a testing facility that relies on rapid release of stored energy to generate a short period of high enthalpy test conditions for testing of aerodynamic flow, aerodynamic heating and atmospheric reentry, combustion, chemical kinetics, ballistics, and other effects.  The rapid release of energy can result in very high instantaneous energy release rates even though the total energy released is modest. The use of an impulse facility can allow testing of violently energetic phenomena generating temperatures and pressures that no known materials could withstand in steady state.  This effect also produces short test times, however, with some types of tests in these facilities lasting less than 100 microseconds.  Impulse facilities are a special case of blow down facilities where an energy storage mechanism is charged over a period of time and then released to initiate a test and must be charged again before the next test.  This contrasts with continuous facilities such as wind tunnels that may run continuously.  Examples of impulse facilities are the shock tube, the shock tunnel, the expansion tube, the expansion tunnel, and the Ludwieg tube.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InHour-0.md

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+---
+title: "InHour"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InHour"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:02.385647+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+InHour is a unit of reactivity of a nuclear reactor.  It stands for the inverse of an hour.  It is equal to the inverse of the period in hours.  One InHour is the amount of reactivity needed to increase the reaction from critical to where the power will increase by a factor of e in one hour.
+The unit is abbreviated  ih or inhr, and is usually measured with a reactimeter.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Per cent mille
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentation_size_effect-0.md

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+---
+title: "Indentation size effect"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentation_size_effect"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:00.044713+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The indentation size effect (ISE) is the observation that hardness tends to increase as the indent size decreases at small scales. When an indent (any small mark, but usually made with a special tool) is created during material testing, the hardness of the material is not constant. At the small scale, materials will actually be harder than at the macro-scale. For the conventional indentation size effect, the smaller the indentation, the larger the difference in hardness. The effect has been seen through nanoindentation and microindentation measurements at varying depths. Dislocations increase material hardness by increasing flow stress through dislocation blocking mechanisms.  Materials contain statistically stored dislocations (SSD) which are created by homogeneous strain and are dependent upon the material and processing conditions. Geometrically necessary dislocations (GND) on the other hand are formed, in addition to the dislocations statistically present, to maintain continuity within the material. 
+These additional geometrically necessary dislocations (GND) further increase the flow stress in the material and therefore the measured hardness. Theory suggests that plastic flow is impacted by both strain and the size of the strain gradient experienced in the material. Smaller indents have higher strain gradients relative to the size of the plastic zone and therefore have a higher measured hardness in some materials.
+
+For practical purposes this effect means that hardness in the low micro and nano regimes cannot be directly compared if measured using different loads. However, the benefit of this effect is that it can be used to measure the effects of strain gradients on plasticity. Several new plasticity models have been developed using data from indentation size effect studies, which can be applied to high strain gradient situations such as thin films.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Micro_Process_Engineering-0.md

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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Micro_Process_Engineering"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:37:37.923601+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:03.668303+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electronics,_Information_and_Communication_Engineers-0.md

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+---
+title: "Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electronics,_Information_and_Communication_Engineers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:04.836947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The IEICE - Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers (Japanese: 電子情報通信学会) is a Japanese institute specializing in the areas of electronic, information and communication engineering and associated fields. Its headquarters are located in Tokyo, Japan. It is a membership organization with the purpose of advancing the field of electronics, information and communications and support activities of its members.
+
+
+== History ==
+The earliest predecessor to the organization was formed in May 1911 as the Second Study Group of the Second Department of the Japanese Ministry of Communications Electric Laboratory. In March 1914 the Second Study Group was renamed the Study Group on Telegraph and Telephone.
+As the adoption of the telegraph and telephone quickly mounted, there was increased demand for research and development of these technologies, which prompted the need to create a dedicated institute for engineers working in this field. Thus the Institute of Telegraph and Telephone Engineers of Japan was established in May 1917. Soon after its formation the institute began to publish journals and host paper presentations showcasing the latest developments in the field.
+As the institute's scope of research broadened to accommodate new technical developments, it was rebranded as the Institute of Electrical Communication Engineers of Japan in January 1937, and then once again as the Institute of Electronics and Communication Engineers of Japan in May 1967. Finally, in January 1987, the institute renamed itself to the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers to recognize the increasing research being conducted in computer engineering and information technology.
+
+
+== Organization ==
+The institution is organized into five societies:
+
+electronics society
+communications society
+information and system society
+engineering sciences society
+human communication engineering society
+Each society has its own president and technical committees. Volunteers helped run various activities
+within the society, such as publications and conferences.
+
+
+== Membership ==
+The institute admits people to two categories of membership: member and fellow. Most of its members are based in Japan.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website (English page)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_1103-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Intel 1103"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_1103"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:06.052935+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Intel 1103 is a dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) integrated circuit (IC) developed and fabricated by Intel. Introduced in October 1970, the 1103 was the first commercially available DRAM IC; and due to its small physical size and low price relative to magnetic-core memory, it replaced the latter in many applications.  When it was introduced in 1970, initial production yields were poor, and it was not until the fifth stepping of the production masks that it became available in large quantities during 1971.  Intel shipped the 250,000th 1103 RAM chip in June 1974.
+
+
+== Development ==
+In 1969 William Regitz and his colleagues at Honeywell invented a three-transistor dynamic memory cell and began to canvass the semiconductor industry for a producer.  The recently founded Intel Corporation responded and developed two very similar 1024-bit chips, the 1102 and 1103, under the lead of Joel Karp, working closely with William Regitz.  Ultimately only the 1103 went into production.
+Microsystems International became the first second source for the 1103 in 1971. Later National Semiconductor, Signetics, and Synertek manufactured the 1103 as well.
+
+
+== Technical details ==
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Acoustics,_Speech,_and_Signal_Processing-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Acoustics,_Speech,_and_Signal_Processing"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:07.253988+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+ICASSP, the International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, is an annual flagship conference organized by IEEE Signal Processing Society.  Ei Compendex has indexed all papers included in its proceedings.
+The first ICASSP was held in 1976 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, based on the success of a conference in Massachusetts four years earlier that had focused specifically on speech signals.
+As ranked by Google Scholar's h-index metric in 2016, ICASSP has the highest h-index of any conference in the Signal Processing field. The Brazilian ministry of education gave the conference an 'A1' rating based on its h-index.
+
+
+== Conference list ==
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Computer-Aided_Design-0.md

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+---
+title: "International Conference on Computer-Aided Design"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Computer-Aided_Design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:08.409973+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The International Conference on Computer-Aided Design (ICCAD) is a yearly conference about electronic design automation. From the start in 1982 until 2014 the conference was held in San Jose, California. It is sponsored by the IEEE Circuits and Systems Society, Computer-Aided Design Technical Committee (CANDE), the IEEE Council on Electronic Design Automation (CEDA), and SIGDA, and in cooperation with the IEEE Electron Devices Society and the IEEE Solid State Circuits Society.
+Unlike the Design Automation Conference, Design Automation and Test in Europe (DATE), and Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference (ASP-DAC), ICCAD is primarily a technical conference, with only a small trade show component.
+
+
+== ICCAD Student Scholar Program ==
+The ICCAD Scholar Program assists students who lack other support opportunities to attend ICCAD conferences to participate in activities such as:
+
+Presenting a paper
+CADathlon
+IC/CAD contest
+SRC
+Joining the job fair
+
+
+== ICCAD's CAD Contest ==
+Since 2012, the CAD Contest at ICCAD has been research and development competition, focusing on advanced, real-world problems in the field of Electronic Design Automation (EDA).
+
+
+== See also ==
+electronic design automation
+EDA Software Category
+Design Automation Conference
+Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference
+Design Automation and Test in Europe
+Symposia on VLSI Technology and Circuits
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Main web page for the ICCAD conference

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Microreaction_Technology-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+---
+title: "International Conference on Microreaction Technology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Microreaction_Technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:09.547525+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The International Conference on Microreaction Technology (IMRET) is a scientific conference series
+in the field of micro process engineering and the science of microreactors.
+
+
+== Chronology ==
+IMRET 1,  Frankfurt, Germany, February 1997
+IMRET 2,  New Orleans, United States, March 1998
+IMRET 3, Frankfurt, Germany, April 1999
+IMRET 4, Atlanta, United States, March 2000
+IMRET 5,  Strasbourg, France, May 2001
+IMRET 6, New Orleans, United States, March 2002
+IMRET 7,  Lausanne, Switzerland, September 2003
+IMRET 8,  Atlanta, United States, April 2005
+IMRET 9, Potsdam, Germany, September 2006
+IMRET 10,  New Orleans, United States, April 2008
+IMRET 11,  Kyoto, Japan, March 2010
+IMRET 12,  Lyon, France, February 2012
+IMRET 13,  Budapest, Hungary, June 2014
+IMRET 14,  Beijing, China, September 2016
+IMRET 15,  Karlsruhe, Germany, October 2018
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Web_Services-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "International Conference on Web Services"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Web_Services"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:10.733893+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The International Conference on Web Services (ICWS) denotes an international forum for researchers and industry practitioners focused on Web services. Since 2018 there are two ICWS events, one is sponsored by Services Society and Springer, and the other is sponsored by the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE ICWS). The IEEE ICWS event has an 'A' rating in the Conference Portal - Core and an 'A' rating in the Excellence in Research for Australia.
+
+
+== Areas of focus ==
+ICWS features research papers with a wide range of topics, focusing on various aspects of IT services. Some of the topics include Web services specifications and enhancements, Web services discovery and integration, Web services security, Web services standards and formalizations, Web services modeling, Web services-oriented software engineering, Web services-oriented software testing, Web services-based applications and solutions, Web services realizations,  semantics in Web services, and all aspects of Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) infrastructure.
+
+
+== History ==
+The International Conference on Web Services was founded by Dr. Liang-Jie Zhang in June 2003, Las Vegas, USA. Meanwhile, the first ICWS-Europe 2003 (ICWS-Europe'03), founded by Dr. Liang-Jie Zhang with Prof. Mario Jeckle, was held in Germany in October 2003. In 2004, ICWS-Europe was changed to the European Conference on Web Services (ECOWS), held in Erfurt, Germany. In 2012, ECOWS was formally merged into ICWS. Since then, the entire Services Computing community combined the efforts and focused on one prime international forum for web-based services: ICWS.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+International Conference on Web Services
+IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Services Computing

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Conservation_Code-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "International Energy Conservation Code"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Conservation_Code"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:11.902560+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) is a building code created by the International Code Council in 2000. It is a model code adopted by many states and municipal governments in the United States for the establishment of minimum design and construction requirements for energy efficiency. The code is updated every 3 years, to provide an ongoing standard of best practices for energy efficiency.
+In addition to overall building standards the code defines the Climate Zones used in building, shown in this picture.  These should not be confused with the USDA plant Hardiness zone.
+
+
+== See also ==
+EnergySmart Home Scale
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Building Energy Codes Program by the US Department of Energy
+International Code Council

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Symposium_on_Physical_Design-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "International Symposium on Physical Design"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Symposium_on_Physical_Design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:13.083471+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The International Symposium on Physical Design (ISPD) is a yearly conference on the topic of electronic design automation, concentrating on algorithms for the physical design of integrated circuits.  It is typically held in March or April of each year. Locations used to be cities in the western United States or in Texas. ISPD 2024 was the first symposium outside of the U.S., it took place in Taipei, Taiwan. The 2026 symposium will be located in Bonn, Germany.  
+It is sponsored by the SIGDA of the Association for Computing Machinery and the IEEE Council on Electronic Design Automation (CEDA).
+ISPD is purely a technical conference with no associated trade show.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Design Automation Conference
+International Conference on Computer-Aided Design
+Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference
+Design Automation and Test in Europe
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Main web page for the ISPD conference

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperation-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+---
+title: "Interoperation"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperation"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:14.246296+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In engineering, interoperation is the setup of ad hoc components and methods to make two or more systems work together as a combined system with some partial functionality during a certain time, possibly requiring human supervision to perform necessary adjustments and corrections.
+This contrasts to interoperability, which theoretically permits any number of systems compliant to a given standard to work together a long time smoothly and unattended as a combined system with the full functionality by the standard.
+Another definition of interoperation: "services effectively combining multiple resources and domains...; requires interoperability".
+
+
+== Usage ==
+Interoperation is usually performed when the systems having to be combined were designed before standardization (for example legacy systems), or when standard compliance is too expensive, too difficult, or immature.
+Interoperation may use following mechanisms, components and methods:
+
+Connectors
+Adapters
+Converters
+Simulators
+Bridges
+In the area of data processing, interoperation may also use following components and methods:
+
+Handlers
+Plug-ins
+Translators
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Earthquake_Engineering_Association-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Iranian Earthquake Engineering Association"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Earthquake_Engineering_Association"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:15.448839+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Iranian Earthquake Engineering Association (IEEA) is an organization established in 1993 under the auspices of the Iranian Scientific Associations commissions. It seeks to promote, expand, and improve Iranian research, training, and education in the fields of earthquake engineering and seismology. The IEEA's membership comprises more than 900 researchers, practicing professionals, educators, government officials, and building code regulators. The IEEA's main activity has concentrated on the training of engineers in the retrofitting of structures, publishing the newsletter, and giving lectures.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of earthquakes in Iran
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+IEEA website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_founder-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Iron founder"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_founder"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:16.621014+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An iron founder (also iron-founder or ironfounder) in its more general sense is a worker in molten ferrous metal, generally working within an iron foundry. However, the term 'iron founder' is usually reserved for the owner or manager of an iron foundry, a person also known in Victorian England as a 'master'. Workers in a foundry are generically described as 'foundrymen'; however, the various craftsmen working in foundries, such as moulders and pattern makers, are often referred to by their specific trades. 
+Historically the appellation "founder" was given to the supervisor of a blast furnace, and persons who made castings in iron or other heavy metal. The term is also often applied to the company or works in which an iron foundry operates.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Foundry
+Casting (metalworking)
+Bellfounding
+Coremaking
+Foundry sand testing
+Smelting
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_powder-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+---
+title: "Iron powder"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_powder"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:17.776050+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Iron powder has several uses; for example production of magnetic alloys and certain types of steels.
+Iron powder is formed as a whole from several other iron particles. The particle sizes vary anywhere from 20-200 μm. The iron properties differ depending on the production method and history of a specific iron powder. There are three types of iron powder classifications: reduced iron powder, atomized powder, and electrolytic iron powder. Each type is used in various applications depending on their properties. There is very little difference in the visual appearances of reduced iron powder and atomized iron powder.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+
+
+=== Automobiles ===
+Most iron powders are used for automobile parts. 
+
+
+==== Engine parts ====
+Cam shaft pulley
+Cam shaft sprocket
+Crank shaft pulley
+Crank shaft sprocket
+Cap crank bearing
+Valve guide
+Valve seat
+Rocker arm chip
+Oil pump inner rotor
+Oil pump outer rotor
+
+
+==== Steering parts, suspension, and brake parts ====
+Power steering rotor cam ring
+Pressure plate
+Rack guide
+Shock absorber
+Ball joint
+ABS sensor
+
+
+==== Seats and door parts ====
+Seat lifter cam set
+Door mirror plate clutch
+Striker
+Slider
+
+
+==== Transmission parts ====
+M/T	Synchronizer hub
+A/T	Hub clutch
+Synchronizer ring
+Retaining plate
+Synchronizer key
+Pressure plate
+Shift fork
+Turbine hub
+Weight governor
+Cam stater T. C.
+Outer race
+
+
+=== Other ===
+Iron powder is also used for the following:
+
+Bearings and filter parts
+Machine parts
+Hand Warmers
+High strength/wear-resistant parts
+Magnetic materials
+Friction parts (mainly automobile parts)
+As a metal energy carrier
+Wet cycle: storage of energy and generation of hydrogen using iron powders
+Dry cycle: storage of energy, production of heat and electricity using iron powders
+Oxygen scavengers – can be in small pouches separate from food or directly added to food, in which case it also serves as food fortification
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Metal powder
+Thermite
+ Technology portal
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Association_of_Engineers-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Islamic Association of Engineers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Association_of_Engineers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:20.097014+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Islamic Association of Engineers (Persian: انجمن اسلامی مهندسین, romanized: anǰoman-e eslāmī-ye mohandesīn) is a civic and professional association in Iran founded in 1957.
+The organization is a platform for Islamic modernist activists and a forum for debating key issues among them. It holds regular meetings, lectures and research and turns them into books.
+Mehdi Bazargan and Ezzatollah Sahabi were among its founders. Alongside Islamic Association of Students, the organization was active against outreach of Marxist ideology before Iranian Revolution and was one of the professional bodies that served as a platform for religious activism, playing an important role in shaping the Islamic ideology of the revolution. Ali Shariati was among occasional lecturers at the organization. A number of leading members in the association held government portfolios during Interim Government of Iran.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_Receiver_Design-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+---
+title: "Iterative Receiver Design"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_Receiver_Design"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:29.729631+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Iterative Receiver Design is a 2007 engineering book by Henk Wymeersch published  by Cambridge University Press. The book provides a framework for developing iterative algorithms for digital receivers, exploiting the power of factor graphs.
+
+
+== Chapters ==
+Introduction
+Digital communication
+Estimation theory and Monte Carlo techniques
+Factor graphs and the Sum-Product algorithm
+Statistical inference using factor graphs
+State-space models
+Factor graphs in digital communication
+Decoding
+Demapping
+Equalization: general formulation
+Equalization: single-user single-antenna communication
+Equalization: multi-antenna communication
+Equalization: multi-user communication
+Synchronization and channel estimation
+Appendices
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-factor_(electrical_engineering)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+---
+title: "K-factor (electrical engineering)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-factor_(electrical_engineering)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:30.911629+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In electrical engineering, the K-factor of a power transformer is a measure of how well it can handle harmonic distortion. Transformers which are designed to handle harmonic distortion are referred to as K-rated transformers.
+
+
+== Harmonics ==
+
+In an alternating current power system, electrical energy is ideally transmitted as a pure sine wave, typically at a fundamental frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz. However, switching can lead to distortion in the power system, resulting in a non-sinusoidal waveform. This deviation from a pure sinusoidal waveform is measured using harmonics. The nth harmonic is a waveform at an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency. For example, a wave transmitted with a fundamental frequency of 60 Hz would have its 2nd harmonic at 120 Hz, its 3rd harmonic at 180 Hz, its 4th harmonic at 240 Hz, and so on. The waveform is considered to be a sum of all harmonic components. A K-rated power transformer is one that is designed to withstand this harmonic distortion. The K-factor is a measure of how well it mitigates distortion.
+
+
+== Calculation ==
+The following formula is used to calculate the K-factor of a transformer:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        K
+        =
+        
+          ∑
+          
+            h
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            ∞
+          
+        
+        
+          I
+          
+            h
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        
+          h
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle K=\sum _{h=1}^{\infty }I_{h}^{2}h^{2}}
+  
+
+Where:
+
+K is the K-factor
+h is the harmonic order
+Ih is the per-unit of rated rms load current at the hth harmonic order
+
+
+== Typical Values ==
+The following table lists typical K-factors used depending on the harmonics produced by the loads:
+
+Transformers with a larger K-factor are more expensive.
+
+
+== See also ==
+K-factor
+Harmonics (electrical power)
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-factor_(fire_protection)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+---
+title: "K-factor (fire protection)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-factor_(fire_protection)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:32.123622+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In fire protection engineering, the K-factor formula is used to calculate the volumetric flow rate from a nozzle. Spray nozzles can for example be fire sprinklers or water mist nozzles, hose reel nozzles, water monitors and deluge fire system nozzles.
+
+
+== Calculation ==
+K-factors are usually calculated in metric units internationally.
+
+
+=== Metric units ===
+Using metric units, the volumetric flow rate of a nozzle is given by 
+  
+    
+      
+        q
+        =
+        K
+        
+          
+            p
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle q=K{\sqrt {p}}}
+  
+, where q is the flow rate in litres per minute ( l/min ), p is the pressure at the nozzle in bar and K is the K-factor is given in units of 
+  
+    
+      
+        (
+        l
+        
+          /
+        
+        m
+        i
+        n
+        )
+        
+          /
+        
+        
+          
+            bar
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle (l/min)/{\sqrt {\text{bar}}}}
+  
+.
+
+
+=== US customary units ===
+K-Factors have also previously been calculated and published using the United States customary units of pound per square inch (psi) and gallon per minute (gpm). Within the United States, US measurements are still often used instead of metric.
+
+
+=== Unit confusion ===
+Care should be exercised not to intermix K-factors from metric and Imperial/US units, as the resulting factors are not equivalent or interchangeable. In case of mix-ups, results can be catastrophic.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamov_Ka-90-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Kamov Ka-90"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamov_Ka-90"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:33.307085+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Kamov Ka-90 is a projected high-speed helicopter built by Kamov, a model of which was displayed at the HeliRussia 2008 trade show in April 2008. The concept is a hybrid design, flying like a helicopter for takeoff and landing and an aeroplane in cruise flight. The company's general designer Sergei Mikheyev said that the project was started in 1985. Although not developed at that time, it was under consideration in 2008.
+In December 2017, Oleg Zheltov, the head of the Kamov Design Bureau confirmed that the work on the Ka-90 is underway and that the current stage of development includes research on design models and in wind tunnels.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampsax-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Kampsax"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampsax"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:34.449733+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kampsax A/S was a Danish engineering firm. Kampsax was established November 1, 1917 by Per Kampmann, Otto Kierulff and Jørgen Saxild. In 2002 it was bought by COWI A/S. Kampsax was world renowned for geographic information systems, mapping and road construction.
+
+
+== See more ==
+Veresk Bridge
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauri-butanol_value-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Kauri-butanol value"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauri-butanol_value"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:35.607681+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The kauri-butanol value ("Kb value") is an international, standardized measure of solvent power for a hydrocarbon solvent, and is governed by an ASTM standardized test, ASTM D1133. The result of this test is a scaleless index, usually referred to as the "Kb value". A higher Kb value means the solvent is more aggressive or active in the ability to dissolve certain materials. Mild solvents have low scores in the tens and twenties; powerful solvents like chlorinated solvents and naphthenic aromatic solvents (i.e. "High Sol 10", "High Sol 15") have ratings that are in the low hundreds. For example the  KB values for halogenated solvents are; 129 for 1-Bromopropane, 136 for dichloromethane, 90 for tetrachloroethylene and 64 for parachlorobenzotrifluoride. KB values for non-halogenated solvents vary more, aliphatic hydrocarbon solvents have KB values in the 30s meanwhile toluene has a KB value of 105.
+In terms of the test itself, the kauri-butanol value (Kb) of a chemical shows the maximum amount of the hydrocarbon that can be added to a solution of kauri resin (a thick, gum-like material) in butanol (butyl alcohol) without causing cloudiness. Since kauri resin is readily soluble in butyl alcohol but not in most hydrocarbon solvents, the resin solution will tolerate only a certain amount of dilution. "Stronger" solvents such as benzene can be added in a greater amount (and thus have a higher Kb value) than "weaker" solvents like mineral spirits.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawabata_evaluation_system-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Kawabata evaluation system"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawabata_evaluation_system"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:36.793847+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Kawabata evaluation system (KES) is used to measure the mechanical properties of fabrics. The system was developed by a team led by Professor Kawabata in the department of polymer chemistry, Kyoto University Japan.
+KES is composed of four different machines on which a total of six tests can be performed:
+
+Tensile & shear tester – tensile, shear
+Pure bending tester – pure bending
+Compression tester – compression
+Surface tester – surface friction and roughness
+
+
+== External links ==
+Discussion of Kawabata System at NC State U website
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Kawabata, S.; Niwa, M. (1989). "Fabric Performance in Clothing Manufacture". Journal of the Textile Institute. 80 (1): 19–50. doi:10.1080/00405008908659184.
+Wu, Z.; C.K. Au; Matthew Yuen (February 2003). "Mechanical properties of fabric materials for draping simulation" (PDF). International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology. 15 (1): 65–88. doi:10.1108/09556220310461169.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kempe's_Engineers_Year-Book-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kempe's_Engineers_Year-Book"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:37:13.384266+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:38.045121+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knife_switch-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Knife switch"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knife_switch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:39.177938+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A knife switch is a type of switch used to control the flow of electricity in a circuit.  It is composed of a hinge which allows a metal lever, or knife, to be lifted from or inserted into a slot or jaw. The hinge and jaw are both fixed to an insulated base, and the knife has an insulated handle. Current flows through the switch when the knife is pushed into the jaw. Knife switches can take several forms, including single-throw, in which the knife engages with only a single slot, and double-throw, in which the knife hinge is placed between two slots and can engage with either one. Multiple knives may be attached to a single handle and can be used to activate more than one circuit simultaneously; this is a multi-pole switch.
+
+
+== Current uses ==
+Though used commonly in the past, knife switches are now rare, finding use largely in science demonstrations where the exposed mechanics of the switch make its function and state visually apparent. The knife switch is extremely simple in construction and use, but for any dangerous electrical supply its exposed metal parts present a great risk of electric shock, and the switch is subject to arcing when opened at higher voltages, which poses a further risk of shock or burns to the operator and  can cause fires or explosions under certain conditions.
+Open knife switches were supplanted by safety switches with current-carrying contacts inside metal enclosures which can only be opened by switching off the power. In modern applications, automatic switches (such as contactors and relays) and manual switches such as circuit breakers are used. These devices use snap-action mechanisms which open the switch contacts rapidly and feature arc chutes where the arcs caused by opening the switches are quenched. These devices also prevent injury due to accidental contact, as all of the current–carrying metal parts of the switch are surrounded by insulating guards.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+"Basic Electricity". Retrieved 2007-06-01.
+unknown writer (1981), The Electrical Distributor, General Electric literature

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuckle_boom_crane-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "Knuckle boom crane"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuckle_boom_crane"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:40.384637+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A knuckle boom crane, also knowns as an articulating boom crane, is a kind of standard crane whose boom articulates at a 'knuckle', letting it fold back like a finger. This provides a compact size for storage and manoeuvring. Other knuckle booms are typical in North American excavators, which usually have two articulations like an index finger. Most often seen are hydraulically-actuated knuckle booms.
+
+
+== Synopsis ==
+Knuckle boom cranes have become very common on offshore vessels for such purposes as fishing as less of the deck space is blocked by the crane. Disadvantages of this crane type are the higher power demand and increased maintenance requirement due to the increased number of moving parts.
+Knuckle boom crane arms are much lighter than boom truck cranes, and they are designed to allow for more payloads to be carried on the back of the truck that it is mounted on. The majority of them are mounted behind the cab and leave the entire bed of the truck empty.
+The cranes come with different types of control systems, such as: stand up, control from the ground, seat control, or radio remote control. The radio remote systems now can start the crane as well as run the crane. Currently, they come equipped with a computer readout system that immediately gives readouts from the system if the crane is overloaded or not.
+The technical standard in the US is known as ASME B30.22.
+
+
+== Notable manufacturers ==
+Hiab
+Palfinger
+Fassi Crane
+Atlas Cranes GMBH
+Komatsu Limited
+
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Loader Crane
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Link to image

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LandXML-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "LandXML"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LandXML"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:41.578588+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+LandXML is an XML file format for interchange of civil engineering design and survey measurement data. It is the most common format for exchanging data on survey points, terrain and grading surfaces, road or rail geometries and pipe networks in infrastructure projects.
+
+
+== History ==
+LandXML was launched in the year 2000 to facilitate vendor-neutral interchange and long-term storage of civil engineering and survey data. It was based on an earlier ASCII format called E-ASE by AASHTO.
+The format was adopted by national surveys, research institutes and planning software vendors.
+The last official release, version 1.2 was published in 2008. A working draft for version 2.0 was published in 2014, but a final version has not been released as of 2025.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_printing_of_single_nanoparticles-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Laser printing of single nanoparticles"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_printing_of_single_nanoparticles"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:42.706717+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The laser printing of single nanoparticles is a method of applying optical forces that direct single nanoparticles to targeted substrate regions. Van der Waals interactions cause attachment of the single nanoparticles to the substrate areas. This has been accomplished with gold and silicon nanoparticles.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Nedev, Spas N.; Urban, Alexander S.; Lutich, Andrey A.; Jäckel, Frank; Feldmann, Jochen (2012). "Parallel Laser Printing of Nanoparticles". Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics 2012. p. QW3H.1. doi:10.1364/QELS.2012.QW3H.1. ISBN 978-1-55752-943-5.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laylight-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Laylight"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laylight"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:43.877268+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+As an element of architecture, a laylight is a glazed panel usually set flush with the ceiling for the purpose of admitting natural or artificial light. Laylights typically utilize stained glass or lenses in their glazing. A laylight differs from a glazed (or closed) skylight in that a skylight functions as a roof window or aperture, while a laylight is flush with the ceiling of an interior space. When paired with a roof lantern or skylight on a sloped roof, a laylight functions as an interior light diffuser. Before the advent of electric lighting, laylights allowed transmission of light between floors in larger buildings, and were not always paired with skylights.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Daylighting
+Pavement light
+Prism lighting
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehr_(glassmaking)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Lehr (glassmaking)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehr_(glassmaking)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:45.097819+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the manufacture of float glass, a lehr oven is a long kiln with an end-to-end temperature gradient, which is used for annealing newly made glass objects that are transported through the temperature gradient either on rollers or on a conveyor belt. The annealing renders glass into a stronger material with fewer internal stresses, and with a lower probability of breaking.
+The rapid cooling of molten glass results in an uneven temperature distribution throughout the material. This temperature differential results in mechanical stresses throughout the molten glass, which may be sufficient to cause the material to crack as it cools to ambient temperature or to make it susceptible to cracking during later use, either spontaneously or due to mechanical or thermal shock. To prevent such material weaknesses, objects made from molten glass are annealed by gradual cooling in a lehr oven, from the annealing point, a temperature just below the solidification temperature of the glass. In the process of annealing glass, the temperature is first equalised by holding or "soaking" the glass at the annealing point for a period of time that depends on the maximum thickness of the glass. The glass is then slowly cooled at a rate that depends upon the maximum thickness of the glass, ranging from tens of degrees Celsius per hour (for thin slabs of glass) to fractions of a degree Celsius per hour (for thick slabs of glass).
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licensed_engineering_technologist-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Licensed engineering technologist"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licensed_engineering_technologist"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:46.277467+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A licensed engineering technologist (LET) is a class of licensee within Professional Engineers Ontario.
+LET is a class of limited license authorized under the Professional Engineers Act of Ontario, which allows a holder to practice, and take responsible for the practice of engineering within a limited scope of work. A limited license may be provided in the case that a person has—through at least 13 years of specialised experience—become competent at a certain area of professional engineering. They may only practice within the scope of their license.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Engineering technologist
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limber_hole-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Limber hole"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limber_hole"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:47.418130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A limber hole is a drain hole through a frame or other structural member of a boat designed to prevent water from accumulating against one side of the frame, and allowing it to drain toward the bilge.
+Limber holes are common in the bilges of wooden boats.  The term may be extended to cover drain holes in floors. Limber holes are created in between bulkheads so that one compartment does not fill with water.  The limber holes allow water to drain into the lowest part of the bilge so that it can be pumped out by a single bilge pump (or more usually, one electric and one manual pump).
+The term is also commonly applied to the holes in mid-20th century submarine upperworks, which allow drainage from the superstructure.
+
+
+== References ==
+Chapelle, Howard I. (1994, p252).  Yacht Designing and Planning.  W.W. Norton.  ISBN 0-393-03756-8.
+Brewer, Ted (1994, p139). Understanding Boat Design (4th ed.). International Marine, a division of McGraw Hill.  ISBN 0-07-007694-4.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_switch-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Limit switch"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_switch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:48.614533+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In electrical engineering, a limit switch is a switch operated by the motion of a machine part or the presence of an object. A limit switch can be used for controlling machinery as part of a control system, as a safety interlock, or as a counter enumerating objects passing a point.
+
+
+== Uses ==
+Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments because of their ruggedness, ease of installation, and reliability of operation. They can determine the presence, passing, positioning, and end of travel of an object. They were first used to define the limit of travel of an object, hence the name "limit switch".
+Standardized limit switches are industrial control components manufactured with a variety of operator types, including lever, roller plunger, and whisker type. Limit switches may be directly mechanically operated by the motion of the operating lever. A reed switch may be used to indicate proximity of a magnet mounted on some moving part. Proximity switches operate by the disturbance of an electromagnetic field, by capacitance, or by sensing a magnetic field.
+Rarely, a final operating device such as a lamp or solenoid valve is directly controlled by the contacts of an industrial limit switch, but more typically the limit switch is wired through a control relay, a motor contactor control circuit, or as an input to a programmable logic controller. Fail-Safe Wiring: In safety-critical applications, such as end-of-travel stops for industrial actuators or CNC machines, limit switches are typically wired in a Normally Closed (NC) configuration. This creates a fail-safe architecture: if a wire breaks or a connector becomes unplugged, the circuit opens and the machine controller interprets the signal as the limit being reached, causing an immediate stop. Conversely, if a switch were wired Normally Open (NO), a broken wire would result in the signal never changing, potentially allowing the machine to drive through its physical hard stops and cause catastrophic mechanical failure.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+Miniature snap-action switches are components of devices like photocopiers, computer printers, convertible tops or microwave ovens to ensure internal components are in the correct position for operation and to prevent operation when access doors are opened. A set of adjustable limit switches installed on a garage door opener shut off the motor when the door has reached the fully raised or fully lowered position. A numerical control machine such as a lathe has limit switches to identify maximum limits for machine parts or to provide a known reference point for incremental motions. 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting_pressure_velocity-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Limiting pressure velocity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting_pressure_velocity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:49.823008+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Limiting pressure velocity is a tribological term relating to the maximum temperature and compression that an assembly with rubbing surfaces can bear without failing. Pressure-limiting valves are a type of pressure control valve. They safeguard the system against excessive system pressure or limit the operation pressure.
+Pre-load valves, also called sequence valves are a type of pressure control valve. They generate a largely constant pressure drop between the inlet and outlet on the valve. In the opposite direction, the flow can pass freely. In the normal position, the valve has minor leakage.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limits_and_fits-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+---
+title: "Limits and fits"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limits_and_fits"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:50.989031+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In mechanical engineering, limits and fits are a set of rules regarding the dimensions and tolerances of mating machined parts. Limits and Fits are given to a part's dimensions to gain the desired type of fit. This is seen most commonly in regulating shaft sizes with hole sizes.
+Limits and Fits are standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Tables are used to quickly calculate required tolerances for bolt holes, shafts, mating parts, and many similar scenarios.
+Units for limits and fits are typically specified in thousandths of an inch or hundredths of a millimeter.
+
+
+== Types of fit ==
+There are three main types of fit:
+
+Clearance Fit: a fit between mating parts with positive space in-between. Parts will freely move between each other.
+Transition Fit: a fit between mating parts between the clearance and interference fit. Parts fit together easily enough so that force is not required, but will still hold together on its own.
+Interference/Press Fit: a fit between mating parts with negative space in-between. The parts will need applied force to fit together and hold firmly together once assembled.
+These main three types of fit are umbrella categories for different sub-categories of fits. Sub-categories include sliding fit, running fit, push fit, wringing fit, force fit, tight fit, and shrink fit. Every different type of fit is used for a different type of interaction between mating parts.
+
+
+== See also ==
+[edit]
+
+Engineering fit
+Engineering tolerance
+Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
+Precision engineering
+Specification (technical standard)
+Tolerance analysis
+Tolerance coning
+Tolerance interval
+Verification and validation
+
+
+== References ==
+
+[edit]
+
+
+== External links ==
+[edit]
+
+http://mechanical-design-handbook.blogspot.com/2009/10/standards-of-limits-and-fits-for-mating.html

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lines_of_non-extension-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Lines of non-extension"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lines_of_non-extension"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:52.167690+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the field of biomechanics, the lines of non-extension are notional lines running across the human body along which body movement causes neither stretching or contraction. Discovered by Arthur Iberall in work beginning in the 1940s, as part of research into space suit design, they have been further developed by Dava Newman in the development of the Space Activity Suit.
+They were originally mapped by Iberall by drawing a series of circles, similar to Tissot indicatrices, over a portion of the body and then watching their deformations as the wearer walked around or performed various tasks. The circles deform into ellipses as the skin stretches over the moving musculature, and these deformations were recorded. After a huge number of such measurements the data is then examined to find all of the possible deformations of the circles, and more importantly, the non-moving points on them where the original circle and the deformed ellipse intersect (at four points per circle). By mapping these points over the entire body, a series of lines are produced.
+These lines may then be used to direct the placement of tension elements in a spacesuit to enable constant suit pressure regardless of the motion of the body.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load-loss_factor-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
+---
+title: "Load-loss factor"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load-loss_factor"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:54.651806+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Load-loss factor (also loss load factor,  LLF, or simply loss factor) is a dimensionless ratio between average and peak values of load loss (loss of electric power between the generator and the consumer in electricity distribution). Since the losses in the wires are proportional to the square of the current (and thus the square of the power), the LLF can be calculated by measuring the square of delivered power over a short interval of time (typically half an hour), calculating an average of these values over a long period (a year), and dividing by the square of the peak power exhibited during the same long period:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          L
+          L
+          F
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                ∑
+                
+                  i
+                  =
+                  1
+                
+                
+                  N
+                  I
+                
+              
+              
+                
+                  L
+                  o
+                  a
+                  d
+                
+                
+                  i
+                
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              N
+              I
+              ∗
+              
+                
+                  L
+                  o
+                  a
+                  d
+                
+                
+                  p
+                  e
+                  a
+                  k
+                
+                
+                  2
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {LLF}={\frac {\sum _{i=1}^{NI}{Load}_{i}^{2}}{NI*{Load}_{peak}^{2}}}}
+  
+, where
+
+  
+    
+      
+        N
+        I
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle NI}
+  
+ is the total number of short intervals (there are 8760 hours or 17,520 half-hours in a year);
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            L
+            o
+            a
+            d
+          
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {Load}_{i}}
+  
+ is the load experienced during the short interval 
+  
+    
+      
+        i
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i}
+  
+;
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            L
+            o
+            a
+            d
+          
+          
+            p
+            e
+            a
+            k
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {Load}_{peak}}
+  
+ is the peak load within the long interval (typically a year).
+The LLF value naturally depends on the load profile. For electricity utilities, numbers about 0.2-0.3 are typical (cf. 0.22 for Toronto Hydro, 0.33 for New Zealand). Multiple empirical formulae exist that relate the loss factor to the load factor (Dickert et al. in 2009 listed nine).
+Similarly, the ratio between the average and the peak current is called form coefficient k or peak responsibility factor k; its typical value is between 0.2 and 0.8 for distribution networks and between 0.8 and 0.95 for transmission networks. Coefficient k describes the losses as an additional load carried by the system, and is named loss equivalent load factor in Japan.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Line Loss Factor, a regulatory definition of the line loss in UK
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Wu, Anguan; Ni, Baoshan (7 June 2016). Line Loss Analysis and Calculation of Electric Power Systems. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-86709-9. OCLC 1062309002.
+Pabla, A. S. (2004). Electric Power Distribution. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 208–209. ISBN 978-0-07-048285-2. OCLC 54079002.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_pull-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "Load pull"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_pull"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:53.463479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Load-pull is the colloquial term applied to the process of systematically varying the impedance presented to a device under test (DUT), most often a transistor, to assess its performance and the associated conditions to deliver that performance in a network. While load-pull itself implies impedance variation at the load port, impedance can also be varied at any of the ports of the DUT, most often at the source.
+Load-pull is required when superposition is no longer applicable, which occurs under large-signal operating conditions that make linear approximations unusable. The term load-pull derives from classical oscillator characterization whereupon variation of the load impedance pulls the oscillation center frequency away from nominal. Source-pull is also used for noise characterization, which, although linear, requires multiple impedances to be presented at the source to enable simultaneous solution of an over-determined system that yields the four noise parameters.
+Load-pull is the most common method globally for RF and MW power amplifier (PA) design, transistor characterization, semiconductor process development, and ruggedness analysis. A central theme of load-pull is management of nonlinearity versus analysis of nonlinearity, the latter being the domain of advanced mathematics that often yields little physical insight to nonlinear phenomena and suffers from an inability to accurately render actual behavior embedded in a network with significant parasitic and distributed effects. With automated load-pull, it is possible to fully optimize and design a final stage for GSM applications in less than a day, thereby providing a dramatic reduction in design cycle-time while assuring the best possible performance trade-off has been achieved.
+While there are in theory no physical limits on the frequency of which load-pull can be performed, most load-pull systems are based on passive distributed networks using either the slab transmission line in its TEM mode or the rectangular waveguide in its TE01 mode. Lumped tuners can be made for HF and VHF frequencies, whereas active load-pull is ideal for on-wafer mm-wave environments, where substantial loss between the tuner and DUT reference-plane limits maximum VSWR.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Impedance matching
+Electronic test equipment
+Transistor tester
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+[1]
+[2]

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_performance-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Loop performance"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_performance"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:55.798114+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Loop performance in control engineering indicates the performance of control loops, such as a regulatory PID loop. Performance refers to the accuracy of a control system's ability to track (output) the desired signals to regulate the plant process variables in the most beneficial and optimised way, without delay or overshoot.
+
+
+== Importance ==
+Regulatory control loops are critical in automated manufacturing and utility industries like refining, paper and chemicals manufacturing, power generation, among others. They are used to control a particular parameter within a process. The parameter that is being controlled could be temperature, pressure, flow or level of some process. For example, temperature controllers are used in boilers which are used in production of gasoline.
+
+
+== Software ==
+There are many software applications that help in measuring and analysing the performance of control loops in industrial plants. Benchmarking the loop performance and identifying opportunities for improvement are key drivers for improving plant reliability, production throughput and safe operation.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lug_(hinge)-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+---
+title: "Lug (hinge)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lug_(hinge)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:56.960013+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lugs are the loops (or protuberances) that exist on both arms of a hinge, featuring a hole for the axis of the hinge.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luoyang_Glass-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Luoyang Glass"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luoyang_Glass"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:58.131383+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Luoyang Glass Company Limited or Luoyang Glass (SEHK: 1108, SSE: 600876) is a state-owned enterprise in Luoyang, Henan, China, which is involved with the production and sales of float sheet and flat glass and reprocessing of automobile glass.
+
+
+== History ==
+Luoyang Glass was established in 1994 by its parent company, China Luoyang Float Glass Group. Its H shares were listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange in 1994, while its A shares were listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange in 1995.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Luoyang Glass Company Limited
+China Luoyang Float Glass Group Company Limited

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_drawn_cylinder_sheet_glass-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+---
+title: "Machine drawn cylinder sheet glass"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_drawn_cylinder_sheet_glass"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:59.298744+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Machine drawn cylinder sheet was the first mechanical method for "drawing" window glass. Cylinders of glass 40 feet (12 m) high are drawn vertically from a circular tank. The glass is then annealed and cut into 7-to-10-foot (2.1 to 3.0 m) cylinders. These are cut lengthways, reheated, and flattened.
+This process was invented in the US in 1903.  This type of glass was manufactured in the early 20th century (it was manufactured in the United Kingdom by Pilkington from 1910 to 1933).
+Other historical methods for making window glass included broad sheet, blown plate, crown glass, polished plate and cylinder blown sheet. These methods of manufacture lasted at least until the end of the 19th century.  The early 20th century marks the move away from hand-blown to machine manufactured glass such as rolled plate, flat drawn sheet, single and twin ground polished plate and float glass.
+
+
+== Sources ==
+"Hand-blown glass: manufacturing process". London Crown Glass Company. Archived from the original on November 6, 2005. Retrieved December 30, 2005.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnussen_model-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,445 @@
+---
+title: "Magnussen model"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnussen_model"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:00.488521+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Magnussen model is a popular method for computing reaction rates as a function of both mean concentrations and turbulence levels (Magnussen and Hjertager). Originally developed for combustion, it can also be used for liquid reactions by tuning some of its parameters. The model consists of rates calculated by two primary means. An Arrhenius, or kinetic rate, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+          
+            K
+            _
+            
+              i
+              ′
+            
+            ,
+            k
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R_{K\_i',k}}
+  
+, for species 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          i
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i'}
+  
+ in reaction 
+  
+    
+      
+        k
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k}
+  
+, is governed by the local mean species concentrations and temperature in the following way:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          R
+          
+            K
+            _
+            
+              i
+              ′
+            
+            ,
+            k
+          
+        
+        =
+        −
+        
+          ν
+          
+            
+              i
+              ′
+            
+            ,
+            k
+          
+        
+        
+          M
+          
+            i
+          
+        
+        
+          A
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+        
+          T
+          
+            
+              β
+              
+                k
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        exp
+        ⁡
+        
+          
+            (
+            
+              −
+              
+                
+                  
+                    E
+                    
+                      k
+                    
+                  
+                  
+                    R
+                    T
+                  
+                
+              
+            
+            )
+          
+        
+        
+          ∏
+          
+            
+              j
+              ′
+            
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            [
+            
+              C
+              
+                
+                  j
+                  ′
+                
+              
+            
+            ]
+          
+          
+            
+              η
+              
+                
+                  j
+                  ′
+                
+                ,
+                k
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          K
+          
+            
+              i
+              ′
+            
+            ,
+            k
+          
+        
+        
+          M
+          
+            
+              i
+              ′
+            
+          
+        
+        
+          ∏
+          
+            
+              j
+              ′
+            
+            =
+            1
+          
+          
+            N
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            [
+            
+              C
+              
+                
+                  j
+                  ′
+                
+              
+            
+            ]
+          
+          
+            
+              η
+              
+                
+                  j
+                  ′
+                
+                ,
+                k
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle R_{K\_i',k}=-\nu _{i',k}M_{i}A_{k}T^{\beta _{k}}\exp {\left(-{\frac {E_{k}}{RT}}\right)}\prod _{j'=1}^{N}\left[C_{j'}\right]^{\eta _{j',k}}=K_{i',k}M_{i'}\prod _{j'=1}^{N}\left[C_{j'}\right]^{\eta _{j',k}}}
+  
+
+This expression describes the rate at which species 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          i
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i'}
+  
+ is consumed in reaction 
+  
+    
+      
+        k
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k}
+  
+. The constants 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          A
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A_{k}}
+  
+ and 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          E
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle E_{k}}
+  
+, the Arrhenius pre-exponential factor and activation energy,
+respectively, are adjusted for specific reactions, often as the result of experimental measurements. The stoichiometry for species 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          i
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i'}
+  
+ in reaction 
+  
+    
+      
+        k
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k}
+  
+ is represented by the factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ν
+          
+            
+              i
+              ′
+            
+            ,
+            k
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \nu _{i',k}}
+  
+, and is positive or negative, depending upon whether the species serves as a product or reactant. The molecular weight of the species 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          i
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle i'}
+  
+ appears as the factor 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          M
+          
+            
+              i
+              ′
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle M_{i'}}
+  
+. The temperature, 
+  
+    
+      
+        T
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle T}
+  
+, appears in the exponential term and also as a factor in the rate expression, with an optional exponent, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          β
+          
+            k
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \beta _{k}}
+  
+. Concentrations of other species, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          j
+          ′
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle j'}
+  
+, involved in the reaction, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          [
+          
+            C
+            
+              
+                j
+                ′
+              
+            
+          
+          ]
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \left[C_{j'}\right]}
+  
+, appear as factors with optional exponents associated with each. Other factors and terms not appearing in the equation, can be added to include effects such as the presence of non-reacting
+species in the rate equation. Such so-called third-body reactions are typical of the effect of a catalyst on a reaction, for example. Many of the factors are often collected into a single rate constant, 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          K
+          
+            
+              i
+              ′
+            
+            ,
+            k
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle K_{i',k}}
+  
+.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Magnussen, B. F., and B. H. Hjertager, “On Mathematical Mod-
+els of Turbulent Combustion with Special Emphasis on Soot For-
+mation and Combustion,” Proc. 16th Int. Symp. on Combustion,
+The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA (1976).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maintenance-free_operating_period-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Maintenance-free operating period"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maintenance-free_operating_period"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:01.682982+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Maintenance-free operating period (MFOP) is an alternative measure of performance to the mean time between failures (MTBF), defined as the time period during which a device will be able to perform each of its intended functions, requiring only a minimal degree of maintenance. It was originally proposed in 1996 by the United Kingdom's Ministry of Defence, with intended application to military aircraft.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Service life
+Time between overhauls
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus'_method-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Marcus' method"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus'_method"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:02.854241+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marcus's method is a structural analysis used in the design of reinforced concrete slabs. The method was developed by Henri Marcus and described in 1938 in Die Theorie elastischer Gewebe und ihre Anwendung auf die Berechnung biegsamer Platten. The method adapts the strip method and is based on an elastic analysis of torsionally restrained two-way rectangular slabs with a uniformly distributed load. Marcus introduced a correction factor to the existing Rankine Grashoff theory in order to account for torsional restraints at the corners.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marks'_Standard_Handbook_for_Mechanical_Engineers-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+---
+title: "Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marks'_Standard_Handbook_for_Mechanical_Engineers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:04.010033+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers is a comprehensive handbook for the field of mechanical engineering. Originally based on the even older German Hütte, it was first published in 1916 by Lionel Simeon Marks. In 2017, its 12th edition, published by McGraw-Hill, marked the 100th anniversary of the work. The handbook was translated into several languages.
+Lionel S. Marks was a professor of mechanical engineering at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1900s.
+
+
+== Topics ==
+The 11th edition consists of 20 sections:
+
+Mathematical Tables and Measuring Units
+Mathematics
+Mechanics of Solids and Fluids
+Heat
+Strength of Materials
+Materials of Engineering
+Fuels and Furnaces
+Machine Elements
+Power Generation
+Materials Handling
+Transportation
+Building Construction and Equipment
+Manufacturing Processes
+Fans, Pumps, and Compressors
+Electrical and Electronics Engineering
+Instruments and Controls
+Industrial Engineering
+The Regulatory Environment
+Refrigeration, Cryogenics, and Optics
+Emerging Technologies
+
+
+== Editions ==
+English editions:
+1st edition, 1916, edited by Lionel Simeon Marks, based on the German Hütte
+2nd edition, 1924, edited by Lionel Simeon Marks
+3rd edition, 1930, Editor-in-Chief Lionel S. Marks, total issue 103,500, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.
+1941, edited by Lionel Peabody Marks
+1951, edited by Lionel Peabody Marks and Alison Peabody Marks
+1967, edited by Theodore Baumeister III
+6th edition, 1958, edited by Eugene A. Avallone, Theodore Baumeister III
+7th edition, golden (50th) anniversary, 1976?, edited by Theodore Baumeister III
+8th edition, edited by Theodore Baumeister III, Eugene A. Avallone
+9th edition
+10th edition, 80th anniversary, 1997, edited by Eugene A. Avallone, Theodore Baumeister III,
+11th edition, 90th anniversary, 2007, edited by Eugene A. Avallone, Theodore Baumeister III, Ali M. Sadegh
+12th edition, 100th anniversary, 2017, edited by Ali M. Sadegh, William M. Worek, Eugene A. Avallone
+
+
+== See also ==
+Hütte
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Publisher's description

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-spring-damper_model-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,367 @@
+---
+title: "Mass-spring-damper model"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-spring-damper_model"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:06.337116+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The mass-spring-damper model consists of discrete mass nodes distributed throughout an object and interconnected via a network of springs and dampers. 
+This form of model is also well-suited for modelling objects with complex material behavior such as those with nonlinearity or viscoelasticity.
+As well as engineering simulation, these systems have applications in computer graphics and computer animation.
+
+
+== Derivation ==
+Deriving the equations of motion for this model is usually done by summing the forces on the mass (including any applied external forces 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          F
+          
+            external
+          
+        
+        )
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle F_{\text{external}})}
+  
+:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Σ
+        F
+        =
+        −
+        k
+        x
+        −
+        c
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          F
+          
+            external
+          
+        
+        =
+        m
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              ¨
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Sigma F=-kx-c{\dot {x}}+F_{\text{external}}=m{\ddot {x}}}
+  
+
+By rearranging this equation, one can obtain the standard form:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              ¨
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        2
+        ζ
+        
+          ω
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          ω
+          
+            n
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        x
+        =
+        u
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}+2\zeta \omega _{n}{\dot {x}}+\omega _{n}^{2}x=u}
+  
+ where 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ω
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              k
+              m
+            
+          
+        
+        ;
+        
+        ζ
+        =
+        
+          
+            c
+            
+              2
+              m
+              
+                ω
+                
+                  n
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+        ;
+        
+        u
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              F
+              
+                external
+              
+            
+            m
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \omega _{n}={\sqrt {\frac {k}{m}}};\quad \zeta ={\frac {c}{2m\omega _{n}}};\quad u={\frac {F_{\text{external}}}{m}}}
+  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ω
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \omega _{n}}
+  
+ is the undamped natural frequency and 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta }
+  
+ is the damping ratio. The homogeneous equation for the mass spring system is:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              ¨
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        2
+        ζ
+        
+          ω
+          
+            n
+          
+        
+        
+          
+            
+              x
+              ˙
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        
+          ω
+          
+            n
+          
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        x
+        =
+        0
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\ddot {x}}+2\zeta \omega _{n}{\dot {x}}+\omega _{n}^{2}x=0}
+  
+
+This has the solution:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        x
+        =
+        A
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            
+              ω
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+            t
+            
+              (
+              
+                ζ
+                +
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      ζ
+                      
+                        2
+                      
+                    
+                    −
+                    1
+                  
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+        +
+        B
+        
+          e
+          
+            −
+            
+              ω
+              
+                n
+              
+            
+            t
+            
+              (
+              
+                ζ
+                −
+                
+                  
+                    
+                      ζ
+                      
+                        2
+                      
+                    
+                    −
+                    1
+                  
+                
+              
+              )
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x=Ae^{-\omega _{n}t\left(\zeta +{\sqrt {\zeta ^{2}-1}}\right)}+Be^{-\omega _{n}t\left(\zeta -{\sqrt {\zeta ^{2}-1}}\right)}}
+  
+
+If 
+  
+    
+      
+        ζ
+        <
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta <1}
+  
+ then 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          ζ
+          
+            2
+          
+        
+        −
+        1
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \zeta ^{2}-1}
+  
+ is negative, meaning the square root will be imaginary and therefore the solution will have an oscillatory component.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Numerical methods
+Soft body dynamics#Spring/mass models
+Finite element analysis
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_transfer_coefficient-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+---
+title: "Mass transfer coefficient"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_transfer_coefficient"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:05.182792+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In engineering, the mass transfer coefficient is a diffusion rate constant that relates the mass transfer rate, mass transfer area, and concentration change as driving force:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          k
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                
+                  
+                    n
+                    ˙
+                  
+                
+              
+              
+                A
+              
+            
+            
+              A
+              Δ
+              
+                c
+                
+                  A
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k_{c}={\frac {{\dot {n}}_{A}}{A\Delta c_{A}}}}
+  
+
+Where:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          k
+          
+            c
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k_{c}}
+  
+ is the mass transfer coefficient [mol/(s·m2)/(mol/m3)], or m/s
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          
+            
+              
+                n
+                ˙
+              
+            
+          
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\dot {n}}_{A}}
+  
+ is the mass transfer rate [mol/s]
+
+  
+    
+      
+        A
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle A}
+  
+ is the effective mass transfer area [m2]
+
+  
+    
+      
+        Δ
+        
+          c
+          
+            A
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \Delta c_{A}}
+  
+ is the driving force concentration difference [mol/m3].
+This can be used to quantify the mass transfer between phases, immiscible and partially miscible fluid mixtures (or between a fluid and a porous solid). Quantifying mass transfer allows for design and manufacture of separation process equipment that can meet specified requirements, estimate what will happen in real life situations (chemical spill), etc.
+Mass transfer coefficients can be estimated from many different theoretical equations, correlations, and analogies that are functions of material properties, intensive properties and flow regime (laminar or turbulent flow).  Selection of the most applicable model is dependent on the materials and the system, or environment, being studied.
+
+
+== Mass transfer coefficient units ==
+(mol/s)/(m2·mol/m3) = m/s
+Note, the units will vary based upon which units the driving force is expressed in. The driving force shown here  as '
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          Δ
+          
+            c
+            
+              A
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\Delta c_{A}}}
+  
+' is expressed in units of moles per unit of volume, but in some cases the driving force is represented by other measures of concentration with different units. For example, the driving force may be partial pressures when dealing with mass transfer in a gas phase and thus use units of pressure.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Mass transfer
+Separation process
+Sieving coefficient
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_flow-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Material flow"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_flow"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:07.510609+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Material flow (or "materials flow") is the description of the transportation of raw materials, pre-fabricates, parts, components, integrated objects and final products as a flow of entities. The term applies mainly to advanced modeling of supply chain management and its use has been largely subsumed under this heading.
+As industrial material flow can easily become very complex, several different specialized simulation tools have been developed for complex systems. Typical tools include:
+
+AnyLogic
+AutoMod for logistics systems
+Plant Simulation for production system.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_engineering-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "Mathematical engineering"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:08.660032+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mathematical engineering is an interdisciplinary academic and professional field that combines mathematics, engineering, and computational science to model, analyze, and solve real-world problems in engineering, industry, finance, and technology. Mathematical engineers use advanced mathematical methods to develop algorithms, simulations, and predictive models for complex systems.
+Mathematical engineering is not as established as mathematical physics, so researchers focus on sub-fields like information theory, control theory, signal processing, image processing, theory of computation, systems theory.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Applied mathematics
+Computational mathematics
+Operations research
+Systems engineering
+Control theory
+Engineering mathematics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Sources ==
+Kailath, Thomas (1997). "Norbert Wiener and the Development of Mathematical Engineering". Communications, Computation, Control, and Signal Processing. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. 35–64. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-6281-8_2. ISBN 978-1-4613-7883-9. JSTOR 24099553. Retrieved 2025-07-20.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mati_Meos-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Mati Meos"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mati_Meos"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:13.372276+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mati Meos, born  (1946-10-05) 5 October 1946 in Jõgeva, is an Estonian politician and engineer.  He was a member of VIII Riigikogu, and a director and founder of the Estonian Aviation Museum.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_allowable_operating_pressure-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Maximum allowable operating pressure"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_allowable_operating_pressure"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:09.815968+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure (MAOP) is a pressure limit set, usually by a government body, which applies to compressed gas pressure vessels, pipelines, and storage tanks. For pipelines, this value is derived from Barlow's Formula, which takes into account wall thickness, diameter, allowable stress (which is a function of the material used), and a safety factor.
+The MAOP is less than the MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure).  MAWP is defined as the maximum pressure based on the design codes that the weakest component of a pressure vessel can handle. Commonly standard wall thickness components are used in fabricating pressurized equipment,  and hence are able to withstand pressures above their design pressure. The MAWP is the pressure stamped on the pressure equipment, and the pressure that must not be exceeded in operation.
+Design pressure is the pressure a pressurized item is designed to, and is higher than any expected operating pressures. Due to the availability of standard wall thickness materials, many components will have a MAWP higher than the required design pressure.  For pressure vessels, all pressures are defined as being at highest point of the unit in the operating position, and do not include static head pressure.  The equipment designer needs to account for the higher pressures occurring at some components due to static head pressure.
+Relief valves are set at the design pressure of the pressurized item and sized to prevent the item under pressure from being over-pressurized.  Depending on the design code that the pressurized item is designed,  an over-pressure allowance can be used when sizing the relief valve.  This is +10% for PD 5500,  and ASME Section VIII div 1 & 2 (with an additional +10% allowance in ASME Section VIII for a fire relief case).  ASME has different criteria for steam boilers.
+Maximum expected operating pressure (MEOP) is the highest expected operating pressure, which is synonymous with maximum operating pressure (MOP).
+
+
+== See also ==
+Massachusetts gas explosions - a series of gas-related explosions and fires caused by gas pipelines that had exceeded their MAOP
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_time_to_first_failure-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Mean time to first failure"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_time_to_first_failure"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:10.976004+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mean time (to) first failure (MTFF, sometimes MTTFF) is a concept in reliability engineering, which describes time to failure for non-repairable components like an integrated circuit soldered on a circuit board.
+For repairable components like a replaceable light bulb the concept of mean time between failures is used to describe the failure rate.
+MTFF and MTTF (mean time to failure) have identical meanings. The key is that this is a non-repairable and non-recoverable failure. For example, the failure of a TV typically isn't measured by this criterion because the TV can be repaired. However, if this failure was due to a burned out integrated circuit, that circuit itself can't be repaired and must be replaced. The failure of that circuit is measured by mean time to failure. It's generally used to predict the first failure after manufacturing. 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_connections-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "Mechanical connections"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_connections"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:12.176781+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mechanical rebar connections, also known as mechanical splices or mechanical coupler, are used to join lengths of rebar together to transfer forces from one steel rebar to another.
+
+Mechanical couplers can be advantageous in comparison with conventional methods of lap splicing because of the requirement for less steel for overlapping. It is more effective in the seismic detailing to avoid reinforcement congestion problems.
+The couplers are also used in pre-cast construction.
+
+
+== Use ==
+Any two bars of same or different diameters are joined using the couplers by rotating like nut and bolt.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+Orsman, Richard (2011). Mechanical Splicing, 08 (Devoran Metals).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Youtube advantages of mechanical splicing

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M142_engine-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Mercedes-Benz M142 engine"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M142_engine"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:15.799532+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Mercedes-Benz M142 engine is a naturally-aspirated, 3.2-liter to 3.4-liter, straight-6, internal combustion piston engine, designed, developed and produced by Mercedes-Benz; between 1937 and 1942.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+Mercedes-Benz W142
+Mercedes-Benz 320A
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M30_engine-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Mercedes-Benz M30 engine"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_M30_engine"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:14.597780+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Mercedes-Benz M30 engine is a naturally-aspirated, 1.5-liter, inline-4 gasoline engine, designed, developed and produced by Mercedes-Benz; between 1934 and 1939.
+
+
+== Applications ==
+Mercedes-Benz 150 (W30)
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_powder-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+---
+title: "Metal powder"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_powder"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:16.936536+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Metal powder is a metal that has been broken down into a powder form. Metals that can be found in powder form include aluminium powder, nickel powder, iron powder and many more. There are four different ways metals can be broken down into this powder form:
+
+Direct reduction
+Gas atomization
+Ultrasonic atomization
+Liquid atomization
+Centrifugal atomization
+
+
+== Processes ==
+The following processes can be used to produce metal powder:
+
+Direct reduction is the result of blending carbon with iron oxide ore, heating the mixture, removing the sponge iron from the carbon, grinding it, annealing it, and regrinding to make the powder form usable for manufacturing.
+Gas atomization occurs when a molten metal is passed through a passageway to a gas-filled chamber that cools the metal.  As it falls, it is collected and annealed into a powder.
+Ultrasonic atomization uses high-frequency sound waves to break molten metal into uniformly spherical droplets. It offers precise particle size control, low contamination, high powder quality, and allows production with no minimum batch size. The equipment is typically compact, making it suitable for use in space-constrained environments.
+Liquid atomization is similar to gas atomization, but instead the metal is sprayed with high-pressure liquid which solidifies the droplets more rapidly. This results in the powder being more porous, smaller, and cleaner.
+Centrifugal atomization occurs when a metal is put into a chamber as a rod and electrically melted, at the end of the rod, to produce melted droplets that fall into another chamber and then solidify.
+
+
+== Types and uses ==
+The following are the types and uses of metal powder:
+
+Aluminium powder: fireworks, metallic paints, manufacturing in solar cells in the green energy sector
+Bismuth powder: production of batteries, welding rods, creating alloys
+Cadmium powder: glaze used on ceramics, transparent conductors, nickel-cadmium batteries
+Iron powder: magnetic products, printing, brake pads, certain types of dyes and stains
+Nickel powder: used for corrosion resistance, such as in the marine industry
+Raney nickel: used as a catalyst
+Platinum black: used as a catalyst
+Titanium powder: used in aerospace applications, medical implants and sporting goods
+
+
+== See also ==
+Metal swarf
+Powder metallurgy
+Pressing
+Sintering
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial_contamination_of_diesel_fuel-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Microbial contamination of diesel fuel"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial_contamination_of_diesel_fuel"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:18.075886+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Diesel bug is contamination of diesel fuel by microbes such as bacteria and fungi.
+Water can get into diesel fuel as a result of condensation, rainwater penetration or adsorption from the air — modern biodiesel is especially hygroscopic.  The presence of water then encourages microbial growth which either occurs at the interface between the oil and water or on the tank walls, depending on whether the microbes need oxygen.  Species which may grow in this way include:
+
+bacteria — Clostridium; Desulfotomaculum; Desulfovibrio; Flavobacterium; Acidovorax facilis; Pseudomonas; Sarcina
+fungi — Aspergillus; Candida keroseneae; Fusarium; Hormoconis resinae
+Fuel companies agree that if left untreated fuel will remain reliable for just 6–12 months, after which fuel contamination (such as the diesel bug) begins to appear. Most industrial engine manufacturers now recommend a fuel conditioning programme to ensure the reliability of fuel.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Stored Fuel for Back Up Generators - including "How to minimize the risk of fuel contamination occurring"

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miesbach–Munich_Power_Transmission-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+---
+title: "Miesbach–Munich Power Transmission"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miesbach–Munich_Power_Transmission"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:19.251344+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Miesbach–Munich Power Transmission of 1882 was the first
+transmission of direct current (DC) electrical energy over a large distance (57 km).
+After the first International Exposition of Electricity was held in Paris in 1881, the German Empire set up a power transmission between a steam engine situated near Miesbach and the glass palace of Munich, where an electricity exhibition opened on September 16, 1882. The voltage used was 2000 V direct current, and the distance 57 kilometres. Only 2.5 kilowatts of power (about 1.25 Ampere) was transmitted, which was used to run an artificial waterfall. The system was designed by Oskar von Miller and Marcel Deprez. A simple iron telegraph wire was used, which failed a few days later. 
+In later years, Deprez set up a 112 km long DC transmission in France between Creil and Paris, using 6 kV.
+On August 25, 1891, the Lauffen-Frankfurt Three Phase AC Transmission over 175 km became part of the International Electrotechnical Exhibition in Germany, setting an end to the war of the currents.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+High-voltage direct current
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"Von Miesbach nach München - die erste Fernübertragung von elektrischem Strom. Pioniertat durch Oscar von Miller". Retrieved 2007-12-02.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_standard_cubic_feet_per_day-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+---
+title: "Million standard cubic feet per day"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_standard_cubic_feet_per_day"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:20.421825+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Million standard cubic feet per day  is a unit of measurement for gases that is predominantly used in the United States. It is frequently abbreviated MMSCFD. MMSCFD is commonly used as a measure of natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, compressed natural gas and other gases that are extracted, processed or transported in large quantities. 
+A related measure is "mega standard cubic metres per day" (MSm3/d), which is equal to 106 Sm3/d used in many countries outside the United States. One MMSCFD equals 1177.6 Sm3/h.
+When converting to mass flowrate, the density of the gas should be used at Standard temperature and pressure.
+
+
+== See also ==
+SCFM
+Standard cubic foot
+
+
+== External links ==
+checalc.com Gas Volume Conversion
+onlineflow.de Online calculator for conversion of volume, mass and molar flows (SCFM, MMSCFD, Nm3/hr, kg/s, kmol/hr and more)
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_redistribution-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Moment redistribution"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_redistribution"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:21.566470+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Moment redistribution refers to the behavior of statically indeterminate structures that are not completely elastic, but have some reserve plastic capacity.  When one location first yields, further application of load to the structure causes the bending moment to redistribute differently from what a purely elastic analysis would suggest.
+When the load is applied to a beam, the beam resists the load first elastically, then elasto-plastically until the full plastic moment is reached at some point. When the maximum moment is reached, a plastic hinge has formed, which for further load increments behaves as a pin joint. Further increment in load does not increase the moment at the points where the plastic hinges are formed. The increased load increases the moment in the less stressed sections of the beam; hence due to this, further plastic hinges are formed. This process of shift of application of moment in the beam is termed as moment redistribution in a beam.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery_Elevator-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "Montgomery Elevator"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery_Elevator"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:22.763062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Montgomery Elevator Company was a vertical transportation company founded in 1892, but entered the elevator business in 1910, acquired Roelofson Elevator of Galt, Ontario in the early 1960s and operated it as its Canadian Division. Montgomery manufactured elevators, escalators, and moving walkways until 1994, when it was acquired by KONE.  
+Montgomery was the 4th-largest elevator company in the U.S. at the time.
+After Montgomery was acquired, they worked with KONE to make elevators and escalators under the brand name Montgomery KONE, but only for 6 years until the full integration into KONE US in 2000. 
+One of the most unusual Montgomery elevators in the world is the elevator tramway in the St. Louis Gateway Arch.
+
+
+== Test Tower ==
+Montgomery did have a test tower to test high-speed elevators located at their former headquarters in Moline, IL. The test tower was built in 1966 and has a height equivalent of 18-stories. There are three shafts in the tower, two of them are to test high-rise elevators, and one of them is to test safety features on the elevator (Freefall, Emergency Brakes, etc). The top floor of the test tower was a conference space for the company to have meetings. Below the conference space was an experimental floor where elevator components get tested along with elevator controllers.
+The test tower still stands today but its future is uncertain after the City of Moline purchased the property.
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of elevator manufacturers
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosser_Glass-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Mosser Glass"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosser_Glass"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:23.954532+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mosser Glass is a company making handmade glass, founded in Cambridge, Ohio, in 1970 by Thomas R. Mosser. The company is operated by his oldest son, Tim Mosser. The Mosser family got their start in the business at the Cambridge Glass Company.
+The company offers tours of its facilities.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Mosser Glass Company website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Stromlo_Hydro-Power_Station-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Mount Stromlo Hydro-Power Station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Stromlo_Hydro-Power_Station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:25.099369+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Mount Stromlo Hydro-Power Station is a small hydro-electric power station installed on the Bendora Gravity Main in Canberra, Australia. It produces about 200 megawatt-hours (720 GJ) megawatt hours of electricity per month. Production of energy depends on the water flow into the nearby Mount Stromlo Water Treatment Plant.
+It was constructed in 2000 and is operated by Icon Water, the water and sewerage utility of the Australian Capital Territory.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Mount Stromlo Hydro

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_magnet_actuator-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Moving magnet actuator"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_magnet_actuator"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:26.262558+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A moving magnet actuator is a type of electromagnetic linear actuator. It typically consists of an arrangement of a mobile permanent magnet and fixed coil, arranged so that currents in the coil generate a pair of equal and opposite forces between the coil and magnet. 
+A voice coil actuator, also called a voice coil motor (VCM), is an electromagnetic linear actuator where the magnet is fixed and the coil is mobile. In this configuration the coil is common called a voice coil. 
+
+
+== See also ==
+Tubular linear motor
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mud_weight-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+---
+title: "Mud weight"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mud_weight"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:27.436978+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the oil industry, mud weight is the density of the drilling fluid and is normally measured in pounds per gallon (lb/gal) (ppg) or pound cubic feet (pcf) . In the field it is measured using a mud scale or mud balance. Mud can weigh up to 22 or 23 ppg. A gallon of water typically weighs 8.33 pounds. 
+In conventional drilling fluids, barite is used to increase the density. Although other additives such as halite (salt) or calcium carbonate can also be used. Mud weight can be decreased by dilution or solids control equipment such as an industrial centrifuge, desilter, desander and shale shaker . Mud weight use to control the trapped fluids or gas in the formations by adding a hydro static pressure on them, increasing the mud weight = increasing the hydro static pressure. If the hydro static pressure increased over the formations pressure that will make a fracture in the formation leading to lose the mud to the formation, so adding loss circulation material like gel-flake or wood chips that can refill the gap and stop the mud loss. If the mud loss continues, then the hydro static pressure will decrease and flammable fluids and gas trapped under pressure will start leaking to the surface. This can lead to a potential blowout.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-effect_evaporator-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+---
+title: "Multiple-effect evaporator"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-effect_evaporator"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:29.790986+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In chemical engineering, a multiple-effect evaporator is an apparatus for efficiently using the heat from steam to evaporate water. Water is boiled in a sequence of vessels, each held at a lower pressure than the last.  Because the boiling temperature of water decreases as pressure decreases, the vapor boiled off in one vessel can be used to heat the next, and only the first vessel (at the highest pressure) requires an external source of heat.  The multiple-effect evaporator was invented by the American (Louisiana Creole) engineer Norbert Rillieux.  Although he may have designed the apparatus during the 1820s and constructed a prototype in 1834, he did not build the first industrially practical evaporator until 1845.  Originally designed for concentrating sugar in sugar cane juice, it has since become widely used in all industrial applications where large volumes of water must be evaporated, such as salt production and water desalination.
+Multiple-effect evaporation commonly uses sensible heat in the condensate to preheat liquor to be flashed.  In practice the design liquid flow paths can be somewhat complicated in order to extract the most recoverable heat and to obtain the highest evaporation rates from the equipment. While in theory, evaporators may be built with an arbitrarily large number of stages, evaporators with more than four stages are rarely practical except in certain applications. Multiple-effect evaporation plants in sugar beet factories have up to eight effects; sextuple-effect evaporators are common in the recovery of black liquor in the kraft process for making wood pulp.
+Entrainment of the product in the solvent causes a number of issues including firstly decrease in the amount of product recovered, secondly potential damage or fouling of the evaporation lines and steam chest of the next stage, and thirdly problems dealing or disposing of the solvent.
+
+
+== Types ==
+
+
+=== Forward feed ===
+In forward feed the condensate and the feed-concentrate move in the same direction.  In this case the vacuum pressure can be sufficient to pull the feed through the system.
+
+
+=== Backward feed ===
+Here the concentrate flows in the opposite direction to the condensate.  Pumps are required between stages, however the design has less heating costs.
+
+
+=== Parallel feed ===
+In the simplest version of this design the feed goes to each stage.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Marine use of compound evaporators
+Multi-stage flash distillation
+Multi-effect distillation
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+YASA introduction to  multiple effect evaporators

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_castings-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Municipal castings"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_castings"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:31.002045+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Municipal castings refers to many products, including: access hatches; ballast screens; benches (iron or steel); bollards; cast bases; cast iron hinged hatches, square and rectangular; cast iron riser rings; catch basin inlet; cleanout/monument boxes; construction covers and frames; curb and corner guards; curb openings; detectable warning plates; downspout shoes (boot, inlet); drainage grates, frames and curb inlets; inlets; junction boxes; lampposts; manhole covers, rings and frames, risers; meter boxes; service boxes; steel hinged hatches, square and rectangular; steel riser rings; trash receptacles; tree grates; tree guards; trench grates; and valve boxes, covers and risers.
+These products are covered by the Buy America Act of 1982. "By law, American-made municipal castings must be used in many federal, state and local-level public works infrastructure projects that are funded or financed with U.S. taxpayer dollars".
+
+The Buy America Act states that transportation infrastructure projects must be built with iron, steel, and manufactured products in the United States. This relates to highways, bridges, airports, and tunnels funded by federal grants. There are severe penalties for not following the Buy America laws. 
+The Municipal Castings Association is an organization made up of the following American manufacturers: Charlotte Pipe and Foundry Company, D&L Foundry and Supply, US Foundry, EBAA Iron, EJ, McWane, Neenah Foundry, and Spring City.
+Municipal castings also have to follow the country-of-origin marking requirement laws. Every casting of foreign origin entering the United States has to be marked legibly with the English name. There is a special marking law for municipal castings that states they must be marked on the top surface of the casting, visible once the product is installed in the field, so that the general public can easily see country of origin. This means manhole or inlet frames must be marked on the very top surface or lip of the frame or the top surface of a manhole lid or grate. 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray's_Hypocycloidal_Engine-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+---
+title: "Murray's Hypocycloidal Engine"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray's_Hypocycloidal_Engine"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:32.206605+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Murray's Hypocycloidal Engine, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, England, was made around 1805 and is the world's third-oldest working steam engine and the oldest working engine with a Tusi couple hypocycloidal straight line mechanism.
+
+
+== History ==
+Designed by Matthew Murray, and made by Fenton, Murray and Wood of Holbeck, Leeds, it is one of only two of the type to survive; the other is located at The Henry Ford, Michigan, United States.
+The single-cylinder engine was used by John Bradley & Co of Stourbridge from 1805 until 1931, and by N. Hingley & Sons Ltd of Netherton from 1931 until 1961, when it was acquired by Birmingham City Council for their science museum.
+Murray patented the hypocycloidal arrangement in 1802.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Birmingham Museums Trust
+Rotative beam engine
+Smethwick Engine – the oldest working engine in the world, also at Thinktank
+Sun and planet gear
+Whitbread Engine – the second-oldest working engine; one of the first rotative steam engines
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_clock-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+---
+title: "Musical clock"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_clock"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:33.386949+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A musical clock is a clock that marks the hours of the day with a musical tune. They can be considered elaborate versions of striking or chiming clocks.
+Elaborate large-scale musical clocks with automatons are often installed in public places and are widespread in Japan. Unlike conventional electronic musical clocks, these clocks plays pre-recorded music samples, instead of using programmed sound synthesis. One of the earliest known domestic musical clocks was constructed by Nicholas Vallin in 1598, and it currently resides in the British Museum in London. 
+
+
+== Description ==
+The music on mechanical clocks is typically played from a spiked cylinder on bells, organ pipes, or bellows.  On electric clocks such as quartz clocks, the music is usually generated using an electronic sound module.  Most of these quartz musical clocks utilize either FM synthesis or sample-based synthesis technology for sound generation to produce high-fidelity and complex music, similar to the sound generation methods of electronic musical instruments. 
+
+
+== Pipe organ clock ==
+The pipe organ clock was a specific clock that chimed with a small pipe organ built into the unit. An example is a Markwick Markham made for the Turkish market, circa 1770.
+
+
+== Popularity in Japan ==
+In Japan, aside from the extensive popularity of large-scale musical clocks installed in public facilities, electronic musical wall clocks has become a popular novelty items since the late 1990s. They are mostly collected for their aesthetic and decorative values, especially those with elaborate movements and advanced music generation. Most of these clocks are manufactured by Seiko and Rhythm.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Automaton clock
+Music by CPE Bach for musical clock
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Flötenuhrstücke (pieces for flute clock) by Joseph Haydn: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Müller-Breslau's_principle-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+---
+title: "Müller-Breslau's principle"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Müller-Breslau's_principle"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:28.639000+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In engineering and architecture, the Müller-Breslau principle is a method to determine influence lines. The principle states that the influence lines of an action (force or moment) assumes the scaled form of the deflection displacement.
+OR,
+This principle states that "ordinate of ILD for a reactive force is given by ordinate of elastic curve if a unit deflection is applied in the direction of reactive force."
+This method is named after the German engineer Heinrich Müller-Breslau and it is one of the easiest way to draw the influence lines.
+
+
+== Example of using the Müller-Breslau principle to find qualitative influence lines ==
+
+Part (a) of the figure to the right shows a simply supported beam with a unit load traveling across it. The structure is statically determinate. Therefore, all influence lines will be straight lines.
+Parts (b) and (c) of the figure shows the influence lines for the reactions in the y-direction. Releasing the vertical reaction for A allows the beam to rotate to Δ. Likewise for part (c). Δ is typically taken as positive upwards.
+Part (d) of the figure shows the influence line for shear at point B. Using the beam sign convention and cutting the beam at B, we can deduce the figure shown.
+Part (e) of the figure shows the influence line for the bending moment at point B. Again making a cut through the beam at point B and using the beam sign convention, we can deduce the figure shown.
+The procedure for applying the Muller-Breslau principle is as follows:
+
+Remove the constraint at the point of interest for the function of interest. This means if the influence line for a reaction is asked for, simply start by pretending the beam is no longer attached to the reaction in question and is free to rotate about the other support. If the influence line for a moment is desired, pretend the point in question is a hinge and the subsequent two sides can rotate about their supports. If the influence line for shear is desired, again pretend the point in question is a shear release, again where both sides can rotate about their supports.
+Consider the remaining portion of the beam to have infinite rigidity, so it is a straight line free to rotate about the support.
+Lastly rotate whatever is free to rotate in its positive direction, but only enough to create a deflection of 1 unit total. This means if the moment IL is in question and an imaginary hinge is splitting the beam in two pieces, the two angles created between each rotated side and the original beam must add to equal 1. Similarly if the shear IL is in question the two sides will have opposite directions of rotation. So at the shear release the right side will typically be rotated upwards and the left side will be rotated downward, as this is the sign convention for shear. The total displacement between the two sides of the shear release must equal to 1.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Influence line
+Beam
+Shear and Moment Diagram
+Dead and Live Loads
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_of_Structural_Engineers_Associations-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "National Council of Structural Engineers Associations"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_of_Structural_Engineers_Associations"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:34.538893+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The National Council of Structural Engineers Associations (NCSEA) is a professional association in the United States, with member organizations in 44 states.  NCSEA was established in 1993.  As of 2003, NCSEA represented 12,000 individual engineers, who are members of local state associations.
+NCSEA advances the practice of structural engineering and, as the national voice for practicing structural engineers, protects the public's right to safe, sustainable and cost effective buildings, bridges and other structures. It was formed to constantly improve the level of standard of practice of the structural engineering profession throughout the United States, and to provide an identifiable resource for those needing communication with the profession. NCSEA serves the needs of the structural engineering profession, its clientele, as well as architects, building code and enforcement authorities, construction industry, owners, developers, public building agencies, disaster response organizations, licensing and registration boards, legislatures and regulatory agencies, structural material trade groups, public news media, professional and trade organizations, and engineering societies.
+NCSEA publishes STRUCTURE Magazine, which provides resources to engage and empower structural engineers. This publication covers topics pertinent to the ongoing education of practicing engineers, such as technical updates, building code reviews, innovative solutions, and project highlights.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Delaware Valley Association of Structural Engineers
+Structural Engineers Association of Northern California
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Job Board
+Member Organizations
+Excellence in Structural Engineering Awards
+STRUCTURE Magazine
+Structural Engineering Certification Board - SECB

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Engineers_Week_(U.S.)-0.md

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+---
+title: "National Engineers Week (U.S.)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Engineers_Week_(U.S.)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:35.747186+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Engineers Week is one of the largest STEM events of the year in the United States. It is the time to celebrate the amazing accomplishments of engineers, technicians, and technologists and to introduce K-12 students to engineering and technology. National Engineers Week is commemorated by United States federal agencies such as the National Park Service.
+5.5 million students are engaged in engineering every year by individual volunteers and educators, engineering and tech companies, universities, museums, libraries, and community organizations at events and activities throughout the US and around the world.
+
+
+== Themes ==
+Every September, DiscoverE (the organization that supports and sustains Engineers Week) releases the annual theme, logo, artwork, planning guides, social media graphics, and new engineering activities for use by the education and engineering community to engage students and celebrate engineers.
+
+
+=== 2026 Theme: "Transform Your Future" ===
+Engineers Week (February 22-28, 2026) is more than a week-long celebration of a profession- it’s a movement to show young people that engineering is creative, collaborative, and most importantly, open to everyone. The 2026 Engineers Week theme, "Transform Your Future," is a powerful reminder that engineering doesn’t just shape our world- it shapes our opportunities, our communities, and the futures we can imagine for ourselves and our children. 
+
+
+== History ==
+The celebration of National Engineers Week was started in 1951 by the National Society of Professional Engineers in conjunction with President George Washington's birthday. President Washington is considered as the nation's first engineer, notably for his survey work. Prior to the start of National Engineers Week, the University of Missouri College of Engineering began celebrating the world's first Engineers' Week in 1903, 48 years before the National Society of Professional Engineers, with St. Patrick as the patron saint of engineers.
+The results of the Federal Engineer of the Year Award are announced during the week.
+
+
+=== Dates ===
+2026 — February 22-28
+2027 — February 21-27
+2028 — February 20-26
+2029 — February 18-24
+2030 — February 17-23
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+http://www.discovere.org/

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Biotechnology_and_Genetic_Engineering-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+---
+title: "National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Biotechnology_and_Genetic_Engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:36.929604+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering or NIBGE (Urdu: قومی ادارہَ برائے فنونِ حیاتیاتی و مہندسیِ امورِ تناسل) is one of the main biotechnology institutes operated by Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). It is located in Faisalabad.
+The institution has collaborated with the Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB), at the Punjab University to tackle mosquito spread in wastewater bodies.
+
+
+== History ==
+It was planned under the auspices of PAEC in 1987 and was formally inaugurated by president of Pakistan Farooq Leghari in 1994. It is affiliated to Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences (PIEAS) Islamabad, for awarding MPhil & PhD degrees. NIBGE is also the home institution of many Commodity Auctions and  National Biology Talent Contest.
+
+
+== Research divisions ==
+There are five research divisions at NIBGE:
+
+Agricultural Biotechnology Division (ABD)
+Health Biotechnology Division (HBD): offers services and products in areas of health biotechnology such as Human Molecular Genetics, Monogenic disorders, Karyotyping, Bacteriology, Complex disorders, Identification and synthesis of novel therapeutic agents.
+Industrial Biotechnology Division (IBD)
+Soil and Environmental Biotechnology Division (SEBD)
+Technical Services Division
+
+
+== Notable alumni and faculty ==
+Irshad Hussain
+
+
+== Overview ==
+There are more than 370 books currently present in NIBGE Library. More than 20 theories have been published from NIBGE.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_windows-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "Nine windows"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_windows"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:38.117946+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The nine windows technique, also known as 9 windows, 9 boxes, 9 screens, multiscreen diagram, or system operator tool is a creative problem-solving technique that analyzes a problem across time and relative to its place within a system.
+The approach is based on the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ) and involves creating a 3 × 3 matrix and placing the current problem in the center. 
+
+The 3 × 3 matrix is divided into three problem-solving levels: 
+
+Super-system, also known as the macro system, refers to the external components and environment that currently interact with the problem or system.
+System refers to the problem or system itself.
+Sub-system, also known as the micro system, refers to the parts or components of the problem or system.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Business model canvas, business model template with nine boxes
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Harrington, H. James; Voehl, Frank (26 April 2016). The Innovation Tools Handbook, Volume 1: Organizational and Operational Tools, Methods, and Techniques that Every Innovator Must Know. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4987-6050-8.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominal_power-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Nominal power"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominal_power"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:39.335798+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Nominal power is a power capacity in engineering.
+
+
+== Radio broadcasting ==
+
+Nominal power is a measurement of a mediumwave radio station's output used in the United States.
+
+
+== Photovoltaic devices ==
+
+Nominal power is the nameplate capacity of photovoltaic (PV) devices, such as solar cells, panels and systems, and is determined by measuring  the electric current and voltage in a circuit, while varying the resistance under precisely defined conditions.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Electric power
+Engine power
+Mechanical power (physics)
+Power rating
+Real versus nominal value
+Sound power
+Steam engine
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-recurring_engineering-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+---
+title: "Non-recurring engineering"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-recurring_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:40.493087+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Non-recurring engineering (NRE) cost refers to the one-time cost to research, design, develop and test a new product or product enhancement. When budgeting for a new product, NRE must be considered to analyze if a new product will be profitable. Even though a company will pay for NRE on a project only once, NRE costs can be prohibitively high and the product will need to sell well enough to produce a return on the initial investment. NRE is unlike production costs, which must be paid constantly to maintain production of a product. It is a form of fixed cost in economics terms. Once a system is designed, any number of units can be manufactured without increasing NRE cost.
+NRE can be also budgeted and paid via another commercial term called royalty fee. The royalty fee could be a percentage of sales revenue or profit or combination of these two, which have to be incorporated in a mid to long term agreement between technology supplier and the OEM.
+In a project-type (manufacturing) company, large parts (possibly all) of the project represent NRE. In this case the NRE costs are likely to be included in the first project's costs, this can also be called research and development (R&D). If the firm cannot recover these costs, it must consider funding part of these from reserves, possibly take a project loss, in the hope that the investment can be recovered from further profit on future projects.
+NRE can also be explained as engineering service. Non-recurring engineering (NRE) refers to professional services activities associated with the initial development, design, and implementation of a product or system. These services typically include:
+
+Planning and project management
+Configuration and customization
+Modification of existing designs or systems
+Integration of components or subsystems
+Engineering and design work
+Quality assurance and testing
+NRE activities are generally one-time efforts that occur during the development phase, as opposed to recurring costs associated with ongoing production or maintenance. In industries such as semiconductor manufacturing or automotive engineering, NRE often covers costs related to tooling, prototyping, and initial validation of custom hardware or software solutions. 
+The concept of full product NRE as described above may lead readers to believe that NRE expenses are unnecessarily high. However, focused NRE wherein small amounts of NRE money can yield large returns by making existing product changes is an option to consider as well. A small adjustment to an existing assembly may be considered, in order to use a less expensive or improved subcomponent or to replace a subcomponent which is no longer available. In the world of embedded firmware, NRE may be invested in code development to fix problems or to add features where the costs to implement are a very small percentages of an immediate return. Chrysler found such a way to repair a transmission problem by investing trivial NRE dollars into computer firmware to fix a mechanical problem to save some tens of millions of dollars in mechanical repairs to transmissions in the field.
+NRE-concepts-as-financial-investments are loss control tools considered part of manufacturing profit enhancement.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+costs Archived 2017-06-02 at the Wayback Machine by Daniel Shefer - a short explanation of NRE

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil-based_mud-0.md

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+---
+title: "Oil-based mud"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil-based_mud"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:41.648764+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Oil-based mud  is a drilling fluid used in drilling engineering. It is composed of oil as the continuous phase and water as the dispersed phase in conjunction with emulsifiers, wetting agents and gellants. The oil base can be diesel, kerosene, fuel oil, selected crude oil or mineral oil.
+
+
+== Requirements and composition ==
+The requirements are a gravity of 36–37 API, a flash point of 180 °F (82 °C), fire point of 200 °F (93 °C) and an aniline point of 140 °F (60 °C).
+Emulsifiers are important to oil-based mud due to the likelihood of contamination. The water phase of oil-based mud can be freshwater, or a solution of sodium or calcium chloride. The external phase is oil and does not allow the water to contact the formation. The shales don't become water wet.
+Poor stability of the emulsion results in the two layers separating into two distinct layers. 
+
+
+== Advantages ==
+The advantages are: 
+
+high drilling rates
+lowered drill pipe torque and drag,
+less bit balling and
+reduction in differential sticking.
+Oil-based muds are expensive, but are worth the cost when drilling through: 
+
+troublesome shales that would otherwise swell and disperse in water based mud e.g. smectite,
+to drill deep, high-temperature holes that dehydrate water-based mud,
+to drill water-soluble zones and
+to drill producing zones.
+
+
+== Disadvantages ==
+The disadvantages of using oil-based mud, especially in wildcat wells are:
+
+Inability to analyze oil shows in cuttings, because the oil-based mud has fluorescence confusing with the original oil formation.
+Contamination samples of cuttings, cores, sidewall cores for geochemical analysis of TOC and masks the real determination of API gravity due to this contamination.
+Contaminate areas of freshwater aquifers causing environmental damage.
+Disposal of cuttings in an appropriate place to isolate possible environmental contamination.
+
+
+== Uses ==
+This mud type can be used as a completion and workover fluid, a spotting fluid to relieve a stuck pipe and as packer or casing fluid. They are very good for "Gumbo" shales. The mud weight can be controlled from 7–22 lbs/gal. It is sensitive to temperature but does not dehydrate as in the case of water based mud as mentioned before. It has no limit on the drilled solids concentration. The water phase should be maintained above a pH of 7. Stability of the emulsion depends on the alkaline value.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Lyons Williams C. PhD. P.E., "Standard handbook of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineers", Houston Texas, Gulf Publishing Company, 1996.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Photorealistic quality images of oil-based mud wellbores

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_capacity-0.md

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+---
+title: "Operating capacity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_capacity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:42.784627+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Operating capacity, or rated operating capacity (ROC), has to do with the calculated tipping load. The capacity (load) that one can safely pick-up and operate without flipping or nose-diving the equipment. Not to be confused with Operating weight.
+
+The definitive range of operating capacity is the asset within which a company hopes to operate—commonly during a short-term period.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_deflection_shape-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Operating deflection shape"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_deflection_shape"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:43.974861+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Operating deflection shape (ODS), is a term often used in the structural vibration analysis, known as ODS analysis. ODS analysis is a method used for visualisation of the vibration pattern of a machine or structure as influenced by its own operating forces. This is as opposed to the study of the vibration pattern of a machine under an (known) external force analysis, which is called modal analysis.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_weight-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Operating weight"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_weight"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:45.176003+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Operating weight is a measure of the total weight of a vehicle or machine when it is in use, including all necessary components such as the driver or operator, fuel, and any additional equipment or tools required for its operation.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Operating empty weight - the weight of an aircraft when empty of fuel, crew, and payload
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_loads_monitoring-0.md

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+---
+title: "Operational loads monitoring"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_loads_monitoring"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:46.334968+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Operational loads monitoring (OLM) is a term given to act of investigating the characteristics of a structure in its normal operating environment. This term is often used to describe programs involving aircraft to extending their in-service life in a manner that does not compromise flight safety. A typical program would involve the installation of strain gauges to measure loads, accelerometers to measure g-force and other parameters to support the program or to add value (such as flap position, aircraft altitude, environmental conditions etc.), data acquisition system to process this data and a recorder to save the data for later analysis
+. In this way it is very similar to structural health monitoring, a term that is sometimes also used to describe operational loads monitoring. Unlike Health and Usage Monitoring Systems, OLM programs are generally a short term project used to assess the remaining useful safe life of an airframe. This is especially important when an aircraft's role changes as the stresses and strains may now be significantly different from those initially anticipated. OLM program's benefits include a possible increased safe operating life figure and helping to prevent accidents such as the C-130 crash that occurred after the platform had been modified and flown for a different mission (fire fighting).
+There are several active OLM programs currently underway, including research initiatives to standardize approaches for civilian aircraft.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+FAA Operational Loads Monitoring Program [1] Archived 2011-10-18 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_engineering-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+---
+title: "Optical engineering"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_engineering"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:47.520949+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Optical engineering is the field of engineering encompassing the physical phenomena and technologies associated with the generation, transmission, manipulation, detection, and utilization of light.  Optical engineers use the science of optics to solve problems and to design and build devices that make light do something useful.  They design and operate optical equipment that uses the properties of light using physics and chemistry, such as lenses, microscopes, telescopes, lasers, sensors, fiber-optic communication systems and optical disc systems (e.g. CD, DVD).
+Optical engineering metrology uses optical methods to measure either micro-vibrations with instruments like the laser speckle interferometer, or properties of masses with instruments that measure refraction.
+Nano-measuring and nano-positioning machines are devices designed by optical engineers. These machines, for example microphotolithographic steppers, have nanometer precision, and consequently are used in the fabrication of goods at this scale.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Optical lens design
+Optical physics
+Optician
+Photonics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Driggers, Ronald G. (ed.) (2003). Encyclopedia of Optical Engineering. New York: Marcel Dekker. 3 vols. ISBN 978-0-8247-0940-2
+Bruce H. Walker, Historical Review, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA. ISBN 978-0-8194-7877-1  doi:10.1117/3.818136.ch2
+FTS Yu & Xiangyang Yang (1997) Introduction to Optical Engineering, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-57493-5.
+Optical Engineering (ISSN 0091-3286)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optomechatronics-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Optomechatronics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optomechatronics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:48.912992+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In engineering, optomechatronics  is a field that investigates the integration of optical components and technology into mechatronic systems. The optical components in these systems are used as sensors to measure mechanical quantities such as surface structure and orientation. Optical sensors are used in a feedback loop as part of control systems for mechatronic devices. Optomechatronics has applications in areas such as adaptive optics, vehicular automation, optofluidics, optical tweezers and thin-film technology.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+International Society for Optomechatronics
+International Journal of Optomechatronics

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_Mechanics_for_Engineering_Students-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+---
+title: "Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_Mechanics_for_Engineering_Students"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:51:50.059485+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students is an aerospace engineering textbook by Howard D. Curtis, in its fourth edition as of 2019. The book provides an introduction to orbital mechanics, while assuming an undergraduate-level background in physics, rigid body dynamics, differential equations, and linear algebra.
+Topics covered by the text include a review of kinematics and Newtonian dynamics, the two-body problem, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, orbit determination, orbital maneuvers, relative motion and rendezvous, and interplanetary trajectories. The text focuses primarily on orbital mechanics, but also includes material on rigid body dynamics, rocket vehicle dynamics, and attitude control. Control theory and spacecraft control systems are less thoroughly covered.
+The textbook includes exercises at the end of each chapter, and supplemental material is available online, including MATLAB code for orbital mechanics projects.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_plant_shutdown_systems-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+---
+title: "Process plant shutdown systems"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_plant_shutdown_systems"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:50:01.198625+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A process plant shutdown system is a functional safety countermeasure crucial in any hazardous process plant such as oil and gas production plants and oil refineries. The concept also applies to non-process facilities such as nuclear plants. These systems are used to protect people, assets, and the environment when process conditions get out of the safe design envelope the equipment was designed for.
+As the name suggests, these systems are not intended for controlling the process itself but rather for protection. Process control is performed by means of an independent process control systems (PCS) and should not be relied upon to execute critical safety actions.
+Although functionally separate, process control and shutdown systems are usually interfaced under one system, called an integrated control and safety system (ICSS). Shutdown systems typically use equipment that is SIL 2 certified as a minimum, whereas control systems can start with SIL 1. SIL applies to both hardware and software requirements such as cards, processors redundancy and voting functions.
+
+
+== Types ==
+There are two main types of safety shutdown systems in process plants:
+
+Process safety system (PSS) or process shutdown system (PSD).
+Safety shutdown system (SSS) or emergency shutdown (ESD), which usually entails activation of an emergency depressurization (EDP) or emergency blowdown system.
+
+
+=== Process shutdown (PSD) ===
+An automatic PSD typically isolates the system by shutdown isolation valves, thus bringing it to a safe state before the process parameters, such as level, temperature or pressure, exit the system safe design envelope. Its inputs are critical process signals from the likes of pressure and temperature transmitters, which must be separate from those used for process control. This separation provides redundancy and reliability.
+
+
+=== Emergency shutdown (ESD) ===
+These systems may also be redefined in terms of ESD/EDP levels as:
+
+ESD level 1: In charge of general plant area shutdown, will also activate ESD level 2 if necessary. This level can only be activated from the main control room.
+ESD level 2: This level shuts down and isolates individual ESD zones and may activate if necessary EDP.
+ESD level 3: provides fluid containment by closing shutdown isolation valves or emergency shutdown valves (ESDVs).
+The safety shutdown system shall shut down the facilities to a safe state in case of an emergency situation, thus protecting personnel, the environment and the asset. The safety shutdown system shall manage all inputs and outputs relative to emergency shutdown (ESD) functions (environment and personnel protection). Inputs include for example manual activation and signals from the fire and gas system (FGS). Apart from the actuation of shutdown valves and blowdown valves, outputs include isolation of electrical sources, power shutdown, activation of fire pumps, etc. ESD is usually activated when a loss of containment and/or a fire is detected, although it may be activated at any time the plant operators feel it is necessary to preserve life, assets and the environment.
+
+
+==== Fire and gas system (FGS) ====
+The main objectives of the fire and gas system are to: 
+
+Detect at an early stage the presence of flammable gas using gas detectors.
+Detect at an early stage hazardous liquid spills.
+Detect incipient fire and the presence of fire using fire detectors.
+Provide automatic and/or facilities for manual activation of the fire protection system as required.
+Transmitting input to the ESD system for it to initiate appropriate automatic actions.
+
+
+==== Emergency depressurization (EDP) ====
+Emergency depressurization, or blowdown, is an important system for safeguarding process plant in the event of an emergency. Equipment such as pressure vessels exposed to fire could undergo catastrophic failure leading to an uncontrolled loss of containment. Depressurization reduces potential failure by removing inventory from the plant thereby decreasing the internal mechanical stresses and extending the plant’s integrity at elevated temperatures. Its function is distinct from that of pressure relief valves, which are passive devices opening if pressure reaches a value above the process safety trip, but still below the design pressure of the equipment. Relief valves complement the PSD.
+A process plant is typically divided into isolatable sections by emergency shutdown valves (ESDVs). Each section may be designated as belonging to a fire zone that is depressurized by a dedicated blowdown valve (BDV) or set of BDVs. During ESD conditions, the depressurization of only specific isolatable sections is undertaken. However, during more widespread emergency circumstances, the whole facility may be depressurized.
+In a typical depressurization system, the goal is typically reduce the pressure in the plant to less than 50% of the design pressure or to 7 barg, whichever is lower, within 15 minutes.
+Disposal of blowdown fluids is generally to flare systems or, if safe to do so, non-fired blowdown drums. Blowdown may be strategically delayed by fire zone to shave peak flow and allow the flare to deal with the incoming gas. This is generally referred to as a staggered blowdown.
+
+A depressurization system comprises an actuated valve and a restriction orifice. The BDV valve is normally held in the closed position but opens on demand or on failure of the actuator. A restriction orifice (RO) downstream of the BDV is sized to achieve the desired blowdown rate. A locked-open valve may be located downstream of the orifice. The valve, in the closed position, allows the functionality of the BDV to be tested without depressurizing that section of the plant.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Safety integrity level
+
+
+== Notes ==