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zlk@&*Dw+#N7UvqYGXKZSIumA~G_&pl9I}~oN(^hyXn9Br3#cnD7^(X;O`+aGaC3npt1ex}PCpl|36~V~eS&0Qq_|;-P?6YXDut$Gsw_dle9%1IOE5`SyGtuxg@KU{1L!=sCOo`i}LCj4r0wIzhnC=|uYR{byg2^@rJ4 z{Z}vE`kcy~N#5=HF_mgbT}+~uqxmN?rzhhW3$)W;I$Q1}m0-L#k?za_?(akGPff&f zv1B!tC?)t8Kb}fsa)^;H5F!mbh6C&bvKYh*v5fW{z_bwm TaJm>{+rmVGps8$zo2ma78I@@X diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index a32895c9a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "ABC@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:23.968961+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -ABC@Home was an educational and non-profit network computing project finding abc-triples related to the abc conjecture in number theory using the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) volunteer computing platform. -In March 2011, there were more than 7,300 active participants from 114 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 2.9 billion, reporting about 10 teraflops (10 trillion operations per second) of processing power. -In 2011, the project met its goal of finding all abc-triples of at most 18 digits. By 2015, the project had found 23.8 million triples in total, and ceased operations soon after. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -The Mathematical Institute of Leiden University \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ec2de30e3..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "AIC Judd Award" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:01.149314+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The AIC - Deane B. Judd Award is an international prize, created in 1973 and instituted for the first time in 1975 by the International Colour Association (AIC). It is given to researchers or research groups in recognition of outstanding contributions to the field of color science. The award is named in honor of Deane B. Judd, an American scientist who made significant contributions to colorimetry, color discrimination, color models, and color vision. -The AIC has been carrying out the process of selection of the recipients for this award every two years, since 1975. The selection is an arduous procedure that includes nominations by AIC members and analysis of antecedents of the nominees by a Committee composed of previous recipients of the award and AIC past-presidents. The award is given at AIC Congresses. - - -== Awardees == -The researchers who have received this award in the past 50 years are: - -1975: Dorothy Nickerson (USA); -1977: William David Wright (UK); -1979: Günter Wyszecki (Germany, USA, Canada); -1981: Manfred Richter (Germany); -1983: David L. MacAdam (USA); -1985: Leo Hurvich & Dorothea Jameson (USA); -1987: Robert William G. Hunt (UK); -1989: Tarow Indow (Japan, USA); -1991: Johannes J. Vos & Pieter L. Walraven (Netherlands); -1993: Yoshinobu Nayatani (Japan); -1995: Heinz Terstiege (Germany); -1997: Anders Hård, Gunnar Tonnquist & Lars Sivik (Sweden); -1999: Fred W. Billmeyer Jr. (USA); -2001: Roberto Daniel Lozano (Argentina); -2003: Mitsuo Ikeda (Japan); -2005: John B. Hutchings (UK); -2007: Alan R. Robertson (Canada); -2009: Arne Valberg (Norway); -2011: Lucia Ronchi (Italy); -2013: Roy S. Berns (USA); -2015: Françoise Viénot (France); -2017: Ming-Ronnier Luo (UK); -2019: Hirohisa Yaguchi (Japan); -2021: John McCann (USA); -2023: Rolf G. Kuehni (USA); -2025: José Luis Caivano (Argentina). -The contributions of these color scientists cover a wide variety of fields: colorimetry, color vision, color technology, color appearance, visual appearance, color psychology, visual psychophysics, standards and normalization, lighting, etc. K. Fridell Anter has compiled a list of selected publications by these authors. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQUA@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQUA@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d8ae632a1..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQUA@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "AQUA@home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQUA@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:27.333034+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -AQUA@home was a volunteer computing project operated by D-Wave Systems that ran on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It ceased functioning in August 2011. Its goal was to predict the performance of superconducting adiabatic quantum computers on a variety of problems arising in fields ranging from materials science to machine learning. It designed and analyzed quantum computing algorithms, using Quantum Monte Carlo techniques. -AQUA@home was the first BOINC project to provide multi-threaded applications. It was also the first project to deploy an OpenCL test application under BOINC. - - -== References == - - -== External links == - -Papers resulting from AQUA@home's computations \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2e1aab14e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Africa@home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:25.053444+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Africa@home is a website that allow users to use their home computers to contribute for humanitarian causes at Africa. This project first went public on 13 July 2006. It partners with Swiss Tropical Institute, the University of Geneva, CERN, and ICVolunteers (ICV). It is sponsored by the Geneva International Academic Network (GIAN). -Africa@home together with ICVolunteers, recruited volunteers across Africa to help with the project. The Malaria Control Project (MCP) was the first and the only volunteer computing project run by Africa@home. MCP ran for 10 years and became inactive since 21 June 2016. - - -== See also == -Malaria Control Project -List of volunteer computing projects -Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) -Volunteer computing -Grid computing -Geneva International Academic Network - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8dd14aef0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,60 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "All models are wrong" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:27.003416+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -"All models are wrong" is a common aphorism in statistics. It is often expanded as "All models are wrong, but some are useful". The aphorism acknowledges that statistical models always fall short of the complexities of reality but can still be useful nonetheless. The aphorism is generally attributed to George E. P. Box, a British statistician, although the underlying concept predates Box's writings. - - -== History == - -The phrase "all models are wrong" was attributed to George Box who used the phrase in a 1976 paper to refer to the limitations of models, arguing that while no model is ever completely accurate, simpler models can still provide valuable insights if applied judiciously. -In their 1983 book on generalized linear models, Peter McCullagh and John Nelder stated that while modeling in science is a creative process, some models are better than others, even though none can claim eternal truth. In 1996, an Applied Statistician's Creed was proposed by M.R. Nester, which incorporated the aphorism as a central tenet. -The longer form appears on in a 1987 book by Box and Norman Draper in a section "The Use of Approximating Functions,": - -"The fact that the polynomial is an approximation does not necessarily detract from its usefulness because all models are approximations. Essentially, all models are wrong, but some are useful." - - -== Discussions == -Box used the aphorism again in 1979, where he expanded on the idea by discussing how models serve as useful approximations, despite failing to perfectly describe empirical phenomena. He reiterated this sentiment in his later works, where he discussed how models should be judged based on their utility rather than their absolute correctness. -David Cox, in a 1995 commentary, argued that stating all models are wrong is unhelpful, as models by their nature simplify reality. He emphasized that statistical models, like other scientific models, aim to capture important aspects of systems through idealized representations. -In their 2002 book on statistical model selection, Burnham and Anderson reiterated Box's statement, noting that while models are simplifications of reality, they vary in usefulness, from highly useful to essentially useless. -J. Michael Steele used the analogy of city maps to explain that models, like maps, serve practical purposes despite their limitations, emphasizing that certain models, though simplified, are not necessarily wrong. In response, Andrew Gelman acknowledged Steele's point but defended the usefulness of the aphorism, particularly in drawing attention to the inherent imperfections of models. -Philosopher Peter Truran, in a 2013 essay, discussed how seemingly incompatible models can make accurate predictions by representing different aspects of the same phenomenon, illustrating the point with an example of two observers viewing a cylindrical object from different angles. -In 2014, David Hand reiterated that models are meant to aid in understanding or decision-making about the real world, a point emphasized by Box's famous remark. - - -== See also == -Anscombe's quartet – Four data sets with the same descriptive statistics, yet very different distributions -Bonini's paradox – As a model of a complex system becomes more complete, it becomes less understandable -Lie-to-children – Teaching a complex subject via simpler models -Map–territory relation – Relationship between an object and a representation of that object -Pragmatism – Philosophical tradition -Reification (fallacy) – Fallacy of treating an abstraction as if it were a real thing -Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models -Statistical model – Type of mathematical model -Statistical model validation – Evaluating whether a chosen statistical model is appropriate or not -Verisimilitude – Resemblance to reality - - -== Notes == - - -== References == - - -== Further reading == -Anderson, C. (23 June 2008), "The end of theory", Wired -Box, G. E. P. (1999), "Statistics as a catalyst to learning by scientific method Part II—A discussion", Journal of Quality Technology, 31: 16–29, doi:10.1080/00224065.1999.11979890 -Enderling, H.; Wolkenhauer, O. (2021), "Are all models wrong?", Computational and Systems Oncology, 1 (1) e1008, doi:10.1002/cso2.1008, PMC 7880041, PMID 33585835 -Saltelli, A.; Funtowicz, S. (Winter 2014), "When all models are wrong", Issues in Science and Technology, 30 - - -== External links == -"All Models are Right, Most are Useless"—Andrew Gelman blog -All models are wrong—Peter Coles blog \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index aabd41c64..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "And yet it moves" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:28.330517+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve] ('And yet it moves' or 'Although it does move') is an Italian phrase commonly attributed to the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). The Catholic Church persecuted Galileo for promoting the Copernican model of the Solar System in which the Earth moves around the Sun, which contradicted Catholic orthodoxy that the Earth remained fixed in the center of the universe. -According to popular legend, Galileo muttered this in 1633 after the Roman Inquisition forced him to recant his claims, though this is likely apocryphal. - - -== History == -According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri. -The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition. -The event was first reported in English print in 1757 by Giuseppe Baretti in his book The Italian Library: - -The moment he was set at liberty, he looked up to the sky and down to the ground, and, stamping with his foot, in a contemplative mood, said, Eppur si muove, that is, still it moves, meaning the Earth. -The book became widely published in Querelles Littéraires in 1761. -In 1911, the words E pur si muove were found on a painting which had just been acquired by an art collector, Jules van Belle, of Roeselare, Belgium. This painting is dated 1643 or 1645 (the last digit is partially obscured), within a year or two of Galileo's death. The signature is unclear but van Belle attributed it to the seventeenth century Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo. The painting would seem to show that some variant of the Eppur si muove anecdote was in circulation immediately after his death, when many who had known him were still alive to attest to it, and that it had been circulating for over a century before it was published. However, this painting, whose whereabouts is currently unknown, was discovered to be nearly identical to one painted in 1837 by Eugene van Maldeghem, and, basing their opinions on the style, many art experts doubt that the van Belle painting was painted by Murillo, or even that it was painted before the nineteenth century. -United States Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia gave an "E pur si muove" award to district court judges whose opinions were overturned by appellate courts but later vindicated by the Supreme Court. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov_Prize_(APS)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov_Prize_(APS)-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7b421ff12..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov_Prize_(APS)-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Andrei Sakharov Prize (APS)" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov_Prize_(APS)" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:26.241935+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Andrei Sakharov Prize is a prize that is to be awarded every two years by the American Physical Society since 2006. The recipients are chosen for "outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights." It is named after Andrei Sakharov (1921-1989), a Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident, and human rights activist. Since 2007, it has been valued at $10,000. The first Sakharov Prize was awarded to physicist and former Soviet gulag prisoner Yuri Orlov. - - -== Recipients == -Source: - -2006 Yuri Orlov (Cornell University) -2008 Liangying Xu (Chinese Academy of Sciences) -2010 Herman Winick (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center), Joseph Birman (City University of New York), and Morris (Moishe) Pripstein (National Science Foundation) -2012 Mulugeta Bekele (University of Addis Ababa) and Richard Wilson (Harvard University) -2014 Boris Altshuler (P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute) and Omid Kokabee (University of Texas at Austin) -2016 Zafra M. Lerman (Malta Conferences Foundation) -2018 Narges Mohammadi (Iran Engineering Inspection Corporation) and Ravi Kuchimanchi (Association for India's Development) -2020 Ayşe Erzan (Istanbul Technical University) and Xiaoxing Xi (Temple University) -2022 John C. Polanyi (University of Toronto) -2024 Eugene Chudnovsky (City University of New York) - - -== See also == -List of American Physical Society prizes and awards -List of physics awards - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Andrei Sakharov Prize, American Physical Society \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 50343e926..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,56 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Applied science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:13.583287+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Applied science is the application of the scientific method and scientific knowledge to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines, such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena. -There are applied natural sciences, as well as applied formal and social sciences. Applied science examples include genetic epidemiology which applies statistics and probability theory, and applied psychology, including criminology. - - -== Applied research == -Applied research is the use of empirical methods to collect data for practical purposes. It accesses and uses accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques for a specific state, business, or client-driven purpose. In contrast to engineering, applied research does not include analyses or optimization of business, economics, and costs. Applied research can be better understood in any area when contrasting it with basic or pure research. Basic geographical research strives to create new theories and methods that aid in explaining the processes that shape the spatial structure of physical or human environments. Instead, applied research utilizes existing geographical theories and methods to comprehend and address particular empirical issues. Applied research usually has specific commercial objectives related to products, procedures, or services. The comparison of pure research and applied research provides a basic framework and direction for businesses to follow. -Applied research deals with solving practical problems and generally employs empirical methodologies. Because applied research resides in the messy real world, strict research protocols may need to be relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use a random sample. Thus, transparency in the methodology is crucial. Implications for the interpretation of results brought about by relaxing an otherwise strict canon of methodology should also be considered. -Moreover, this type of research method applies natural sciences to human conditions: - -Action research: aids firms in identifying workable solutions to issues influencing them. -Evaluation research: researchers examine available data to assist clients in making wise judgments. -Industrial research: create new goods/services that will satisfy the demands of a target market. (Industrial development would be scaling up production of the new goods/services for mass consumption to satisfy the economic demand of the customers while maximizing the ratio of the good/service output rate to resource input rate, the ratio of good/service revenue to material & energy costs, and the good/service quality. Industrial development would be considered engineering. Industrial development would fall outside the scope of applied research.) -Gauging research: A type of evaluation research that uses a logic of rating to assess a process or program. It is a type of normative assessment and used in accreditation, hiring decisions and process evaluation. It uses standards or the practical ideal type and is associated with deductive qualitative research. -Since applied research has a provisional close-to-the-problem and close-to-the-data orientation, it may also use a more provisional conceptual framework, such as working hypotheses or pillar questions. The OECD's Frascati Manual describes applied research as one of the three forms of research, along with basic research & experimental development. -Due to its practical focus, applied research information will be found in the literature associated with individual disciplines. - - -== Branches == - -Applied research is a method of problem-solving and is also practical in areas of science, such as its presence in applied psychology. Applied psychology uses human behavior to grab information to locate a main focus in an area that can contribute to finding a resolution. More specifically, this study is applied in the area of criminal psychology. With the knowledge obtained from applied research, studies are conducted on criminals alongside their behavior to apprehend them. Moreover, the research extends to criminal investigations. Under this category, research methods demonstrate an understanding of the scientific method and social research designs used in criminological research. These reach more branches along the procedure towards the investigations, alongside laws, policy, and criminological theory. -Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. Some scientific subfields used by engineers include thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluid mechanics, statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials, kinematics, electromagnetism, materials science, earth sciences, and engineering physics. -Medical sciences, such as medical microbiology, pharmaceutical research, and clinical virology, are applied sciences that apply biology and chemistry to medicine. -Food science is also a branch of applied science. - - -== In education == -In Canada, the Netherlands, and other places, the Bachelor of Applied Science (BASc) is sometimes equivalent to the Bachelor of Engineering and is classified as a professional degree. This is based on the age of the school where applied science used to include boiler making, surveying, and engineering. There are also Bachelor of Applied Science degrees in Child Studies. The BASc tends to focus more on the application of the engineering sciences. In Australia and New Zealand, this degree is awarded in various fields of study and is considered a highly specialized professional degree. -In the United Kingdom's educational system, Applied Science refers to a suite of "vocational" science qualifications that run alongside "traditional" General Certificate of Secondary Education or A-Level Sciences. Applied Science courses generally contain more coursework (also known as portfolio or internally assessed work) compared to their traditional counterparts. These are an evolution of the GNVQ qualifications offered up to 2005. These courses regularly come under scrutiny and are due for review following the Wolf Report 2011; however, their merits are argued elsewhere. -In the United States, The College of William & Mary offers an undergraduate minor as well as Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in "applied science". Courses and research cover varied fields, including neuroscience, optics, materials science and engineering, nondestructive testing, and nuclear magnetic resonance. University of Nebraska–Lincoln offers a Bachelor of Science in applied science, an online completion Bachelor of Science in applied science, and a Master of Applied Science. Coursework is centered on science, agriculture, and natural resources with a wide range of options, including ecology, food genetics, entrepreneurship, economics, policy, animal science, and plant science. In New York City, the Bloomberg administration awarded the consortium of Cornell-Technion $100 million in City capital to construct the universities' proposed Applied Sciences campus on Roosevelt Island. - - -== See also == - -Applied mathematics -Basic research -Exact sciences -Hard and soft science -Invention -Secondary research - - -== References == - - -== External links == - Media related to Applied sciences at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8facf1d1b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Artificial Intelligence System" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:28.481382+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Artificial Intelligence System (AIS) was a volunteer computing project undertaken by Intelligence Realm, Inc. with the long-term goal of simulating the human brain in real time, complete with artificial consciousness and artificial general intelligence. They claimed to have found, in research, the "mechanisms of knowledge representation in the brain which is equivalent to finding artificial intelligence", before moving into the developmental phase. - - -== History == -The project's initial goal was recreating the largest brain simulation to date, performed by neuroscientist Eugene M. Izhikevich of The Neurosciences Institute in San Diego, California. Izhikevich simulated 1 second of activity of 100 billion neurons (the estimated number of neurons in the human brain) in 50 days using a cluster of 27 3-gigahertz processors. He extrapolated that a real-time simulation of the brain could not be achieved before 2016. The project aimed to disprove this prediction. -Artificial Intelligence System announced on Sep 5, 2007 that they will use the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software to perform intensive calculations. -On July 12, 2008, the first phase of the project had been completed by reaching the 100 billion neuron mark. The project then continued to simulate neurons while they completed the development of other related applications. - - -== Application description == -the application is a brain network test system that reenacts biophysical sensory cells characterized as numerical models and use the Hodgkin–Huxley model to portray the properties of brain cells -the rundown of models will keep developing and will ultimately arrive at many models -the test system gets information from XML records that contain cell properties which portray behavior -the test system will process the framework's way of behaving over the long haul -calculation results will be saved in records - - -== Conclusion == -Artificial Intelligence System had successfully simulated over 700 billion neurons by April 2009 and the project reported 7119 participants in January, 2010 -AIS was last seen working on the post data stage before the website was no longer available after November 2010. - - -== See also == -Artificial consciousness -Blue Brain -Outline of artificial intelligence - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5158e73b3..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:13.714112+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles. - - -== Geometric optics (ray tracing) == - -Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. -Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications. -The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction -Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to apply the ray-tracing technique to hexagonal ice crystal. Wendling et al. (1979) extended Jacobowitz's work from hexagonal ice particle with infinite length to finite length and combined Monte Carlo technique to the ray-tracing simulations. - - -== Classification == -The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by hexagonal ice crystals, large raindrops, and relevant links and applications. - - -=== Codes for light scattering by hexagonal ice crystals === - - -== Relevant scattering codes == -Discrete dipole approximation codes -Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders -Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - - -== External links == -Scatterlib - Google Code repository of light scattering codes - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3b201ec01..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,54 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Atmospheric radiative transfer codes" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:14.810942+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. - - -== Methods == -At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation. For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. -A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending on temperature and other parameters). In addition, models may consider scattering from molecules or particles, as well as polarisation; however, not all models do so. - - -== Applications == -Radiative transfer codes are used in broad range of applications. They are commonly used as forward models for the retrieval of geophysical parameters (such as temperature or humidity). Radiative transfer models are also used to optimize solar photovoltaic systems for renewable energy generation. Another common field of application is in a weather or climate model, where the radiative forcing is calculated for greenhouse gases, aerosols, or clouds. In such applications, radiative transfer codes are often called radiation parameterization. In these applications, the radiative transfer codes are used in forward sense, i.e. on the basis of known properties of the atmosphere, one calculates heating rates, radiative fluxes, and radiances. -There are efforts for intercomparison of radiation codes. One such project was ICRCCM (Intercomparison of Radiation Codes in Climate Models) effort that spanned the late 1980s – early 2000s. The more current (2011) project, Continual Intercomparison of Radiation Codes, emphasises also using observations to define intercomparison cases. - - -== Table of models == - - -=== Molecular absorption databases === -For a line-by-line calculation, one needs characteristics of the spectral lines, such as the line centre, the intensity, the lower-state energy, the line width and the shape. - - -== See also == -Discrete dipole approximation codes -Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders -Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres -Optical properties of water and ice - - -== References == -Footnotes - -General -Bohren, Craig F. and Eugene E. Clothiaux, Fundamentals of atmospheric radiation: an introduction with 400 problems, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2006, 472 p., ISBN 3-527-40503-8. -Goody, R. M. and Y. L. Yung, Atmospheric Radiation: Theoretical Basis. Oxford University Press, 1996 (Second Edition), 534 pages, ISBN 978-0-19-510291-8. -Liou, Kuo-Nan, An introduction to atmospheric radiation, Amsterdam; Boston: Academic Press, 2002, 583 p., International geophysics series, v.84, ISBN 0-12-451451-0. -Mobley, Curtis D., Light and water: radiative transfer in natural waters; based in part on collaborations with Rudolph W. Preisendorfer, San Diego, Academic Press, 1994, 592 p., ISBN 0-12-502750-8 -Petty, Grant W, A first course in atmospheric radiation (2nd Ed.), Madison, Wisconsin: Sundog Pub., 2006, 472 p., ISBN 0-9729033-1-3 -Preisendorfer, Rudolph W., Hydrologic optics, Honolulu, Hawaii: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Research Laboratories, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, 1976, 6 volumes. -Stephens, Graeme L., Remote sensing of the lower atmosphere: an introduction, New York, Oxford University Press, 1994, 523 p. ISBN 0-19-508188-9. -Thomas, Gary E. and Knut Stamnes, Radiative transfer in the atmosphere and ocean, Cambridge, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1999, 517 p., ISBN 0-521-40124-0. -Zdunkowski, W., T. Trautmann, A. Bott, Radiation in the Atmosphere. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 496 pages, ISBN 978-0-521-87107-5 - - -== External links == -ITWC for radiative transfer \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_Centre_for_the_Public_Awareness_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_Centre_for_the_Public_Awareness_of_Science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d2c56e15a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_Centre_for_the_Public_Awareness_of_Science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Australian National Centre for the Public Awareness of Science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_Centre_for_the_Public_Awareness_of_Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:29.680356+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Centre for the Public Awareness of Science is part of the Australian National University. In March 2000 it became an accredited Centre for the Australian National Commission for UNESCO. - - -== Work of the Centre == -As a UNESCO Centre, CPAS engages with science communication and communicators in the Pacific region and beyond. In partnership with the UNESCO Pacific Office in Apia, Samoa, CPAS has focused on science teaching training and communication in Pacific nations. As well as running a science journalism workshop for Pacific Island journalists in 2001, CPAS followed up in the same year with a science teacher workshop and the first Pacific Science Communication Forum. The UNESCO office in Jakarta invited CPAS to join a mission to Cambodia to conduct a survey to identify and assess the needs of the country with respect to science education in schools and universities. Other activities include joining with UNESCO (Apia) to help in its aims to raise social participation in science in and around the Pacific. -CPAS also established, as a pilot project, the Register of Pacific Scientists, an online database for those involved with Pacific Science to record their details and/or search for other people with similar or complementary interests. -Other activities of CPAS include the presentation of workshops for secondary school science teachers and others in Fiji, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Japan and New Zealand. A joint teaching program is being developed with the National University of Singapore. In South Africa, CPAS helped to develop a touring hands-on science exhibition and has been invited to work in and with various South African science centres. - - -== Teaching, Outreach and Research == -With a flourishing graduate program, CPAS encourages research in all aspects of science communication. Degrees are offered at all tertiary levels. Outreach programs within Australia include workshops for research scientists, science teachers, science and engineering students and science centre personnel, as well as the ANU Shell Questacon Science Circus. CPAS is also home to Popsicule, the Science in Popular Culture and Entertainment Hub of ANU. -CPAS has a wide research program dealing with issues at the interface of science and the public. Apart from a long-standing agenda of research in science centres, CPAS is concerned with current issues in science, with the communication agendas of scientists, and with effective communication of science concepts. The research program is interdisciplinary and contributes to the emerging framework of science communication theory. - - -== History == -CPAS was launched by Professor Richard Dawkins in 1996. It owes it origin to the establishment, twenty years earlier, of a modest science centre in a vacant primary school in Canberra. This burgeoning science centre eventually grew into Questacon – The National Science and Technology Centre. Questacon was the brainchild of Michael Gore, a senior lecturer in Physics at the Australian National University, who became its first director. An important part of its activities was outreach, supported from the beginning by sponsorship from Shell Australia. -Dr Gore approached Professor Chris Bryant, then Dean of Science at the Australian National University, with a proposal to set up a science circus to travel Australia, to be staffed by graduate science students enrolled in a course of science communication. Thus was born the Graduate Certificate in Science Communication that rapidly metamorphosed into a Graduate Diploma. This initiative proved extremely popular and it became clear that there was a hitherto undetected demand for such a course. Over the next few years, Masters and PhD courses were offered and science communication became a full-fledged graduate program. -By 1994, the demand was so great that the Faculty of Science at the Australian National University agreed to fund a Lectureship in Science Communication. This was the first in Australia and, possibly, the world. Dr Susan Stocklmayer was appointed to the position and immediately announced her intention of establishing a university centre for science communication. The centre was established in 1996, with Professor Bryant as its first, interim, Director. Dr Stocklmayer took over the position in 1998, where she remained until 2015. In 2016, Professor Joan Leach assumed the role of Director, leading CPAS until 2025. -In July 2025, Professor Sujatha Raman was appointed CPAS Director, where she remains today. - - -== Awards == -In subsequent years, the work of CPAS has been recognised by a number of awards and honours: In 1999, CPAS, Shell Australia and Questacon jointly won the Business/Higher Education Round Table Award. The citation commends CPAS as “a university centre whose brief is to empower Australians by encouraging in them the confidence of 'ownership' of modern science. It is intended to increase science awareness in the Australian community and to improve communication skills of scientists.” In 2000, its standing was such that it was designated as the first UNESCO Centre for Science Communication. -In 2004, the triple partnership was awarded the Financial Review National Award for long term sponsorship, and in 2006 it won the Special Award for Excellence in the Prime Ministers Community Business Partnerships. The individual contributions of members of CPAS have also been widely recognised and they have received many personal accolades. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Training Course in Science Journalism \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 80db09b11..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Azeotrope tables" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:17.407332+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. -The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). -A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. - - -== Binary azeotropes == - - -== Ternary azeotropes == -Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. - -‡Saddle azeotrope - -‡Saddle azeotrope - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index db760683e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Body Worlds" -chunk: 1/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Body Worlds (German title: Körperwelten) is a traveling exposition of dissected human bodies, animals, and other anatomical structures of the body that have been preserved through the process of plastination. Gunther von Hagens developed the preservation process which "unite[s] subtle anatomy and modern polymer chemistry", in the late 1970s. -A series of Body Worlds anatomical exhibitions has toured many countries worldwide, sometimes raising controversies about the sourcing and display of actual human corpses and body parts. Von Hagens maintains that all human specimens were obtained with full knowledge and consent of the donors before they died, but this has not been independently verified, and in 2004 von Hagens returned seven corpses to China because they showed evidence of being executed prisoners. A competing exhibition, Bodies: The Exhibition, openly sources its bodies from "unclaimed bodies" in China, which can include executed prisoners. -In addition to temporary traveling exhibitions, permanent Body Worlds exhibits exists in Berlin, Amsterdam, Heidelberg, Guben, and San Jose, CA. - -== Description == - -The exhibit states that its purpose and mission is the education of laypeople about the human body, leading to better health awareness. Each Body Worlds exhibition contains approximately 25 full-body plastinates with expanded or selective organs shown in positions that enhance the role of certain systems. -To produce specimens for Body Worlds, von Hagens employs around 100 people at his laboratory in Guben, Germany. One of the most difficult specimens to create was the giraffe that appears in Body Worlds: Animal Inside Out. The specimen took three years to complete—ten times longer than it takes to prepare a human body. Ten people are required to move the giraffe, because its final weight (like all specimens after plastination) is equal to the original animal. -Many of the whole-body specimens are partially dissected in the Écorché style of 17th and 18th century European tradition, while others are sliced in various anatomical planes to permit understanding of anatomical structure. In addition, more than 200 specimens of real human organs and organ systems are typically separately displayed in glass cases, some showing various medical conditions. Some of the whole-body specimens, such as the "Tai Chi Man", demonstrate interventions, and include prosthetics such as artificial hip joints or heart valves. Often featured is a liver with cirrhosis, and the lungs of a smoker and non-smoker are placed for side by side comparison. A prenatal display may feature fetuses and embryos, some with congenital disorders. - -== Exhibitions == - -Body Worlds exhibitions have received more than 50 million visitors, making them the world's most popular touring attraction. Body Worlds was first presented in Tokyo in 1995, and related exhibitions have since been hosted by more than 50 museums and venues in North America, Europe, and Asia. Body Worlds 2 & The Brain – Our Three Pound Gem (concerning the brain and nervous system) opened in 2005 at the California Science Center in Los Angeles. As of September 2010 it was showing at the Telus World of Science in Vancouver. Several Body Worlds exhibits (as well as von Hagens himself) were featured in the 2006 film Casino Royale. Among the plastinates seen were the Poker Playing Trio (which plays a key role in one scene) and Rearing Horse and Rider. -Body Worlds 3 & The Story of the Heart (concerning the cardiovascular system) opened on 25 February 2006, at the Houston Museum of Natural Science. On 9 July 2009 this show appeared at the Buffalo Museum of Science in Buffalo, New York. As of May 2010, it was showing at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science in Denver, Colorado. Body Worlds 4 debuted 22 February 2008 at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester in England and was in the Cureghem Cellars in Brussels until March 2009. Body Worlds & The Mirror of Time (featuring human development and aging) debuted at The O2 in London in October 2008. Körperwelten & Der Zyklus Des Lebens (The Cycle of Life) opened in Heidelberg in January 2009. Body Worlds: Animal Inside Out premiered in 2010 at a German Museum. It was first conceived when von Hagens received a gorilla, a giraffe, an elephant, a bear, a sturgeon, a camel, a caribou, a horse, a cow, a bull, a yak, a crocodile, an octopus, an ostrich, a monkey, a shark, a sheep, a goat, a dog, a rabbit, a duck, a great white shark, a seal, a frog, an oryx, a squid, and other various animals, all of which are being donated from various zoos, institutions, museums, and aquariums from around the world when they all died from various causes of deaths and demises. Body Worlds Vital was inaugurated at the Universum museum of the National Autonomous University of Mexico in 2012. -In 2017, the Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose, California, opened a semi-permanent exhibition called Body Worlds Decoded. Sponsored by venture capitalist John Doerr and his wife Ann, the exhibit features plastinated specimens supplemented by augmented reality and a digital anatomy table. The exhibit is intended to run for at least 10 years. - -== Education == -Body Worlds has prepared free teaching guides for secondary school education, typically made available through organizations hosting its exhibitions. -In 2005, the New York University College of Dentistry experimented with replacing traditional laboratory dissection with the study of dissected and plastinated slices of specimens, for the training of beginning dental students. - -== Regulatory framework == - -=== Czech Republic === -In July 2008, the Czech Senate passed a law to address illegal trading in human tissue and ban "advertising of donation of human cells and tissues for money or similar advantages". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index e3b3056dd..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Body Worlds" -chunk: 2/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== France === -In response to the Paris exhibition of Our Body: The Universe Within, two local human rights groups filed a legal complaint against the owner of the exhibit, Gunther Von Hagens. The groups' lawyer Richard Sedillot argued that the existence of exhibits profiting from the display of human bodies creates a supply demand to produce and traffick more bodies through ethically dubious means to supply the exhibits. Potential scenarios given by the lawyer included structural violence such as neglecting medical patients or incentising an increase in death row convictions in China. Sedillot stated "I am convinced that the exhibition is the last step in a horrible traffic [sic] operation of human bodies originating in China." -On Tuesday 21 April 2009, Judge Louis-Marie Raingeard ruled that exhibiting dead bodies for profit was a "violation of the respect owed to them". "Under the law, the proper place for corpses is in the cemetery". Raingeard ordered the exhibition to close within 24 hours or face a fine of €20,000 (over $26,000 USD) for each day it stayed open. The judge also ordered authorities to seize the 17 bodies on display and all of the organs on display from an unknown number of people for proper burial. Von Hagens issued a press statement denying any connection between the closed Chinese exhibition and his Body Worlds franchise. Similar exhibitions had already been successfully staged in Lyon and Marseille. - -=== United Kingdom === - -==== England and Wales ==== -The UK Parliament created legislation for exhibits of human remains, including plastinated bodies and body parts, in England and Wales under the Human Tissue Act 2004. This requires a licence to be granted by the Human Tissue Authority. The Human Tissue Act superseded the Anatomy Act 1832, which had been found by an independent commission (The Redfern Report) to be inadequate on contemporary collection and use of human tissues, following the Alder Hey organs scandal. There was initially controversy over whether the exhibition needed a licence in compliance with the Anatomy Act 1984. But, after consideration by the Department of Health, it was found that the legislation had not been designed to relate to exhibitions like Body Worlds and so no licence was required. In March 2008, the Manchester Museum of Science and Industry was granted such a licence to hold Body Worlds 4 and a further licence was granted to the exhibition in the O2, London, in 2008. - -==== Scotland ==== -The Human Tissue (Scotland) Act 2006 – which amended the Anatomy Act 1984 – covers Scotland. Under the terms of this Act, licences for the handling of human remains, including display, must be granted directly by the Scottish Ministry: "Subsection 9: If the Scottish Ministers think it desirable to do so in the interests of education, training or research, they may grant a license to a person to publicly display the body or, as the case may be, the part, and a person is authorized under this subsection to so display a body or a part of a body if, at the time of the display he is licensed under this subsection." -Various organizations gave evidence to the Scottish Executive during the consultation process, including the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, the Wellcome Trust, and the Museums Association. - -=== United States === -Various legislation has been proposed and enacted in different American states. Most proposals concentrate on issues regarding the sale of human remains and the consent of the donors. -National legislation on consent and tissue donation issues is expressed in the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (2006) passed by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws which states that "an anatomical gift of a donor's body or part may be made during the life of the donor for the purpose of transplantation, therapy, research, or education", and prohibits trafficking in donated human organs for profit. -In early 2008, former US Republican Representative W. Todd Akin proposed an amendment to the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act of 1930 to "make it unlawful for a person to import plastinated human remains into the United States." The President of the American Association of Anatomists has expressed concern that the scope of the act is "too broad" and that "Preventing importation of all plastinated specimens could severely restrict their use for medical education." The amendment was not enacted during the 2007–2008 Congressional session. - -==== California ==== -California's proposed bill AB1519 (Ma), sponsored by Assemblywoman Fiona Ma, tried to "require exhibitors to get a county permit; to do so, they would have to prove to county health officials that the people whose cadavers were on display—or their next of kin—had consented". -Assembly Bill 1519 would have made California the first state to require such proof. It was vetoed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on 26 September 2008. - -==== Florida ==== -The state of Florida prohibits the sale or purchase of human remains and "Authorizes certain science centers located in this state to transport plastinated bodies into, within, or out of this state and exhibit such bodies for the purpose of public education without the consent of this state's anatomical board if the science center notifies the board of any such transportation or exhibition, as well as the location and duration of any exhibition, at least 30 days before such transportation or exhibition". The Museum of Science and History in Jacksonville and the Museum of Science and Industry in Tampa have hosted BODY WORLDS exhibitions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index de21993f2..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Body Worlds" -chunk: 3/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -==== Hawaii ==== -In January 2009, Rep. Marcus Oshiro introduced two bills prompted by presentation of the BODIES Exhibition in that state. HB28 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would add to the prohibition against buying dead human bodies, the selling of dead human bodies and defines the term "dead human body" to include plastinated bodies and body parts. It would increase the fine for buying or selling a dead human body to up to $5,000. HB29 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would prohibit the commercial display of dead human bodies without a permit from the Department of Health. - -==== New York ==== -In June 2008, New York State Senate passed legislation regulating body exhibits. A bill that was sponsored by Senator Jim Alesi requires anyone showing an exhibit that uses real human bodies in New York museums to produce a permit detailing their origin. BODY WORLDS was hosted at Discovery Times Square in New York City. - -==== Pennsylvania ==== -Representative Mike Fleck's proposed bill would require evidence of informed consent from the decedent or relatives of all humans whose remains are put on display. BODY WORLDS exhibitions have been hosted in Philadelphia at the Franklin Institute and in Allentown at the Da Vinci Science Center. - -==== Washington ==== -The state of Washington considered a bill that would "require written authorization to display human remains for a commercial purpose". - -== Controversies == - -=== Consent === -There have been several reports of corpses in the Body Worlds exhibit being prepared and shown without consent. In January 2004, the German news magazine Der Spiegel reported, based on internal emails and records as well as statements from von Hagens, that his company had acquired corpses of Chinese prisoners from capital punishment. In response to the article, von Hagens said that he has told his Chinese employees not to accept bodies that were executed, and returned seven cadavers to China that had head injuries, including at least two with bullet holes in the skull. In 2004, von Hagens obtained an injunction against Der Spiegel for making the claims. Paul Harris, director of North Carolina's State Board of Funeral Services, has stated, "Somebody at some level of government ought to be able to look at a death certificate, a statement from an embalmer, donation documents... That's a reasonable standard to apply." Assemblywoman Fiona Ma (D-San Francisco) said, "These displays do have important educational benefits, but using bodies against a person's will is unacceptable". -In 2002, two Russian doctors from the University of Novosibirsk were charged with illegally supplying von Hagens with 56 bodies, including convicts, homeless people, and mentally ill people, without consent from their relatives. Von Hagens said that none of the body parts were used in the Body Worlds exhibitions. Bodies from the Kyrgyz State Medical Academy were also found to have been obtained illegally in 2005. -Consent is not regulated worldwide according to the same ethical standards, raising ethical concerns. "[P]aperwork is... separated from the bodies, which can be used for displays or sold in pieces to medical schools. No one will know for sure, because each plastinated corpse is made anonymous to protect its privacy." Hans Martin Sass, a philosophy professor with a speciality in ethics, was hired by the California Science Center to investigate Body Worlds before the show's US debut in 2004. He matched over 200 donation forms to death certificates, but he did not match the paperwork to specific bodies von Hagens has on display. - -=== Import laws === -International trade experts have objected to the way in which bodies for commercial display are imported, because the way their categorization codes (as "art collections") do not require Centers for Disease Control stamps or death certificates, both of which are required for medical cadavers. In most countries plastinated human specimens are classified under Customs Classification Code 97050000.48 "items in anatomical collections". This customs code encompasses "zoological, botanical, mineralogical or anatomical collections or items in such collections." - -=== Ethical concerns about cadaver displays === -In an ethical analysis, Thomas Hibbs, professor of ethics and culture at Baylor University, a private Baptist-affiliated institution, compared cadaver displays to pornography, in that they reduce the subject to "the manipulation of body parts stripped of any larger human significance." -In a 2006 lecture entitled "Plasti-Nation: How America was Won", Lucia Tanassi, professor of medical ethics and anthropology at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, explored questions for ethicists regarding this new scientific frontier. Tanassi called it provocative that ethics committees have contributed to the popularization of the exhibits without setting forth any process of a line of inquiry, pointing to an ethics report from the California Science Center. As part of that review, bioethicist Hans Martin Sass was sent to Heidelberg to match donor consents with death certificates. -Concerns have been expressed about the educational aspects, especially the inclusion of these displays for school field trips. St. Louis Archbishop Raymond Burke strongly suggested that Catholic schools avoid scheduling field trips, stating that parents, and not children, should retain the freedom of deciding whether or not their children will view the exhibit. Concerned with how "some kids process" these "graphic" images, Des McKay, school superintendent in Abbotsford, British Columbia (near Greater Vancouver), barred field trips to exhibits of plasticized human beings. In an editorial to the Abbotsford News, Rev. Christoph Reiners questions what effect the exhibits will have on the values of children attending for school field trips. Others—such as the Catholic Schools Office of Phoenix—acknowledge the educational content of Body Worlds. Reporting on the exhibition at the O2 bubble in 2008/2009, Melanie Reid of The Times stated "(Body Worlds) should be compulsory viewing for every child of 10 or over". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 214ae6db6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Body Worlds" -chunk: 4/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Religious objections === -Religious groups, including some rabbis have objected to the display of human remains, stating that it is inconsistent with reverence towards the human body. A group of Catholic Christians voiced their opinions towards the Body Worlds exhibition in a reflection paper written by the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. This was in response to the arrival of the Body Worlds Exhibition in the Milwaukee Public Museum in 2014. The group were largely in favour of the exhibition due to its educational goals. But, the paper also discussed fears surrounding whether the exhibit's educational aims were secondary to the experience of voyeurism. There were also concerns over the display of plastinated fetuses, due to beliefs surrounding abortion. - -=== Sex plastinate === -In 2003, while promoting a display in the Hamburg Museum of Erotica, von Hagens announced his intention to create a sex plastinate. In May 2009 he unveiled a plastinate of a couple having sex, intended for a Berlin exhibition. - -=== Lessening donor organ availability === -In 2007, the Bishop of Manchester launched a campaign to coincide with the opening of Body Worlds in that city, accusing the exhibitors of being "body snatchers" and "robbing the NHS", arguing that donation of bodies for plastination would deprive the National Health Service of organs for transplant. The site included a government petition calling for "a review of the law regarding the policies and practices of touring shows involving corpses". - -=== Press limitations === -Von Hagens has maintained tight copyright control over pictures of his exhibits. Visitors were not allowed to take pictures, and press photographers were required to sign restrictive agreements permitting only a single publication in a defined context, followed by a return of the copyright to von Hagens. Because of a similar agreement applied to sound bites (O-Töne, in German) a German press organization suggested that the press refrain from reporting about the exhibition in Munich in 2003. In recent years, the restriction on photography has been relaxed for personal non-publication use only. - -=== Sale of plastinates === -Von Hagen’s website offers plastinated pieces for sale. There are a wide range of products from plastinated fruit jewelry to entire humans. Although some of the pieces require purchasers to be a qualified user—those intending to use the pieces for "research, educational, medical or therapeutic purposes"—many pieces, including animal testicles and baby chicks, require no authorization. There are also extremely realistic plastinate impressions of human hearts and slices (including one slice of copulating humans) for sale to the general public. - -== Competitors == -The success of Body Worlds has given rise to several similar shows featuring plastinated cadavers, including BODIES... The Exhibition and Our Body: The Universe Within in the United States, Bodies Revealed in the United Kingdom, Body Exploration in Taiwan, Mysteries of the Human Body in South Korea, Jintai Plastomic: Mysteries of the Human Body in Japan, Cuerpos Entrañables in Spain. -Some of these contain exhibits very similar to von Hagens' plastinates; von Hagens has asserted copyright protection, and has sued Body Exploration and Bodies Revealed. -The suits were based on a presumed copyright of certain positions of the bodies, but the counterparty asserts that the human body in its diversity cannot be copyrighted. -Such lawsuits have not stopped the competition. While the Korean police in Seoul confiscated a few exhibits from Bodies Revealed, the exhibition went on successfully. -Several of the competing exhibitions have been organized by the publicly traded US company Premier Exhibitions. They started their first Bodies Revealed exhibition in Blackpool, England which ran from August through October 2004. In 2005 and 2006 the company opened their Bodies Revealed and BODIES... The Exhibition exhibitions in Seoul, Tampa, Miami, New York City, and Seattle. Other exhibition sites in 2006 were Mexico City; Atlanta, Georgia, US; London; and Las Vegas, Nevada. -Unlike Body Worlds, none of the competing exhibitions or their suppliers have a body donation programme. Dr Roy Glover, a spokesperson for BODIES... The Exhibition said all their exhibits use unclaimed cadavers from China, a category which the Laogai Research Foundation has charged could include executed prisoners. In May 2008, a settlement with the attorney general of New York obliged Premier Exhibitions to offer refunds to visitors when it could not prove consent for the use of the bodies in its exhibitions. New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo commented: "Despite repeated denials, we now know that Premier itself cannot demonstrate the circumstances that led to the death of the individuals. Nor is Premier able to establish that these people consented to their remains being used in this manner." - -== See also == -Bodies: The Exhibition -Embalming -Mummification -Organ transplantation in China -Plastination -Musée Fragonard d'Alfort museum of historical écorchés - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1532a81f7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Body Worlds" -chunk: 5/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:30.846012+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Further reading == -Gottfried Bogusch, Renate Graf, Thomas Schnalke. Auf Leben und Tod Beiträge zur Diskussion um die Ausstellung "Körperwelten", Schriften aus dem Berliner Medizinhistorischen Museum, 2003, VII, 136 S. 62 Abb., Softcover ISBN 978-3798514249. -Burns, Lawrence (2007). "Gunther Von Hagens' Body Worlds: Selling Beautiful Education". The American Journal of Bioethics. 7 (4): 12–23. doi:10.1080/15265160701220659. PMID 17454986. S2CID 31456090. Archived from the original on 9 December 2008. -Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: Wissenschaftliche Transzendenz der Körperwelten. Aufhebung der "Beschränkung von Freiheit" durch Leben, Tod und Körper. In: Wolf Gerhard Schmidt (Hg.): Körperbilder in Kunst und Wissenschaft Würzburg 2014, S. 107–138. -Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: "Ich will in meinem Knochenleben endlich zufrieden und glücklich sein": Eschatologie der Körperwelten. In: Dominik Groß, Brigitte Tag und Christoph Schweikardt (Hg.): Who wants to live forever? Frankfurt, New York 2011, S. 197–218. -Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: La plastination, une technique d'incarnation des espoirs scientifiques. In : Annette Leibing et Virginie Tournay (Hg.): Les technologies de l'espoir: La fabrique d'une histoire à accomplir. PUL-Presses de l'Université Laval, 2010. -Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca. Wachsfigur – Mensch – Plastinat. Über die Mitteilbarkeit von Sehen, Nennen und Wissen, Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte (1999), Heft 1. -Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca und Thomas Kliche (Hg.). Verführerische Leichen – verbotener Verfall, "Körperwelten" als gesellschaftliches Schlüsselereignis, Lengerich u.a.: Pabst Verlag 2006 -Misia Sophia Doms. Die Ausstellung "Körperwelten" und der Umgang mit der endlichen Leiblichkeit, Volkskunde in Rheinland Pfalz 17/1 (2002). S. 62–108. -Gunther von Hagens. Body Worlds – The Anatomical Exhibition of Real Human Bodies. Amazon-UK. -Gunther von Hagens, No Skeletons in the Closet – Facts, Background and Conclusions. Institute for Plastination, 17 November 2003. -Franz Josef Wetz, Brigitte Tag (Ed.). Schöne Neue Körperwelten, Der Streit um die Ausstellung, Klett-Cotta Verlag, Stuttgart 2001. Sixteen authors discuss the various ethical and aesthetical aspects of Body Worlds, in German. -Angelina Whalley (Ed.). Pushing the Limits – Encounters with Gunther von Hagens, pp. 45–36. 2005. -Schulte-Sasse, Linda (2006). "Advise and Consent: On the Americanization of Body Worlds". BioSocieties. 1 (4): 369–384. doi:10.1017/S1745855206004017. S2CID 146344274. - -== External links and sources == -True Anatomy for New Ways of Teaching von Hagens Plastination offers one-of-a-kind, real human teaching specimens! -Official website (English and German) - Media related to Body Worlds at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index a87830a12..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,58 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Branches of science" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:18.701714+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, scientific fields or scientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups: - -Formal sciences: the study of formal systems, such as those under the branches of logic and mathematics, which use an a priori, as opposed to empirical, methodology. They study abstract structures described by formal systems. -Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and biological factors of the universe). Natural science can be divided into two main branches: physical science and life science. -Social sciences: the study of human behavior in its social and cultural aspects. -Scientific knowledge must be grounded in observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions. -Natural, social, and formal science make up the basic sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinarity - and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises. - -== Formal sciences == - -The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics. -Unlike other branches, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world (empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. Hence there is disagreement on whether the formal sciences actually constitute as a science. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality, and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences. - -=== Logic === - - -Logic (from Greek: λογική, logikḗ, 'possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative') is the systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the conclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments. -It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of the logical forms; the validity and soundness of deductive reasoning; the strength of inductive reasoning; the study of formal proofs and inference (including paradoxes and fallacies); and the study of syntax and semantics. -Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy (since ancient times) and mathematics (since the mid-19th century). More recently, logic has been studied in cognitive science, which draws on computer science, linguistics, philosophy and psychology, among other disciplines. - -=== Information science === -Information science is an academic field which is primarily concerned with analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information. Practitioners within and outside the field study the application and the usage of knowledge in organizations in addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing information systems with the aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems. - -=== Mathematics === - -Mathematics, in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of formal science; but traditionally mathematics means more specifically the coalition of four areas: arithmetic. - -=== Statistics === - -Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments. -A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject. -The word statistics, when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art." This should not be confused with the word statistic, referring to a quantity (such as mean or median) calculated from a set of data, whose plural is statistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading"). - -=== Systems theory === - -Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the sociological autopoiesis of Niklas Luhmann. -In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through feedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of the human body, in local and global ecosystems, and climate. - -=== Decision theory === - -Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be confused with choice theory) is the study of an agent's choices. Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines the optimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzes how agents actually make the decisions they do. -Decision theory is closely related to the field of game theory and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by economists, statisticians, psychologists, biologists, political and other social scientists, philosophers, and computer. -Empirical applications of this rich theory are usually done with the help of statistical and econometric methods. - -=== Theoretical computer science === - -Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing, and includes the theory of computation. -It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. The ACM's (Association for Computing Theory) Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 017f16017..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Branches of science" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:18.701714+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation, quantum computation, automata theory, information theory, cryptography, program semantics and verification, machine learning, computational biology, computational economics, computational geometry, and computational number theory and algebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigor. - -== Natural sciences == - -Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. -Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). - -=== Physical science === - -Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics. - -==== Physics ==== - -Physics (from Ancient Greek: φύσις, romanized: physis, lit. 'nature') is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. -Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy. - -==== Chemistry ==== - -Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed) is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based). Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include: biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system. - -==== Earth science ==== - -Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, geography, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state. - -===== Geology ===== - -Geology (from the Ancient Greek γῆ, gē ("earth") and -λoγία, -logia, ("study of", "discourse")) is an Earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major aspect of integrated Earth system science and planetary science. - -===== Oceanography ===== - -Oceanography, or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the seafloor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as well as geography. - -===== Meteorology ===== - -Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved. - -==== Astronomy ==== - -Space science is the study of everything in outer space. This has sometimes been called astronomy, but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields, such as studying issues related to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine), space archaeology and science performed in outer space (see space research). - -=== Biological science === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index e1b147e81..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Branches of science" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:18.701714+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Life science, also known as biology, is the natural science that studies life such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings, – including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development, and evolution. Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. Living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis. - -==== Biochemistry ==== - -Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. It is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, and physiology. - -==== Microbiology ==== - -Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology and parasitology. - -==== Botany ==== - -Botany, also called plant science(s), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants), and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes. - -==== Zoology ==== - -Zoology () is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i.e. "animal" and λόγος, logos, i.e. "knowledge, study". Some branches of zoology include: anthrozoology, arachnology, archaeozoology, cetology, embryology, entomology, helminthology, herpetology, histology, ichthyology, malacology, mammalogy, morphology, nematology, ornithology, palaeozoology, pathology, primatology, protozoology, taxonomy, and zoogeography. - -==== Ecology ==== - -Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house", or "environment"; -λογία, "study of") is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment, which includes both biotic and abiotic components. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. Organisms with specific life history traits sustain these processes. - -== Social sciences == - -Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, education, history, human geography, law, linguistics, political science, and psychology. -Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research). The term "social research" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. - -== Applied sciences == - -Applied science is the use of existing scientific knowledge to achieve practical goals, like technology or inventions. -Within natural science, disciplines that are basic science develop basic information to explain and perhaps predict phenomena in the natural world. Applied science is the use of scientific processes and knowledge as the means to achieve a particularly practical or useful result. This includes a broad range of applied science-related fields, including engineering and medicine. -Applied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology. Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods. - -== Relationships between the branches == -The relationships between the branches of science are summarized by the table. - -== Visualizations and metascience == -Metascience refers to or includes a field of science that is about science itself. OpenAlex and Scholia can be used to visualize and explore scientific fields and research topics. - -== See also == -Index of branches of science -List of words with the suffix -ology -Outline of science -Exact sciences -Basic research -Hard and soft science -Branches of philosophy -Philosophy of science -Engineering physics -Human science - -== Notes == - -== References == - -=== Footnotes === - -=== Works cited === - -== External links == -Branches of Science, sciencemirror \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index f3a46c048..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Bugscope" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:31.991478+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Bugscope is a web-based science outreach program that connects K-12 classrooms with microscopists at the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology at UIUC to explore insects under a high-powered scanning electron microscope (SEM). Launched in 1998, Bugscope allows students to observe microscopic details of insects and other organisms, sparking curiosity and fostering scientific discovery. The program has reached students globally, offering live, interactive sessions that align with educational standards. - - -== Award == -The Science Prize for Online Resources in Education (SPORE) from AAAS was awarded to Bugscope for its impact on science education in 2011. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index b7cb3edde..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Clean Energy Project" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:33.186574+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Clean Energy Project (CEP) was a virtual high-throughput discovery and design effort for the next generation of plastic solar cell materials that has finished. It studies millions of candidate structures to identify suitable compounds for the harvesting of renewable energy from the sun and for other organic electronic applications. It ran on the BOINC platform. - - -== Project purpose == -The project searched for the most suitable organic compounds with which to make solar cells, the best polymeric membranes with which to make fuel cells, and how best to assemble the molecules for such devices. - - -== Current project status == -On June 24, 2013, the Clean Energy Project released its database to the public and the research community. The release was featured on the White House Blog and by several news organizations including the MIT Technology Review. The database contains 150 million density functional theory calculations on 2.3 million molecules. - - -== Publications == -C. Amador-Bedolla, R. Olivares-Amaya, J. Hachmann, A. Aspuru-Guzik, Towards Materials Informatics for Organic Photovoltaics, in Informatics for Materials Science and Engineering, K. Rajan, Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam (2013). In press. -R. Olivares-Amaya, C. Amador-Bedolla, J. Hachmann, S. Atahan-Evrenk, R.S. Sánchez-Carrera, L. Vogt, A. Aspuru-Guzik, Accelerated Computational Discovery of High-performance Materials for Organic Photovoltaics by Means of Cheminformatics. Energy & Environmental Science 4 (2011), 4849–4861. -J. Hachmann; R. Olivares-Amaya; S. Atahan-Evrenk; C. Amador-Bedolla; R.S. Sánchez-Carrera; A. Gold-Parker; L. Vogt; A.M. Brockway; A. Aspuru-Guzik (2011). "The Harvard Clean Energy Project: Large-Scale Computational Screening and Design of Organic Photovoltaics on the World Community Grid" (PDF). The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 2 (17): 2241–2251. doi:10.1021/jz200866s. S2CID 54001464. -A.N. Sokolov, S. Atahan-Evrenk, R. Mondal, H.B. Akkerman, R.S. Sánchez-Carrera, S. Granados-Focil, J. Schrier, S.C.B. Mannsfeld, A.P. Zoombelt, Z. Bao, A. Aspuru-Guzik, From Computational Discovery to Experimental Characterization of a High Hole Mobility Organic Crystal. Nature Communications 2 (2011), 437. -R.S. Sánchez-Carrera; S. Atahan; J. Schrier; A. Aspuru-Guzik (2010). "Theoretical Characterization of the Air-Stable, High-Mobility Dinaphtho[2,3- b :2′3′- f ]thieno[3,2- b ]-thiophene Organic Semiconductor". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 114 (5): 2334–2340. doi:10.1021/jp910102f. S2CID 35899420. -R.S. Sánchez-Carrera; M.C. Ruiz Delgado; C. Capel Ferrón; R. Malavé Osuna; V. Hernández; J.T. López Navarrete; A. Aspuru-Guzik (October 2010). "Optical absorption and emission properties of end-capped oligothienoacenes: A joint theoretical and experimental study". Organic Electronics. 11 (10): 1701–1712. doi:10.1016/j.orgel.2010.07.001. S2CID 21724802. - - -== See also == -BOINC -List of volunteer computing projects -World Community Grid - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Clean Energy Project at the World Community Grid -Clean Energy Project Website Archived 2020-11-07 at the Wayback Machine -Clean Energy Project Database \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index c0f7896ad..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Climateprediction.net" -chunk: 1/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:34.423623+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -climateprediction.net (CPDN) is a volunteer computing project to investigate and reduce uncertainties in climate modelling. It aims to do this by running hundreds of thousands of different models (a large climate ensemble) using the donated idle time of ordinary personal computers, thereby leading to a better understanding of how models are affected by small changes in the many parameters known to influence the global climate. -The project relies on the BOINC framework where voluntary participants agree to run some processes of the project at the client-side in their personal computers after receiving tasks from the server-side for treatment. -CPDN, which is run primarily by Oxford University in England, has harnessed more computing power and generated more data than any other climate modelling project. It has produced over 100 million model years of data so far. As of June 2016, there are more than 12,000 active participants from 223 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 27 billion, reporting about 55 teraflops (55 trillion operations per second) of processing power. - -== Aims == - -The aim of the climateprediction.net project is to investigate the uncertainties in various parameterizations that have to be made in state-of-the-art climate models. The model is run thousands of times with slight perturbations to various physics parameters (a 'large ensemble') and the project examines how the model output changes. These parameters are not known exactly, and the variations are within what is subjectively considered to be a plausible range. This will allow the project to improve understanding of how sensitive the models are to small changes and also to things like changes in carbon dioxide and sulphur cycle. In the past, estimates of climate change have had to be made using one or, at best, a very small ensemble (tens rather than thousands) of model runs. By using participants' computers, the project will be able to improve understanding of, and confidence in, climate change predictions more than would ever be possible using the supercomputers currently available to scientists. -The climateprediction.net experiment is intended to help "improve methods to quantify uncertainties of climate projections and scenarios, including long-term ensemble simulations using complex models", identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2001 as a high priority. Hopefully, the experiment will give decision makers a better scientific basis for addressing one of the biggest potential global problems of the 21st century. -As shown in the graph above, the various models have a fairly wide distribution of results over time. For each curve, on the far right, there is a bar showing the final temperature range for the corresponding model version. The further into the future the model is extended, the wider the variances between them. Roughly half of the variation depends on the future climate forcing scenario rather than uncertainties in the model. Any reduction in those variations, whether from better scenarios or improvements in the models, are wanted. climateprediction.net is working on model uncertainties, not the scenarios. -Currently, scientists can run models and see that x% of the models warm y degrees in response to z climate forcings, but are uncertain as to whether x% is a good representation of the probability of that happening in the real world. Some models will be good and some poor at producing past climate when given past climate forcings and initial conditions (a hindcast). It does make sense to trust the models that do well at recreating the past more than those that do poorly. Therefore, models that do poorly will be down weighted. - -== The experiments == - -The different models that climateprediction.net has and will distribute are detailed below in chronological order. Therefore, anyone who has joined recently is likely to be running the transient coupled model. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7e27bc9de..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Climateprediction.net" -chunk: 2/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:34.423623+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Classic Slab Model - The original experiment not under BOINC. See #The original model for further details. This model remains in use solely for the OU short course. -BOINC Slab Model - The same as the classic Slab Model, but released under BOINC. -ThermoHaline Circulation (THC) Model - An investigation of how the climate might change in the event of a decrease in the strength of the ThermoHaline Circulation. This experiment has now been closed to new participants as they have sufficient results. It was a four phase model totaling 60 model years. The first three phases were identical to the above Slab Models. The fourth phase imposed the effects of a 50% slowdown in the Thermohaline circulation by imposing SST changes in the north Atlantic derived from other runs. -Sulfur Cycle Model - An investigation of the effect of sulfate aerosols on the climate. The experiment will model sulfur in a number of compound forms including dimethyl sulfide and sulfate aerosols. This experiment started in August 2005 and was a pre-requirement for the Hindcast. It is a 5 phase model totalling 75 model years. Timesteps are around 70% longer, making the model around 2.8 times longer than the initial slab model. While a few models are still tricking, model have not been issued since 2006. -Coupled Spin-Up Model - Inclusion of oceanic influences into the basic model in a more dynamic and realistic way than the initial Slab Model. This was a pre-requirement for the Hindcast. This has been completed and, as planned, was not publicly released. The fastest 200 - 500 computers were invited to join because it is a 200-year model and results were needed by February 2006 for the transient coupled model launch. -Transient coupled Model - This comprises an 80-year Hindcast and an 80-year forecast. The Hindcast is to test how well the models perform at recreating the climate of 1920 to 2000. It was launched February 2006 under BBC Climate Change Experiment branding and later also released from the CPDN site. -Seasonal Attribution Project - This is a high resolution model for a single model year to look at extreme precipitation events. This experiment is much shorter due to its single model year, but there are 13.5 times as many cells and timesteps are only 10 minutes instead of 30 minutes. This extra resolution means it requires at least 1.5 gigabytes of RAM. It uses the HadAM3-N144 climate model. - -== History == -Myles Allen first thought about the need for large climate ensembles in 1997, but was only introduced to the success of SETI@home in 1999. The first funding proposal in April 1999 was rejected as utterly unrealistic. -Following a presentation at the World Climate Conference in Hamburg in September 1999 and a commentary in Nature in October 1999, thousands signed up to this supposedly imminently available program. The dot-com bubble bursting did not help and the project realised they would have to do most of the programming themselves rather than outsourcing. -It was launched September 12, 2003, and on September 13, 2003, the project exceeded the capacity of the Earth Simulator to become the world's largest climate modelling facility. -The 2003 launch only offered a Windows "classic" client. On 26 August 2004 a BOINC client was launched which supported Windows, Linux and Mac OS X clients. "Classic" will continue to be available for a number of years in support of the Open University course. BOINC has stopped distributing classic models in favour of sulfur cycle models. A more user friendly BOINC client and website called GridRepublic, which supports climateprediction.net and other BOINC projects, was released in beta in 2006. -A thermohaline circulation slowdown experiment was launched in May 2004 under the classic framework to coincide with the film The Day After Tomorrow. This program can still be run but is no longer downloadable. The scientific analysis has been written up in Nick Faull's thesis. A paper about the thesis is still to be completed. There is no further planned research with this model. -A sulfur cycle model was launched in August 2005. They took longer to complete than the original models as a result of having five phases instead of three. Each timestep was also more complicated. -By November 2005, the number of completed results totalled 45,914 classic models, 3,455 thermohaline models, 85,685 BOINC models and 352 sulfur cycle models. This represented over 6 million model years processed. -In February 2006, the project moved on to more realistic climate models. The BBC Climate Change Experiment was launched, attracting around 23,000 participants on the first day. The transient climate simulation introduced realistic oceans. This allowed the experiment to investigate changes in the climate response as the climate forcings are changed, rather than an equilibrium response to a significant change like doubling the carbon dioxide level. Therefore, the experiment has now moved on to doing a hindcast of 1920 to 2000 as well as a forecast of 2000 to 2080. This model takes much longer. -The BBC gave the project publicity with over 120,000 participating computers in the first three weeks. -In March 2006, a high resolution model was released as another project, the Seasonal Attribution Project. -In April 2006, the coupled models were found to have a data input problem. The work was useful for a different purpose than advertised. New models had to be handed out. - -== Results to date == -The first results of the experiment were published in Nature in January 2005, showing that with only slight changes to the parameters within plausible ranges, the models can show climate sensitivities from less than 2 °C to more than 11 °C. The higher climate sensitivities have been challenged as implausible. For example, by Gavin Schmidt (a climate modeler with the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index a34d13172..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Climateprediction.net" -chunk: 3/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:34.423623+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Explanation === -Climate sensitivity is defined as the equilibrium response of global mean temperature to doubling levels of carbon dioxide. As of June 2025, current levels of carbon dioxide are 426 ppm and grew by 3.72ppm in the last year, compared with preindustrial levels of 280 ppm. -Climate sensitivities of greater than 5 °C are widely accepted as being catastrophic. The possibility of such high sensitivities being plausible given observations had been reported prior to the climateprediction.net experiment but "this is the first time GCMs have produced such behaviour". -Even the models with very high climate sensitivity were found to be "as realistic as other state-of-the-art climate models". The test of realism was done with a root mean square error test. This does not check on realism of seasonal changes and it is possible that more diagnostic measures may place stronger constraints on what is realistic. Improved realism tests are being developed. -It is important to the experiment and the goal of obtaining a probability distribution function (pdf) of climate outcomes to get a very wide range of behaviours even if only to rule out some behaviours as unrealistic. Larger sets of simulations have more reliable pdfs. Therefore, models with climate sensitivities as high as 11 °C are included despite their limited accuracy. The sulfur cycle experiment is likely to extend the range downwards. - -=== Piani et al. (2005) === -Published in Geophysical Review Letters, this paper concludes:When an internally consistent representation of the origins of model-data discrepancy is used to calculate the probability density function of climate sensitivity, the 5th and 95th percentiles are 2.2 K and 6.8 K respectively. These results are sensitive, particularly the upper bound, to the representation of the origins of model data discrepancy. - -== Use in education == -There is an Open University short course and teaching material available for schools to teach subjects relating to climate and climate modelling. There is also teaching material available for use in Key Stage 3/4 Science, A level Physics (Advanced Physics), Key Stage 3/4 Mathematics, Key Stage 3/4 Geography, 21st Century Science, Science for Public Understanding, Use of Mathematics, Primary. - -== The original model == -The original experiment is run with HadSM3, which is the HadAM3 atmosphere from the HadCM3 model but with only a "slab" ocean rather than a full dynamic ocean. This is faster (and requires less memory) than the full model, but lacks dynamical feedbacks from the ocean, which are incorporated into the full coupled-ocean-atmosphere models used to make projections of climate change out to 2100. -Each downloaded model comes with a slight variation in the various model parameters. -In the initial "calibration phase" of 15 model years, the model calculates the "flux correction"; extra ocean-atmosphere fluxes that are needed to keep the model ocean in balance (the model ocean does not include currents; these fluxes to some extent replace the heat that would be transported by the missing currents). -In the "control phase" of 15 years, the ocean temperatures are allowed to vary. The flux correction ought to keep the model stable, but feedbacks developed in some of the runs. There is a quality control check, based on the annual mean temperatures, and models which fail this check are discarded. -In the "double CO2 phase", the CO2 content is instantaneously doubled and the model run for a further 15 years, which in some cases is not quite sufficient model time to settle down to a new (warmer) equilibrium. In this phase some models which produced physically unrealistic results were again discarded. -The quality control checks in the control and 2*CO2 phases were quite weak: they suffice to exclude obviously unphysical models but do not include (for example) a test of the simulation of the seasonal cycle; hence some of the models passed may still be unrealistic. Further quality control measures are being developed. -The temperature in the doubled CO2 phase is exponentially extrapolated to work out the equilibrium temperature. Difference in temperature between this and the control phase then gives a measure of the climate sensitivity of that particular version of the model. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index a13dba97f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Climateprediction.net" -chunk: 4/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:34.423623+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Visualisations == -Many volunteer computing projects have screensavers to visually indicate the activity of the application, but they do not usually show its results as they are being calculated. By contrast, climateprediction.net not only uses a built-in visualisation to show the climate of the world being modelled, but it is interactive which allows different aspects of climate (temperature, rainfall, etc.) to be displayed. In addition, there are other, more advanced visualisation programs that allow the user to see more of what the model is doing (usually by analysing previously generated results) and to compare different runs and models. -The real-time desktop visualisation for the model launched in 2003 was developed by Jeremy Walton at NAG, enabling users to track the progress of their simulation as the cloud cover and temperature changes over the surface of the globe. Other, more advanced visualisation programs in use include CPView and IDL Advanced Visualisation. They have similar functionality. CPView was written by Martin Sykes, a participant in the experiment. The IDL Advanced Visualisation was written by Andy Heaps of the University of Reading (UK), and modified to work with the BOINC version by Tesella Support Services plc. -Only CPView allows you to look at unusual diagnostics, rather than the usual Temperature, Pressure, Rainfall, Snow, and Clouds. Up to 5 sets of data can be displayed on a map. It also has a wider range of functions like Max, Min, further memory functions, and other features. -The Advanced Visualisation has functions for graphs of local areas and over 1 day, 2 days, and 7 days, as well as the more usual graphs of season and annual averages (which both packages do). There are also Latitude - Height plots and Time - Height plots. -The download size is much smaller for CPView and CPView works with Windows 98. -As of December 2008 there is no visualisation tool that works with the newer CPDN models. Neither CPView nor Advanced Visualisation have been updated to display data gathered from those models. So users can only visualize the data through the screensaver. - -== BBC Climate Change Experiment == -The BBC Climate Change Experiment was a BOINC project led by Oxford University with several partners including the UK Met Office, the BBC, the Open University and Reading University. It is the transient coupled model of the climateprediction.net project. -Many participants joined the project with over 120,000 people signing up in teams. -Results continued to be collected for some time with the follow-up television program being aired in January 2007. On 8 March 2009, climateprediction.net officially declared that BBC Climate Change Experiment was finished, before shutting down the project. - -== See also == - -== References == - -== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 725a81f0e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:30.191049+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder. -Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. - - -== Classification == -The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications. - - -=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder === - - -== Relevant scattering codes == -Discrete dipole approximation codes -Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - - -== See also == -Computational electromagnetics -List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes - - -== References == - - -== External links == -SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3ad99ba4a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:31.401878+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres. - - -== Solution techniques == -Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks. - - -== Classification == -The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications. - - -=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere === - - -=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere === -Algorithmic literature includes several contributions - - -=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres === - - -== Relevant scattering codes == -Discrete dipole approximation codes -Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders - - -== See also == -Computational electromagnetics -Light scattering by particles -List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes -Optical properties of water and ice -Mie theory - - -== References == - - -== External links == -SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 69f7ee31c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Committee on the Public Understanding of Science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:35.593448+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Committee on the Public Understanding of Science or Copus was founded in 1985 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS), the Royal Institution and the Royal Society. Copus came about as a result of the 'Bodmer Report' by the eminent geneticist Walter Bodmer. The aim of Copus was to interpret scientific advances and make them more accessible to non-scientists. -It played a part in developing the public understanding of science it establishing standards for communicating science and technology -The Copus Grant Schemes was set up in 1987 and the last round of grants was for 2003/4. The scheme was funded by the Office of Science and Technology and the Royal Society. 25 grants worth a total of over £750,000 were awarded in 2003/2004. -In 2000 The new Copus Council was formed to be a more inclusive partnership for science communication in the UK. In 2002 following a report commissioned by the Office of Science and Technology the Copus Council was discontinued. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7b787469e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Conversazione" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:36.794837+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -A conversazione is a "social gathering [predominantly] held by [a] learned or art society" for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature, medicine, and science. - -It would not be easy to devise a happier way [than the conversazione] of bringing novelties at once under practical criticism—of making the outliers of science acquainted with the centre, of enabling investigators to compare operations and discuss facts and speculations, and of giving occasion for renewal of intercourse and removal of misunderstandings. …[The] tangible gain to science [from the conversazione is that] inventors and experimentalists … hear [directly] what contemporaries say of their schemes and experiments, and much can be said and done with advantage amid the free talk of a general gathering which could not be permitted in the formal meeting of a scientific society. (Nature, 5 May 1870.) - - -== Origin == -The writer Horace Walpole is credited with the first recorded English use of conversazione in a letter written (from Italy) on 11 November 1739 to Richard West (1716–1742) in which he writes, "After the play we were introduced to the assembly, which they [viz., the Italians] call the conversazione". - - -== Historical usage in Britain == - -In Italy, the term generally refers to a gathering for conversation; and was first used in English to identify the sort of private social gathering more generally known today as an "At Home". -In England, however, it soon came to be far more widely used to denote the gatherings of a far more intellectual character and was applied in the more specific sense of a scientific, artistic, or literary assembly/soirée, generally held at night. - -A conversazione like everything else has undergone conspicuous development in these days.Formerly the word was applicable only to a meeting of cognoscenti, who were themselves proficient in some art or science which might be the immediate subject of learned interest.At the present time the materials for discussion are supplied by the proficients, and the general public are invited to provide the talk or the criticism.Moreover a "conversation" of this kind is not limited to a specific subject, but may comprise topics incidental to any branch of science and art whatever. (New Zealand Herald, 17 September 1880.) -In its report on the first conversazione ever conducted by the Lambeth Literary Institution (on 22 June 1836), The Gentleman's Magazine noted that, - -the principal object [of the Lambeth Literary Institution's inaugural conversazione] has been—by the collection of articles of virtù, antiquity, science, or art, and by the reading of original papers, conversation, and music,— to unite its members, at stated periods, into one focus of neighbourly community; where all may be on a footing of social equality,—the aristocracy of mind, united with urbanity of manners, alone maintaining its ascendancy here; where the high attainments of the classical scholar,—the lofty imaginings of the poet,—the deep researches of the man of science,—and the sturdy intelligence of the skilful artizan [sic], may all be amalgamated under one roof; and the rough energies of manly intellect be thus softened and refined by the amenities of the social circle. - - -== Knowledge dissemination == -According to Yeates (2018): - -In Victorian England, the conversazione was one of the most important educational, cultural, and recreational means through which scientific knowledge was disseminated and explanations of technical innovation were delivered to the general public.Conducted by individuals, institutions, or learned bodies, a (usually mixed amateur/expert, male/female) audience was enlightened by explanations, two-way interactions with participants, experiments, demonstrations, hands-on displays of equipment, and/or the exhibition of specimens (see Alberti, 2003; and Plunkett & Sullivan, 2012).The conversazione’s lectures/explanations delivered knowledge by description, and its experiments, demonstrations, hands-on displays of equipment, and exhibition of specimens delivered knowledge by acquaintance (with the concomitant psychological ownership of the knowledge so-acquired). - - -== Other uses == - - -=== University of Cambridge === -The intellectual society at Cambridge University known as the Apostles was founded in 1820 as the Conversazione Society by George Tomlinson. -The Cambridge University Natural History Society continues to call its annual public exhibition a Conversazione. - - -=== Conversazione.org === -The arts-orientated social media website Conversazione.org takes its name from the English meaning. - - -== See also == -Le Conversazioni – an anglophone literary festival held on the island of Capri, Italy -Public awareness of science -Science communication -The Cambridge Apostles also known as the Cambridge Conversazione Society -Sacra conversazione – (holy or sacred conversation), a genre developed in Italian Renaissance painting, with a depiction of the Virgin and Child amidst a group of saints - - -== References == - - -== Bibliography == -Alberti, Samuel J.M.M. (2003), "Conversaziones and the Experience of Science in Victorian England". Journal of Victorian Culture 8.2): 208-30. doi:10.3366/jvc.2003.8.2.208 -de Clerq, Peter (2003), "Scientific instruments displayed at the Royal Society conversazioni or soirées in the nineteenth century", in Marco Beretta, Paolo Galluzzi and Carlo Triarico (eds.), Musa Musaei: Studies on Scientific Instruments and Collections in Honour of Mara Miniati, (Florence), Biblioteca di Nuncius Studi e Testi XLIX, pp.395–405. -Hartrick, Elizabeth (2008), "'Curiosities and rare scientific instruments': Colonial conversazioni in Australia and New Zealand in the 1870s and 1880s", pp.11.1–11.19 in Seize the Day: Exhibitions, Australia and the World, edited by Kate Darian-Smith, Richard Gillespie, Caroline Jordan, and Elizabeth Willis, Elizabeth, Monash University ePress, (Melbourne). -Plunkett, J., & Sullivan, J.A. (2012), "Fetes, Bazaars and Conversaziones: Science, Entertainment and Local Civic Elites", in J. Kember, J. Plunkett, and J.A. Sullivan (eds.), Popular Exhibitions, Science and Showmanship, 1840-1910, (pp.41–60). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. -Wood, Jane (2006), "A Culture of Improvement: Knowledge, Aesthetic Consciousness, and the Conversazione", Nineteenth Century Studies, Vol.20, pp.79-97. -Yeates, Lindsay B., "James Braid (II): Mesmerism, Braid’s Crucial Experiment, and Braid’s Discovery of Neuro-Hypnotism", Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy and Hypnosis, Vol.40, No.1, (Autumn 2018), pp.40-92. - - -== External links == - -Martz, Teal (8 March 2013). "The repository: Women of the conversazioni". blogs.royalsociety.org. Royal Society. Retrieved 9 July 2020. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 915cf4f7d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Cosmology@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:37.940540+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Cosmology@Home was a volunteer computing project that used the BOINC platform and was formerly run at the Departments of Astronomy and Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The project has moved to the Institut Lagrange de Paris and the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris, both of which are located in the Pierre and Marie Curie University. - - -== Goals == -The goal of Cosmology@Home is to compare theoretical models of the universe to the data measured to date and search for the model that best matches it. Other goals may include: - -results from Cosmology@Home can help design future cosmological observations and experiments. -results from Cosmology@Home can help prepare for the analysis of future data sets, e.g. from the Planck spacecraft. - - -== Science == -The goal of Cosmology@Home is to search for the model that best describes our Universe and to find the range of models that agree with the available astronomical and particle physics data. The models generated by Cosmology@Home can be compared to measurements of the universe's expansion speed from the Hubble Space Telescope as well as fluctuations in the Cosmic microwave background as measured by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe. - - -== Method == -Cosmology@Home uses an innovative way of using machine learning to effectively parallelize a large computational task that involves many inherently sequential calculations over a substantial number of distributed computers. -For any given class of theoretically possible models of the Universe, Cosmology@Home generates tens of thousands of example Universes and packages the cosmological parameters describing these Universes as work units. Each work unit represents a single Universe. When the work unit is requested by a participating computer, this computer simulates this Universe from the Big Bang until today. The result of this simulation is a list of observable properties of this Universe. -This result is then sent back and archived at the Cosmology@Home server. When a sufficient number of example Universes have been simulated, a machine learning algorithm called Pico, which was developed by the project scientists of Cosmology@Home for this purpose, learns from these example calculations how to do the simulation for any Universe similar to the example Universes. The difference is that Pico takes a few milliseconds per calculation rather than several hours. Training Pico on 20,000 examples takes about 30 minutes. Once Pico is trained, it can run a full comparison of the class of models (which involves hundreds of thousands of model calculations) with the observational data in a few hours on a standard CPU. -The Cosmology@Home application is proprietary. - - -== Milestones == -2007-06-30 Project launches for closed alpha testing - invitation only. -2007-08-23 Project opens registration for public alpha testing. -2007-11-05 Project enters beta testing stage. -2016-12-15 Project moved to the Institut Lagrange de Paris and the Institut d'astrophysique de Paris, both of which are located at the Pierre and Marie Curie University. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects -Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) - - -== References == - - -== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index a96a649ae..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Denialism" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:39.073957+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -In the sciences and in historiography, denialism is the rejection of basic facts and concepts that are undisputed, well-supported parts of the scientific consensus or historical record on a subject, in favor of ideas that are radical, controversial, or fabricated. Examples include Holocaust denial, AIDS denialism, and climate change denial. The forms of denialism present the common feature of the person rejecting overwhelming evidence and trying to generate political controversy in attempts to deny the existence of consensus. -In psychology, denialism is a person's choice to deny reality as a way to avoid believing in an uncomfortable truth. Denialism is an essentially irrational human behavior that withholds the validation of a historical experience or event when a person refuses to accept an empirically verifiable reality. -The motivations and causes of denialism include religion, self-interest (economic, political, or financial), and defence mechanisms meant to protect the psyche of the denialist against mentally disturbing facts and ideas; such disturbance is called cognitive dissonance. - -== Definition and tactics == -Anthropologist Didier Fassin distinguishes between denial, defined as "the empirical observation that reality and truth are being denied", and denialism, which he defines as "an ideological position whereby one systematically reacts by refusing reality and truth". Persons and social groups who reject propositions on which there exists a mainstream and scientific consensus engage in denialism when they use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of argument and legitimate debate, when there is none. It is a process that operates by employing one or more of the following five tactics to maintain the appearance of legitimate controversy: - -Conspiracy theories – Dismissing the data or observation by suggesting opponents are involved in "a conspiracy to suppress the truth". -Cherry picking – Selecting an anomalous critical paper supporting their idea, or using outdated, flawed, and discredited papers to make their opponents look as though they base their ideas on weak research. Diethelm and McKee (2009) note, "Denialists are usually not deterred by the extreme isolation of their theories, but rather see it as an indication of their intellectual courage against the dominant orthodoxy and the accompanying political correctness." -False experts – Paying an expert in the field, or another field, to lend supporting evidence or credibility. This goes hand-in-hand with the marginalization of real experts and researchers. -Moving the goalposts – Dismissing evidence presented in response to a specific claim by continually demanding some other (often unfulfillable) piece of evidence (aka Shifting baseline) -Other logical fallacies – Usually one or more of false analogy, appeal to consequences, straw man, or red herring. -Common tactics to different types of denialism include misrepresenting evidence, false equivalence, half-truths, and outright fabrication. South African judge Edwin Cameron notes that a common tactic used by denialists is to "make great play of the inescapable indeterminacy of figures and statistics". Historian Taner Akçam states that denialism is commonly believed to be negation of facts, but in fact "it is in that nebulous territory between facts and truth where such denialism germinates. Denialism marshals its own facts and it has its own truth." -Focusing on the rhetorical tactics through which denialism is achieved in language, in Alex Gillespie (2020) of the London School of Economics has reviewed the linguistic and practical defensive tactics for denying disruptive information. These tactics are conceptualized in terms of three layers of defence: - -Avoiding – The first line of defence against disruptive information is to avoid it. -Delegitimizing – The second line of defence is to attack the messenger, by undermining the credibility of the source. -Limiting – The final line of defence, if disruptive information cannot be avoided or delegitimized, is to rationalize and limit the impact of the disruptive ideas. -In 2009, author Michael Specter defined group denialism as "when an entire segment of society, often struggling with the trauma of change, turns away from reality in favor of a more comfortable lie". - -== Prescriptive and polemic perspectives == -If one party to a debate accuses the other of denialism they are framing the debate. This is because an accusation of denialism is both prescriptive and polemic: prescriptive because it carries implications that there is truth to the denied claim; polemic since the accuser implies that continued denial in the light of presented evidence raises questions about the other's motives. Edward Skidelsky, a lecturer in philosophy at Exeter University writes that "An accusation of 'denial' is serious, suggesting either deliberate dishonesty or self-deception. The thing being denied is, by implication, so obviously true that the denier must be driven by perversity, malice or wilful blindness." He suggests that, by the introduction of the word denier into further areas of historical and scientific debate, "One of the great achievements of The Enlightenment – the liberation of historical and scientific enquiry from dogma – is quietly being reversed". -Some people have suggested that because denial of the Holocaust is well known, advocates who use the term denialist in other areas of debate may intentionally or unintentionally imply that their opponents are little better than Holocaust deniers. However, Robert Gallo et al. defended this latter comparison, stating that AIDS denialism is similar to Holocaust denial since it is a form of pseudoscience that "contradicts an immense body of research". - -== Politics and science == - -=== Climate change === - -=== HIV/AIDS === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 80e92cd1c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Denialism" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:39.073957+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -AIDS denialism is the denial that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the cause of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS denialism has been described as being "among the most vocal anti-science denial movements". Some denialists reject the existence of HIV, while others accept that the virus exists but say that it is a harmless passenger virus and not the cause of AIDS. Insofar as denialists acknowledge AIDS as a real disease, they attribute it to some combination of recreational drug use, malnutrition, poor sanitation, and side effects of antiretroviral medication, rather than infection with HIV. However, the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive and the scientific community rejects and ignores AIDS-denialist claims as based on faulty reasoning, cherry picking, and misrepresentation of mainly outdated scientific data. With the rejection of these arguments by the scientific community, AIDS-denialist material is now spread mainly through the Internet. -Thabo Mbeki, former president of South Africa, embraced AIDS denialism, proclaiming that AIDS was primarily caused by poverty. About 365,000 people died from AIDS during his presidency; it is estimated that around 343,000 premature deaths could have been prevented if proper treatment had been available. - -=== COVID-19 === - -The term "COVID-19 denialism" or merely "COVID denialism" refers to the thinking of those who deny the reality of the COVID-19 pandemic, at least to the extent of denying the scientifically recognized COVID mortality data of the World Health Organization. The claims that the COVID-19 pandemic has been faked, exaggerated, or mischaracterized are pseudoscience. Some famous people who have engaged in COVID-19 denialism include Elon Musk, U.S. President Donald Trump, and former Brazilian President Bolsonaro. - -=== Evolution === - -Religious beliefs may prompt an individual to deny the validity of the scientific theory of evolution. Evolution is considered an undisputed fact within the scientific community and in academia, where the level of support for evolution is essentially universal, yet this view is often met with opposition by biblical literalists. The alternative view is often presented as a literal interpretation of the Book of Genesis's creation myth. Many fundamentalist Christians teach creationism as if it were fact under the banners of creation science and intelligent design. Beliefs that typically coincide with creationism include the belief in the global flood myth, geocentrism, and the belief that the Earth is only 6,000–10,000 years old. These beliefs are viewed as pseudoscience in the scientific community and are widely regarded as erroneous. - -=== Flat Earth === - -The superseded belief that the Earth is flat, and denial of all of the overwhelming evidence that supports an approximately spherical Earth that rotates around its axis and orbits the Sun, persists into the 21st century. Modern proponents of flat-Earth cosmology (or flat-Earthers) refuse to accept any kind of contrary evidence, dismissing all spaceflights and images from space as hoaxes and accusing all organizations and even private citizens of conspiring to "hide the truth". They also claim that no actual satellites are orbiting the Earth, that the International Space Station is fake, and that these are lies from all governments involved in this grand cover-up. Some even believe other planets and stars are hoaxes. -Adherents of the modern flat-earth model propose that a dome-shaped firmament encloses a disk-shaped Earth. They may also claim, after Samuel Rowbotham, that the Sun is only 3,000 miles (4,800 km) above the Earth and that the Moon and the Sun orbit above the Earth rather than around it. Modern flat-earthers believe that Antarctica is not a continent but a massive ice floe, with a wall 150 feet (46 m) or higher, which circles the perimeter of the Earth and keeps everything (including all the oceans' water) from falling off the edge. -Flat-Earthers also assert that no one is allowed to fly over or explore Antarctica, despite contrary evidence. According to them, all photos and videos of ships sinking under the horizon and of the bottoms of city skylines and clouds below the horizon, revealing the curvature of the Earth, have been manipulated, computer-generated, or somehow faked. Therefore, regardless of any scientific or empirical evidence provided, flat-Earthers conclude that it is fabricated or altered in some way. -When linked to other observed phenomena such as gravity, sunsets, tides, eclipses, distances and other measurements that challenge the flat earth model, claimants replace commonly accepted explanations with piecemeal models that distort or over-simplify how perspective, mass, buoyancy, light or other physical systems work. These piecemeal replacements rarely conform with each other, finally leaving many flat-Earth claimants to agree that such phenomena remain "mysteries" and more investigation is to be done. In this conclusion, adherents remain open to all explanations except the commonly accepted globular Earth model, shifting the debate from ignorance to denialism. - -=== Genetically modified foods === - -There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from genetically modified crops (GM) poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. -Psychological analyses indicate that over 70% of GM food opponents in the US are "absolute" in their opposition, experience disgust at the thought of eating GM foods, and are "evidence insensitive". - -=== Statins === -Statin denialism is a rejection of the medical worth of statins, a class of cholesterol-lowering drugs. Cardiologist Steven Nissen at Cleveland Clinic has commented "We are losing the battle for the hearts and minds of our patients to Web sites..." promoting unproven medical therapies. Harriet Hall sees a spectrum of statin denialism ranging from pseudoscientific claims to the understatement of benefits and overstatement of side effects, all of which is contrary to the scientific evidence. - -=== Mental illness denial === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index b51fd2090..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,63 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Denialism" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:39.073957+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Mental illness denial or mental disorder denial is where a person denies the existence of mental disorders. Serious analysts, as well as pseudoscientific movements, question the existence of certain disorders. A minority of professional researchers see disorders such as depression from a sociocultural perspective and argue that the solution to it is fixing a dysfunction in society, not in the person's brain. Some people may also deny that they have a mental illness after being diagnosed, and certain analysts argue this denialism is usually fueled by narcissistic injury. Anti-psychiatry movements such as Scientology promote mental illness denial by having alternative practices to psychiatry. - -=== Election denial === - -Election denial is baseless rejection of the outcome of a fair election. Since the 2020 United States presidential election, there has been an ongoing narrative asserting that it was fraudulent. Similar events have occurred in different countries: Brazil in 2022 when former president Jair Bolsonaro after his defeat in the 2022 Brazilian general election, questioning the accuracy of the country's electronic voting system. In the 2021 Peruvian general election, presidential candidate Keiko Fujimori alleged fraud and irregularities in the voting count which were disproved by election authorities and international observers. - -== Historiography == - -Historical negationism, the denialism of widely accepted historical facts, is a major source of concern among historians and it is frequently used to falsify or distort accepted historical events. In attempting to revise the past, negationists are distinguished by the use of techniques inadmissible in proper historical discourse, such as presenting known forged documents as genuine, inventing ingenious but implausible reasons for distrusting genuine documents, attributing conclusions to books and sources that report the opposite, manipulating statistical series to support the given point of view, and deliberately mistranslating texts. -Some countries, such as Germany, have criminalized the negationist revision of certain historical events, while other countries take a more cautious position for various reasons, such as the protection of free speech. Others mandate negationist views, such as California, where schoolchildren have been explicitly prevented from learning about the California genocide. - -=== Armenian genocide denialism === - -=== Holocaust denialism === - -Holocaust denial refers to the denial of the murder of 5 to 6 million Jews by the Nazis in Europe during World War 2. In this context, the term is a subset of genocide denial, which is a form of politically motivated denialism. - -=== Nakba denialism === - -Nakba denial refers to attempts to downgrade, deny and misdescribe the ethnic cleansing of Palestinians during the Nakba, in which four-fifths of all Palestinians were driven off their lands and into exile. - -=== Srebrenica massacre denialism === - -Sonja Biserko, president of the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia, and Edina Bečirević, the Faculty of Criminalistics, Criminology and Security Studies of the University of Sarajevo have pointed to a culture of denial of the Srebrenica massacre in Serbian society, taking many forms and present in particular in political discourse, the media, the law and the educational system. - -== See also == - -== Notes == - -== References == - -=== Works cited === - -== Further reading == - -=== Articles === -Holtcamp, W. (2012). "Flavors of uncertainty: The difference between denial and debate". Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (8): a314–a319. doi:10.1289/ehp.120-a314 (inactive January 6, 2026). PMC 3440096. PMID 22854265.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2026 (link) -Kahn-Harris, Keith (August 3, 2018). "Denialism: what drives people to reject the truth". The Guardian. -Oreskes, Naomi, "History Matters to Science: It helps to explain how cynical actors undermine the truth", Scientific American, vol. 323, no. 6 (December 2020), p. 81. "In our 2010 book, Merchants of Doubt, Erik M. Conway and I showed how the same arguments [as those used to cast doubt on the link between tobacco use and lung cancer] were used to delay action on acid rain, the ozone hole and climate change – and this year [2020] we saw the spurious "freedom" argument being used to disparage mask wearing [during the COVID-19 pandemic]." -Rees, M. (2013). "Denial of catastrophic risks". Science. 339 (6124): 1123. Bibcode:2013Sci...339.1123R. doi:10.1126/science.1236756. PMID 23471373. -Rosenau, J. (2012). "Science denial: A guide for scientists". Trends in Microbiology. 20 (12): 567–569. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2012.10.002. PMID 23164600. -Sharot, T.; Korn, C.W.; Dolan, R.J. (2011). "How unrealistic optimism is maintained in the face of reality". Nature Neuroscience. 14 (11): 1475–1479. doi:10.1038/nn.2949. PMC 3204264. PMID 21983684. - -=== Books === -Gorman, Sara E.; Gorman, Jack M. (2016). Denying to the Grave: Why We Ignore the Facts That Will Save Us. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-939660-3. -McIntyre, Lee (2019). The Scientific Attitude: Defending Science from Denial, Fraud and Pseudoscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 149–166. ISBN 978-0-262-53893-0. -Norgaard, Kari Marie (2011). Living In Denial: Climate Change, Emotions, and Everyday Life. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51585-6. -Specter, Michael (2009). Denialism: How Irrational Thinking Hinders Scientific Progress, Harms the Planet, and Threatens Our Lives. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-59420-230-8. - -== External links == - -Denialism Blog -"Refusing Flu Shots? Maybe You're A 'Denialist'" National Public Radio \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 913e07863..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Docking@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:40.330477+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Docking@Home was a volunteer computing project hosted by the University of Delaware and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It models protein-ligand docking using the CHARMM program. Volunteer computing allows an extensive search of protein-ligand docking conformations and selection of near-native ligand conformations are achieved by using ligand based hierarchical clustering. The ultimate aim was the development of new pharmaceutical drugs. -The project was retired on May 23, 2014. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== Further reading == -"Computer Idle? Now You Can Donate Its Time to Find a Cure for Major Diseases". Newswise. June 16, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-27. - - -== External links == -Official website -Docking@Home screensaver video on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 768fcefa0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "EOn" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:42.702583+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -eOn was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, which uses theoretical chemistry techniques to solve problems in condensed matter physics and materials science. It was a project of the Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences at the University of Texas. -Traditional molecular dynamics can accurately model events that occur within a fraction of a millisecond. In order to model events that take place on much longer timescales, Eon combines transition state theory with kinetic Monte Carlo. The result is a combination of classical mechanics and quantum methods like density functional theory. -Since the generation of new work units depended on the results of previous units, the project could only give each host a few units at a time. -On May 26, 2014, it was announced that eOn would be retiring from BOINC. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 246835dfd..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Earth science" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:43.511457+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history. - -== Geology == - -Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the Earth's crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time. -Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands. Resource geology studies how energy resources can be obtained from minerals. Environmental geology studies how pollution and contaminants affect soil and rock. Mineralogy is the study of minerals and includes the study of mineral formation, crystal structure, hazards associated with minerals, and the physical and chemical properties of minerals. Petrology is the study of rocks, including the formation and composition of rocks. Petrography is a branch of petrology that studies the typology and classification of rocks. - -== Earth's interior == - -Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth's crust. Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries. Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction. -Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of seafloor spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere vehemently returns to the convecting mantle. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes. - -== Atmospheric science == - -Atmospheric science initially developed in the late-19th century as a means to forecast the weather through meteorology, the study of weather. Atmospheric chemistry was developed in the 20th century to measure air pollution and expanded in the 1970s in response to acid rain. Climatology studies the climate and climate change. -The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. Seventy-five percent of the mass in the atmosphere is located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon, and small amounts of other gases including CO2 and water vapor. Water vapor and CO2 cause the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through the greenhouse effect. This makes Earth's surface warm enough for liquid water and life. In addition to trapping heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays. The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind. As the Earth is 4.5 billion years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere. - -== Earth's magnetic field == - -== Hydrology == - -Hydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the movement of water on Earth. It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies. Study of water's movement is closely related to geomorphology and other branches of Earth science. Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies. Subdisciplines of hydrology include oceanography, hydrogeology, ecohydrology, and glaciology. Oceanography is the study of oceans. Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater. It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants. Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and mineral springs and make it available as drinking water. The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC, and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in the 17th century. Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the hydrosphere. It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms. Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecosystems are affected by humans. Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere, including glaciers and coverage of the Earth by ice and snow. Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater, mitigation of glacial hazards, obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land, and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere. - -== Ecology == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 29c20b910..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,50 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Earth science" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:43.511457+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature. - -== Physical geography == - -Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment. - -== Methodology == -Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g., Antarctica or hot spot island chains). -A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth history to apply knowledge of how the Earth's processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history. - -== Earth's spheres == - -In Earth science, it is common to conceptualize the Earth's surface as consisting of several distinct layers, often referred to as spheres: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. This concept of spheres is a useful tool for understanding the Earth's surface and its various processes; these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. -The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences: - -Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology, and sedimentology. -Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science. Physical geography is the study of Earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields, as follows: geomorphology, biogeography, environmental geography, palaeogeography, climatology, meteorology, coastal geography, hydrology, ecology, glaciology. -Geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere. Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Seismologists use geophysics to understand plate tectonic movement, as well as predict seismic activity. -Geochemistry studies the processes that control the abundance, composition, and distribution of chemical compounds and isotopes in geologic environments. Geochemists use the tools and principles of chemistry to study the Earth's composition, structure, processes, and other physical aspects. Major subdisciplines are aqueous geochemistry, cosmochemistry, isotope geochemistry and biogeochemistry. -Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere). Major subdivisions in this field of study include edaphology and pedology. -Ecology covers the interactions between organisms and their environment. This field of study differentiates the study of Earth from other planets in the Solar System, Earth being the only planet teeming with life. -Hydrology, oceanography and limnology are studies which focus on the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involve all the components of the hydrologic cycle on the Earth and its atmosphere (or hydrosphere). "Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface water hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology, and water chemistry." -Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere). -Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics. - -=== Earth science breakup === - -== See also == - -== References == - -=== Sources === - -== Further reading == - -== External links == - -Earth Science Picture of the Day, a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. -Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration. -Geology Buzz: Earth Science Archived 2021-11-04 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index f63157cdc..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Einstein@Home" -chunk: 1/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Einstein@Home is a volunteer computing project that searches for signals from spinning neutron stars in data from gravitational-wave detectors, from large radio telescopes, and from a gamma-ray telescope. Neutron stars are detected by their pulsed radio and gamma-ray emission as radio and/or gamma-ray pulsars. They also might be observable as continuous gravitational wave sources if they are rapidly spinning and non-axisymmetrically deformed. The project was officially launched on 19 February 2005 as part of the American Physical Society's contribution to the World Year of Physics 2005 event. -Einstein@Home searches data from the LIGO gravitational-wave detectors. The project conducts the most sensitive all-sky searches for continuous gravitational waves. While no such signal has yet been detected, the upper limits set by Einstein@Home analyses provide astrophysical constraints on the galactic population of spinning neutron stars in our Milky Way galaxy. -Einstein@Home also searches radio telescope data from the Arecibo Observatory, and has in the past analyzed data from Parkes Observatory. On 12 August 2010, the first discovery by Einstein@Home of a previously undetected radio pulsar J2007+2722, found in data from the Arecibo Observatory, was published in Science. This was the first data-based discovery by a volunteer computing project. As of December 2023, Einstein@Home had discovered 55 radio pulsars. -The project also analyses data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope to discover gamma-ray pulsars. On 26 November 2013, the first Einstein@Home results of the Fermi data analysis was published: the discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in data from Fermi's Large Area Telescope (LAT). As of December 2023, Einstein@Home has discovered 39 previously unknown gamma-ray pulsars in data from the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. The Einstein@Home search makes use of novel and more efficient data-analysis methods and discovered pulsars missed in other analyses of the same data. -The project runs on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform and uses free software released under the GNU General Public License, version 2. Einstein@Home is hosted by the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (Albert Einstein Institute, Hannover, Germany) and the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. The project is supported by the Max Planck Society (MPG), the American Physical Society (APS), and the US National Science Foundation (NSF). The Einstein@Home project director is Bruce Allen. -Einstein@Home uses the power of volunteer computing in solving the computationally intensive problem of analyzing a large volume of data. Such an approach was pioneered by the SETI@home project, which is designed to look for signs of extraterrestrial life by analyzing radio wave data. Einstein@Home runs through the same software platform as SETI@home, the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC). As of December 2023, more than 492,000 volunteers in 226 countries had participated in the project, making it the third-most-popular active BOINC application. Users regularly contribute about 7.7 petaFLOPS of computational power, which would rank Einstein@Home among the top 105 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers. - -== Scientific objectives == -The Einstein@Home project was originally created to perform all-sky searches for previously unknown continuous gravitational-wave (CW) sources using data from the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) detector instruments in Washington and Louisiana, USA. The best understood potential CW sources are rapidly spinning neutron stars (including pulsars) which are expected to emit gravitational waves due to a deviation from Rotational symmetry. Besides validating Einstein's theory of General Relativity, direct detection of gravitational waves would also constitute an important new astronomical tool. As most neutron stars are electromagnetically invisible, gravitational-wave observations might also reveal completely new populations of neutron stars. A CW detection could potentially be extremely helpful in neutron-star astrophysics and would eventually provide unique insights into the nature of matter at high densities, because it provides a way of examining the bulk motion of the matter. -Since March 2009, part of the Einstein@Home computing power has also been used to analyze data taken by the PALFA Consortium at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. This search effort is designed to find radio pulsars in tight binary systems. It is expected that there is one radio pulsar detectable from Earth in an orbital system with a period of less than one hour. A similar search has also been performed on two archival data sets from the Parkes Multi-beam Pulsar Survey. The Einstein@Home radio pulsar search employs mathematical methods developed for the search for gravitational waves. -Since July 2011, Einstein@Home is also analyzing data from the Large Area Telescope (LAT), the primary instrument on Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope to search for pulsed gamma-ray emission from spinning neutron stars (gamma-ray pulsars). Some neutron stars are only detectable by their pulsed gamma-ray emission, which originates in a different area of the neutron star magnetosphere than the radio emission. Identifying the neutron star's rotation rate is computationally difficult, because for a typical gamma-ray pulsar only thousands of gamma-ray photons will be detected by the LAT over the course of billions of rotations. The Einstein@Home analysis of the LAT data makes use of methods initially developed for the detection of continuous gravitational waves. - -== Gravitational-wave data analysis and results == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 39082a09b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Einstein@Home" -chunk: 2/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Einstein@Home has carried out many analysis runs using data from the LIGO instruments. Since its first search run in 2005, the sensitivity of the LIGO detectors has been improved in a series of steps and upgrades. This is continuing with the current Advanced LIGO detectors. At the same time, Einstein@Home search algorithms have also improved. Together these have increased the search sensitivity by several orders of magnitude. Einstein@Home's first analysis used data from the "third science run" (S3) of LIGO. Processing of the S3 data set was conducted between 22 February 2005 and 2 August 2005. This analysis employed 60 segments from the LIGO Hanford 4-km detector, totaling ten hours of data each. Each 10-hour segment was analyzed for CW signals by the volunteers' computers using a matched-filtering technique. When all matched-filtering results were returned, the results from different segments were then combined in a "post-processing step" on Einstein@Home servers via a coincidence scheme to further enhance search sensitivity. Results were published on the Einstein@Home webpages. Work on the S4 data set (LIGO's fourth science run) was started via interlacing with the S3 calculations and finished in July 2006. This analysis used 10 segments of 30 hours each from the LIGO Hanford 4-km detector and 7 segments of 30 hours each from the LIGO Livingston 4-km detector. Besides the S4 data being more sensitive, a more sensitive coincidence combination scheme was also applied in the post-processing. The results of this search have led to the first scientific publication of Einstein@Home in Physical Review D. Einstein@Home gained considerable attention in the international volunteer computing community when an optimized application for the S4 data set analysis was developed and released in March 2006 by project volunteer Akos Fekete, a Hungarian programmer. Fekete improved the official S4 application and introduced SSE, 3DNow! and SSE3 optimizations into the code improving performance by up to 800%. Fekete was recognized for his efforts and was afterward officially involved with the Einstein@Home team in the development of the new S5 application. As of late July 2006, this new official application had become widely distributed among Einstein@Home users. The app created a large surge in the project's total performance and productivity, as measured by floating point speed (or FLOPS), which over time has increased by approximately 50% compared to non-optimized S4 applications. The first Einstein@Home analysis of the early LIGO S5 data set, where the instruments initially reached their design sensitivity, began on 15 June 2006. This search used 22 segments of 30 hours each from the LIGO Hanford 4-km detector and six segments of 30 hours from the LIGO Livingston 4-km detector. This analysis run (code name "S5R1"), employing the search methodology as Einstein@Home, was very similar to the previous S4 analysis. However, the search results were more sensitive due to the use of more data of better quality compared to S4. Over large parts of the search parameter space, these results, which also appeared in Physical Review D, are the most exhaustive published to date. The second Einstein@Home search of LIGO S5 data (code name "S5R3") constituted a further major improvement regarding search sensitivity. As opposed to previous searches, the ensuing results were already combined on the volunteers' computers via a Hough transform technique. This method matched-filtered results from 84 data segments of 25 hours each, parameters from which came from both 4-km LIGO Hanford and Livingston instruments. On 7 May 2010, a new Einstein@Home search (code name "S5GC1"), which uses a significantly improved search method, launched. This program analyzed 205 data segments of 25 hours each, using data from both 4-km LIGO Hanford and Livingston instruments. It employed a technique which exploited global parameter-space correlations to efficiently combine the matched-filtering results from the different segments. Results from an Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO S5 data were published on 13 February 2013. In the most sensitive frequency band of the search (a half-Hertz band at 152.5 Hertz), the presence of periodic gravitational waves with strain amplitude larger than 7.6×10−25 could be excluded at 90% confidence. Overall, the search was 3 times as sensitive as previous Einstein@Home searches in LIGO S5 data. Details of the two-stage follow-up procedure for signal candidates used in this study were published on 25 June 2014. A search for high-frequency (1249 Hertz to 1499 Hertz) continuous gravitational waves in LIGO S5 data by Einstein@Home, published on 26 September 2016, was the only such search in LIGO data. No signal candidates were identified. The search excluded neutron stars with spin frequencies between 625 Hertz and 770 Hertz and with ellipticities greater than 2.8×10−7 closer than 100 parsec to Earth. Data from LIGO 6th science run (S6) were analyzed by Einstein@Home and the results were published on 18 November 2016. No signal was found and the search set the most stringent upper limits for an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves at the time of publication. In the most sensitive frequency band between 170.5 Hertz and 171 Hertz there were (with 90% confidence) no continuous gravitational waves with a strain amplitude of more than 5.5×10−25 detected. At frequencies of 230 Hertz, the search results exclude neutron stars with ellipticities greater than 10−6 within 100 parsecs of Earth. Einstein@Home conducted a directed search for continuous gravitational waves from the central object in the supernova remnant Cassiopeia A. It used data from the LIGO S6 run and searched over a range of frequencies from 50 Hertz to 1000 Hertz, because the spin frequency of the central object is unknown. No signal was found. The upper limits on gravitational-wave emission from Cassiopeia A were the most stringent at the time of publication, about a factor two lower than previous upper limits. On 28 December 2016 results from a follow-up of the all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO S6 data were published. Out of a total of 3.8 × 1010 signal candidates from the earlier search, the 16 million most promising were analyzed using a four-stage hierarchical process. No candidate was found to be consistent with an astrophysical source of continuous gravitational waves. In the frequency band between 170.5 Hertz and 171 Hertz the upper limit (90% confidence) on the strain amplitude was 4.3×10−25, a factor 1.3 lower than in the previous search. Searches for continuous gravitational waves are limited by the available computing power. Within the project, research on improving the sensitivity of the searches with new methods is conducted. In late 2017 two publications were published, describing improved methods of candidate clustering in the hierarchical searches and new "veto" methods that distinguish between astrophysical continuous gravitational waves and detector artifacts mimicking them. Both these new methods were employed in the first Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in Advanced LIGO data from the first observing run (O1), the results of which were published on 8 December 2017. The first part of the search investigated the lower end of the LIGO frequency band between 20 Hertz and 100 Hertz. No signals were found. The most stringent upper limit (90% confidence) on the gravitational-wave strain amplitude set by the search was 1.8×10−25 at a frequency of 100 Hertz. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 208709cc6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Einstein@Home" -chunk: 3/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -An Einstein@Home study on how to optimally use the limited computing power for directed searches (where prior information on the target object such as the sky position is available) was published on 31 January 2018. It describes the design of searches for continuous gravitational waves over a wide frequency range from three supernova remnants (Vela Jr, Cassiopeia A, and G347.3). The results from the directed Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central objects of the supernova remnants Vela Jr., Cassiopeia A, and G347.3 was published on 29 July 2019. It covered a frequency range from 20 Hertz to 1500 Hertz and used data from LIGO's first observing run O1. No signal was found and the most stringent upper limit at the time of publication were set, improving earlier results by a factor of two for all three targets. A follow-up of the Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central objects of the supernova remnants Vela Jr., Cassiopeia A, and G347.3 was published on 29 June 2020. It investigated the most promising 10,000 candidates from the previous search and followed them up in two stretches of data from LIGO's second observing run (O2). A single candidate associated with G347.3 remained as a possible signal after the follow-up, but was not conclusively confirmed based on gravitational-wave data. Archival X-ray data were searched for pulsations at the putative rotation frequency of the neutron star and its integer multiples. No signal was found. It is expected that data from LIGO's third observing run (O3) will suffice to shed light on the nature of this potential candidate. On 8 March 2021 results from an Einstein@Home all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO O2 data were published. It used an eight-stage follow-up process and covered a frequency range from 20 Hertz to 585 Hertz and reached the highest sensitivity for any all-sky survey below 500 Hertz. Six candidates were found after all follow-up stages. They are consistent with and caused by validation hardware injections in the LIGO instruments. No other signal was found. The most stringent upper limit (90% confidence) was set in a 0.5 Hertz band at 163 Hertz at a gravitational-wave strain amplitude of 1.3×10−25. The results begin to probe neutron star astrophysics and population properties. They exclude neutron stars with rotation frequencies above 200 Hertz with ellipticities larger than 10−7 (which are predicted by some models of neutron star crusts) closer than 100 parsec. Results from a dedicated Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central object of the supernova remnant G347.3 was published on 5 August 2021. In the analysed frequency range between 20 Hertz and 400 Hertz no signal was found. The derived upper limits correspond to ellipticities of less than 10−6 for most of the frequency band. In the most sensitive frequency band at 166 Hertz the upper limit (90% confidence) on gravitational-wave strain is 7.0×10−26. In July 2023, the results of an all-sky search for continuous gravitational waves in the public LIGO O3 data were published. The search was the most sensitive at that time for gravitational waves with frequencies between 2o Hertz and 800 Hertz and with spin-downs of up to −2.6×10−9 Hz s−1. No astrophysical gravitational-wave signal was identified, and all candidate signals could be attributed to artificial signals injected into the LIGO data for validation purposes. The results exclude the existence of isolated neutron stars spinning at rotational frequencies of more than 200 Hertz with ellipticities larger than 5×10−8 closer than 100 parsec. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index d63562b29..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Einstein@Home" -chunk: 4/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Radio data analysis and results == -On 24 March 2009, it was announced that the Einstein@Home project was beginning to analyze data received by the PALFA Consortium at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. -On 26 November 2009, a CUDA-optimized application for the Arecibo Binary Pulsar Search was first detailed on official Einstein@Home webpages. This application uses both a regular CPU and an NVIDIA GPU to perform analyses faster (in some cases up to 50% faster). -On 12 August 2010, the Einstein@Home project announced the discovery of a new disrupted binary pulsar, PSR J2007+2722; it may be the fastest-spinning such pulsar discovered to date. The computers of Einstein@Home volunteers Chris and Helen Colvin and Daniel Gebhardt observed PSR 2007+2722 with the highest statistical significance. -On 1 March 2011, the Einstein@Home project announced their second discovery: a binary pulsar system PSR J1952+2630. The computers of Einstein@Home volunteers from Russia and the UK observed PSR J1952+2630 with the highest statistical significance. -By 15 May 2012 a new application for ATI/AMD graphic cards had been released. Using OpenCL, the new application was ten times faster than running on a typical CPU. -On 22 July 2013, an Android application version of the radio pulsar search was announced. Like the CPU application, the Android application processes data from Arecibo Observatory. -On 20 August 2013, the discovery of 24 pulsars in data from the Parks Multi-beam Pulsar Survey was published. The re-analysis of the data found these pulsars, which were missed by previous analyses and re-analyses of the data. Six of the discovered pulsars are in binary systems. -The discovery of a double neutron star binary in PALFA data by the project was published on 4 November 2016. PSR J1913+1102 is in a 4.95 hour orbit with a neutron star partner. By measuring the relativistic periastron advance, the total mass of the system was determined to 2.88 solar masses, similar to the mass of the most massive double neutron star, B1913+16. -Timing analysis of 13 radio pulsars discovered by Einstein@Home were published by the PALFA Consortium in August 2021. -On 31 October 2023 the project announced the launch of a new Zooniverse project called "Pulsar Seekers". In this project, citizen scientists visually inspect and classify sets of diagnostic plots for pulsar candidates produced from the Einstein@Home analysis of observations from the large Arecibo telescope's PALFA pulsar survey. The goal is to identify new pulsars in these data. -As of December 2023, the Einstein@Home project had discovered a total of 55 radio pulsars: 24 using Parkes Multibeam Survey data and 31 using Arecibo radio data (including two from the Arecibo Binary Radio Pulsar Search and 29 using data from the PALFA Mock spectrometer data from Arecibo Observatory). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index a3ac18a59..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Einstein@Home" -chunk: 5/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Gamma-ray data analysis and results == -On 1 July 2011 the project announced a new application to search for pulsars in data from the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. -On 26 November 2013, the discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in LAT data by the Einstein@Home project was published. All four pulsars are located in the plane of our Galaxy and have spin frequencies of less than 10 Hertz and characteristic ages between 35,000 and 56,000 years. No radio waves were detected from any of the pulsars. -The discovery of the gamma-ray pulsar PSR J1906+0722 was published on 4 August 2015. The discovery confirmed the pulsar nature of the object which had been suspected since 2012 based on the energy distribution of the gamma-ray photons observed by the LAT. The pulsar is young and energetic. In August 2009 it suffered one of the largest glitches observed from a gamma-ray pulsar. No radio pulsations were detected in any follow-up search, making PSR J1906+0722 likely radio-quiet. Advanced methods of timing the arrival times of gamma-ray pulsations were introduced to improve the parameter inference of astrophysical properties. -On 16 November 2016 the discovery and timing measurements of PSR J1208−6238, the youngest known radio-quiet gamma-ray pulsar, were published. Even though the inferred age is 2,700 years, no associated supernova remnant or pulsar wind nebula could be identified. -On 11 January 2017, the first results from a survey of 118 unidentified pulsar-like sources from the Fermi-LAT Catalog were published. A total of 13 new pulsars were found. Most of them are young and were formed in supernovae several tens to hundreds of thousands of years ago. The discoveries and the methods used in the survey were published in the first of two associated papers. The second paper reports faint radio pulsations from two of the 13 gamma-ray pulsars, and presents modeling of the gamma-ray and radio pulse profiles with different geometric emission models. -The discovery of two millisecond pulsars discovered by Einstein@Home through their pulsed gamma radiation was published on 28 February 2018. PSR J1035−6720, spinning at 348 Hertz, has detectable radio pulsations which were found in follow-up searches. The other discovery PSR J1744−7619 is the first radio-quiet millisecond pulsar ever discovered. The project also announced that it was searching for gamma-ray pulsars in binary systems, which are more difficult to find due to the additional orbital parameters. -The first Einstein@Home discovery of a gamma-ray pulsar in a binary system was published on 22 October 2020. PSR J1653-0158, a neutron star with about two solar masses and one of the highest known rotation frequencies of 508 Hertz, orbits the common center of mass with a companion of only 1% of the Sun's mass. The orbital period is 75 minutes, shorter than that of any comparable binary systems. The discovery was made using a GPU-accelerated version of a modified gamma-ray pulsar search code, which included binary orbital parameters. No radio waves were found in follow-up searches. A search for gravitational waves from the pulsar discovered no such emission. The pulsar is from a class known as black widow pulsars. The pulsar evaporates its companion with its energetic radiation and a particle wind. The ablated material fills the binary system with a cloud of plasma absorbing radio waves, but not gamma radiation. -A second discovery of a gamma-ray pulsar in an unusual binary system was reported on 2 February 2021. It was thought to be a "redback" millisecond pulsar system, but no pulsations from the neutron star had been observed. Optical observations of the pulsar companion were used to constrain the orbital parameters of the system. A thus targeted search for gamma-ray pulsations with Einstein@Home found a low-mass pulsar spinning at 377 Hertz in a 5.5 hour orbit with a companion of about a fifth of a solar mass. Precision timing of the gamma-ray pulsations revealed unpredictable changes in the orbital period of up to ten milliseconds. They might be linked to changes in the mass distribution of the companion caused by its magnetic activity, which in turn would affect the pulsar orbit through the changing external gravitational field. -The discovery of 14 previously unknown gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi-LAT data was announced by the project on 15 June 2021. -In November 2023 the Third Fermi Large Area Telescope Catalog of Gamma-Ray Pulsars was published. The catalog lists 39 pulsars discovered with Einstein@Home and 14 with Einstein@Home methods implemented on a large compute cluster. The catalog also includes 13 candidate spider pulsar systems, that could be targets for future searches for their gamma-ray pulsations with Einstein@Home. -As of December 2023, the Einstein@Home project had discovered a total of 39 gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi LAT data. - -== See also == -Gravitational wave -Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) -List of volunteer computing projects - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6f7800568..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Einstein@Home" -chunk: 6/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:41.529329+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Scientific Publications == -Clark, C. J.; et al. (2016). "The Braking Index of a Radio-quiet Gamma-ray Pulsar". The Astrophysical Journal. 832 (1): L15. arXiv:1611.01292. Bibcode:2016ApJ...832L..15C. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/832/1/L15. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 54531854. -Clark, Colin J.; et al. (2016). "The Einstein@Home Gamma-ray Pulsar Survey I: Search Methods, Sensitivity and Discovery of New Young Gamma-ray Pulsars". The Astrophysical Journal. 834 (2): 106. arXiv:1611.01015. Bibcode:2017ApJ...834..106C. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/106. S2CID 5750104. -Lyne, A. G.; Stappers, B. W.; Bogdanov, S.; Freire, P. C. C.; Kaspi, V. M.; et al. (2016). "Timing of 29 Pulsars Discovered in the PALFA Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 834 (2): 137. arXiv:1608.09007. Bibcode:2017ApJ...834..137L. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/137. S2CID 53639204. -Papa, M. A.; Eggenstein, H.-B.; Walsh, S.; Di Palma, I.; Allen, B.; et al. (2016). "Hierarchical follow-up of sub-threshold candidates of an all-sky Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves on LIGO sixth science run data". Physical Review D. 94 (12) 122006. arXiv:1608.08928. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94l2006P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.122006. S2CID 4595158. -Lazarus, P.; et al. (2016). "Einstein@Home discovery of a Double-Neutron Star Binary in the PALFA Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 831 (2): 150. arXiv:1608.08211. Bibcode:2016ApJ...831..150L. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/831/2/150. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 20833657. -Zhu, Sylvia J.; et al. (2016). "Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from Cassiopeia A". Physical Review D. 94 (8) 082008. arXiv:1608.07589. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94h2008Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.082008. ISSN 2470-0010. S2CID 118479596. -Singh, Avneet; et al. (2016). "Results of an all-sky high-frequency Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves in LIGO's fifth science run". Physical Review D. 94 (6) 064061. arXiv:1607.00745. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94f4061S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.064061. ISSN 2470-0010. S2CID 119229506. -The LIGO Scientific Collaboration; The Virgo Collaboration (2016). "Results of the deepest all-sky survey for continuous gravitational waves on LIGO S6 data running on the Einstein@Home volunteer distributed computing project". Physical Review D. 94 (10) 102002. arXiv:1606.09619. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94j2002A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.102002. S2CID 118385297. -Clark, C. J.; et al. (2015). "PSR J1906+0722: An elusive gamma-ray pulsar". The Astrophysical Journal. 809 (1): L2. arXiv:1508.00779. Bibcode:2015ApJ...809L...2C. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/809/1/L2. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 51946861. -Knispel, B.; et al. (2015). "Einstein@Home Discovery of a PALFA Millisecond Pulsar in an Eccentric Binary Orbit". The Astrophysical Journal. 806 (1): 140. arXiv:1504.03684. Bibcode:2015ApJ...806..140K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/806/1/140. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 53510852. -Pletsch, H. J.; et al. (2013). "Einstein@Home discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in Fermi LAT data". The Astrophysical Journal. 779 (1): L11. arXiv:1311.6427. Bibcode:2013ApJ...779L..11P. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/779/1/L11. ISSN 2041-8205. S2CID 53588282. -Knispel, B.; et al. (2013). "Einstein@Home Discovery of 24 Pulsars in the Parkes Multi-beam Pulsar Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 774 (2): 93. arXiv:1302.0467. Bibcode:2013ApJ...774...93K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/93. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 118539374. -Allen, B.; et al. (2013). "The Einstein@Home search for radio pulsars and PSR J2007+2722 discovery". The Astrophysical Journal. 773 (2): 91. arXiv:1303.0028. Bibcode:2013ApJ...773...91A. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/773/2/91. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 119253579. -Knispel, B.; et al. (2011). "Arecibo PALFA Survey and Einstein@Home: Binary Pulsar Discovery by Volunteer Computing". The Astrophysical Journal. 732 (1): L1. arXiv:1102.5340. Bibcode:2011ApJ...732L...1K. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/732/1/L1. ISSN 2041-8205. S2CID 30392929. -Knispel, B.; et al. (2010). "Pulsar Discovery by Global Volunteer Computing". Science. 329 (5997): 1305. arXiv:1008.2172. Bibcode:2010Sci...329.1305K. doi:10.1126/science.1195253. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 20705813. S2CID 29786670. -Pletsch, Holger J.; Allen, Bruce (2009). "Exploiting Large-Scale Correlations to Detect Continuous Gravitational Waves". Physical Review Letters. 103 (18) 181102. arXiv:0906.0023. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.103r1102P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.181102. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 19905796. S2CID 40560957. -Abbott, B. P.; et al. (2009). "Einstein@Home search for periodic gravitational waves in early S5 LIGO data". Physical Review D. 80 (4) 042003. arXiv:0905.1705. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..80d2003A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.80.042003. ISSN 1550-7998. S2CID 13364107. -Abbott, B.; et al. (2009). "Einstein@Home search for periodic gravitational waves in LIGO S4 data". Physical Review D. 79 (2) 022001. arXiv:0804.1747. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..79b2001A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.79.022001. ISSN 1550-7998. S2CID 16542573. -LIGO Scientific Collaboration. "Final report on the S3 analysis". Archived from the original on 2011-11-21. Retrieved 2007-03-28. -LIGO Scientific Collaboration. "First report on the S3 analysis". Archived from the original on 2011-12-21. Retrieved 2005-09-11. - -== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d277db5f0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "El Sueño de Arquímedes" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:14.322210+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -El Sueño de Arquímedes was a Spanish science podcast and radio program which was broadcast by Radio Nacional de España (RNE) from September 2006 until June, 2007. The program was created by Ángel Rodríguez Lozano. A total of 35 programs are still available for download. In addition to El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano also hosted Vanguardia de la Ciencia, which was broadcast weekly without interruption from April 1995 until June 2007. The name of the program means "the dream of Archimedes", and alludes to Archimedes' statement that given a lever and a fixed point, he could move the world. To Ángel Rodríguez Lozano, the dream was moving the world by popularizing and sharing knowledge. - - -== Format == -Before the startup of El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano had been hosting Vanguardia de la Ciencia for more than a decade. When RNE -asked if he would host a second popular science program, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano realised that the scheduled timing, Sundays between 3 and 4 p.m, meant that it would be sandwiched between sports broadcasts. Therefore, he would have to capture the attention of listeners who were not looking for this type of program. The intention was therefore to make the program even more accessible than Vanguardia de la Ciencia, with shorter interviews and more music. Ángel Rodríguez Lozano stated that it had been a marvellous experience, and that the response had been tremendous. -The program included science news, interviews, and biographies of great scientists, written by Carmen Buergo. In the final, humorous section of the program, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano paid a visit to the archetypical mad scientist -Alejandro Laguna, who supposedly lived and worked in a hidden laboratory in the basements of Radio Nacional de España, seven floors below ground level. Alejandro would demonstrate one of his latest inventions, which usually defied the laws of physics, and Ángel played the role of a rather gullible spectator. Alejandro then explained the physics of the corresponding real-world device. Finally, the demonstration of his invention usually had some highly unpleasant consequence for Ángel. - - -== Termination of El Sueño de Arquímedes == -In June 2007, El Sueño de Arquímedes and Vanguardia de la Ciencia were abruptly terminated. In the correspondence section of one of the last programs of Vangurardia de la Ciencia, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano explained, in response to a letter from an outraged listener, that the decision to terminate the program was made due to a re-structuration of RNE, and that he was but one of 4,150 employees who had to leave. -In the previously referenced interview, he explained that everyone older than 52 years had to retire early, and that he was 54 years old at the time. -The decision to terminate the programs was widely criticized in Spanish-speaking blogs. - - -== Available programs == -At the web-site of RNE, 36 programs are still available. - - -== Notes and references == - - -== External links == -Official website -Web site of Vanguardia de la Ciencia http://www.rtve.es/programas/vanguardia -El Vanguardia de la Ciencia at eSnips: https://web.archive.org/web/20110121042457/http://www.esnips.com/web/VanguardiaDeLaCiencia \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 75fdf60ca..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:50.669715+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology is a neurobiology prize that is awarded annually by Science magazine (published by American Association for the Advancement of Science) and underwritten by Eppendorf AG, a laboratory equipment and supply company. Entries are reviewed by editors from Science magazine and the top 10% are forwarded to the judging panel. The judging panel is chaired by the Neuroscience Editor of Science and the remaining judges are nominated from the Society for Neuroscience. The award was established in 2002 to promote the work of promising early-career neurobiologists with $25,000 cash award to support their careers. Each applicant must submit a 1000-word essay explaining the focus and motivation for their last three years of work. The winner is awarded $25,000 and the scientist's winning essay is then published in Science (the winning essay and the other finalists' essays are all published on Science Online). - - -== List (2013–) == - - -== See also == -List of neuroscience awards - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4fc788208..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects research" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:43.859591+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The acronyms ELSI (in the United States) and ELSA (in Europe) refer to research activities that anticipate and address ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI) or aspects (ELSA) of emerging sciences, notably genomics and nanotechnology. ELSI was conceived in 1988 when James Watson, at the press conference announcing his appointment as director of the Human Genome Project (HGP), suddenly and somewhat unexpectedly declared that the ethical and social implications of genomics warranted a special effort and should be directly funded by the National Institutes of Health. - - -== Spread == -Various ELSI or ELSA programs have been developed, in Canada, Europe and the Far East. Overview: - -U.S.A.: Ethical, ....Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding agency: NIH, 1990) -Canada: Genomics-related Ethical, Environmental, Economic, Legal and Social Aspects (GE3LS) (funding agency: Genome Canada, 2000) -South-Korea: Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding: Government of South-Korea, 2001) -United Kingdom: ESRC Genomics Network (EGN), including: Cesagen, Innogen, Egenis, Genomics Forum (funding agency: ESRC 2002) -Netherlands: Centre for Society and the Life Sciences (CSG) (funding agency: Netherlands Genomics Initiative, 2002); more recently the ELSA labs programme related to Artificial Intelligence -Norway: ELSA Program (funding agency: Research Council of Norway, 2002) -Germany, Austria, Finland: ELSAGEN Transnational Research Programme (funding agencies: GEN-AU, FFG, DFG, Academy of Finland, 2008) - - -== Features == -At least four features seem typical for an ELSA approach, namely: - -proximity (closeness to or embedding in large-scale scientific programs); -early anticipation (of societal issues and potential controversies); -interactivity (encouraging stakeholders and publics to assume an active role in co-designing research agendas); -interdisciplinarity (bridging boundaries between research communities such as for instance bioethics and STS). - - -== Reception == -The ELSA approach has been widely endorsed by academics studying the societal impact of science and technology, but also criticized. Michael Yesley, responsible for the US Department of Energy (DOE) part of the ELSI programme, claims that the ELSI Program was in fact a discourse of justification, selecting topics of ethics research that will facilitate rather than challenge the advance of genetic technology. In other words, ELSA genomics as the handmaiden of genomics research. In Europe, in the context of the Horizon 2020 program, ELSA-style research is now usually framed as Responsible Research and Innovation. -Examples of academic journals open to publishing ELSA research results are New Genetics and Society (Taylor and Francis) and Life Sciences, Society and Policy (SpringerOpen). - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0085d7a10..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ethnoscience" -chunk: 1/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:45.159564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Ethnoscience has been defined as an attempt "to reconstitute what serves as science for others, their practices of looking after themselves and their bodies, their botanical knowledge, but also their forms of classification, of making connections, etc." (Augé, 1999: 118). - -== Origins == -Ethnoscience has not always focused on ideas distinct from those of "cognitive anthropology", "component analysis", or "the New Ethnography"; it is a specialization of indigenous knowledge-systems, such as ethno-botany, ethno-zoology, ethno-medicine, etc. (Atran, 1991: 595). According to Scott Atran, ethnoscience looks at culture with a scientific perspective (1991: 650), although most anthropologists abhor this definition. Ethnoscience helps to understand how people develop with different forms of knowledge and beliefs, and focuses on the ecological and historical contributions people have been given (Atran, 1991: 650). Tim Ingold describes ethnoscience as a cross-discipline (2000: 160). He writes that ethnoscience is based on increased collaboration between social sciences and the humanities (e.g., anthropology, sociology, psychology, and philosophy) with natural sciences such as biology, ecology, or medicine (Ingold, 2000: 406–7). At the same time, ethnoscience is increasingly transdisciplinary in its nature (Ingold, 2000: 407). -Of course, naturally over time, the ways in which data has been collected and studied has changed and the field has evolved, becoming more detailed and specific (Urry, 1972: 45). The ideas, mechanics, and methods of ethnoscience evolved from something else - a combination of several things. This pretext amalgamation of theories, processes, and –isms led to the evolution of today's ethnoscience. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index f2f0950c8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ethnoscience" -chunk: 2/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:45.159564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Early approaches == -Early on, Franz Boas established cultural relativism as an approach to understanding indigenous scientific practices (Uddin, 2005: 980). Cultural relativism identifies people's differences and shows how they are a result of the social, historical, and geographical conditions (Uddin, 2005: 980). Boas is known for his work in Northern Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, working with the Kwakwaka'wakw Indians, which is where he established the importance of culture (Uddin, 2005: 980). Lévi-Strauss' structuralism was a strong contributor to the ideas of ethnoscience (Uddin, 2005: 980). It, itself, was the leading idea of providing structure to the research and a guide to organizing and relating different cultures. "Ethnoscience refers to a 'reduction of chaos' achieved by a particular culture, rather than to the 'highest possible and conscious degree' to which such chaos may be reduced"; basically, the ethnoscience of a society creates its culture (Sturtevant, 1964: 100). Much of the influence of anthropology, e.g., geographical determinism, was through the contributions of Jean Bodin (Harris, 1968: 42). In his text, he tried to explain why "northern people were faithful, loyal to the government, cruel, and sexually uninterested, compared to why southern people were malicious, craft, wise, expert in science but ill-adapted to political activity (Harris, 1968: 52)." The Greek historian, Polybius, asserted "we mortals have an irresistible tendency to yield to climatic influences; and to this cause, and no other, may be traced the great distinctions that prevail among us in character, physical formation, complexion, as well as in most of our habits..." (quoted in Harris, 1968: 41). -Another aspect of anthropology prior to ethnoscience is enculturation. Newton and Newton described enculturation as a process whereby the novice, or "outsider", learns what is important to the "insider" (1998). Marvin Harris writes, "One of [enculturation's] most important technical expressions is the doctrine of 'psychic unity,' the belief that in the study of sociocultural differences, hereditary (genetic) differences cancel each other out, leaving 'experience' as the most significant variable" (Harris, 1968: 15). This is one of the many starts of people opening up to the idea that just because people are different, does not mean they are wrong in their thinking. Harris describes how religious beliefs hinder and affect the progress of anthropology and ethnography. The moral beliefs and restrictions of religion fought against anthropological ideas, possibly due to (especially at the time) to the newly hyped idea of evolutionism and Darwinism (Harris, 1968). -Bronislaw Malinowski was one of many who contributed heavily to the precursor of ethnoscience. His earlier work brought attention to sociological studies; his earliest publication focused on a family in Australia, using a sociological study perspective (Harris, 1968: 547). After the First World War, anthropological work was at a standstill; nothing had evolved, if not regressed (Urry, 1972: 54). This allowed him to start from scratch, and rebuild his ideas and methods (Harris, 1968: 547). -Later, however, Malinowski branched out to political evolution during World War II. The period after World War II is what led to ethnoscience; anthropologists learned their skills could be applied to problems that were affecting modern societies (Mead, 1973: 1). Malinowski said "... with his tables of kinship terms, genealogies, maps, plans and diagrams, proves an extensive and big organization, shows the contribution of the tribe, of the clan, of the family, and he gives a picture of the natives subjected to a strict code of behavior and good manners, to which in comparison the life at the Court of Versailles or Escurial was free and easy" (1922: 10). After World War II, there was an extreme amount of growth in the anthropological field, not only with research opportunities but academically, as well (Mead, 1973: 2). -The anthropologist Robin Horton, who taught at several Nigerian universities, considered the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples as incorporated within conceptual world views that bear certain similarities to, and differences from, the modern scientific worldview. Like modern science, traditional thought provides a theoretical structure that "places things in a causal order wider than that provided by common sense" (Horton, 1967, p. 53). In contrast to modern science, he saw traditional thought as having a limited awareness of theoretical alternatives and, consequently, displaying "an absolute acceptance of the established theoretical tenets" (Horton, 1967, pp. 155–6). -There are dozens, if not hundreds, of related methods and processes that preceded ethnoscience. Ethnoscience is just another way to study the human culture and the way people interact in society. Taking a look at the ideas and analyses prior to ethnoscience can help understand why it was developed in the first place. Although, it is not widely used and there is criticism on both ends, ethnoscience allows for a more comprehensive way to collect data and patterns of a people. This is not to say the process is its best or that there will be nothing better. That is the best part: everything evolves, even thought. Just as the ideas did in the past, they can improve over time and regress over time but change is inevitable. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1935727d5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ethnoscience" -chunk: 3/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:45.159564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Development == -Ethnoscience is a new term and study that came into anthropological theory in the 1960s. Often referred to as 'indigenous' or 'traditional' knowledge, ethnoscience introduces a perspective based on native perceptions. It is based on a complete emic perspective, which excludes all observations, interpretations and or any personal notions belonging to the ethnographer. The taxonomy and classification of indigenous systems, to name a few, used to categorize plants, animals, religion and life is adapted from a linguistic analysis. The concept of "Native Science" is also related to the understanding the role of the environment intertwined with the meaning humans place upon their lives. Understanding the language and the native people's linguistic system is one method to understand a native people's system of knowledge of organization. Not only is there categorization for things pertaining to nature and culture thought language, but more importantly and complex is the relationship between environment and culture. Ethnoscience looks at the intricacies of the connection between culture and its surrounding environment. There are also potential limitations and shortcomings in interpreting these systems of knowledge as a dictation of culture and behavior. -Since an ethnographer is not able to physically enter inside an indigenous person's mind, it is essential to not only create a setting or question-answer format to understand perspective but to analyze semantics and word order of given answer to derive an emic understanding. The main focus on a particular component of the languages is placed on its lexicon. The terms "etic" and "emic" are derived from the linguistic terms of "phonetic" and "phonemic". -As introduced by Gregory Cajete, some limitations the concept of indigenous knowledge, is the potential to bypass non-indigenous knowledge as pertinent and valuable. The labels of "indigenous" are overly accepted by those who seek more support by outsiders to further their cause. There might also be an unequal distribution of knowledge amongst a tribe or peoples. There is also the idea that culture is bound by environment. Some theorists conclude that indigenous people's culture is not operated by mental concentrations but solely by the earth that surrounds them. Some theorists go the extent to state that biological processes are based upon the availability, of lack thereof, environmental resources. The methods for sustainability are founded through the workings of the land. These techniques are exercised from the basis of tradition. The importance of the combination of ecological process, social structures, environmental ethics and spiritual ecology are crucial to the expression of the true connection between the natural world and "ecological consciousness". -The origin of Ethnoscience began between the years 1960 to 1965; deriving from the concept of "ethno- + science". Ethno- a combining form meaning "race", "culture", "people", used in the formation of compound words: ethnography. The two concepts later emerged into "ethno-science". The origin of the word 'science' involves the empiric observation of measurable quantities and the testing of hypotheses to falsify or support them. -"Ethnoscience refers to the system of knowledge and cognition typical of a given culture...to put it another way a culture itself amounts to the sum of a given society's folk classifications, all of that society's ethnoscience, its particular ways of classifying its material and social universe" (Sturtevant 1964: 99–100). The aim of ethnoscience is to gain a more complete description of cultural knowledge. Ethnoscience has been successfully used on several studies of given cultures relating to their linguistics, folk taxonomy, and how they classify their foods, animals and plants. - -=== Ethnolinguistics === -Ethnoscience is the examination of the perceptions, knowledge, and classifications of the world as reflected in their use of language, which can help anthropologists understand a given culture. By using an ethnographic approach to studying a culture and learning their lexicon and syntax they are able to gain more knowledge in understanding how a particular culture classifies its material and social universe. In addition, this approach "adopted provides simultaneously a point at which the discipline of linguistics, or at least some of its general attitudes, may sensibly be used in anthropology and as a means of gaining insight not only into the nature of man but also into the nature of culture" (Videbeck and Pia, 1966). -Researchers can use linguistics to study what a given culture considers important in a given situation or unforeseen event, and can rank those potential situations in terms of their likelihood to recur. In addition, "understanding the contingencies is helpful in the task of comprehending folk taxonomies on the one hand, and, on the other, an understanding of the taxonomy is required for a full scale appreciation of criteria considered relevant in a given culture (Videbeck and Pia, 1966). - -=== Taxonomy and classification === -Ethnoscience can be used to analyze the kinship terminology of a given culture, using their language and according to how they view members of their society. Taxonomies "are models of analysis whose purpose is the description of particular types of hierarchical relationships between members of a given set of elements" (Perchonock and Werner, 1969). For example, in our society we classify family groups by giving members the title of father, mother, sister, daughter, brother, son, grandfather, grandmother, etc. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index c88b581f7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ethnoscience" -chunk: 4/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:45.159564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== System of classification – among cultures === -Ethnoscience deals with how a given culture classifies certain principles in addition to how it is express through their language. By understanding a given culture through how they view the world, anthropologists attempt to eliminate any bias through translation as well as categorized their principles in their own ways. "The new methods, which focus on the discovery and description of folk systems, have come to be known as Ethnoscience. Ethnoscience analysis has thus far concentrated on systems of classification within such cultural and linguistic domains as colors, plants, and medicines" (Perchonock and Werner, 1969). An ethnoscientific approach can be used to better understand a given culture and their knowledge of their culture. Using an ethnographic approach can help anthropologists understand how that given culture views and categorizes their own foods, animal kingdom, medicines, as well as plants. - -=== Contemporary research === -Ethnoscience can be effectively summed up as a classification system for a particular culture in the same way that a botanist would use a taxonomic system for the classification of plant species. Everything from class levels, food consumption, clothing, and material culture objects would be subjected to a taxonomic classification system. In essence, ethnoscience is a way of classifying cultural systems in a structured order to better understand the culture. -The roots of ethnoscience can be traced back to influential anthropologists such as Franz Boas, Bronislaw Malinowski, and Benjamin Whorf who attempted to understand other cultures from an insider's perspective. Ward Goodenough is accredited for bringing ethnoscience to the stage when he define cultural systems of knowledge by stating: - -"A societies culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members. Culture is not a material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, behavior, or emotions. It is rather an organization of these things. It is the form of things that people have in mind, their models for perceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them." - -(Goodenough 1957:167) -In order to properly put ethnoscience in context we must first understand the definition of ethnoscience. it is defined as "an attempt at cultural description from a totally emic perspective (a perspective in ethnography that uses the concepts and categories that are relevant and meaningful to the culture that is insider analysis) standpoint, this eliminating all of the ethnographer's own categories" (Morey and Luthans 27). Ethnoscience is also a way of learning and understanding how an individual or group perceive their environment and how they fit in with their environment as reflected in their own words and actions. -Ethnoscience has many techniques when applied to an emic perspective. Ethnosemantics, ethnographic semantics, ethnographic ethnoscience, formal analysis, and componential analysis are the terms that apply to the practice of ethnoscience. Ethnosemantics looks at the meaning of words in order to place them in context of the culture being studied. It allows for taxonomy of a certain part of the culture being looked at so that there is a clear breakdown which in turn leads to a deeper understanding of the subject at hand. Ethnographic semantics are very similar to cognitive anthropology in that its primary focus is the intellectual and rational perspectives of the culture being studied. Ethnographic semantics specifically looks at how language is used throughout the culture. Lastly, ethnographic ethnoscience is related to ethnosemantics such that, it uses a taxonomic system to understand how cultural knowledge is accessible through language. Ethnographic ethnoscience uses similar classification systems for cultural domains like ethnobotany and ethnoanatomy. Again, ethnoscience is a way of understanding a how a culture sees itself through its own language. Understanding the cultural language allows the ethnographer to have a deeper and more intimate understanding of the culture. - -== See also == -ethno- -astronomy -biology -botany -chemistry -ecology -mathematics -medicine -pharmacy -zoology -musicology -'traditional' -knowledge -medicine - -== References == -Atran, Scott (1991). "Social Science Information / Sur Les Sciences Sociales". Ethnoscience Today. 30 (4): 595–662. doi:10.1177/053901891030004001. S2CID 144923237. -Augé, Marc. 1999. The war of dreams: exercises in ethno-fiction, London: Pluto Press, 1999 -Cajete, Gregory. 2000. "Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence."Santa Fe, N.M.: Clear Light Publishers. -Harris, Marvin. 1968. The Rise of Anthropological Theory: A history of Theories of Culture. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. -Horton, Robin (1967), "African Traditional Thought and Western Science", Africa, 37: 50–71, 155–187, doi:10.2307/1157195, JSTOR 1157195, S2CID 145507695 -Ingold, Tim. 2000. The Perception of The Environment: Essays on livelihood, dwelling and skill. London, UK: Routledge. -Malinowski, BC. 1922. Argonauts of the western pacific. London, UK: Routledge. -Mead, Margaret (1973). "Changing Styles of Anthropological Work". Annual Review of Anthropology. 2: 1–16. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.02.100173.000245. -Meehan, Peter M. 1980. Science, ethnoscience, and agricultural knowledge utilization. In: Warren DM, Brokensha D, Werner O (Eds). Indigenous knowledge systems and development. Lanham, MD, USA: University Press of America. p 383–91. -Newton, DP; Newton, LD (1998). "Enculturation and understanding: Some differences between sixth formers' and graduates' conceptions of understanding in history and science". Teaching in Higher Education. 3 (3): 339–64. doi:10.1080/1356215980030305. -Perchonock, Norma; Werner, Oswald (1969). "Navaho Systems of Classifications: Some Implications for Ethnoscience". Ethnology. 8 (3): 229–242. doi:10.2307/3772753. JSTOR 3772753. -Sturtevant, William C (1964). "Studies in Ethnoscience". American Anthropologist. 66 (3): 99–131. doi:10.1525/aa.1964.66.3.02a00850. -Urry, James (1972). "Notes and Queries on Anthropology". Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1972: 45–57. doi:10.2307/3031732. JSTOR 3031732. -Videbeck, R. and J. Pia. 1966. Plans for Coping: An Approach to Ethnoscience. Syracuse University. Anthropological Linguistics, Vol. 8, No. 8. Ethnoscience: A Symposium Presented at the 1966 Meeting of the Central States Anthropological Society (Nov., 1966), pp. 71–77. -Werner, Oswald (1972). "Ethnoscience 1972". Annual Review of Anthropology. 1: 271–308. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.01.100172.001415. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index b53ea45f1..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,72 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Eurotrac" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:02.301111+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -EUROTRAC (European Experiment on Transportation and Transformation of Environmentally Relevant Trace Constituents) was a joint European scientific research programme within the Eureka Framework. -EUROTRAC was accepted as a Eureka project at the second Eureka Ministerial Conference held in Hannover (Germany) in November 1985. After a two-year definition phase, the work started in January 1988 and ended in 1995. At the peak of the programme, it included more than 250 research groups from 24 European countries and its budget exceeded 16 million ECU per year (equivalent to approx. 16 million Euro). - - -== Objectives and focus areas == -The objectives of Eurotrac were to: - -Increase the basic knowledge in atmospheric science; -Promote the technological development of sensitive, specific, and fast response instruments for environmental research and monitoring; -Improve the scientific basis for future political decisions on environmental management in European countries. -EUROTRAC studied the impact of human activities on the troposphere over Europe, focusing on: - -The chemistry and transport of photo-oxidants (especially ozone) in the troposphere -The processes leading to the formation of acidity in the atmosphere -The uptake and release of atmospheric trace substances by the biosphere. -EUROTRAC was an interdisciplinary programme involving field experiments and campaigns, laboratory studies, comprehensive model developments and simulations, emission estimation, studies of biosphere/atmosphere exchange and the development of advanced instruments for laboratory and field measurements. - - -=== Projects and outcome === -Fourteen projects were established as part of the EUROTRAC programme. Under each project, several subprojects and studies were carried out. Numerous articles and findings resulting from numerous studies have been presented at symposiums held during and after the EUROTRAC period. These articles can be found on websites like Springer, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, and ResearchGate. The 14 EUROTRAC projects were: -Cloud studies: - -ACE: Acidity in Cloud Experiments -GCE: Ground Based Cloud Experiment -Field measurements: - -ALPTRAC: High Alpine Air and Snow Chemistry -TOR: Tropospheric Ozone Research -TRACT: Transport of Pollutants over Complex Terrain -Biosphere / Atmosphere exchange: - -ASE: Air-Sea Exchange -BIATEX: Biosphere-Atmosphere exchange of pollutants and Trace substances -Laboratory studies: - -HALIPP: Heterogeneous and Liquid Phase Processes -LACTOZ: Laboratory Studies of Chemistry Related to Tropospheric Ozone -Model development: - -EUMAC: European Modelling of Atmospheric Constituents -GLOMAC: Global Modelling of Atmospheric Chemistry -Instrument Development: - -JETDLAG: Joint European Development of Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy for Measurement of Atmospheric Trace Gases -TESLAS: Tropospheric Environmental Studies by Laser Sounding -TOPAS: Tropospheric Optical Absorption Spectroscopy - - -== Funding and cooperation == -EUROTRAC was a science-driven, "bottom-up" research programme, where the scientist involved in the programme proposed research projects. The scientist had to seek funding themselves, primarily through their national funding sources. In some cases also the European Commission contributed to the funding. -In order to become a EUROTRAC-project, the project proposals had to be evaluated by the Scientific Steering Committee (SSC) and finally approved by the International Executive Committee (IEC). - - -== Organisation == -EUROTRAC was headed by an International Executive Committee (IEC). The IEC consisted of one representative from each member country, and approved the subproject proposals and appointed members to the Scientific Steering Committee (SSC). The SSC reviewed the subproject proposals and the progress and results of the individual subprojects. The International Scientific Secretariat (ISS) coordinated the EUROTRAC project. The ISS was operated by Fraunhofer Institute for Atmospheric Research (Fraunhofer Institut für Atmosphärische Umweltforschung - IFU), located in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, GermanyGermany. - - -== Second phase == -After ending the first phase of EUROTRAC (1988–1995, described above), EUROTRAC-2 was initiated in 1996. During the second phase, 25 countries and more than 300 research groups were involved. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index f1700e119..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Evolution@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:46.377254+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -evolution@home was a volunteer computing project for evolutionary biology, launched in 2001. The aim of evolution@home is to improve understanding of evolutionary processes. This is achieved by simulating individual-based models. The Simulator005 module of evolution@home was designed to better predict the behaviour of Muller's ratchet. -The project was operated semi-automatically; participants had to manually download tasks from the webpage and submit results by email using this method of operation. yoyo@home used a BOINC wrapper to completely automate this project by automatically distributing tasks and collecting their results. Therefore, the BOINC version was a complete volunteer computing project. yoyo@home has declared its involvement in this project finished. - - -== See also == -Artificial life -Digital organism -Evolutionary computation -Folding@home -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial_Net_Plastination_Project-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial_Net_Plastination_Project-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3c0ddaf6b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial_Net_Plastination_Project-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,75 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Fascial Net Plastination Project" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial_Net_Plastination_Project" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:47.550222+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Fascial Net Plastination Project is an anatomical research initiative established in 2018 aimed at plastinating and studying the human fascial network. The collaboration was initiated by Robert Schleip as a joint effort between Body Worlds, Fascia Research Group, and the Fascia Research Society. The project focuses on preserving the fascia, a complex connective tissue network that plays a crucial role in the human body's structure and function. -One outcome of this three-year project is the creation of the world's first 3-D representation of the fascial network of a whole human body, named FR:EIA (Fascia Revealed: Educating Interconnected Anatomy), which is on display at the Body Worlds museum in Berlin, Germany. - - -== Origination and objectives == -The project was conceived to provide a comprehensive and tangible understanding of the fascial system through plastination. This technique, developed by Gunther von Hagens, involves replacing water and fat in biological tissues with polymers to create durable, lifelike specimens. The specific goals of the project include: - -Enhancing Educational Outreach: By creating detailed and durable plastinated specimens of the fascial net, the project aims to elevate the anatomical education of medical professionals and the general public. -Advancing Research: Detailed anatomical studies of plastinated fascia specimens facilitate a deeper understanding of its structure and function. -Public Exhibitions: Specimens from the project are displayed in Body Worlds exhibitions worldwide, providing an unprecedented view of the human fascial system. - - -== Background == - -The fascia is a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, that supports and surrounds muscles, bones, nerves, and blood vessels. It extends from head to toe without interruption. Recent studies have highlighted the fascia's significance in movement, stability, and overall bodily function, debunking the previous notion of fascia being merely passive tissue. - - -== Overview == -In January 2018, the Fascia Research Society, Somatics Academy, the Plastinarium, and Body Worlds embarked on a collaborative journey to create the world's first 3D representation of the fascial network of a whole human body via plastination. Directed by fascia research scientist Robert Schleip, professor of anatomy Carla Stecco, with the assistance of clinical anatomist John Sharkey and support from several other experts, the project is taking place in Guben, Germany, at the renowned Plastinarium under the direction of Dr. Vladimir Chereminskiy. -The project was supported by a Scientific Advisory Board consisting of Vladimir Chereminskiy, Gil Hedley, Thomas W. Myers, John Sharkey, Robert Schleip, Carla Stecco, Jaap Van der Wal, Gunther von Hagens, and Angelina Whalley. -The first ten plastinated specimens from this project, demonstrating fascial architecture of different selected body regions from this project were exhibited for the first time at the Fifth International Fascia Research Congress in Berlin, Germany, on November 14 and 15, 2018, in an exhibition titled "Fascia in a NEW LIGHT: The Exhibition." - - -=== Phase one === -The first phase began in January 2018 with a team of scientists, academics, and anatomy enthusiasts. Several formalin-fixed specimens were dissected to illustrate fascial structures from superficial fascia/subcutaneous tissues, including the abdomen, arm, and lower limb. Additionally, several deep fascia structures were dissected, such as the fascia lata, a 5 cm cross-section of the thigh, a 5 cm cross-section of the leg, the fibrous pericardium with the respiratory diaphragm, and the lumbodorsal fascia. -These specimens went through the first two stages of plastination; soaking in high and low temperature baths to replace water with acetone and dissolve fats, followed by another bath to replace acetone with plastic polymer. These stages typically take up to six months depending on the size of the specimen. - - -=== Phase two === -In June 2018, the team returned to Guben to position the specimens. Now infused with silicone rubber, the specimens were still supple and could be positioned back into their original shapes. The team created forms to support the soft specimens so they could undergo the final stage of gas curing to harden them into durable plastinates ready for exhibition. -During this phase, additional dissections were undertaken, including a second attempt at the lumbodorsal fascia, a 10 cm cross-section of the abdomen, the deep fascia of the arm, and an anterior prosection of the pelvis. - - -=== Phase three === -The third phase aimed to create a full-body fascia plastinate for exhibition at the Sixth International Fascia Research Congress in Montreal, Canada, in 2021. This phase involved complex decisions on how best to dissect and display the fascial structures in a meaningful way. This plastinate has now become a major highlight at the Body Worlds museum in Berlin. -A collection of ten plastinated specimens from this project showing fascial architecture of selected human body regions was given as a long-term loan to the University of Padova in Italy in 2023, where the collection is currently displayed for the purpose of educating medical students at the entrance hall of the Department of Neuroscience. - - -== Techniques and methodologies == -The project employs advanced plastination techniques to preserve the intricate details of the fascial network. This involves a meticulous process where water and lipids in biological tissues are replaced with curable polymers like silicone, epoxy, or polyester, resulting in odorless, durable, and anatomically precise specimens. These plastinates are then used for educational and research purposes, showcasing the complexity and functionality of fascia. - - -== Scientific significance == -The plastination of the fascial net has significant implications for both medical research and education. It allows for detailed examination of the fascia's role in musculoskeletal health, its contribution to proprioception, and its involvement in various medical conditions. The project has provided critical insights into how fascia affects movement, stability, and overall physical health, thus influencing treatment approaches in physiotherapy, sports medicine, and surgery. - - -== Controversies and ethical considerations == -Plastination, while groundbreaking, has not been without controversy. Ethical concerns have been raised regarding the sourcing of bodies for plastination and the display of human remains in public exhibitions. The Fascial Net Plastination Project however, adheres to strict ethical guidelines, ensuring that all specimens are sourced from legally and ethically approved donations, with explicit consent from donors or their families. - - -== Presentation and reception == -The project was prominently featured at the 2021 Fascia Research Congress. This presentation included detailed discussions on the techniques used, the scientific findings from the plastinated specimens, and their applications in medical education and research. The project received considerable attention from the scientific community for its innovative approach to studying fascia and its potential to revolutionize anatomical science. -FR:EIA was officially unveiled on November 24, 2021, over a webinar with 1000+ participants as they unveiled its permanent display at the Body Worlds museum in Berlin, Germany. - - -== Impact and future directions == -The Fascial Net Plastination Project has already made significant contributions to the field of fascia research. By providing a durable and detailed representation of the fascial network, it has enhanced the understanding of this critical component of human anatomy. Future directions for the project include expanding the range of specimens, refining plastination techniques, and fostering international collaborations to further explore the clinical implications of fascia. - - -== External links == -The Plastination Project -FR:EIA at Body Worlds Museum - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4c1a1d00f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Feminist philosophy of science" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:48.721198+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Feminist philosophy of science is a branch of feminist philosophy that seeks to understand how the acquirement of knowledge through scientific means has been influenced by notions of gender identity and gender roles in society. Feminist philosophers of science question how scientific research and scientific knowledge itself may be influenced and possibly compromised by the social and professional framework within which that research and knowledge is established and exists. The intersection of gender and science allows feminist philosophers to reexamine fundamental questions and truths in the field of science to reveal how gender biases may influence scientific outcomes. The feminist philosophy of science has been described as being located "at the intersections of the philosophy of science and feminist science scholarship" and has attracted considerable attention since the 1980s. -Feminist philosophers of science use feminist epistemology as a lens through which to analyze scientific methods, results, and analysis. This epistemology emphasizes "situated knowledge" that hinges on one's individual perspectives on a subject; feminist philosophers often highlight the under-representation of female scientists in academia and the resulting androcentric biases that exist in science. Feminist philosophers suggest that integrating feminine modes of thought and logic that are undervalued by current scientific theory will enable improvement and broadening of scientific perspectives. Advocates assert that inclusive epistemology via applying a feminist philosophy of science will allow for a field of science that is more accessible to public. Practitioners of feminist philosophy of science also seek to promote gender equality in scientific fields and greater recognition of the achievements of female scientists. - -Critics have argued that the political commitments of advocates of feminist philosophy of science is incompatible with modern-day scientific objectivity, emphasizing the success of the scientific method due to its lauded objectivity and "value-free" methods of knowledge-making. - -== History == -The feminist philosophy of science was born out of feminist science studies in the 1960s, when female primatologists began to reevaluate stereotypes of male and female behavior in animals. However, feminist reform born from this branch of philosophy did not receive formal backing from the federal government until the late 1980s, after which its prominence as a philosophy of science grew. In 1986, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) instituted a requirement for both male and female subjects in medical and clinical research. In the early 1990s, the NIH Office of Research on Women's Health and $625 million in funding for the Women's Health Initiative represented drastic support for applications of the feminist philosophy of science in the public sphere. -These reforms coincided with the growth of the feminist philosophy of science in the academic realm. In August 1978, Catharine R. Stimpson and Joan Burstyn published an editorial in a special volume of Signs titled "Women, Science, and Society" highlighting the lack of female scholarship in science and its effects. Their article introduced three areas of scholarship: critiques of gender bias in science, a history of women in science, and social science data and public policy considerations on the status of women in the science. -In the 1980s, feminist science studies had become more philosophical, corresponding to a shift in many fields of academic feminism. Two main fields of thought emerged, creating a divide between scholarship on "women in science" and "feminist critiques of science". While both agreed on the existence of an androcentric bias in science, the former focused on an increase in funding and hiring of female scientists, while the latter called for an interrogation of the underlying assumptions and biases present in scientific theory and methods. The latter became the primary focus of feminist philosophers of science moving forward, and conflict arose between women who were actually involved in scientific research and those attempting a feminist critique of gender roles in science. -By the late nineties, feminist science studies had become well-established and had many prominent scholars within its field of study. Philosopher John Searle characterized feminism in 1993 as a "cause to be advanced" more so than a "domain to be studied", signaling the rise in the use of feminist philosophy as a lens through which to perform science. - -== Feminist philosophy of science == - -=== Objectivity and values === -Feminist philosophers of science state that, rather being purely objective, science is necessarily biased and not value free. This branch of feminist philosophy argues that full understanding and interpretation of scientific results requires an interrogation of how gender inequities influence the credibility of research methods. -Feminist philosophers of science argue that equity and inclusion can help create more robust research methods to alleviate gender bias and produce more thorough results. For example, a lack of female research subjects and perspectives in academic research undermines the "contextual empiricism" required by true neutrality". Thus, because science is affected by social, cultural, and political agendas via funding, feminist philosophers of science believe equitable funding is a critical first step in removing biases from research and increasing autonomy of science. -The values and criticisms of the feminist philosophy of science are more broadly categorized under the idea of "Socially Responsible Science (SRS)". Socially responsible science argues for an impartial evaluation that makes a distinction between facts and values, which is necessary for the creation of "good science". In "The Source and Status of Values for Socially Responsible Science," Matthew Brown discusses the lens of being socially engaged in science as a means of "craft[ing] better ethics codes for their professional societies." He believes this is done by emphasizing "Ethics and social and political philosophy at least as much as epistemology and metaphysics." Valuing the study of ethics, politics, and social studies in understanding the basis upon which research is performed, Brown argues that a new, impartial agenda for science can be developed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8a6de29fc..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Feminist philosophy of science" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:48.721198+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Standpoint and knowledge === -The feminist philosophy of science has traditionally been highly critical of the lack of access and opportunities for women in science, resulting in scientific results that have been "distorted by sexist values." Sharon Crasnow highlights how the "exclusion of women as researchers and subjects" in scientific research, studies and projects can lead to incomplete methods and methodologies and ultimately unreliable or inaccurate results. Some feminist philosophies of science question whether science can lay claim to "impartiality, neutrality, autonomy, and indifference to political positions and the values" when the "neutral" position is benchmarked against the values held by one culture (i.e. western patriarchy) among the multitude of cultures participating in modern science. -A complete Standpoint theory contains seven parts to fully understand the location of power one has, their "epistemic privilege". Anderson lays these out in her journal Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science. The first point of the theory must state the social location of the authority. The second, how large is the grasp of this authority, what does it claim privilege over. Third, what aspect of the social location allows authority. Fourth, the grounds of the authority, what justifies their privilege. Fifth, the type of epistemic privilege it is claiming to have. Sixth, the other perspectives similar to its own. Lastly, access to this privilege, by occupying the social location is it sufficient to gain access to the perspective. -Relating to Objectivity, epistemology can give a fuller understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge. Feminist epistemology is one of a group of approaches in science studies that urges us to recognize the role of the social in the production of knowledge. Feminist epistemology directs people to consider features of themselves and culture as beings of knowledge that had been outside what was considered appropriate. The goals of researchers and the values that shape the choice of goals are relevant to the knowledge we arrive at. This has implications both for how we train scientists and for how we educate everyone about science. If science is seen as more connected to application, more related to human needs and desires, traditionally underrepresented groups will have greater motivation to succeed and persist in their science courses or pursue scientific careers. Motivation will be greater as members of underrepresented groups see how science can produce knowledge that has value to their concerns in ways that are consistent with good scientific methodology. Feminist epistemology urges a continued exploration of science in this way and so has much to offer science education. - -=== Criticisms of feminist epistemology in science === -External critics of the feminist philosophy of science find several flaws in its logic and values. Because feminist philosophers argue that scientific "facts" are necessarily biased by values, one major criticisms is scientists under this epistemological constraint will "impos[e] political constraints on the conclusions it will accept" and that "truths inconvenient to a feminist perspective will be censored." Moreover, some critics contend that while values are important in the interpretation of scientific results, attention to the values present in scientific inquiry does not displace the importance of scientific evidence. Some further argue that because of the "corrosive cynicism about science" suggested by feminist critique, feminist philosophers of science may support a wholly anti-science movement. -Another criticism commonly levied at the feminist philosophy of science is that it suggests all women have the same perspectives and that objective truths can be revealed by performing science in a "feminine" way, which creates multiple issues. By homogenizing the perspectives of women into one monolithic viewpoint, the feminist philosophy of science may valorize a certain female mode of thinking that can be used to diminish individual female perspectives. Furthermore, some critics worry that promoting a feminist epistemological lens through which to perform research will result in an intellectual ghetto for female scientists, who will be pigeonholed into particular fields where feminist theory is deemed more relevant. - -=== Applications of the feminist philosophy of science === -Many applications of the feminist philosophy of science exist in recent work, with feminist epistemology applied to research a variety of scientific fields. -Feminist epistemology is particularly relevant in the area of reproductive biology. Emily Martin describes how stereotypes of male and female behavior have affected descriptions of the human fertilization process. She argues that, due to various perceptions of women throughout history, biologists have mischaracterized the interaction between egg and sperm; Martin applies the feminist philosophy of science to call for an objective model of fertilization unbiased by societal gender roles and harmful perceptions of female behavior. -Further work regarding the application of the feminist philosophy of science in evolutionary biology has been explored. Historically, evolutionary biologists assumed that the female orgasm was assumed to assist in reproduction, since it was analogous to the male orgasm, despite clear evidence to the contrary However, recent accounts describe that these assumptions were largely incorrect. Elisabeth A. Lloyd's findings from extended case studies of the female orgasm illustrate that core beliefs developed solely through assumptions predicated on gender result in major flaws in scientific research, illustrating the importance of applying feminist philosophy in academic work. -Supporters also argue that the feminist philosophy of science should be applied to primary and secondary schooling. To combat the underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and math, reforms should be implemented through a feminist philosophical viewpoint. Rather than combating gender biases in science by implementing feminist viewpoints into research and analysis, some suggest that encouraging girls to pursue STEM via educational reforms will intrinsically revert gender biases in scientific research. - -== See also == -Feminist technoscience - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index b97dccc42..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,58 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Formal science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:14.787257+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems. -Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using theoretical and empirical methods, the formal sciences use language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by formal systems and the deductions that can be made from them. -The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures used to describe the physical world, and what inferences may be made about them. - - -== Branches == -Logic (also a branch of philosophy) -Mathematics -Statistics -Theoretical computer science -Artificial intelligence -Game theory -Systems theory -Theoretical linguistics -Decision theory -Systems science -Data science -Information theory -Computer science -Cryptography - - -== Differences from other sciences == -One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts. -Because of their non-empirical nature, formal sciences are construed by outlining a set of axioms and definitions from which other statements (theorems) are deduced. For this reason, in Rudolf Carnap's logical-positivist conception of the epistemology of science, theories belonging to formal sciences are understood to contain no synthetic statements, instead containing only analytic statements. - - -== See also == - - -== References == - - -== Further reading == -Mario Bunge (1985). Philosophy of Science and Technology. Springer. -Mario Bunge (1998). Philosophy of Science. Rev. ed. of: Scientific research. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1967. -C. West Churchman (1940). Elements of Logic and Formal Science, J.B. Lippincott Co., New York. -James Franklin (1994). The formal sciences discover the philosophers' stone. In: Studies in History and Philosophy of Science. Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 513–533, 1994 -Stephen Leacock (1906). Elements of Political Science. Houghton, Mifflin Co, 417 pp. -Popper, Karl R. (2002) [1959]. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York, NY: Routledge Classics. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149. -Bernt P. Stigum (1990). Toward a Formal Science of Economics. MIT Press -Marcus Tomalin (2006), Linguistics and the Formal Sciences. Cambridge University Press -William L. Twining (1997). Law in Context: Enlarging a Discipline. 365 pp. - - -== External links == - Media related to Formal sciences at Wikimedia Commons -Interdisciplinary conferences — Foundations of the Formal Sciences \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeHAL-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeHAL-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d75f2d19a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeHAL-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "FreeHAL" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeHAL" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:49.850900+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -FreeHAL was a volunteer computing project to build a self-learning chatbot. This project is no longer active. -Originally, the program was called JEliza referring to the chatbot ELIZA by Joseph Weizenbaum. The J stood for Java because JEliza has first been programmed in Java. In May 2008, the program has been renamed to FreeHAL because the programming language has changed. The name is related to the computer in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey. -FreeHAL uses a semantic network and technologies like pattern recognition, stemming, part of speech databases and Hidden Markov Models in order to imitate a human behaviour. FreeHAL learns autonomously. While communicating by keyboard, the program extends its database. Currently, English and German are supported. -By using the BOINC platform, new semantic networks for the program are built. FreeHAL@home appears to have terminated operations. - - -== Awards == -In 2008, the program won the first prize in the category "Most Popular" at the Chatterbox Challenge, a yearly competition between different similar chatbots. - - -== Publications == -There was an article about FreeHAL in the Linux Magazine, Issue 97 from December 2008. In the German magazine com!, the program was on the CD/DVD and in the list of the Top-10-Open-Source programs of the month. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Website archive -Linux-Magazine Issue 97, p. 94f -com! Magazine, Issues 4/08 and 5/08 (in German) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_of_Science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index e4e250b93..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_of_Science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Frontiers of Science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_of_Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:50.979588+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Frontiers of Science was an illustrated comic strip created by Professor Stuart Butler of the School of Physics at the University of Sydney in collaboration with Robert Raymond, a documentary maker from the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) in 1961. The artist was Andrea Bresciani. After 1970 the comic was illustrated by David Emerson. -It explained scientific concepts and recent research and in a 3 or 4 panel illustrated strip in an accessible and easily comprehensible way. The strip was syndicated to over 200 newspapers around the world for 25 years, from 1961 to 1987. It was also published as soft cover books. As of 2011, it "retains the record of being the longest-running newspaper science comic strip in the world." -The strips are archived at Rare Books and Special Collections in Fisher Library at the University of Sydney. The entire series is available for viewing online. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Drifting Through Inner Space Ocean deep exploration explained in 5 cartoon strips c late 1960s - at NASA website - Accessed July 2006. -University of Sydney Outreach projects, Frontiers of Science, - Accessed July 2006. -Frontiers of Science Digital Collections, University of Sydney - Accessed April 2019. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index c06ef74df..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Funding of science" -chunk: 1/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Research funding is a term that generally encompasses any funding for scientific research in the areas of natural science, technology, and social science. While different methods can be used to disburse funding, the term generally connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated, with only the most promising and economically viable receiving funding. Usually, it is measured through gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). GERD includes R&D performed within a country and funded from abroad but excludes payments for R&D performed abroad. -The largest share of research funding comes from two major sources: corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies, often known as research councils). A smaller amount of scientific research is funded by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria, and AIDS. -According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), more than 60% of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. Comparatively, in countries with a relatively lower national GDP, such as Portugal and Mexico, the industry contribution is significantly lower. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in the social sciences and humanities. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialization possibilities rather than "blue-sky" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion). - -== History == - -Conducting research requires funds. The funding trend for research has gone from a closed patronage system, to which only a few could contribute, to an open system with multiple funding possibilities. -In the early Zhou dynasty (-c. 6th century to 221 BCE), government officials used their resources to fund schools of thought of which they were patrons. The bulk of their philosophies is still relevant today, including Confucianism, Legalism, and Taoism. -During the Mayan Empire (-c. 1200–1250), scientific research was funded for religious purposes. Research there developed a Venus Table, showing precise astronomical data about the position of Venus in the sky. In Cairo (-c. 1283), the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun funded a monumental hospital, patronizing the medical sciences over the religious sciences. Furthermore, Tycho Brahe was given an estate (-c. 1576 – 1580) by his royal patron King Frederik II, which was used to build Uraniborg, an early research institute. - -=== The age of the academies === -Between 1700 and 1799, scientific academies became central creators of scientific knowledge. Funded by state sponsorship, academic societies were free to manage scientific developments. Membership was exclusive in terms of gender, race, and class, but academies opened the world of research up beyond the traditional patronage system. -In 1799, French inventor and mechanical engineer Louis-Nicolas Robert patented the paper machine. When he quarreled over invention ownership, he sought financing from the Fourdrinier brothers. In 19th-century Europe, businessmen financed the application of science to industry. -In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as the pace of technological progress increased before and during the Industrial Revolution, most scientific and technological research was carried out by individual inventors using their own funds. A system of patents was developed to allow inventors a period of time (often twenty years) to commercialize their inventions and recoup a profit, although in practice, many found this difficult. -The Manhattan Project (1942 – 1946) had cost $27 billion and employed 130,000 people, many of them scientists charged with producing the first nuclear weapons. In 1945, 70 scientists signed the Szilard petition, asking President Truman to make a demonstration of the power of the bomb before using it. Most of the signers lost their jobs in military research. -In the twentieth century, scientific and technological research became increasingly systematized, as corporations developed and discovered that continuous investment in research and development could be a key element of competitive success. It remained the case, however, that imitation by competitors - circumventing or simply flouting patents, especially those registered abroad - was often just as successful a strategy for companies focused on innovation in matters of organization and production technique, or even in marketing. -Nowadays, in 2025, a growing number of funders have decided to make research outcomes transparent and accessible in data repositories or Open-access. Moreover, some researchers turn to crowdfunding in search of new projects to fund. Private and public foundations, governments, and others sponsor opportunities for researchers. As new funding sources become available, the research community grows and becomes accessible to a wider and more diverse group of scientists. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0e73102e8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Funding of science" -chunk: 2/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Methodology to measure science funding == -The guidelines for R&D data collections are laid down in the Frascati Manual published by the OECD. In the publication, R&D denotes three types of activities: basic research, applied research, and experimental development. This definition does not cover innovation, but it may feed into the innovative process. Additionally, the business sector innovation has a dedicated OECD manual. -The most frequently used measurement for R&D is gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). GERD is often represented in GERD-to-GDP ratios, as it allows for easier comparisons between countries. The data collection for GERD is based on reporting by performers. GERD differentiates according to the funding sector (business, enterprise, government, higher education, private non-profit, rest of the world) and the sector of performance (all funding sectors with the exception of rest of the world, as GERD only measures activity within the territory of a country). The two may coincide, for example, when the government funds government-performed R&D. -Government funded science may also be measured by the Government budget appropriations and outlays for R&D (GBAORD/ GBARD). GBARD is a funder-based method, it denotes what governments committed to R&D (even if final payment might be different). GERD-source of funding-government and GBARD are not directly comparable. On data collection, GERD is performer based, GBARD is funder. The level of government considered also differs: GERD may include spending by all levels of the government (federal – state – local), whereas GBARD excludes the local level and often lacks state level data. On geographic coverage, GERD takes into account performance within the territory of a country whereas GBARD also payments to the Rest of the world. -Furthermore, several comparisons on the effectiveness of both the different sources of funding and sectors of performance as well as their interplay have been made. The analysis often boils down to whether public and private finance show crowding-in or crowding-out patterns. - -== Funding types: public and private == - -=== Public/State Funding === - -Public funding refers to activities financed by tax-payers money. This is primarily the case when the source of funds is channeled through government agencies. Higher education institutions are usually not completely publicly financed as they charge tuition fees and may receive funds from non-public sources. - -==== Rationale for funding ==== -R&D is a costly, and long-term investment to which disruptions are harmful. -The public sector has multiple reasons to fund science. The private sector is said to focus on the closer to the market stage of R&D policy, where appropriability hence private returns are high. Basic research is weak on appropriability and so remains risky and under-financed. Consequently, although governmental sponsorship of research may provide support across the R&D value chain, it is often characterized as a market failure induced intervention. Market incentives to invest in early-stage research are low. The theory of public goods seconds this argument. Publicly funded research often supports research fields where social rate of return may be higher than private rate of return. Appropriability potential is the potential for an entity to capture the value of an innovation or research outcome. The general free rider problem of public goods is a threat especially in case of global public goods such as climate change research, which may lower incentives to invest by both the private sector but also other governments. -In endogenous growth theories, R&D contributes to growth. Some have depicted this relationship in the inverse, claiming that growth drives innovation. As of 2013, science workers applying their (tacit) knowledge may be considered an economic driver. When this knowledge and/or human capital emigrates, countries face the so-called brain–drain. Science policy can assist to avoid this as large shares of governmental R&D is spent on researchers and supporting staff personnel salaries. In this sense, science funding is not only discretionary spending but also has elements of entitlement spending. -R&D funded and especially performed by the State may allow greater influence over its direction. This is particularly important in the case of R&D contributing to public goods. However, the ability of governments have been criticized over whether they are best positioned to pick winners and losers. In the EU, dedicated safeguards have been enacted under a dedicated form of competition law called State Aid. State Aid safeguards business activities from governmental interventions. This invention was largely driven by the German ordoliberal school as to eliminate state subsidies advocated by the French dirigiste. Threats to global public goods has refueled the debate on the role of governments beyond a mere market failure fixer, the so-called mission-driven policies. - -==== Funding modalities ==== -Governments may fund science through different instruments such as: direct subsidies, tax credits, loans, financial instruments, regulatory measures, public procurement etc. While direct subsidies have been the prominent instrument to fund business R&D, since the 2008 financial crisis a shift has taken place in OECD countries in the direction of tax breaks. The explanation seems to lay in the theoretical argument that firms know better, and in the practical benefit of lower administrative burden of such schemes. Depending on the funding type, different modalities to distribute the research funds may be used. For regulatory measures, often the competition/antitrust authorities will rule on exemptions. In case of block funding the funds may be directly allocated to given institutions such as higher education institutions with relative autonomy over their use. For competitive grants, governments are often assisted by research councils to distribute the funds. Research councils are (usually public) bodies that provide research funding in the form of research grants or scholarships. These include arts councils and research councils for the funding of science. - -==== List of research councils ==== -An incomplete list of national and international pan-disciplinary public research councils: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 008f34fd1..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Funding of science" -chunk: 3/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -==== Conditionality ==== -In addition to project deliverables, funders also increasingly introduce new eligibility requirements alongside traditional ones such as research integrity/ethics. -The 2016 Open Science movement, tied funding increasingly tied to data management plans and making data FAIR. The Open Science requirement complements Open Access mandates which in 2025 are widespread. -The gender dimension also gained ground in recent years. The European Commission mandates research applicants to adopt gender equality plans across their organization. The UK Research and Innovation Global Challenges Research Fund mandates a gender equality statement. -As of 2022, the European Commission also introduced a "Do No Significant Harm" principle to the Framework Program which aims to curb the environmental footprint of scientific projects. "Do No Significant Harm" has been criticized as coupled with other eligibility requirements it is often characterized as red-tape. Since 2020, European Commission has been trying to simplify the Framework Program with limited success. Simplification attempts were also taken by the UK Research and Innovation. - -==== Process ==== -Often scientists apply for research funding which a granting agency may (or may not) approve to financially support. These grants require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher(s)'s background, the facilities used, the equipment needed, the time involved, and the overall potential of the scientific outcome. The process of grant writing and grant proposing is a somewhat delicate process for both the grantor and the grantee: the grantors want to choose the research that best fits their scientific principles, and the individual grantees want to apply for research in which they have the best chances but also in which they can build a body of work towards future scientific endeavors. -As of 2009, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council in the United Kingdom devised an alternative method of fund-distribution: the sandpit. -Most universities have research administration offices to facilitate the interaction between the researcher and the granting agency. "Research administration is all about service—service to our faculty, to our academic units, to the institution, and to our sponsors. To be of service, we first have to know what our customers want and then determine whether or not we are meeting those needs and expectations." -In the United States of America, the National Council of University Research Administrators serves its members and advances the field of research administration through education and professional development programs, the sharing of knowledge and experience, and by fostering a professional, collegial, and respected community. - -==== Hard money versus soft money ==== -In academic contexts, hard money may refer to funding received from a government or other entity at regular intervals, thus providing a steady inflow of financial resources to the beneficiary. The antonym, soft money, refers to funding provided only through competitive research grants and the writing of grant proposals. -Hard money is usually issued by the government for the advancement of certain projects or for the benefit of specific agencies. Community healthcare, for instance, may be supported by the government by providing hard money. Since funds are disbursed regularly and continuously, the offices in charge of such projects are able to achieve their objectives more effectively than if they had been issued one-time grants. -Individual jobs at a research institute may be classified as "hard-money positions" or "soft-money positions"; the former are expected to provide job security because their funding is secure in the long term, whereas individual "soft-money" positions may come and go with fluctuations in the number of grants awarded to an institution. - -=== Private funding: industrial/philanthropy/crowdfunding === - -Private funding for research comes from philanthropists, crowd-funding, private companies, non-profit foundations, and professional organizations. Philanthropists and foundations have been pouring millions of dollars into a wide variety of scientific investigations, including basic research discovery, disease cures, particle physics, astronomy, marine science, and the environment. Privately funded research has been adept at identifying important and transformative areas of scientific research. Many large technology companies spend billions of dollars on research and development each year to gain an innovative advantage over their competitors, though only about 42% of this funding goes towards projects that are considered substantially new, or capable of yielding radical breakthroughs. New scientific start-up companies initially seek funding from crowd-funding organizations, venture capitalists, and angel investors, gathering preliminary results using rented facilities, but aim to eventually become self-sufficient. -Europe and the United States have both reiterated the need for further private funding within universities. The European Commission highlights the need for private funding via research in policy areas such the European Green Deal and Europe's role in the digital age. - -== Criticism of science funding == - -The source of funding may introduce conscious or unconscious biases into a researcher's work. This is highly problematic due to academic freedom in case of universities and regulatory capture in case of government-funded R&D. - -=== Conflict of Interest === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index cdb2c6e05..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Funding of science" -chunk: 4/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest (COIs) is used by journals to guarantee credibility and transparency of the scientific process. Conflict of interest disclosure, however, is not systematically nor consistently dealt with by journals that publish scientific research results. -When research is funded by the same agency that can be expected to gain from a favorable outcome there is a potential for biased results and research shows that results are indeed more favorable than would be expected from a more objective view of the evidence. A 2003 systematic review studied the scope and impact of industry sponsorship in biomedical research. The researchers found financial relationships among industry, scientific investigators, and academic institutions widespread. Results showed a statistically significant association between industry sponsorship and pro-industry conclusions and concluded that "Conflicts of interest arising from these ties can influence biomedical research in important ways." A British study found that a majority of the members on national and food policy committees receive funding from food companies. -In an effort to cut costs, the pharmaceutical industry has turned to the use of private, nonacademic research groups (i.e., contract research organizations [CROs]) which can do the work for less money than academic investigators. In 2001 CROs came under criticism when the editors of 12 major scientific journals issued a joint editorial, published in each journal, on the control over clinical trials exerted by sponsors, particularly targeting the use of contracts which allow sponsors to review the studies prior to publication and withhold publication of any studies in which their product did poorly. They further criticized the trial methodology stating that researchers are frequently restricted from contributing to the trial design, accessing the raw data, and interpreting the results. -The Cochrane Collaboration, a worldwide group that aims to provide compiled scientific evidence to aid well informed health care decisions, conducts systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials of health care interventions and tries to disseminate the results and conclusions derived from them. A few more recent reviews have also studied the results of non-randomized, observational studies. The systematic reviews are published in the Cochrane Library. A 2011 study done to disclose possible conflicts of interests in underlying research studies used for medical meta-analyses reviewed 29 meta-analyses and found that conflicts of interest in the studies underlying the meta-analyses were rarely disclosed. The 29 meta-analyses reviewed an aggregate of 509 randomized controlled trials. Of these, 318 trials reported funding sources with 219 (69%) industry funded. 132 of the 509 trials reported author disclosures of conflict of interest, with 91 studies (69%) disclosing industry financial ties with one or more authors. However, the information was seldom reflected in the meta-analyses. Only two (7%) reported funding sources and none reported author-industry ties. The authors concluded, "without acknowledgment of COI due to industry funding or author industry financial ties from RCTs included in meta-analyses, readers' understanding and appraisal of the evidence from the meta-analysis may be compromised." -In 2003 researchers looked at the association between authors' published positions on the safety and efficacy in assisting with weight loss of olestra, a fat substitute manufactured by the Procter & Gamble (P&G), and their financial relationships with the food and beverage industry. They found that supportive authors were significantly more likely than critical or neutral authors to have financial relationships with P&G and all authors disclosing an affiliation with P&G were supportive. The authors of the study concluded: "Because authors' published opinions were associated with their financial relationships, obtaining noncommercial funding may be more essential to maintaining objectivity than disclosing personal financial interests." -A 2005 study in the journal Nature surveyed 3247 US researchers who were all publicly funded (by the National Institutes of Health). Out of the scientists questioned, 15.5% admitted to altering design, methodology or results of their studies due to pressure of an external funding source. - -=== Regulatory capture === -Private funding may also be channeled to public funders. In 2022, a news story broke following the resignation of Eric Lander, former director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) in the Biden administration, that the charity of former Google executive Eric Schmidt, Schmidt Futures, paid salaries of numerous OSTP employees. Eventually, ethics inquiries were initiated in the OSTP. - -=== Efficiency of funding === - -The traditional measurement for efficiency of funding are publication output, citation impact, number of patents, number of PhDs awarded etc. However, the use of journal impact factor has generated a publish-or-perish culture and a theoretical model has been established whose simulations imply that peer review and over-competitive research funding foster mainstream opinion to monopoly. Calls have been made to reform research assessment, most notably in the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment and the Leiden Manifesto for research metrics. The current system also has limitations to measure excellence in the Global South. Novel measurement systems such as the Research Quality Plus has been put forward to better emphasize local knowledge and contextualization in the evaluation of excellence. A wide range of interventions has been proposed to improve science funding. Open peer review can improve the quality of scholarly peer review. A systematic review found a scarcity of randomized controlled trials on peer review interventions. -Another question is how to allocate funds to different disciplines, institutions, or researchers. A recent study by Wayne Walsh found that "prestigious institutions had on average 65% higher grant application success rates and 50% larger award sizes, whereas less-prestigious institutions produced 65% more publications and had a 35% higher citation impact per dollar of funding." - -== Trends == - -In endogenous growth theory, R&D investments contribute to the country's increase in economic growth. Therefore, countries have strong incentives to maintain R&D investments. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index ce799e038..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,44 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Funding of science" -chunk: 5/5 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:52.215205+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== By country === -Different countries spend vastly different amounts on research, in both absolute and relative terms. For instance, South Korea and Israel dedicate more than 4% of their national GDP to research and development, while numerous less developed countries allocate less than 1% of their national GDP to R&D. In developed economies, GERD is financed mainly by the business sector, whereas the government and the university sector dominate in less-developed economies. In some countries, funding from the major part of the international community represents up to 20-30% of total GERD, which is likely due to FDI and foreign aid; however, only in the case of Mali it is the main source of funding. Private non-profit is not the main source of funds in any country, but it reaches 10% of total GERD in Colombia and Honduras. -When comparing annual GERD and GDP Growth, it can be seen that countries with lower GERD are often growing faster. However, as most of these countries are developing, their growth is probably driven by other factors of production. On the other hand, developed countries with a higher share of GERD are usually also the ones that produce positive growth rates. GERD in these countries has a more substantial contribution to growth rate. - -=== Recessions === -In times of crisis, business R&D tends to act in a procyclical way. Considering that R&D falls under long-term investments, disruptions should ideally be avoided. In the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis, there was a significant public advocacy for the implementation of Keynesian countercyclical reactions; however, this was relatively difficult to achieve for some countries. Due to the nature of Coronavirus disease 2019, the subsequent worldwide pandemic significantly accelerated publicly funded R&D spending in 2020, primarily in the pharmaceutical industry. While a slight decrease in spending was recorded in 2021, it nevertheless remained considerably above the pre-2020 levels. The pandemic made health research and sectors with strategic value-chain dependencies the main target of science funding. - -== See also == -Adversary evaluation -Scientific funding advisory bodies (category) -Funding bias -Industry funding of academic research -Intellectual inbreeding -Metascience -Science policy -Scientific pluralism -Self-Organized Funding Allocation -Tertiary education#Statistics - -== References == - -== Further reading == -Eisfeld-Reschke, Jörg, Herb, Ulrich, & Wenzlaff, Karsten (2014). Research Funding in Open Science. In S. Bartling & S. Friesike (Eds.), Opening Science (pp. 237–253). Heidelberg: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-00026-8_16 -Herb, Ulrich (2014-07-31). "Open science's final frontier". Research Europe Magazine. Archived from the original on 2014-09-03. Retrieved 2014-08-30. -Martinson, Brian C.; De Vries, Raymond; et al. (2005). "Scientists behaving badly". Nature. 435 (7043): 737–738. Bibcode:2005Natur.435..737M. doi:10.1038/435737a. PMID 15944677. S2CID 4341622. -Mello, Michelle M.; et al. (2005). "Academic Medical Centers' Standards for Clinical-Trial Agreements with Industry". New England Journal of Medicine. 352 (21): 2202–2210. doi:10.1056/nejmsa044115. PMID 15917385. S2CID 8283797. -Odlyzko, Andrew (1995-10-04). "The Decline of Unfettered Research". Retrieved 2007-11-02. - -== External links == -Where to Search for Funding | Science | AAAS, from Science Careers, from the Journal Science. -ResearchCrossroads Aggregated funding data from the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, NSF, private foundations and the European Union -Seventh Framework Programme (2007–2013) The European Unions's programme for funding and promoting research at the European level -CORDIS - the official website of the European Unions's programme for funding and promoting research This website contains comprehensive information on research projects already funded. -Research Councils UK The portal for the UK-based Research Councils. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 02603c86a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "GPUGRID.net" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:54.654547+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -GPUGRID is a volunteer computing project hosted by Pompeu Fabra University and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It performs full-atom molecular biology simulations that are designed to run on Nvidia's CUDA-compatible graphics processing units. - - -== Former support for PS3s == -Support for the PS3's Cell microprocessor and the subsequent PS3GRID project was dropped in 2009 due to updated firmware preventing the installation of required third-party software. This included Linux distributions that are required to run BOINC. The massive throughput of Nvidia GPUs has also made the PS3 client largely redundant. As of September 2009, a mid-range Nvidia GPU ran GPUGRID applications approximately five times faster than the Cell microprocessor. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects -Molecular dynamics -GPGPU - - -== References == - - -== Further reading == -Research topics in GPUGRID website's science sections -GPUGRID's about us Archived 2016-11-04 at the Wayback Machine section - - -== External links == -Official website -Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 872ed0f64..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Geographic information science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:23.258702+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Geographic information science (GIScience, GISc) or geoinformation science is a scientific discipline at the crossroads of computational science, social science, and natural science that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans understand the world, and how it can be captured, organized, and analyzed. It is a sub-field of geography, specifically part of technical geography. It has applications to both physical geography and human geography, although its techniques can be applied to many other fields of study as well as many different industries. -As a field of study or profession, it can be contrasted with geographic information systems (GIS), which are the actual repositories of geospatial data, the software tools for carrying out relevant tasks, and the profession of GIS users. That said, one of the major goals of GIScience is to find practical ways to improve GIS data, software, and professional practice; it is more focused on how GIS is applied in real life as opposed to being a geographic information system tool in and of itself. The field is also sometimes called geographical information science. -British geographer Michael Goodchild defined this area in the 1990s and summarized its core interests, including spatial analysis, visualization, and the representation of uncertainty. GIScience is conceptually related to geomatics, information science, computer science, and data science, but it claims the status of an independent scientific discipline. Recent developments in the field have expanded its focus to include studies on human dynamics in hybrid physical-virtual worlds, quantum GIScience, the development of smart cities, and the social and environmental impacts of technological innovations. These advancements indicate a growing intersection of GIScience with contemporary societal and technological issues. Overlapping disciplines are: geocomputation, geoinformatics, geomatics and geovisualization. Other related terms are geographic data science (after data science) -and geographic information science and technology (GISci&T), with job titles geospatial information scientists and technologists. - - -== Definitions == - -Since its inception in the 1990s, the boundaries between GIScience and cognate disciplines are contested, and different communities might disagree on what GIScience is and what it studies. In particular, Goodchild stated that "information science can be defined as the systematic study according to scientific principles of the nature and properties of information. Geographic information science is the subset of/or information science that is about geographic information." Another influential definition is that by geographic information scientist (GIScientist) David Mark, which states:Geographic Information Science (GIScience) is the basic research field that seeks to redefine geographic concepts and their use in the context of geographic information systems. GIScience also examines the impacts of GIS on individuals and society, and the influences of society on GIS. GIScience re-examines some of the most fundamental themes in traditional spatially oriented fields such as geography, cartography, and geodesy, while incorporating more recent developments in cognitive and information science. It also overlaps with and draws from more specialized research fields such as computer science, statistics, mathematics, and psychology, and contributes to progress in those fields. It supports research in political science and anthropology, and draws on those fields in studies of geographic information and society. -In 2009, Goodchild summarized the history of GIScience and its achievements and open challenges. - - -== See also == -Category:Geographic information scientists -Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge -Geostatistics -Organizations - -Association of Geographic Information Laboratories for Europe -National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis -UCSB Center for Spatial Studies -University Consortium for Geographic Information Science -United States Geospatial Intelligence Foundation -Journals - -GIScience & Remote Sensing -International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation -International Journal of Geographical Information Science -Journal of Spatial Information Science - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official website of GIScience -List of GIScience Conferences Archived 2023-05-30 at the Wayback Machine -Conference on Spatial Information Theory (COSIT) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6205aa074..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Geomatics" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:24.428255+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. Surveying engineering was the common name used for geomatics engineering in the past. The term was placed by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under the branch of technical geography, which is geared towards interpreting and communicating spatial data. In Germany, "geodesy and geoinformatics" or "geodesy and geoinformation" is commonly used for describing this discipline. In addition, geospatial engineering is an alternative term to geomatic(s) engineering. - -== History and etymology == -The term was proposed in French ("géomatique") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. On June 1, 1971, 'geomatics' was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum instituting a "standing committee of geomatics" in the government. -At the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982, the new classification was further popularised in English by French-Canadian surveyor Michel Paradis in keynote address. Paradis claimed that at the end of the 20th century the needs for geographical information would reach a scope without precedent in history and that, in order to address these needs, it was necessary to integrate in a new discipline both the traditional disciplines of land surveying and the new tools and techniques of data capture, manipulation, storage and diffusion. -Evolving from its Canadian origins, the term has since been adopted by recognized governmental groups, like the International Organization for Standardization and the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Many other international authorities, such as those in the United States, have shown a preference for the term geospatial technology, which may be defined as a synonym of "geospatial information and communications technology". - -== Types of geomatics == -Geomatics is an umbrella term that includes the tools and techniques used to analyze the Earth's surface. These can range from land surveying, remote sensing, nautical charts, geographic information systems (GIS), and several other related forms of earth mapping. Some scientists and researchers intend to restrict geomatics to the perspective of surveying and engineering toward geographic information in order to avoid forming a vague concept. Geoinformatics and Geographic information science has been proposed as alternative comprehensive term; however, their popularity is, like geomatics, largely dependent on country. - -=== Land surveying === -The methodology of land surveying includes the measurement and analysis of points on the ground. These readings relay information regarding the angles, distances, and heights, of the points. It is often regarded as the art and science that helped established land boundaries that cultivated into current, legal property. -Land surveying is heavily involved with subdivision planning and design, civil engineering, and construction. - -=== Geovisualization === -Geovisualization combines both cartography and computer science to bring spatial data to life. The interactive tools and techniques used assist in supporting exploration and communicate a finished conclusion. As such, the process of knowledge construction is emphasized, unlike traditional maps. These can be presented in the form of 3D models, time-lapse animations, and manipulated images. -The computer processing involved allows users to quickly change visual parameters through filter data layers, which produces an image of higher clarity in relation to static, paper maps. In relation to geomatics, a geomatics engineer will gather raw data and geovisualization will make this information easily understandable. - -=== Hydro geomatics === -The related field of hydrogeomatics covers the area associated with surveying work carried out on, above, or below the surface of the sea or other areas of water. The subfield is otherwise, and more commonly, known as hydrography, which was coined in the mid-16th century. -One pioneer of hydro geomatics is Alexander Dalrymple, the first hydrographer and was appointed by the British navy in 1795. His job was to prep and print charts for travel, thus contributing to naval and merchant shipping. Dalrymple's history ties directly into the foundational militant ties that the field possesses, and its modern-day scope has widened to include more aspects of hydrogeography from military surveillance to oceanic habitat conservation. After the UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) was founded in 1795, the U.S. Naval Observatory and Hydrographic Office (USNO) was officially instituted in 1854, paving the way for safe navigation, global shipping, and defense. -A U.S. governmental agency called the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is one example of how hydro geomatics/hydrography is applied. Underwater topography (or bathymetry) is sought after, and common geomatics technology like multibeam sonars are used to accomplish seabed mapping. - -=== Health geomatics === -Health geomatics can improve our understanding of the important relationship between location and health, and thus assist us in Public Health tasks like disease prevention, and also in better healthcare service planning. An important area of research is the use of open data in planning lifesaving activities. - -=== Mining geomatics === -Mining geomatics is the branch of geomatics dedicated to mining. It focuses on acquiring, processing and analysing spatial data about objects and phenomena in mining environments to support monitoring, modelling, prediction, visualisation and decision-making in mining operations. Its development is increasingly linked with specialized education and the formation of professional competences adapted to the needs of modern mining. -A growing number of university departments which were once titled "surveying", "survey engineering" or "topographic science" have re-titled themselves using the terms "geomatics" or "geomatics engineering", while others have switched to program titles such as "spatial information technology", and similar names. -The rapid progress and increased visibility of geomatics since the 1990s has been made possible by advances in computer hardware, computer science, and software engineering, as well as by airborne and space observation remote-sensing technologies. - -=== Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 044008e62..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Geomatics" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:24.428255+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Global navigation satellite systems are a collection of geospatial systems that provide global coverage. The technology has a variety of purposes from communications to mobile navigation. The six GNSS constellations in operation are the U.S. GPS Operational Constellation, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) stemming from Russia, the European Galileo, China's BeiDou/Compass, Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), and The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). - -== Geomatics engineering == - -Geomatics engineering is a rapidly developing engineering discipline which focuses on spatial information (i.e. information that has a location). The location is the primary factor used to integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization. Geomatics engineers design, develop, and operate systems for collecting and analyzing spatial information about the land, the oceans, natural resources, and manmade features. Geomatics engineers or geomatician apply engineering principles to spatial information and implement relational data structures involving measurement sciences, thus using geomatics and acting as spatial information engineers. They sit at the nexus of geography and computer science. A geomatician practices geomatics, by combining "geo", (the earth) with information and automation. -Geomatics engineers manage local, regional, national and global spatial data infrastructures. Geomatics engineering also involves aspects of Computer Engineering, Software Engineering and Civil Engineering. Geomatic engineers acquire, measure, create, and process data using a geographic information system (GIS) and then model phenomena associated with places. Geomaticians have alternative titles, including Geographic Information System (GIS) technologist, spatial data analyst, city/urban planner and cartographer. -Geomaticians are often found working in the public sector, in land registry, urban planning departments where they are involved in surveying and cadastral mapping. They also work in the private sector, in mapping companies, publishing houses or in remote sensing companies. - -=== Required skills === -Geomaticians handle the entire value chain associated with processing geodata. Their work begins with data collection and acquisition. Geomatics specialists must be able to distinguish between topographic methods (e.g., total station or differential GPS) (which involve going to the point to be measured) and remote sensing methods (e.g., photogrammetry or lidar) (remote measurement). They must also be able to perform planimetric measurements (x, y or latitude, longitude), altimetric surveys (z or H), or satellite telemetry measurements (analysis of measurements taken from space). The collected data is then cleaned and made available for further processing. - -=== Education === -Geomaticians are responsible for verifying the accuracy (spatial and temporal), completeness, and, if verification is impossible (e.g., inaccessible terrain), the plausibility of geodata. Despite attempts at automation, they are still called to calculate the location and the geographic coordinate system, then at least two coordinates: latitude and longitude, and sometimes altitude of entities (points, lines, areas) and their associated attributes (e.g., their nature, area, volume, population, and whether or not they are connected to a drinking water network). Their geodata then undergoes processing and analysis to create data models and thus databases. If necessary, the data is formatted (selection of scale, colors, line thicknesses, and legend) to create maps. -Skilled geomaticians are in short supply, and there are not sufficient professionals in the pipeline who can distinguish between different data exchange formats, convert them, and evaluate, interpret, and merge data from various sources. - -=== Spatial statistics === -The work of geomatics engineers includes the analysis of spatial data and statistics. This information models "spatially-indexed dependence structures", which combats the idea of an independent and identically distributed set of data. It is also known as geospatial analytics, and is the information pertaining to a specific location in geospace. The analysis done by geomatics engineers in this field provides actionable insight in accordance to what is being examined. - -=== Subdivision planning === -Working alongside civil engineers, geomatics engineers will utilize the GNSS and high precision instruments to determine legal and geographic boundaries of an area. The raw data is processed through a Geographic Information System (GIS) database, which will then be used as a source by a team. -To assess the most optimal layout, the proposed design is run through constraint data such as floodplains, wetlands, and steep slopes. A Subdivision Plat is prepared, which is the legally recorded map illustrating boundaries, dimensions, and associated partitions. - -== Impact == -Geomatics and the technology associated with it has made several breakthroughs in climate change efforts, population health, and oceanic activities. This application is especially evident in the use of photogrammetry, where images utilized by geomatics can be turned into 3D models. Furthermore, data from geospatial techniques are employed for governmental use to ameliorate the issues on Earth's surface. - -=== Sustainability === -The ability to interpret geodata is pushing companies in the industry to achieve net-zero emissions. Agreements and plans across the globe promote climate neutrality such as the Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDGs) and the various editions of the United Nations Climate Change conference series. -The Earth Archive Initiative, launched by Christopher Fisher, aims to create a digital baseline of Earth and mitigate the climate crisis. LiDAR, a remote sensing technology, will be used to carry out scans of the planet's landmass, which estimates to about 30% of the Earth's surface area. The LiDAR scans would provide a dataset of present data available and the Earth's future state. Doing so will assist in understanding and combating the climate change crisis with a visual representation. - -== See also == - -Geographic Information Science -Geoinformatics - -== References == - -== External links == - Media related to Geomatics at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index cb0310361..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Google Science Fair" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:53.515832+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Google Science Fair was a worldwide (excluding Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, Myanmar/Burma, Syria, Zimbabwe and any other U.S. sanctioned country) online science competition sponsored by Google, Lego, Virgin Galactic, National Geographic and Scientific American. It was an annual event from 2011 to 2018. -The first Google Science Fair was announced in January 2011; entries were due on April 7, 2011, and judging occurred in July 2011. The competition is open to 13- to 18-year-old students around the globe, who formulate a hypothesis, perform an experiment, and present their results. All students had to have an internet connection and a Google Account to participate, and the projects had to be in English, German, Italian, Spanish, or French. The final submission had to include ten sections, which were the summary, an "About Me" page, the steps of the project, and a works cited page. -Entries were judged on the student's presentation, question, hypothesis, research, experiment, data, observations, and conclusion. Prizes were awarded to three finalists. The grand prize included a National Geographic trip to the Galapagos Islands, and a US$50,000 scholarship; finalists received a US$15,000 scholarship and assorted packages from sponsoring organizations. - -== Guest interviews == -The on-line site also contains a number of highlighted guest interviews with selected individuals, each well established and prominent in their field of science, with the aim being for them to act as inspiration to young students. The individuals chosen include Mitch Resnick, Spencer Wells, Kevin Warwick, and Mariette DiChristina. - -== 2011 Winners == -Shree Bose, a 17-year-old girl from Fort Worth, Texas, won the grand prize and $50,000 for her research on the chemotherapy drug, cisplatin, that is commonly taken by women with ovarian cancer, tackling the problem of cancer cells growing resistant to cisplatin over time. -Naomi Shah of Portland, OR, won the age 15–16 category with a study of the effects of air quality on lungs, particularly for people who have asthma. Ms. Shah recruited 103 test subjects, performed 24-hour air quality measurements at their homes and workplaces and had each blow into a device that measured the force of their breath. -Lauren Hodge of York, PA, won the age 13–14 category for research on whether marinades reduce the amount of cancer-causing compounds produced by the grilling of meat. She found that lemon juice and brown sugar cut the level of carcinogens sharply, while soy sauce increased them. -People around the world (90 countries) had the opportunity to vote for their favorite projects in Google's online voting gallery. Google has had more than 100,000 votes and the competition was highly competitive. Among the 60 semi-finalists, Nimal Subramanian received the highest number of votes and was awarded the People’s Choice Award. His project, Cancer Busters, received significant public support. As a result of this achievement, he was awarded a $10,000 scholarship. - -== 2012 Winners == -Brittany Wenger, who was 17, won the grand prize with her "Global Neural Network Cloud Service for Breast Cancer". Designed to noninvasively diagnose malignant cancerous tumors, it successfully detected over 99% of malignant breast tumors in a test set. She received $50,000, a trip to the Galapagos Islands, mentoring and internship opportunities for winning the competition. -Iván Hervías Rodríguez, Marcos Ochoa, and Sergio Pascual, all of Spain, won the 15–16 age group using microscopy to examine microscopic creatures in aquatic ecosystems. -Jonah Kohn won the age 13–14 group by designing and building a device designed to enhance the listening experience of those with hearing loss. His device attached to different parts of the body, translating sound into tactile stimulation. - -== 2013 Winners == -The winners of the 2013 Google Science Fair were: -13–14 age category: Viney Kumar (Australia) — The PART (Police and Ambulances Regulating Traffic) Program. Viney's project looked for new ways to provide drivers with more notice when an emergency vehicle is approaching, so they can take evasive action to get out of the emergency vehicle's way. -15–16 age category: Ann Makosinski (Canada) — The Hollow Flashlight. Using Peltier tiles and the temperature difference between the palm of the hand and ambient air, Ann designed a flashlight that provides bright light without batteries or moving parts. -17–18 age category Grand Prize Winner: Eric Chen (USA) — Computer-aided Discovery of Novel Influenza Endonuclease Inhibitors to Combat Flu Pandemic. Combining computer modeling and biological studies, Eric's project looks at influenza endonuclease inhibitors as leads for a new type of anti-flu medicine, effective against all influenza viruses including pandemic strains. - -== 2014 Winners == -The 2014 Google Science Fair started accepting entries on February 12, 2014, and the entries closed on May 13, 2014. And the results for the local, regional and Science in Action award nominees were declared. The Grand Prize was won by three girls from Ireland, Ciara Judge (16), Emer Hickey (16) and Sophie Healy-Thow (17). They were the first group winners of the competition and the youngest winners to date (they also won the 15–16 age category prize). Their project was entitled 'Combating the Global Food Crisis: Diazotroph Bacteria as a Cereal Crop Growth Promoter.' -The 13–14 age category was won by Mihir Garimella (14) from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania with a project titled 'Fruit-fly Inspired Robots.' Hayley Todesco (17) of Canada won the 17–18 age category with her project titled 'Cleaning up Oil Sands Waste.' -Along with the overall prizes for each category, a number of special awards were also announced. Kenneth Shinozuka (15) was declared as the Science In Action Award winner in recognition of the practical potential of his project 'Wearable Sensors for Aging Society.' Arsh Shah Dilbagi (16) from India won the Voter's Choice Award for creating an augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) device that converts breath into words, enabling mute people to speak. Local Award winners included Shannon Tan (18), who won the award in Singapore for his research on using treated materials from crustacean shells to purify wastewater from heavy industries. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 724e799d0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,64 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Google Science Fair" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:53.515832+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== 2015 Winners == -The 2015 Google Science Fair closed for entries on May 18, 2015, with regional finalists announced in London on July 7, 2015. These included Lauren McKenzie (14) who built an automatic soil watering system, Shadab Karnachi (14) who designed a low-cost gaming device for people with visual impairments, Nishanth Kumar (16) who designed a low-cost 'hands-free' mouse for use by people with developmental disabilities, and Peter He (14) who developed an innovative wireless virtual reality system. -The global finalists representing 10 countries were announced on August 4, 2015, and were as follows: -Bosnia-Herzegovina -Anela Arifi and Ilda Ismaili – A system for alternative fuel production and storage using chicken feathers -Canada -Isabella O'Brien – Trouble in Paradise: Recycling shell waste to reduce ocean acidification -Calvin Rieder – Extracting clean water from air: solar-powered solution for providing potable water -France -Eliott Sarrey – Bot2Karot: gardening through a smartphone-activated robot -India -Lalita Prasida Sripada Srisai – Absorbing water pollutants with corn cobs -Lithuania -Laura Steponavičiūtė – Detecting the environmental dangers of nanomaterials -Russia -Alexey Tarasov - Using ternary logic on current electronics -Singapore -Girish Kumar – RevUp: improving learning through auto-generated study questions -Zhilin Wang – Zinc air batteries for affordable, renewable energy storage -Taiwan -Wei-Tung Chen – Calculating the 3D position of an object from a single source -Yo Hsu and Jing-Tong Wang – Knock on fuel: detecting impurities in gasoline with sound pattern analysis -United Kingdom -Krtin Nithiyanandam – Improving diagnosis and treatment for Alzheimer's with new molecular "Trojan Horse" -Matthew Reid – The ArduOrbiter: a lightweight, open source satellite -United States -Anika Cheerla – Automated and accurate early-diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease -Anurudh Ganesan – VAXXWAGON: a reliable way to store and transport vaccines -Olivia Hallisey [WINNER] – Temperature-independent, inexpensive and rapid detection of Ebola -Deepika Kurup – Solar powered silver combating bacteria in drinking water -Pranav Sivakumar – Automated search for gravitationally lensed quasars -Adriel Sumathipala – Creating a simple diagnostic tool for earlier detection of cardiac disease -Tanay Tandon – Delivering rapid, portable and automated blood morphology tests -The winners were announced on September 21, 2015. The Grand Prize was won by Olivia Hallisey (16) with her project ‘Temperature-Independent, Portable, and Rapid Field Detection of Ebola via a Silk-Derived Lateral-Flow System’. The Google Technologist Award was won by Girish Kumar (17) for his project ‘Revup: Automatically Generating Questions from Educational Texts’ and the Incubator Award was won by Elliott Sarrey (14) with his project ‘Bot2karot: Manage Your Vegetable Garden via Your Smartphone’. The Lego Education Builder Award won by Anurudh Ganesan (15), the Virgin Galactic Pioneer Award won by Pranav Sivakumar (15), the Scientific American Innovator Award won by Krtin Nithiyanandam (15), the National Geographic Explorer Award won by Deepika Kurup (17) and the Community Impact Award won by Lalita Prasida. - -== 2016 Winners == -The 2016 Google Science Fair closed its entries on May 17, 2016, the Global 16 Finalist were announced on August 11, 2016. The final event took place during 24 to 27 September 2016 at Mountain View, California. Sixteen finalists competed for top five awards. The first two rounds had two age groups 13–15 and 16–18. However, unlike previous years, top awards during the finalist event did not distinguish between the two age groups of the previous rounds, thus making it particularly challenging event for the contestant compared to all previous years. -The Grand Prize was won by Kiara Nirghin (16) of South Africa for her project 'Fighting Drought with Fruit'. The Lego Education Builder award was won by Anushka Naiknaware (13) of United States, the youngest contestant to win a top award ever, for 'Smart Wound Care for the Future'. The National Geographic Explorer award was won by Mphatso Simbao (18) of Zambia. The Scientific Innovator Award was won by a team of three for 'Fighting Foam Waste with Recycled Filters' from the United States [Ashton Cofer (14), Luke Clay (14) and Julie Bray (14)]. The Virgin Galactic Pioneer award was won by Charlie Fenske (16) for 'Making Rockets more Efficient', also from the United States. - -== 2017 Winners == -The competition did not begin as usual in May, 2017. Starting from the late summer, the official website stated that "We're conducting some experiments" and "Coming Fall 2017". The submissions of competition in 2018 began on 13 September 2018. - -== 2018 Winners == -The Google Science Fair returned with 179 different prizes available for 2018–19. It opened for entries on September 13, 2018, and closed its entries on December 12, 2018. State award winners were announced in March 2019, regional award winners in April 2019, and global finalists in May 2019. On July 29, 2019, the top five awards were issued for students and one for an inspiring educator. The Google Grand Prize, featuring an award of a $50,000 educational scholarship, went to Fionn Ferreira, of Ireland. His project was titled "An investigation into the removal of microplastics from water using ferrofluids." The National Geographic Explorer award was won by A U Nachiketh Kumar and Aman K A, of India, for finding an eco-friendly way to coagulate rubber. The Lego Education Award was won by Daniel Kazantsev of the Russian Federation, who wanted to find a better way to help those who are hearing impaired to communicate with the world around them. The Scientific American Award was won by Tuan Dolmen of Turkey, who found a way to harness energy from tree vibrations. The Galactic Pioneer Award was won by Celestine Wenardy of Indonesia, for creating a low-cost and non-invasive glucose meter. - -== See also == - -Science fair - -== References == - -== External links == -Official website -Previous Winners \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 548e657a5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "GridRepublic" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:56.172958+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -GridRepublic is a BOINC Account Manager. It focuses on creating a clean and simple way to join and interact with BOINC. GridRepublic was started with a mission to raise public awareness and participation in volunteer computing with BOINC. GridRepublic was formed in 2004 by Matthew Blumberg as a mechanism to control the multiple projects from one place. The code for the BOINC software had to be redesigned to allow for the Account Manager system to be implemented. -GridRepublic's website has won numerous awards including being named finalist at the 2007 SXSW Interactive Festival and the 2008 Stockholm Challenge. GridRepublic has also been the recipients of a Google Grant allowing for advertising through Google. - - -== Projects == -GridRepublic supports a wide range of the BOINC projects. The list of supported projects and the development status of projects are periodically updated. -Some of its popular projects include: - -Climateprediction.net -Climate change modeling on personal computers -Einstein@home -Pulsar stars from LIGO and GEO data -Rosetta@home -Protein folding research -SETI@home -Searching radio and light data for signs of intelligent life - - -== Software == -GridRepublic is a non-profit organisation, an online application, and software. The software is open source and a customized version of BOINC. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4554cebd9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "HashClash" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:57.521061+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -HashClash was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform to find collisions in the MD5 hash algorithm. It was based at Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at the Eindhoven University of Technology, and Marc Stevens initiated the project as part of his master's degree thesis. -The project ended after Stevens defended his M.Sc. thesis in June 2007. However, SHA1 was added later, and the code repository was ported to git in 2017. -The project was used to create a rogue certificate authority certificate in 2009. - - -== See also == -Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -HashClash -HashClash at Stevens' home page -Create your own MD5 collisions on AWS, Nat McHugh's blog \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index e4d04a471..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Help Conquer Cancer" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:58.763823+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Help Conquer Cancer is a volunteer computing project that runs on the BOINC platform. It is a joint project of the Ontario Cancer Institute and the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute. It is also the first project under World Community Grid to run with a GPU counterpart. - - -== Project Purpose == -The goal is to enhance the efficiency of protein X-ray crystallography, which will enable researchers to determine the structure of many cancer-related proteins faster. This will lead to improving the understanding of the function of these proteins, and accelerate the development of new pharmaceutical drugs. - - -== See also == -BOINC -List of volunteer computing projects -World Community Grid - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Help Conquer Cancer Archived 2010-01-17 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6a5c563d9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:59.938654+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy is a volunteer computing project that runs on the BOINC platform. -It is a joint effort of the French muscular dystrophy charity, L'Association française contre les myopathies; and L'Institut de biologie moléculaire et cellulaire (Molecular and Cellular Biology Institute). - - -== Project purpose == -Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy studies the function of various proteins that are produced by the two hundred genes known to be involved in the production of neuromuscular proteins by modelling the protein-protein interactions of the forty thousand relevant proteins that are listed in the Protein Data Bank. More specifically, it models how a protein would be affected when another protein or a ligand docks with it. - - -== Scientific publications == -Decrypting protein surfaces by combining evolution, geometry, and molecular docking. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2019). -Hidden partners: Using cross-docking calculations to predict binding sites for proteins with multiple interactions. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2018). -Protein social behavior makes a stronger signal for partner identification than surface geometry. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2017). -Great interactions: How binding incorrect partners can teach us about protein recognition and function. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2016). -Protein-Protein Interactions in a Crowded Environment: An Analysis via Cross-Docking Simulations and Evolutionary Information. PLOS Computational Biology (2013). -From Dedicated Grid to Volunteer Grid: Large Scale Execution of a Bioinformatics Application. Journal of Grid Computing (2009). -Joint Evolutionary Trees: A Large-Scale Method To Predict Protein Interfaces Based on Sequence Sampling. PLOS Computational Biology (2009). -Identification of Protein Interaction Partners and Protein–Protein Interaction Sites. Journal of Molecular Biology (2008). - - -== See also == -BOINC -List of volunteer computing projects -Muscular dystrophy -World Community Grid - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 08b637556..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,84 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Helsinki Challenge" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:01.097369+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Helsinki Challenge is a science-based competition and idea accelerator which brings together the academic community and society at large to solve the world's grand challenges in cooperation. The competition goal is not only to create new scientific information, but to influence society. -Multidisciplinary teams consisting of experts from the academic and artistic communities, the business world, the public and third sectors, media and other actors of the society are welcome to take part in the competition. Participating teams are evaluated by the jury using the following criteria: originality, creativity, impact, focus on solutions and use of science-based methods. The competition prize is 375,000 euros and it is meant for the implementation of the solution. -Helsinki Challenge was held for the first time in 2015. In 2017, the competition is organised by the University of Helsinki in collaboration with Aalto University, Hanken School of Economics, University of Eastern Finland, University of Jyväskylä, University of Oulu, University of the Arts Helsinki, University of Turku, University of Vaasa and Åbo Akademi University. - - -== Helsinki Challenge 2014–2015 == -The first ever Helsinki Challenge was organised by the University of Helsinki and celebrated the University's 375th anniversary in 2015. The first Helsinki Challenge competition themes were: environmental change, health and wellbeing, future learning, global Helsinki and new world view. - - -=== Semifinal 2014–2015 === -Out of 80 proposals, a list of 20 semifinalists were announced in December 2014. Teams’ competition ideas ranged from developing tools to analyze big data on the Finnish discussion forum Suomi24 to studying our expectations of robot morality. - - -==== Semifinalist teams ==== -Future Organization, team leader Veikko Eranti - -Climate Whirl, team leader Eija Juurola - -Sustainability tracker, team leader Kaisa Korhonen-Kurki - -Play Learn Heal, team leader Kristiina Kumpulainen - -Moralities of Intelligent Machines, team leader Michael Laakasuo - -The Citizen Mindscapes, team leader Krista Lagus - -Ground and Growth, team leader Kristina Lindström - -Engaging Future Workplace, team leader Kirsti Lonka - -Lab Impact Africa, team leader Christina Lyra - -Higher Education Unbounded, team leader Katalin Miklossy - -Urban Academy, team leader Jari Niemelä - -Tell Us, team leader Maria Niemi - -Biodiversity Now, team leader Markku Ollikainen - -Helsinki Sleep Factory, team leader Anu-Katriina - -Viewfinder, team leader Paavo Pylkkänen - -SafePreg – Health into Next Generation, team leader Katri Räikkönen - -NEMO - Natural Emotionality in Digital Interaction, team leader Katri Saarikivi - -Generation Green, team leader Tiina Sikanen - -The Happiness Project, team leader Laura Visapää - -Genetic Correction of Inherited Hemoglobin Disease, team leader Kirmo Wartiovaara - - -=== Final 2014–2015 === -In October 2015, the five finalist teams were chosen: Moralities of Intelligent Machines, Biodiversity Now, Helsinki Sleep Factory, SafePreg – Health into Next Generation and NEMO - Natural Emotionality in Digital Interaction. The jury for the final included Chancellor Thomas Wilhelmsson (chair), Pro-Vice Chancellor of Education Sally Mapstone from the University of Oxford, Professor of Practice Pasi Sahlberg from Harvard University’s Harvard Graduate School of Education, Director Ulrich Weinberg from the Hasso Plattner Institute School of Design Thinking and President Mikko Kosonen of the Finnish Innovation Fund SITRA. - - -==== Winner teams ==== -The €375,000 prize for the science-based idea competition Helsinki Challenge was divided between two teams. The winner was NEMO – Natural Emotionality in Digital Interaction, which received €250,000, while the runner-up, Biodiversity Now, received €125,000. The prize money is intended for realising the team's idea. -NEMO is developing new ways to digitise and transmit emotion online. The team is planning small add-ons for digital interaction platforms that would consider emotions. This way participants in online discussions could see or even experience the emotions of others in a new way that would be equivalent to natural interaction. The team wants to create an open protocol for emotion transmission for any coder to use for building new empathy-enabling applications. -Biodiversity Now team wants to establish a Finnish habitat bank so that, for example, companies reducing biodiversity through a construction project could offset this by increasing biodiversity elsewhere. - - -== Helsinki Challenge 2016–2017 == -The second Helsinki Challenge was kicked off in August 2016. The winner will be announced in conjunction with the centennial of Finland's independence in 2017. The new Helsinki Challenge themes: Sustainable Plant, Urban Future and People in Change are linked to the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The intention is to create solutions for future wellbeing through cooperation with a range of different institutions. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Helsinki Challenge's official website Archived 2015-06-27 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index e93b85d59..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,104 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Homogeneity and heterogeneity" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:56.217762+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one that is heterogeneous is distinctly nonuniform in at least one of these qualities. - - -== Etymology and spelling == - -The words homogeneous and heterogeneous come from Medieval Latin homogeneus and heterogeneus, from Ancient Greek ὁμογενής (homogenēs) and ἑτερογενής (heterogenēs), from ὁμός (homos, "same") and ἕτερος (heteros, "other, another, different") respectively, followed by γένος (genos, "kind"); -ous is an adjectival suffix. -Alternate spellings omitting the last -e- (and the associated pronunciations) are common, but mistaken: homogenous is strictly a biological/pathological term which has largely been replaced by homologous. But use of homogenous to mean homogeneous has seen a rise since 2000, enough for it to now be considered an "established variant". Similarly, heterogenous is a spelling traditionally reserved to biology and pathology, referring to the property of an object in the body having its origin outside the body. - - -== Scaling == -The concepts are the same to every level of complexity. From atoms to galaxies, plants, animals, humans, and other living organisms all share both a common or unique set of complexities. -Hence, an element may be homogeneous on a larger scale, compared to being heterogeneous on a smaller scale. This is known as an effective medium approximation. - - -== Examples == -Various disciplines understand heterogeneity, or being heterogeneous, in different ways. - - -=== Biology === - - -==== Environmental heterogeneity ==== - -Environmental heterogeneity is a hypernym for different environmental factors that contribute to the diversity of species, like climate, topography, and land cover. Biodiversity is correlated with geodiversity on a global scale. Heterogeneity in geodiversity features and environmental variables are indicators of environmental heterogeneity. They drive biodiversity at local and regional scales. -Scientific literature in ecology contains a big number of different terms for environmental heterogeneity, often undefined or conflicting in their meaning. Habitat diversity and habitat heterogeneity are a synonyms of environmental heterogeneity. - - -=== Chemistry === - - -==== Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures ==== - -In chemistry, a heterogeneous mixture consists of either or both of 1) multiple states of matter or 2) hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances in one mixture; an example of the latter would be a mixture of water, octane, and silicone grease. Heterogeneous solids, liquids, and gases may be made homogeneous by melting, stirring, or by allowing time to pass for diffusion to distribute the molecules evenly. For example, adding dye to water will create a heterogeneous solution at first, but will become homogeneous over time. Entropy allows for heterogeneous substances to become homogeneous over time. -A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture of two or more compounds. Examples are: mixtures of sand and water or sand and iron filings, a conglomerate rock, water and oil, a salad, trail mix, and concrete (not cement). A mixture can be determined to be homogeneous when everything is settled and equal, and the liquid, gas, the object is one color or the same form. Various models have been proposed to model the concentrations in different phases. The phenomena to be considered are mass rates and reaction. - - -==== Homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions ==== -Homogeneous reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants and products are in the same phase, while heterogeneous reactions have reactants in two or more phases. Reactions that take place on the surface of a catalyst of a different phase are also heterogeneous. A reaction between two gases or two miscible liquids is homogeneous. A reaction between a gas and a liquid, a gas and a solid or a liquid and a solid is heterogeneous. - - -=== Geology === -Earth is a heterogeneous substance in many aspects; for instance, rocks (geology) are inherently heterogeneous, usually occurring at the micro-scale and mini-scale. - - -=== Linguistics === - -In formal semantics, homogeneity is the phenomenon in which plural expressions imply "all" when asserted but "none" when negated. For example, the English sentence "Robin read the books" means that Robin read all the books, while "Robin didn't read the books" means that she read none of them. Neither sentence can be asserted if Robin read exactly half of the books. This is a puzzle because the negative sentence does not appear to be the classical negation of the sentence. A variety of explanations have been proposed including that natural language operates on a trivalent logic. - - -=== Information technology === -With information technology, heterogeneous computing occurs in a network comprising different types of computers, potentially with vastly differing memory sizes, processing power and even basic underlying architecture. - - -=== Mathematics and statistics === - -In algebra, homogeneous polynomials have the same number of factors of a given kind. -In the study of binary relations, a homogeneous relation R is on a single set (R ⊆ X × X) while a heterogeneous relation concerns possibly distinct sets (R ⊆ X × Y, X = Y or X ≠ Y). -In statistical meta-analysis, study heterogeneity is when multiple studies on an effect are measuring somewhat different effects due to differences in subject population, intervention, choice of analysis, experimental design, etc.; this can cause problems in attempts to summarize the meaning of the studies. - - -=== Medicine === - -In medicine and genetics, a genetic or allelic heterogeneous condition is one where the same disease or condition can be caused, or contributed to, by several factors, or in genetic terms, by varying or different genes or alleles. -In cancer research, cancer cell heterogeneity is thought to be one of the underlying reasons that make treatment of cancer difficult. - - -=== Physics === - -In physics, "heterogeneous" is understood to mean "having physical properties that vary within the medium". - - -=== Sociology === -In sociology, "heterogeneous" may refer to a society or group that includes individuals of differing ethnicities, cultural backgrounds, sexes, or ages. Diverse is the more common synonym in the context. - - -=== Ecology === -In landscape ecology, heterogeneity refers to the different elements of a system. Heterogeneous systems support higher biodiversity and is a target for many landscape restoration efforts. - - -== See also == -Complete spatial randomness -Heterologous -Epidemiology -Spatial analysis -Statistical hypothesis testing -Homogeneity blockmodeling - - -== References == - - -== External links == - -The following cited pages in this book cover the meaning of "homogeneity" across disciplines: Morris, Christopher G. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Gulf Professional Publishing. pp. 1039, 1040. ISBN 0-12-200400-0. Homogeneity in physics. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3f56c562f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,46 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Houston, we have a problem" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:36.579202+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -"Houston, we have a problem" is a popular misquote of a phrase spoken during Apollo 13, a NASA mission in the Apollo space program and the third mission intended to land on the Moon. After an explosion occurred on board the spacecraft en route to the Moon around 56 hours into the mission, Jack Swigert, the command module pilot, reported to Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas: "Okay, Houston ... we've had a problem here." After Swigert was prompted to repeat his words by Jack R. Lousma, the capsule communicator at Mission Control, Jim Lovell, the mission commander, responded: "Ah, Houston, we've had a problem." -The 1995 film Apollo 13 used the slight misquotation "Houston, we have a problem" in its dramatization of the mission, since it had become the popularly expected phrase. The phrase has been informally used to describe the emergence of an unforeseen problem, often with a sense of ironic understatement. - - -== Background == - -The Apollo 13 Flight Journal lists the timestamps and dialogue between the astronauts and Mission Control. - -055:55:19 Swigert: Okay, Houston ... -055:55:19 Lovell: ... Houston... -055:55:20 Swigert: ... we've had a problem here. [Pause.] -055:55:28 Lousma: This is Houston. Say again, please. -055:55:35 Lovell: [Garble.] Ah, Houston, we've had a problem. We've had a Main B Bus Undervolt. - -In Chapter 13 of Apollo Expeditions to the Moon (1975), Jim Lovell recalls the event: "Jack Swigert saw a warning light that accompanied the bang, and said, 'Houston, we've had a problem here.' I came on and told the ground that it was a main B bus undervolt. The time was 21:08 hours on April 13." - - -== In media == - -In the 1995 film Apollo 13, the actual quote was shortened to "Houston, we have a problem". Screenwriter William Broyles Jr. explained that the verb tense actually used "wasn't as dramatic". Broyles and linguist Naomi S. Baron noted that the actual line spoken would not work well in a suspense movie. Movie viewers already knew what had happened, while Mission Control did not at the time. The quote ranked at No. 50 on AFI's 100 Greatest Movie Quotes in June 2005. - - -== See also == -"One small step" (quote) - - -== References == - - -== Bibliography == - - -== External links == - -"¿Cuándo se pronunció la famosa frase "Houston, tenemos un problema"?" [When was the famous phrase "Houston, we have a problem" uttered?] (in Spanish). April 13, 2010. Archived from the original on August 22, 2016. Retrieved July 5, 2016. -"Spacelog Apollo 13". Archived from the original on June 6, 2016. Retrieved July 5, 2016. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_2 b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_2 deleted file mode 100644 index e69de29bb..000000000 diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 873b55773..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Hyperaccumulators table – 3" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:07.339773+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This list covers hyperaccumulators, plant species which accumulate, or are tolerant of, radionuclides (Cd, Cs-137, Co, Pu-238, Ra, Sr, U-234, 235, 238), hydrocarbons and organic solvents (Benzene, BTEX, DDT, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, Fluoranthene, MTBE, PCB, PCNB, TCE and by-products), and inorganic compounds (Potassium ferrocyanide). -See also: - -Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Ag, Al, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Se, Zn -Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel - - -== Notes == -Uranium: The symbol for Uranium is sometimes given as Ur instead of U. According to Ulrich Schmidt and others, plants' concentration of uranium is considerably increased by an application of citric acid, which solubilizes the uranium (and other metals). -Radionuclides: Cs-137 and Sr-90 are not removed from the top 0.4 meters of soil even under high rainfall, and migration rate from the top few centimeters of soil is slow. -Radionuclides: Plants with mycorrhizal associations are often more effective than non-mycorrhizal plants at the uptake of radionuclides. -Radionuclides: In general, soils containing higher amounts of organic matter will allow plants to accumulate higher amounts of radionuclides. See also note on Lolium multiflorum in Paasikallio 1984. Plant uptake is also increased with a higher cation exchange capacity for Sr-90 availability, and a lower base saturation for uptake of both Sr-90 and Cs-137. -Radionuclides: Fertilizing the soil with nitrogen if needed will indirectly increase the take-up of radionuclides by generally boosting the plant's overall growth and more specifically roots' growth. But some fertilizers such as K or Ca compete with the radionuclides for cation exchange sites, and will not increase the take-up of radionuclides. -Radionuclides: Zhu and Smolders, lab test: Cs uptake is mostly influenced by K supply. The uptake of radiocaesium depends mainly on two transport pathways on plant root cell membranes: the K+ transporter and the K+ channel pathway. Cs is likely transported by the K+ transport system. When external concentration of K is limited to low levels, le K+ transporter shows little discrimination against Cs+; if K supply is high, the K+ channel is dominant and shows high discrimination against Cs+. Caesium is very mobile within the plant, but the ratio Cs/K is not uniform within the plant. Phytoremediation as a possible option for the decontamination of caesium-contaminated soils is limited mainly by that it takes tens of years and creates large volumes of waste. -Alpine pennycress or Alpine Pennygrass is found as Alpine Pennycrest in (some books). -The references are so far mostly from academic trial papers, experiments and generally of exploration of that field. -Radionuclides: Broadley and Willey find that across 30 taxa studied, Gramineae and Chenopodiaceae show the strongest correlation between Rb (K) and Cs concentration. The fast-growing Chenopodiaceae discriminate approx. 9 times less between Rb and Cs than the slow-growingGramineae, and this correlate with highest and lowest concentrations achieved respectively. -Caesium: In Chernobyl-derived radioactivity, the amount of contamination is dependent on the roughness of bark, absolute bark surface and the existence of leaves during the deposition. The major contamination of the shoots is from direct deposition on the trees. - - -== Annotated References == - - -== Links to the other sections == -Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Al, Ag, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Mn, Hg, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Pt, Se, Zn -Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 086c8f67b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,75 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "IARC group 3" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:08.474086+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -IARC group 3 substances, chemical mixtures and exposure circumstances are those that can not be classified in regard to their carcinogenicity to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the level of evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans, but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category. -The IARC Monographs on which this list is based assess the hazard linked to the agents, they do not assess the cancer risk of the agents. The list is up-to-date as of January 2024. - - -== Agents and groups of agents == - - -=== A === - - -=== B === - - -=== C === - - -=== D === - - -=== E–G === - - -=== H–L === - - -=== M === - - -=== N–O === - - -=== P === - - -=== Q–R === - - -=== S === - - -=== T === - - -=== U–Z === - - -== Mixtures == - - -== Exposure circumstances == - - -== See also == -IARC group 1 -IARC group 2A -IARC group 2B - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Description of the list of classifications Archived 2013-07-28 at the Wayback Machine, IARC -List of Classifications (latest version) -List of classifications by cancer site Archived 2012-09-20 at the Wayback Machine (last updated on 5 November 2015) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3078af426..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ibercivis" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:02.340025+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Ibercivis was a volunteer computing platform which allows internet users to participate in scientific research by donating unused computer cycles to run scientific simulations and other tasks. The original project, which became operational in 2008, was a scientific collaboration between the Portuguese and Spanish governments, but it is open to the general public and scientific community, both within and beyond the Iberian Peninsula. The project's name is a portmanteau of Iberia and the Latin word civis, meaning 'citizen'. -In April 2020, the volunteer computing platform was restarted by the Ibercivis Foundation and the Spanish National Research Council in order to screen existing drugs for antiviral activity against Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. - -== History == -Ibercivis was developed in Spain with the cooperation of the Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems at the University of Zaragoza, CIEMAT, CETA-CIEMAT, the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and RedIris. The project tasks are issued by different scientific and technological centers in Spain with the aim of creating a functional platform for volunteer-based scientific computing. The project is a European counterpart to the successful United States-based SETI@home and Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) volunteer computing projects. -Ibercivis' predecessor, the University of Zaragoza-based volunteer computing project Zivis, began operation in 2007, and Ibercivis itself started operating in June 2008. The Zivis project was a local volunteer computing application funded by the ayuntamiento (city council) of the city of Zaragoza. The larger-scale Ibercivis infrastructure has been used for a variety of calculating applications, including nuclear fusion research, protein folding and materials simulations. In July 2009, the Ibercivis platform was extended to Portugal following an agreement signed by the governments of both countries during the Luso-Spanish Summit held in Zamora, Spain, in January 2009. Several Portuguese institutions subsequently affiliated themselves with Ibercivis, including the Ministry of Science, the Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology at the University of Coimbra, and the LIP experimental high-energy physics laboratory. -In April 2020, a new Ibercivis project was launched to support researchers efforts to fight Coronavirus disease 2019. - -=== Number of participants === -At its inception in June 2008, Ibercivis had 3,000 registered users hosting its various projects. By December 2012, this figure had risen to over 19,800, distributed across 124 countries. There were around 55,000 individual hosting devices registered with the project, of which over 3,600 were active on a weekly basis. -As of April 2020, there were 917 active users and 2375 active hosts in the new inception of Ibercivis. - -== Projects == -Ibercivis was intended to run indefinitely, and is designed to run several simultaneous applications belonging to different scientific disciplines in a manner similar to World Community Grid. Users can select which projects they wish to contribute to via the project's website. As of May 2020, Ibercivis encompassed eight different active projects: - -=== Active Projects === -COVID-Phym: Screen existing drugs for antiviral activity against Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. - -=== Completed projects === -Ibercivis projects that have been completed or discontinued as of May 2020 include: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index d9082d047..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ibercivis" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:02.340025+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Fusion: a star on your screen: this application helped scientists at the Research Center for Energy Environment and Technology (CIEMAT) and at the Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI) perform simulations of the plasmas that will be produced in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The ITER project, which will begin operation in 2018, seeks to make nuclear fusion power a reality, replicating on Earth conditions typically found inside stars. -Docking: looking for anti-cancer drugs: the Docking application assisted the search for new medicines through the simulation of protein docking. The Bioinformatics Unit of the Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM) developed a platform to allow the automatic simulation of interactions of proteins and small molecules. Its purpose was to find effective drugs to treat serious illnesses, such as cancer. -Materials: simulation of magnetic systems: the Materials application aided physicists from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Universidad de Extremadura and the Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems in discovering how non-magnetic impurities in magnetic materials modify the properties of their transition from a magnetic state to a non-magnetic one. The knowledge of these transitions is important not only from a theoretical point of view but also may help develop many fields of technology, such as magnetic hard disks and superconducting materials. -Nanoluz: light at a nanoscale: knowing how light reacts at a nanometer scale is a scientific challenge with important implications for the construction of new materials, development of new computing and communication systems and the improvement of technologies such as solar panels. Using the Nanoluz application, scientists at the Institute of Optics Daza Valdés CSIC investigated the behavior of light in metal nanoparticles, seeking to develop systems that could simplify medical and biological analysis. -IberNet: let's research inside Ibercivis: with this project, researchers sought to study and represent the structure of Ibercivis as a social network and try to export their conclusions to other social networks, to help with the study and prediction of the dynamics of a mass social environment. -Amiloide: searching for drugs against neurodegenerative amyloid diseases: the AMILOIDE project aims to search digital libraries of millions of compounds for potential drugs to interfere with the formation of aggregates and amyloid fibers, which can lead to neurodegenerative diseases. Currently, the main target diseases being studied are familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP) and Alzheimer's disease. This project is the responsibility of scientists of the Structural and Computational Biology Group at the Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC) of the University of Coimbra. -Neurosim: an immersion in the molecular structure of memory: scientists at the Institute of Matter Structure, CSIC use the results of the Neurosim application to analyze the structural properties of amino acids and small peptides (sequences of a few tens of amino acids) that act in the human brain and nervous system. By simulating the so-called energy landscape for each amino acid, key steps can be made in reconstructing the three-dimensional structure of proteins from the amino acid sequence, advancing the study of the structure and function of the human brain. -Adsorption: behaviour of confined fluids in limited spaces: the Adsorption application helps researchers from the Instituto de Química-Física Rocasolano from CSIC study the adsorption properties of the pillared clays that are widely used as industrial catalysers, materials for gas storage, and industrial separation agents. This kind of clay is used in industrial processes such as the production of biofuels from vegetable oils, the storage of natural gas at room temperature and the storage of greenhouse gases produced by industry. -Cuanticables: quantic wires simulations: scientists of the University of Buenos Aires use this application to study the degree to which the faults in the material of quantum wires has on their electric current. For this purpose, they develop a theoretical model which simulates the quantum wire, the impurities and the electrodes to which the quantum wire connects, and study the behaviour of the current that is generated across the wire when an external voltage is applied to it. -Sanidad: improved diagnostics: ionizing radiation is used in health applications ranging from basic diagnostic tests in a modern hospital (in radiology, nuclear medicine and laboratory tests) to the treatment of cancer by radiotherapy. For these purposes, both actual radioactive materials (in the form of seeds or injectable material) and complex equipment that generates photon beams and electrons can be utilised. Physicists from Andalucía use the Sanidad simulations to improve knowledge of the safe use of radiation in healthcare, and to explore potential new applications. -Criticalidad: electron transport in disordered systems with fractal properties: the Criticalidad project helps Mexican investigators understand the properties and effects of fractality in the transport of electrons through disordered systems in the Anderson transition. -Soluvel: researching solubility of toxic and pharmaceutical compounds: the aim of the Soluvel project is to calculate the solvation energies of certain soluble compounds, so as to identify through computation which compounds may prove toxic to humans, and which may serve as effective medical drugs. The project is being conducted by researchers from the Laboratory of Molecular Simulation of Separation and Reaction Engineering (LSRE), a division of the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto. -Primalidad: search for Wilson primes: a "citizen science" project open to all mathematicians, the Primalidad application searches for the next Wilson prime – the first three having been 5, 13 and 563. It is conjectured that the fourth Wilson prime must be larger than 5 × 108. - -== See also == -Crowdsourcing -List of volunteer computing projects -Science and technology in Portugal -Supercomputing in Europe - -== References == - -== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index f7d21fd32..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ideonomy" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:03.594959+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Ideonomy is a combinatorial "science of ideas" developed by American independent scholar Patrick M. Gunkel (1947–2017). Specifically, Ideonomy is concerned with the systematic organization of ideas and the discovery of the rules behind how ideas combine, diverge, and transform. Gunkel defined ideonomy as "the science of the laws of ideas and of the application of such laws to the generation of all possible ideas in connection with any subject, idea, or thing." In his 1992 book A History of Knowledge, Charles Van Doren compared ideonomy to a "mining operation" that excavates meanings and thought to discover treasures hidden deep within language. -Sources from the 1980s and 1990s demonstrate that ideonomy was useful to academic researchers in fields including biology, toxicology, and nursing/patient care. Beginning in the 2010s, academics in a wide range of fields including machine learning, marketing, computational modeling, and cybersecurity have relied on materials generated for ideonomy to provide methodological support for their research. - -== Etymology and definition == -The word "ideonomy" combines the Greek roots ideo- (from idea, meaning pattern or form) and -nomy (from nomos, meaning law or custom). The suffix -nomy suggests the laws concerning or the totality of knowledge about a given subject, as in astronomy or taxonomy. -In a note posted on the MIT ideonomy website, Gunkel states that the word was supposedly first coined by the French Encyclopedists to refer to a science of ideas. No evidence is provided for this statement, however. The concept bears some relationship to Antoine Destutt de Tracy's "ideology" (1796), which originally meant a systematic science of ideas before acquiring its modern political connotations. -Gunkel provided several metaphorical descriptions of ideonomy: - -An "idea bank": a computer network enabling systematic exploration of infinite possible ideas -A "kaleidoscope" that can exhibit all possible combinations and transformations of ideas -A "prism" capable of diffracting any idea into its cognitive components -A "gigantic microscope for magnifying the ideocosm" - -== History and development == -In 1984, Gunkel received a five-year unsolicited grant from the Richard Lounsbery Foundation of New York to develop ideonomy. A June 1, 1987 article on the front page of The Wall Street Journal brought Gunkel and ideonomy to wider public attention. Some academics were interested in using ideonomy's techniques, including biologist Betsey Dyer, who published several contemporaneous peer-reviewed studies citing ideonomy. Academic researchers in the field of toxicology and nursing/patient care also used ideonomy. -However, ideonomy's broadest contribution to date came beginning in the 2010s, as a list of personality traits generated for combinatorial matching was used by researchers in artificial intelligence to code human emotions for machine-learning tasks, develop computational models related to personality, develop a measurement framework for influencer-brand recommender systems, and aid information awareness/cybersecurity assessment. - -== Methodology == -The foundational empirical method of ideonomy involves the systematic creation of extensive lists. Gunkel's apartment reportedly contained thousands of lists on every conceivable topic. -Gunkel termed each list an "organon," which he described as expanding through "combination, permutation, transformation, generalization, specialization, intersection, interaction, reapplication, recursive use, etc. of existing organons." -The ideonomic process follows a progressive structure. The ideonomist begins with a simple list of examples of a particular idea, concept, or thing. The list need not be exhaustive. By studying this list, the ideonomist isolates and identifies types. This categorical analysis then reveals missing items, allowing the primary list to be improved and refined. -Gunkel emphasized that list items must not only cover genuine categories of nature but also be formulated in ways that yield the largest possible number of syntactically coherent possibilities when combined. -The core technique of ideonomy is "ideocombinatorics"—the systematic intersection and combination of items from different lists to generate novel composite concepts. Gunkel developed computer programs to automate this process. -For example, combining a list of 230 Universal Elementary Shapes (pits, pyramids, trenches, hemispheres, needles) with a list of 74 Types of Order (recurrence, identity, likeness of parts) yields 17,020 possible "shapes of order." These combinations, when phrased as questions ("Can there be pits of recurrence?"), could suggest new categories of phenomena worthy of investigation. -The computer-generated output is typically repetitive and often meaningless. However, with sufficient frequency, the combinations yield results that are unexpectedly interesting and fruitful. -In one documented case, Gunkel's programs generated 45,540 questions about toxins for microbiologist David Bermudes. One question—"Can hierarchies of cell process be used as a basis for classifying toxic action?"—prompted Bermudes to develop a novel approach to classifying biological toxins by the type of molecule they attack, rather than by chemical structure or physiological system affected. -According to one contemporaneous account of ideonomy, "Gunkel takes for his field all fields and all ideas about anything. He uses a computer to generate lists of words and phrases and by juxtaposition reviews the resultant patterns for novel ideas. The computer is ideal for this task because the mind would rebel at the formidable processing task ideonomy involves. What we have here is computer generated originality." - -== Applications == -Gunkel and his supporters identified several practical applications for ideonomic methods: -Scientific research: Biologist Betsey Dyer of Wheaton College published research crediting ideonomy for helping to generate ideas. -Medical science: When Austin pathologist Michael T. O'Brien was presented with the ideonomically-generated question "Can arteries have rashes?", he initially dismissed it as nonsense. Upon reflection, he realized that large arteries are supplied with blood by tiny vessels that might become inflamed and dilated, analogous to skin vessels in a rash—a phenomenon potentially worth researching. -Analogical thinking: Harvard law professor Robert Clark used ideonomic analogies to write a research paper comparing plant structure with human hierarchies. -Artificial intelligence: Douglas Lenat, a researcher at Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC) in Austin, suggested that Gunkel's lists enumerating types of human mistakes could help design AI systems capable of recognizing and correcting their own errors. - -== Reception and criticism == -Ideonomy received mixed reactions from the academic and scientific communities. Prominent supporters included: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 104f1f621..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Ideonomy" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:03.594959+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Edward Fredkin, former director of MIT's computer science laboratory, who praised Gunkel's "provocative ideas on artificial intelligence." -Marvin Minsky, AI scientist and MIT professor, who described ideonomy as "perhaps the most extensive study of ways to generate ideas." -Frederick Seitz, president emeritus of Rockefeller University, who noted Gunkel's "encyclopedic scope" -Robert C. Clark, Harvard law professor, who called Gunkel "the most intelligent person I ever met" -However, skeptics questioned whether ideonomy constituted a genuine science. Fredkin himself noted that Gunkel "pours out about 60 ideas a minute, and 59 of them are bad," though he added that "even with one good idea out of 60, it's still an amazing accomplishment." Douglas Lenat observed that brainstorming with Gunkel was "a bit like being hit over the head by the muse with a sledgehammer" and that "he puts people off." -Gunkel himself acknowledged that ideonomy was in its infancy and might seem "absurdly utopian." His planned magnum opus on ideonomy remained incomplete, and was posted on an MIT website thanks to faculty advisor Whitman Richards. Gunkel wrote: "Pioneering in a completely new field, yes in a new science, is almost unreal. It is heartbreaking, it is pitiable, it is almost inhuman. Honestly, it is a hell. There is nothing heroic about it." - -== Related concepts == -Gunkel identified several historical precedents for ideonomic thinking: - -Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716): The philosopher's work on a universal characteristic (characteristica universalis) and calculus of reasoning -Peter Mark Roget (1779–1869): Creator of Roget's Thesaurus, which organized concepts into a systematic taxonomy -Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907): Developer of the periodic table, demonstrating how combining lists of element families could reveal previously unseen connections -Fritz Zwicky (1898–1974): The Caltech astrophysicist whom Gunkel called the "grandfather of ideonomy" for his development of "morphological research"—systematic exploration of all possible solutions to problems -Ideonomy is also related to but distinct from "ideology" in its original sense. When Antoine Destutt de Tracy coined "ideology" in 1796, he intended it as a rigorous science dealing with the systematic analysis of ideas and their origins. This original meaning was later supplanted by the modern political connotation. -Notably, the combinatorial discovery process Gunkel identified as central to ideonomy is in use today by inventors who task AI with running through cross-domain permutations until a novel combination (e.g., between shapes and device types) is discovered with potential applied value. These scientists appear to think of novel matches surfaced by the AI as "hallucinations." -Other academic work in computational creativity has recognized the applied value of combinatorial methods without identifying ideonomy by name. For example, a 2023 paper in Leonardo presents the results of a deep learning neural network experiment that identified optimized configurations based on user preferences. The authors state: "This methodology is projected to have many applications in fashion, architecture, music, storytelling, cooking, or any other design or art field that can be represented as a set of permutations." This is precisely the way Gunkel saw a science of ideas working, as the methodology for ideonomy is not applicable to a single discipline, but treats any discipline that uses parameter spaces as discovery mechanisms. For example, a May 2022 workshop at Akademie Schloss Solitude called "Modifying Food Texture," presented by Agnes Cameron and Gary Zhexi Zhang, used ideonomy to explore novel industrial food texture modification techniques. - -== Legacy == -Gunkel died in 2017, leaving ideonomy without its primary developer. Although citations and use cases for ideonomy continue to appear in literature, the field has not yet achieved the institutional recognition or widespread adoption that Gunkel originally envisioned. -When questioned about the utility of ideonomy, Gunkel invoked Benjamin Franklin's response when asked about the usefulness of electricity immediately after its invention: "What use is a newborn baby?" Gunkel suggested that ideonomy, like other nascent sciences, required time to demonstrate its potential. - -== See also == -Artificial Intelligence -Combinatorics -Computational creativity -Epistemology -Idea -Ideology -Morphological analysis -Systems theory -TRIZ - -== References == - -== External links == -MIT's Ideonomy website - Original website created for ideonomy (static since 2006) -The Gunkel Global Renaissance Project - 501(c)(3) created to advance Gunkel's legacy and ideas \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 67cdf3c95..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,153 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of Earth science articles" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:11.992084+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth science. There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earth system. -Articles related to Earth science include: - - -== A == -Antarctic Convergence -Atmospheric chemistry -Atmospheric physics -Atmospheric sciences - - -== B == -Biosphere -Biogeography - - -== C == -Cartography -Chemical oceanography -Climatology -Crust -Cryosphere -Crystallography (mineralogy) - - -== D == -Dynamo theory - - -== E == -Earth's core -Earth's magnetic field -Earth's mantle -Economic geology -Edaphology (soil science) -Engineering geology -Environmental geology -Environmental science -Erosion -Exosphere (Atmospheric sciences) - - -== G == -Gaia hypothesis -Gemology (mineralogy) -Geochemistry -Geochronology (Geophysics) -Geodesy (see Surveying) -Geodynamics (Geophysics and Tectonics) -Geographical Information System -Geography -Geoinformatics (GIS) -Geology -Geomagnetics (Geophysics) -Geomicrobiology -Geomorphology -Geophysics -Geosphere -Geostatistics -Glaciology (Geology and Hydrology) -Gravimetry (Geophysics) - - -== H == -Historical geology -Human geography -Hydrogeology -Hydrology -Hydrometeorology -Hydrosphere - - -== I == -Intertropical Convergence Zone - - -== L == -Limnology (Hydrology) -Lithosphere (Geology) - - -== M == -Magma (Volcanology) -Magnetosphere -Marine biology (Oceanography) -Marine geology (Oceanography) -Meridional flow -Mesosphere (Atmospheric sciences) -Meteorology -Micropaleontology -Mineralogy - - -== O == -Oceanography - - -== P == -Paleoceanography -Paleoclimatology -Pedology (Soil science) -Pedosphere (Soil science) -Petrology (Geology) -Physical geography -Physical oceanography -Planetary geology -Plate tectonics - - -== Q == -Quaternary geology - - -== R == -Remote Sensing and GIS - - -== S == -Sedimentology (Geology) -Seismology (Geophysics) -Soil science -Stratigraphy (Geology) -Stratosphere (Atmospheric sciences) -Structural geology -Surveying (see Geodesy) - - -== T == -Thermosphere (Atmospheric sciences) -Tropopause -Troposphere (Atmospheric sciences) -Tornadoes - - -== V == -Volcanology - - -== Z == -Zonal flow - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index c7e44cf7c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,92 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 1/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science: Links to articles and redirects to sections of articles which provide information on each topic are listed with a short description of the topic. When there is more than one article with information on a topic, the most relevant is usually listed, and it may be cross-linked to further information from the linked page or section. -Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. -The branches of science, also referred to as scientific fields, scientific disciplines, or just sciences, can be arbitrarily divided into three major groups: - -The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences), which study nature in the broadest sense; -The social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics, history) which study people and societies; and -The formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts. -Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences. - -== A == -Abiology – Life arising from non-living matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of inanimate, inorganic, or lifeless things. -Abiophysiology – The study of non-organic biological processes -Acanthochronology – Study of cactus spines and the chronology of their growth -Acanthology – study of spined things, in particular sea urchins, and the resultant impact on taxonomy -Acarology – Study of mites and ticks -Aceology – The study of therapies – science of remedies, or of therapeutics; iamatology. -Acology – Science of medical remedies, or of therapeutics. -Acoustics – Branch of physics involving mechanical waves – the branch of physics studying the properties of sound. -Actinobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living things – synonymous with radiobiology. -Adenology – Branch of medicine dealing the endocrine system -Aerobiology – Study of airborne organisms -Aerodonetics – Science or study of gliding flight. -Aerodynamics – Branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air -Aerolithology – Science of meteorites – study of aerolites; meteorites. -Aerology – Synonym for atmospheric science -Aeronautics – Science of air flight-capable machines -Aeropalynology – Study of pollen and spores in Earths atmosphere – study of pollens and spores in atmosphere. -Aerospace engineering – Branch of engineering -Aerostatics – Study of gases that are not in motion -Agnoiology – Study of ignorance -Agonistics – Chemical which binds to and activates a biochemical receptorPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets -Agricultural chemistry – Agricultural sub-discipline of applied chemistry – study of influence in chemical processes in plants. -Agriology – comparative study of primitive peoples. -Agrobiology – Interdisciplinary studies of the interactions between plants and soil -Agroecology – Study of ecological processes in agriculture -Agrogeology – Study of origins and applications of minerals important to farming -Agrology – Soil science, study of soils, especially agricultural soils. -Agronomics – Branch of economics about distribution, management, and productivity of land. -Agronomy – Science of producing and using plants -Agrostology – Scientific study of the grasses -Algebra – Branch of mathematics -Algedonics – Branch of psychology that deals with pleasant and unpleasant states of consciousness -Algology – Branch of biology concerned with the study of algae (botany) -Algology – Medical treatment of pain as practiced in Greece and Turkey -Allergology – Study of the causes and treatment of allergies - study of causes and treatment of allergies -Anaesthesiology – Medical specialty concerned with anesthesia and perioperative care -Anatomy – Study of the structure of organisms -Andragogy – Methods and principles in adult education -Andrology – Medical specialty – study of men's physiology. -Anemology – Study of winds – study of wind. -Angiology – Branch of internal medicine, which deals with vascular disease -Anthropobiology – Biological study of the human species – study of human biology. -Anthropology – Scientific study of humans, human behavior, and societies – study of human cultures. -Anthrozoology – Subset of ethnobiology – study of human-animal interaction. -Apiology – Scientific study of bees -Aquatic ecology – The study of interactions between organisms and the environment in water -Arachnology – Scientific study of arachnides such as spiders, ticks and mites -Archaeology – Study of human activity based on materials left behind -Archelogy – study of first principles. -Archival science – Science of storage, registration and preservation of historical data -Archology – science of the origins of government. -Areology – Scientific study of the surface, crust, and interior of the planet Mars -Aristology – science or art of dining. -Aromachology – Study of the influence of odors on human behavior -Arthrology – Scientific study of joints and articulations -Arthropodology – Study of arthropods -Astacology – Scientific study of crayfish -Asteroseismology – Study of oscillations in stars -Astheniology – Physical symptomPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of diseases of weakening and aging. -Astrobotany – Study of plants grown in spacecraft -Astrobiology – Science concerned with life in the universe -Astrodynamics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraftPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets -Astrogeology – Geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects -Astronautics – Theory and practice of space travel -Astronomy – Scientific study of celestial objects -Astrophysics – Subfield of astronomy – study of behaviour of interstellar matter. -Atmology – the science of aqueous vapor. -Audiology – Branch of science that studies hearing, balance, and related disorders -Autecology – Study of interactions of individual organisms with the environment -Autology – Word that expresses a property it also possessesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – scientific study of oneself. -Automata theory – Study of abstract machines and automata -Auxology – Study of all aspects of human physical growth \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 576ce804f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,92 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 2/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== B == -Bacteriology – Subdiscipline of microbiology that studies bacteria -Ballistics – Science of the motion of projectiles -Balneology – Method of treating diseases by bathingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the therapeutic use of baths. -Barodynamics – science of the support and mechanics of heavy structures -Barology – study of gravitational force. -Bathymetry – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors -Batology – Study of brambles -Batrachology – Branch of herpetology that studies amphibians -Behavioural genetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour -Behavioral neuroscience – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour -Bibliology – Organized listing of books and the systematic description of them as objects -Bibliotics – study of documents to determine authenticity. -Bioecology – Study of interrelations of plants and animals with their environment -Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth related to biological activity -Biology – Scientific study of life -Biochemistry – Study of chemical processes of living organisms -Biomechanics – Study of the mechanics of biological systems -Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics -Bionomics – Term with different meanings in ecology or economics – study of organisms interacting in their environments. -Biophysics – Interdisciplinary science – study of physics of biological phenomena. -Biopsychology – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviourPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – application of the science of biology to the study of psychology. -Biotribology – Study of friction, wear and lubrication in biological systems – study of friction, wear and lubrication of biological systems. -Botany – Study of plant life -Bromatology – Applied science devoted to the study of foodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of food. -Bryology – Branch of botany concerned with the study of bryophytes – study of mosses and liverworts. - -== C == -Cacogenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof -Caliology – Place where a bird broods its eggsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of bird's nests. -Calorifics – study of heat – relating to the production of heat -Cambistry – science of international exchange. -Campanology – Scientific and musical study of bells -Carcinology – Study of crustaceans -Cardiology – Branch of medicine dealing with the heart -Caricology – Study of sedges -Carpology – Study of seeds and fruit -Cartography – Study and practice of making maps – science of making maps and globes. -Castrametation – Roman term for a fortified military basePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of designing a camp. -Catacoustics – science of echoes or reflected sounds. -Catallactics – Theory about the free market system in economies – science of commercial exchange. -Catechectics – art of teaching by question and answer. -Celestial mechanics – Branch of astronomy – study of motion of objects in outer space. -Cell biology – Branch of biology that studies cells – study of the different structures and functions of both eukaryote and prokaryote cells. -Cetology – Study of whales, dolphins, porpoises, and other cetaceans – study of whales and dolphins. -Chaology – Field of mathematics and science based on non-linear systems and initial conditions -Chaos theory – Field of mathematics and science based on non-linear systems and initial conditions -Characterology – Academic study of character – study of development of character. -Chemistry – Scientific study of matter's behavior and properties – study of properties and behaviours of substances. -Chirography – Study of penmanship and handwriting in all of its aspects – study of handwriting or penmanship. -Chiropody – Medicine branch focusing on the human lower extremities -Chorology – Study of geographic causal relationships – science of the geographic description of anything. -Chrematistics – Economics theory studying money – study of wealth; political economy. -Chromatics – Technique to quantify and describe physically the human color perception – study of color. -Chronobiology – Study of rhythms in biological processes of living organisms – study of biological rhythms. -Chrysology – study of precious metals. -Classical mechanics – Description of large objects' physics – study of motion of macroscopic objects. -Climatology – Scientific study of climate – study of climate. -Clinology – study of aging or individual decline after maturity. -Codicology – Study of codices or manuscript books -Cognitive science – Interdisciplinary scientific study of cognitive processes -Coleopterology – Branch of entomology studying beetles -Cometology – study of comets. -Computer science – Study of computation – study of processes that interact with data. -Conchology – Study of mollusc shells -Coniology – Study of atmospheric dust and its effects -Connectomics – Study of mapping wiring diagrams -Contact mechanics – Study of the deformation of solids that touch each other -Coprology – Study of faeces -Cosmetology – Study and application of beauty treatment – study of cosmetics. -Cosmochemistry – Study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe -Cosmology – Scientific study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe -Craniology – Pseudoscientific study of human skull shapePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the skull. -Criminology – Field of studies related to crimes -Cryobiology – Study of effects of extreme low temperatures on life -Cryptography – Practice and study of secure communication techniques -Cryptology – Practice and study of secure communication techniquesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of codes. -Ctetology – study of the inheritance of acquired characteristics. -Cybernetics – Study of circular causal processes -Cyclonology – study of tropical cyclones, e.g. hurricanes. -Cynology – Study of canines or domestic dogs -Cytology – Study of cells in terms of structure, function and chemistry \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index af0b7f264..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,89 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 3/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== D == -Dactyliology – study of finger rings. -Dactylography – Scientific study of fingerprints -Dactylology – Form of communication using one or both handsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sign language. -Data science – Field of study to extract knowledge from data – study of analyzing, processing, interpreting and extracting data. -Demography – Study of human populations and their structures -Demology – study of human populations and behaviour. -Dendrochronology – Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings -Dendrology – Science and study of woody plants -Dermatoglyphics – Scientific study of finger- and toeprints -Dermatology – Field of medicine dealing with the hair, nails, skin, and its diseases -Desmology – Study of ligaments -Dialectology – Scientific study of linguistic dialect -Dietetics – Study of diet and nutrition in relation to health and disease -Dioptrics – Science of light and lenses -Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents – science of deciphering ancient writings and texts. -Dosiology – study of dosage of drugs. -Dynamics – Study of forces and their effect on motion -Dysgenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof. - -== E == -Eccrinology – Sweat gland distributed almost all over the human bodyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of excretion. -Ecology – Study of organisms and their environment -Economics – Social science studying goods and services – study of material wealth (production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services). -Edaphology – Science concerned with the influence of soils on living beings -Egyptology – Scientific study of ancient Egypt – study of ancient Egypt. -Eidology – study of mental imagery. -Ekistics – Conceptual framework -Electrochemistry – Branch of physical chemistry – study of relations between electricity and chemicals. -Electrodynamics – Fundamental interaction between charged particlesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the effects arising from the interactions of electric currents with magnets, with other currents, or with themselves. -Electrohydrodynamics – Study of electrically conducting fluids in the presence of electric fields – the study of dynamics of electrically charged fluids. -Electrology – Method of hair removal – study of electricity. -Electrostatics – Study of still or slow electric charges – study of static electricity. -Electromagnetism – Fundamental interaction between charged particles – study of electromagnetic force. -Embryology – Branch of biology, studying prenatal biology -Emetology – Involuntary, forceful expulsion of stomach contents, typically via the mouthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of vomiting. -Emmenology – study of menstruation. -Endemiology – study of local diseases. -Endocrinology – Branch of medicine pertaining to the endocrine system -Energetics – study of energy under transformation within various fields. -Engineering studies – Academic field – study of engineering. -Enigmatology – Problem or enigma that testsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of enigmas (puzzles). -Entomology – Scientific study of insects -Entozoology – study of parasites that live inside larger organisms. -Enzymology – Large biological molecule that acts as a catalystPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of enzymes. -Ephebiatrics – Medical subspecialty for adolescentsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – branch of medicine dealing with adolescence. -Epidemiology – Study of health and disease within a population -Epileptology – Physician specializing in epileptologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of epilepsy. -Eremology – study of deserts. -Ergology – study of effects of work on humans. -Ergonomics – Designing systems to suit their users – study of people at work. -Escapology – Practice of escaping from restraints – study of freeing oneself from constraints. -Ethnobiology – Study of how living things are used by human cultures – study of dynamic relationships between peoples. -Ethnobotany – Study of traditional plant use – study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a local culture and people. -Ethnogeny – study of origins of races or ethnic groups. -Ethnochoreology – Field of dance study – study of dances and its implication in culture. -Ethnomusicology – Study of the cultural aspects of music – study of comparative musical systems. -Ethnology – Branch of anthropology – study of cultures. -Ethnomethodology – Study of how social order is produced – study of everyday communication and social interaction. -Ethology – Study of animal behaviour – study of natural or biological character. -Ethonomics – Personal value, basis for ethical actionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of economic and ethical principles of a society. -Etiology – Study of causation, or origination -Etymology – Study of the origin and evolution of words – study of origins of words. -Euthenics – Study of improving living conditions to increase well-being – science concerned with improving living conditions. -Exobiology – Science concerned with life in the universePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of extraterrestrial life. -Exoplanetology – study of exoplanets. - -== F == -Felinology – Study of cats – study of felines. -Finance – Academic discipline studying businesses and investments – science or study of money management. -Fluid dynamics – Aspects of fluid mechanics involving fluid flow -Fluid mechanics – Branch of physics – study of fluids behaviour at rest and in motion. -Fluid statics – Branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at restPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of fluids behaviour at rest. -Fluviology – study of watercourses. -Folkloristics – Branch of anthropologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of folklore and fables. -Forestry – Science and craft of managing woodlands – study of the creation, management, use, conservation, and repair of forests and associated resources. -Fracture mechanics – Study of propagation of cracks in materials -Futurology – Study of postulating possible, probable, and preferable futures -Forensic science – Application of science to law and investigation – the use of scientific methods or expertise to investigate crimes or examine evidence that might be presented in a court of law \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5fb817386..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,86 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 4/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== G == -Garbology – Study of modern refuse -Gastroenterology – Branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders -Gastronomy – Study of the relationship between food and culture -Gemmology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of gems and jewels -Gender studies – Interdisciplinary field of study – study of gender -Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline – study of descent of families -Genesiology – study of reproduction and heredity -Genetics – Science of genes, heredity and variation -Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems – study of chemistry of the Earth's crust -Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils – study of measuring geological time -Geography – Study of Earth's spatial information – study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants -Geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition – study of the rocks of a planet -Geometry – Branch of mathematics – study the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and dimensions of things. -Geomorphogeny – study of the characteristics, origins, and development of land forms -Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms – study of landforms and landform evolution -Geoponics – Science of cultivating the earth – study of agriculture -Geotechnics – Scientific study of earth materials in engineering problemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of increasing habitability of the Earth -Geratology – Study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of agingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of decadence and decay -Gerocomy – study of old age -Gerontology – Study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of aging -Gigantology – study of giants -Glaciology – Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice -Glossology – Scientific study of languagePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of language; study of the tongue -Gnomonics – Study of sundials – the art of measuring time using sundials -Gnotobiology – Organism with fully-known microorganismsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of life in germ-free conditions -Googology – Numbers significantly larger than those used regularlyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of large numbers -Graminology – Scientific study of the grassesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets -Grammatology – Study of graphemes and writing systemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of systems of writing -Graphemics – Study of graphemes and writing systemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of systems of representing speech in writing -Graphology – Pseudoscientific analysis of handwriting – study of handwriting -Gromatics – Ancient Roman land surveyorsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of surveying -Gynaecology – Medical area for women's reproductive health – study of women's physiology -Gyrostatics – study of rotating bodies - -== H == -Haemataulics – study of movement of blood through blood vessels -Halieutics – study of fishing -Harmonics – Science of musical sounds -Helcology – study of ulcers -Heliology – Scientific study of the sun -Helioseismology – Study of the structure and dynamics of the Sun through its oscillation -Helminthology – Study of parasitic worms (helminths) -Hematology – Study of blood and blood diseases -Hemodynamics – Dynamics of blood flow – study of the dynamics behind blood circulation -Hepatology – Medical specialty – study of liver, gallbladder, biliary tree, and pancreas -Hermeology – study of Mercury -Herpetology – Study of amphibians and reptiles -Hippiatrics – study of diseases of horses -Hippology – Study of horses -Histology – Study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals -Histopathology – Microscopic examination of tissue in order to study and diagnose disease – study of changes in tissue due to disease -Historiography – Study of the methods used by historians -Historiology – The study of history. -Home economics – Study of household management -Hoplology – Study of human combative behavior and performance -Horography – art of constructing sundials or clocks -Horology – Art or science of measuring time – science of time measurement -Horticulture – Small-scale cultivation of plants – study of gardening -Hydraulics – Applied engineering involving liquids – study of application of engineering, chemistry and other fields of science involving the use of liquids -Hydrobiology – Science of life and life processes in water – study of aquatic organisms -Hydrodynamics – Study of liquids in motion -Hydrogeology – Study of groundwater's movement and distribution -Hydrography – Measurement of bodies of water -Hydrokinetics – study of motion of fluids -Hydrology – Science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth – study of water resources -Hydrometeorology – Branch of meteorology and hydrology – study of atmospheric moisture -Hydrostatics – Branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest -Hyetology – science of rainfall -Hygiastics – science of health and hygiene -Hygienics – Practices performed to preserve healthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sanitation; health -Hygiology – hygienics; study of cleanliness -Hygroscopy – Phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules – study of humidity -Hygrometry – Study of gas-vapor mixturesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of humidity -Hypnology – Study of sleep and hypnotic phenomena – study of sleep; study of hypnosis. -Hypsography – Geographical measurementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of measuring heights \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3a9d119b8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,64 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 5/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== I == -Iamatology – Obsolete synonym for the study of therapies. -Iatrology – treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine -Ichnography – Architectural drawing showing interior layout of a buildingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan -Ichnology – Study of trace fossils -Ichthyology – Scientific study of fish -Iconography – Branch of art history – study of drawing symbols -Iconology – Method of interpretation in cultural history – study of icons; symbols -Ideogeny – study of origins of ideas -Ideology – Set of beliefs or values – science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour -Idiomology – study of idiom, jargon or dialect -Idiopsychology – study of the psychology of one's own mind -Immunochemistry – Study of the chemistry of the immune system -Immunogenetics – Branch of medical genetics – study of genetic characteristics of immunity -Immunology – Branch of medicine studying the immune system -Immunopathology – Branch of medicine that deals with immune responses associated with disease -Information science – Academic field concerned with collection and analysis of information -Information technology (IT) – Computer-based technology -Insectology – Scientific study ofi insects, or relationships between insects and humans -Irenology – Social science study of peace – study of peace - -== J == -Japanology – Area studies focused on JapanPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – The study of Japan, its language, culture and history - -== K == -Kalology – study of beauty -Karstology – Scientific study of the various aspects of karst regions -Karyology – Photographic display of total chromosome complement in a cellPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of cell nuclei -Kinematics – Branch of physics describing the motion of objects without considering forces – study of motion -Kinesics – Interpretation of body motion communication – study of gestural communication -Kinesiology – Study of human body movement – study of human movement and posture -Kinetics – Subfield of physics – study of forces producing or changing motion -Koniology – Study of atmospheric dust and its effects – study of atmospheric pollutants and dust -Ktenology – Scientific study of killing -Kymatology – Branch of physicsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of wave motion - -== L == -Larithmics – study of population statistics -Laryngology – Medical specialty that deals with the larynx -Lepidopterology – Branch of entomology that studies moths and butterflies -Leprology – The study of leprosy and its treatment -Lexicology – Linguistic discipline studying words – study of words and their meanings -Lexigraphy – Grapheme which represents a word or a morphemePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of definition of words -Library science – Branch of academic disciplines – study of collection of information -Lichenology – Branch of mycology that studies lichens -Library and information science – Branch of academic disciplines – study of organization, access, collection, and protection/regulation of information, whether in physical or digital forms. -Limacology – Study of slugs -Limnobiology – study of freshwater ecosystems -Limnology – Science of inland aquatic ecosystems -Linguistics – Scientific study of language -Loimology – study of plagues and epidemics -Logics – Study of correct reasoning -Loxodromy – study of sailing along rhumb-lines -Ludology – Study of games and the act of playing them \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 104c7d2e3..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,91 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 6/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== M == -Macroeconomics – Study of an economy as a whole – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy -Magnetics – Class of physical phenomenaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of magnetism -Magnetohydrodynamics – Model of electrically conducting fluids – study of electrically conducting fluids -Magnetostatics – Branch of physics about magnetism in systems with steady electric currents – study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady -Malacology – Study of molluscs -Malariology – Study of the mosquito borne disease, malaria -Mammalogy – Study of mammals -Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life – study of the ocean's ecosystem -Mastology – Study of mammals – study of mammals -Mathematics – Field of study – study of magnitude, number, and forms -Mazology – mammalogy; study of mammals -Mechanics – Science concerned with physical bodies subjected to forces or displacements -Meconology – study of or treatise concerning opium -Media studies – Field of study that deals with media -Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness -Melissopalynology – Study of pollen contained in honey -Melittology – Scientific study of bees -Melology – Scholarly study of musicPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of music; musicology -Mereology – Study of parts and the wholes they form – study of part-whole relationships -Mesology – Study of organisms and their environmentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – ecology -Metallogeny – Study of the genesis and geographic distribution of mineral deposits – study of the origin and distribution of metal deposits -Metallography – Study of metals using microscopy – study of the structure and constitution of metals -Metallurgy – Field of science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals -Metaphysics – Study of fundamental reality – study of principles of nature and thought -Metapolitics – Political discourse about politics itself – study of politics in theory or abstract -Metapsychology – Psychological aspect – study of nature of the mind -Metascience – Scientific study of science -Meteoritics – Scientific study of meteors, meteorites and meteoroids -Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting -Methodology – Study of research methods -Methyology – study of alcohol -Metrology – Science of measurement and its application -Microanatomy – Study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues -Microbial ecology – Study of the relationship of microorganisms with their environment -Microbiology – Study of microscopic organisms (microbes) -Microclimatology – Local set of atmospheric conditions that differ significantly from the surrounding areaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of local climates -Microeconomics – Behavior of individuals and firms – branch of economics that studies the behavior of individual households and firms in making decisions on the allocation of limited resources -Micrology – study or discussion of trivialities -Micropalaeontology – Branch of paleontology that studies microfossils -Microphytology – study of very small plant life -Military science – Theory, method, and practice of producing military capability -Mineralogy – Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts -Molecular biology – Branch of biology that studies biological systems at the molecular level -Molinology – Study of devices which use energy for mechanical purposes -Momilogy – study of mummies -Morphology – study of forms and the development of structures -Morphometrics – Quantitative study of size and shape – study of size and shape -Muscology – Branch of botany concerned with the study of bryophytesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of mosses -Museology – Study of museums -Musicology – Scholarly study of music – study of music -Mycology – Study of fungi -Myology – Study of the muscular system – study of muscles -Myrmecology – Study of ants -Mythology – Type of traditional narrativePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of myths; fables; tales - -== N == -Naology – study of church or temple architecture -Nautics – study and art of navigation -Navigation – Process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle – study of controlling a movement of a vehicle from one place to another -Necroplanetology – Study of the process of planetary destruction – study of the destruction of planets -Nematology – Scientific study of roundworms -Neonatology – Medical care of newborns, especially the ill or premature -Neossology – study of nestling birds -Nephology – Scientific study of clouds -Nephrology – Medical study concerned with the kidneys -Neurobiology – Scientific study of the nervous system -Neuroeconomics – Interdisciplinary field – study of human decision making and the ability to process multiple alternatives and to choose an optimal course of action -Neurology – Medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system -Neuropsychology – Study of the brain related to specific psychological processes and behaviors -Neuroscience – Scientific study of the nervous system – study of development, work and structure of nervous system -Neurypnology – study of hypnotism -Neutrosophy – study of the origin and nature of philosophical neutralities -Nomology – Science of laws in philosophy -Noology – Spanish philosopher (1898–1983)Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the intellect -Nosology – Branch of medicine that deals with classification of diseases -Nostology – study of senility -Notaphily – Study and collection of paper currency – study and collecting of bank-notes and cheques -Numismatics – Study of currencies, coins and paper money -Nymphology – study of nymphs -Nanotechnology – Technology with features near one nanometer \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9ba1f63e0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 7/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== O == -Obstetrics – Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth -Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean -Oceanology – Scientific study of the ocean -Odontology – Scientific study of teeth -Odonatology – Study of dragonflies and damselflies -Oenology – Study of wine and winemaking -Oikology – science of housekeeping -Olfactology – study of the sense of smell -Ombrology – study of rain -Oncology – Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer -Oneirology – Scientific study of dreams -Onomasiology – Branch of linguistics concerned with how to express a given concept – study of nomenclature -Onomastics – Study of proper names -Ontology – Philosophical study of being – science of pure being; the nature of things -Oology – Branch of ornithology studying bird eggs, nests and breeding behavior -Ophiology, also known as ophidiology – Branch of herpetology that studies snakes -Ophthalmology – Field of medicine treating eye disorders -Optics – Branch of physics that studies light -Optology – study of sight -Optometry – Field of medicine treating eye disorders – science of examining the eyes -Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft -Orchidology – Scientific study of orchids -Ornithology – Scientific study of birds -Organology – Collection of tissues with similar functionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (biology) – study of form, structure, development, and functions of plant or animal organs -Organology – Science of musical instruments and their classifications (musicology) – study of musical instruments in relation to history, culture, construction, acoustic properties and classification -Orology, also known as Mountain research – Study of mountain environments -Orthoepy – Correct pronunciation of a language -Orthography – Set of conventions for written language -Orthopterology – Study of grasshoppers and related insects -Oryctology – mineralogy or paleontology -Osmics – scientific study of smells -Osmology – study of smells and olfactory processes -Osphresiology – study of the sense of smell -Osteology – Scientific study of bones -Otology – Branch of medicine for the ear -Otorhinolaryngology – Medical specialty of the head and neck \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md deleted file mode 100644 index d131e5a86..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,103 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 8/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== P == -Paedology – Study of children's behavior and development -Paidonosology – study of children's diseases; pediatrics -Palaeoanthropology – Study of ancient humans -Palaeobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils -Palaeoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate -Palaeoichthyology – study of ancient fish -Palaeolimnology – Scientific study of ancient lakes and streams -Palaeontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch -Palaeopedology – Discipline studying soils of the past eras -Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils -Paleo-osteology – study of ancient bones -Paleoseismology – Study of earthquakes that happened in the past -Palynology – Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material -Papyrology – Scientific study of ancient manuscripts -Paradoxology – Logically self-contradictory statementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of paradoxes -Parapsychology – Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena -Parasitology – Study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them -Paroemiology – study of proverbs -Parthenology – study of virgins -Particle physics – Study of subatomic particles and forces -Pathology – Study of disease -Pedagogics – Theory and practice of educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets -Pedology – Study of soils in their natural environment -Pelology – study of mud -Penology – Subfield of criminology – study of crime and punishment -Periodontology, also known as Periodontics – Field of dentistry -Pestology – Scientific study of insectsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of pests -Petrology – Study of rocks in geology -Pharmacognosy – Study of drugs obtained from natural sources -Pharmacology – Science of drugs and medications and their effects -Pharology – Scientific study of lighthouses and signal lights -Pharyngology – study of the throat -Phenology – Study of periodic events in biological life cycles -Phenomenology – Philosophical method and schools of philosophy – study of phenomena -Philology – Study of language in historical sources -Philosophy – Study of general and fundamental questions – science of knowledge or wisdom -Phoniatrics – Sudy and treatment of organs involved in speech production -Phonetics – Study of how humans produce and perceive sounds -Phonology – Study of sound organization in languages -Photobiology – Scientific study of light's effect on living organisms -Photonics – Technical applications of optics – study of photons -Phraseology – Linguistic study of phrases -Phycology – Branch of biology concerned with the study of algae -Phylogenetics, also known as Phylogeny – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms -Physics – Scientific field of study -Physiology – Science regarding functions in organisms or living systems -Phytology, also known as Botany – Study of plant life -Piscatology – study of fishes -Pisteology – science or study of faith -Planetary science, also known as Planetology – Science of planets and planetary systems -Plumology – Study of feathers -Plutology – political economy; study of wealth -Pneumatics – Use of pressurised gas in mechanical systems – study of mechanics of gases -Pneumonology – Study of respiratory diseases -Podiatry, also known as Podology – Medicine branch focusing on the human lower extremities -Political science – Scientific study of politics and social science -Polemology – Multidisciplinary study of war -Pomology – Study of fruits and their cultivation -Pogonology – Hair on the chin, lower face and neckPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of beards -Posology – Study of dosage of medicines -Potamology – Study of rivers -Pragmatics – Branch of linguistics and semiotics relating context to meaning -Praxeology – Theory of human action -Primatology – Scientific study of primates -Proctology – Study of the structure and diseases of the anus, rectum, and sigmoid colon -Protistology – Scientific discipline devoted to the study of protists – study of protists -Proxemics – Study of human use of space and the effects that population density has on behavior -Psephology – Quantitative scientific analysis of elections and balloting (within political science) – study of election results and voting trends -Pseudology – art or science of lying -Pseudoptics – study of optical illusions -Psychobiology – Neuroscience of behaviour -Psychogenetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour – study of internal or mental states -Psychognosy – study of mentality, personality or character -Psycholinguistics – Study of relations between psychology and language -Psychology – Study of mental functions and behaviors -Psychopathology – Scientific study of mental disorders -Psychophysics – Branch of knowledge relating physical stimuli and psychological perception -Pteridology – Class of vascular plantsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of ferns -Pterylology – study of distribution of feathers on birds -Punnology – study of puns -Pyretology – study of fevers -Pyrgology – study of towers -Pyroballogy – study of artillery -Pyrography – Art or decoration made from burn marks – study of woodburning -Pyrotechnics – Science of creating combustibles and explosives for entertainment – study of combustion through fire or explosions - -== Q == -Quantum computing – Computer hardware technology that uses quantum mechanics – the exploitation of collective properties of quantum states, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform computation. -Quantum mechanics – Description of physical properties at the atomic and subatomic scale – a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles -Quantum physics – Description of physical properties at the atomic and subatomic scale – the study of matter and energy at the most fundamental level -Queer theory – Field of critical theory – study of issues related to sexual orientation and gender identity -Quinology – study of quinine. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md deleted file mode 100644 index d2bda1ccc..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,83 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 9/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== R == -Radiobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living tissues – study of the scientific principles, mechanisms, and effects of the interaction of ionizing radiation with living matter -Radiochemistry – Chemistry of radioactive materials – study of ordinary chemical reactions under radioactive circumstances -Radiology – Medical specialty for imaging procedures -Rheology – Study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid state -Rheumatology – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases -Rhinology – Study of the nose and sinuses -Rhochrematics – science of inventory management and the movement of products -Robotics – Design, construction, use, and application of robots -Rodentology – Study of rodents -Runology – Study of Runic alphabets - -== S == -Sarcology – study of fleshy parts of the body -Scatology – Study of faeces – study of excrement or obscene literature -Schematonics – art of using gesture to express tones -Sciagraphy – Study of perspective shadow projection – art of shading -Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models – study of application of models to understand a particular problem -Scientific programming – Language for controlling a computer – study of programming -Scripophily – Study and collection of stock and bond certificates -Sedimentology – Study of natural sediments and their formation processes -Seismology – Scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planet -Selenodesy – Study of the surface and shape of the Moon -Selenology – Structure and composition of the Moon – study of the Moon -Semantics – Study of meaning in language -Semantology – science of meanings of words -Semasiology – Subfield of linguistic semanticsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets -Semiology – Study of signsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of signs and signals -Semiotics – Study of signs -Serology – Scientific study of serum and other bodily fluids -Sexology – Scientific study of human sexuality -Siderology – study of iron and its alloys, including steel -Significs – Linguistic and philosophical term – science of meaning -Silvics – Practice of controlling forests for timber productionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of tree's life -Sindonology – Scientific analysis of the Shroud.of Turin -Sinology – Area studies focused on China -Sitology – Expert in nutrition and malnutritionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – dietetics -Sociobiology – Subdiscipline of biology regarding social behavior – study of biological basis of human behaviour -Socioeconomics – Branch of sociologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the relationship between economy and society -Sociolinguistics – Study of how society affects language -Sociology – Scientific study of human society and relationships -Solid mechanics – Branch of mechanics concerned with solid materials and their behaviors -Somatology – Branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human speciesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of substances -Snow hydrology – Field of snow science concerning its composition and dispersion -Spectrology – Study involving matter and electromagnetic radiationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets -Spectroscopy – Study involving matter and electromagnetic radiation – study of spectra -Speleology – Science of cave and karst systems -Spermology – Reproductive structure in plants – study of seeds -Sphagnology – study of peat moss -Sphygmology – Study of the pulse -Splanchnology – Study of the visceral organs -Spongology – study of sponges -Stasiology – study of political parties -Statics – Branch of mechanics concerned with balance of forces in nonmoving systems -Stellar astronomy – Study of stars and stellar evolution -Stemmatics, also known as Stemmatology – Identification of textual variantsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of relationships between text -Stereochemistry – Subdiscipline of chemistry – study of chemistry of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. -Stoichiology – science of elements of animal tissues -Stomatology – Study of oral medicine – study of the mouth -Storiology – study of folk tales -Stratigraphy – Study of rock layers and their formation -Stratography – art of leading an army -Stylometry – Study of writing style – studying literature by means of statistical analysis -Suicidology – Scientific study of suicide and self-destructive behaviors -Supramolecular chemistry – Branch of chemistry – study of the chemistry of assembled molecular sub-units -Symbology – Something that represents an idea, process, or physical entityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of symbols -Symptomatology – Indications of a specific illness, including psychiatricPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of symptoms of illness -Synecology – Associated populations of species in a given areaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of ecological communities -Synectics – Thought process for making the strange familiar and the familiar strange – study of processes of invention -Syntax – System responsible for combining morphemes into complex structures – study of sentence structure -Syphilology – Sexually transmitted infectionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of syphilis -Systematics – Branch of biology – study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present -Systems science – Study of the nature of systems – study of systems \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3a59e3356..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,114 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of branches of science" -chunk: 10/10 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:26.472143+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== T == -Taxidermy – Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display – art of curing and stuffing animals -Taxonomy – Science of classifying organisms -Tectonics – Process of evolution of Earth's crust -Teleology – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose – study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose -Telmatology – Branch of physical geography concerned with the study of wetlands -Tempestology – The study of cyclones, hurricanes and similar extreme weather events -Teratology – Study of developmental anomalies -Terrestrial ecology – Study of terrestrial ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic things that occupy them. -Teuthology – Study of cephalopods -Textology – Identification of textual variants – study of the production of texts -Thalassography – science of the seas and gulfs -Thanatology – Scientific study of death and its aspects -Thaumatology – The study of miracles – study of miracles -Theology – Study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs - study of religion -Theoretical computer science – Subfield of computer science and mathematics -Theriogenology – Veterinary specialty concerning reproduction -Thermodynamics – Physics of heat, work, and temperature -Thermokinematics – study of motion of heat -Thermology – study of heat -Therology – Study of mammals -Thremmatology – science of breeding domestic animals and plants -Threpsology – science of nutrition -Tidology – study of tides -Timbrology – study of postage stamps -Tocology – Medical specialty encompassing two subspecialtiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – obstetrics; midwifery -Tokology – Medical specialty encompassing two subspecialtiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of childbirth -Tonetics – Use of pitch to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaningPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets -Topography – Study of the forms of land surfaces in earth -Topology – Branch of mathematics – study of places and their natural features -Toponymy, also known as Toponymics – Study of place names -Toxicology – Study of substances harmful to living organisms -Traumatology – Medicine branch – study of wounds and their effects -Tribology – Science of rubbing surfaces -Trichology – Study of the hair and scalp -Trophology – Science of nutrition -Tsiganology – study of gypsies -Turbology – study of tornadoes -Typhlology – study of blindness and the blind -Typography – Art of arranging type – art and technique of arranging type -Typology – System of classification – study of types of things - -== U == -Uranography – Part of astronomy concerned with mapping of stars -Uranology – Science of the heavens (historical) -Urbanology – Study dealing with specialized problems of cities -Urenology – study of rust molds -Urogynecology – Sub-specialty of urology and gynecology -Urology – Medical specialty on the urinary and reproductive systems - -== V == -Vaccinology – Science of vaccine development and production -Valeology – study of healthy living -Venereology – Branch of medicine dealing with the study and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases -Venology – The study of veins. -Veterinary medicine – Branch of medicine for non-human animals -Vexillography – Art and practice of designing flags – the art and practice of designing flags -Vexillology – Study of flags -Victimology – Study of victimization -Vinology – Study of wine and winemakingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – scientific study of vines and winemaking -Virology – Study of viruses -Vitaminology – The study of vitamins. -Vitrics – study, art and technology of glassy materials; glassware -Volcanology – Study of volcanoes - -== W == -Webology – Academic journal on the World Wide Web – The study of the World Wide Web. - -== X == -Xenobiology – Science of synthetic life forms – study of biological systems which do not exist in nature -Xylography – Broad term for woodblock printing techniques -Xylology – Science of wood - -== Y == -Youth Studies – Interdisciplinary academic fieldPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – the study of the development, history, culture, psychology, and politics of youth - -== Z == -Zenography – The study of the planet Jupiter -Zooarchaeology – Analysis of animal remains found in archaeological sites -Zoochemistry – study of chemistry of animals -Zoogeography – Science of the geographic distribution of animal species -Zoogeology – study of fossil animal remains -Zoology – Scientific study of animals -Zoonomy – study of animal physiology -Zoonosology – study of animal diseases -Zoopathology – Study and diagnosis of disease in animals -Zoophysics – Study of physics relating to structure and function of animal organs and bodies. -Zoophysiology – study of physiology of animals -Zoophytology – study of plant-like animals -Zoosemiotics – Study of the use of signs among animals – study of animal communication -Zootaxy – Scientific classification of animals. -Zootechnics – Science of managing domestic or captive animals -Zygology – science of joining and fastening -Zymology – Study of fermentation and its uses -Zymurgy – Applied chemistry of fermentation processes -Zythology – Study of beer and beer-brewing. - -== See also == -List of words ending in ology -List of sciences -Science -Outline of academic disciplines - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1c7c92dc8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,313 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of computing articles" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:33.910929+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science). -See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. -Topics on computing include: - -== 0–9 == -1.TR.6 – -100BaseVG – -100VG-AnyLAN – -10BASE-2 – -10BASE-5 – -10BASE-T – -120 reset – -1-bit computing – -16-bit computing – -16550 UART – -1NF – -1TBS – -20-GATE – -20-GATE – -2B1D – -2B1Q – -2D – -2NF – -3-tier (computing) – -32-bit application – -32-bit computing – -320xx microprocessor – -386BSD – -3Com Corporation – -3DO – -3D computer graphics – -3GL – -3NF – -3Station – -4.2BSD – -4-bit computing – -404 error – -431A – -473L system – -486SX – -4GL – -4NF – -51-FORTH – -56 kbit/s line – -5ESS switch – -5NF – -5th Glove – -6.001 – -64-bit computing – -680x0 – -6x86 – -8-bit clean – -8-bit computing – -8.3 filename – -80x86 – -82430FX – -82430HX – -82430MX – -82430VX – -8514 (display standard) – -8514-A – -88open – -8N1 – -8x86 – -90–90 rule – -9PAC - -== A == -ABC ALGOL – -ABLE – -ABSET – -ABSYS – -Accent – -Acceptance, Test Or Launch Language – -Accessible Computing – -Ada – -Addressing mode – -AIM alliance – -AirPort – -AIX – -Algocracy – -ALGOL – -Algorithm – -AltiVec – -Amazon Web Services – -Amdahl's law – -America Online – -Amiga – -AmigaE – -Analysis of algorithms – -AOL – -APL – -Apple Computer, Inc. – -Apple II – -AppleScript – -Array programming – -Arithmetic and logical unit – -ASCII – -Active Server Pages – -ASP.NET – -Assembly language – -Atari – -Atlas Autocode – -AutoLISP – -Automaton – -AWK – -Microsoft Azure - -== B == -B (programming language) – -Backus–Naur form – -Basic Rate Interface (2B+D) – -BASIC – -Batch job – -BCPL – -Befunge – -BeOS – -Berkeley Software Distribution – -BETA – -Big O notation – -Binary symmetric channel – -Binary Synchronous Transmission – -Binary numeral system – -Bit – -BLISS – -Blu-ray – -Blue screen of death – -Bourne shell (sh) -Bourne-Again shell (bash) – -Better Portable Graphics (BPG) – -Brainfuck – -Btrieve – -Burrows–Abadi–Needham logic – -Business computing - -== C == -C++ – -C# – -C – -Cache – -Canonical LR parser – -Cat (Unix) – -CD-ROM – -Central processing unit – -Chimera – -Chomsky normal form – -CIH virus – -Classic Mac OS – -Cloud Computing – -COBOL – -Cocoa (software) – -Code and fix – -Code Red worm – -ColdFusion – -Colouring algorithm – -COMAL – -Comm (Unix) – -Command line interface – -Command line interpreter – -COMMAND.COM – -Commercial at (computing) – -Commodore 1541 – -Commodore 1581 – -Commodore 64 – -Common logarithm – -Common Unix Printing System – -Compact disc – -Compiler – -Computability theory – -Computational complexity theory – -Computation – -Computer-aided design – -Computer-aided manufacturing – -Computer architecture – -Computer cluster – -Computer hardware – -Computer monitor – -Computer network – -Computer numbering format – -Computer programming – -Computer science – -Computer security – -Computer software – -Computer system – -Computer – -Computing – -Context-free grammar – -Context-sensitive grammar – -Context-sensitive language – -Control flow – -Control store – -Control unit – -CORAL66 – -CP/M – -CPL – -Cracking (software) – -Cracking (passwords) – -Cryptanalysis – -Cryptography – -Cybersquatting – -CYK algorithm – -Cyrix 6x86 - -== D == -D – -Data compression – -Database normalization – -Decidable set – -Deep Blue – -Desktop environment – -Desktop publishing – -Deterministic finite automaton – -Dialer – -DIBOL – -Diff – -Digital camera – -DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) – -Digital signal processing – -Digital visual interface – -Direct manipulation interface – -Disk storage – -Distance transform – -Distance map – -Distance field – -Docblock – -DVD – -DVI (TeX) – -Dvorak keyboard layout – -Dylan - -== E == -Earth Simulator – -EBCDIC – -ECMAScript (a.k.a. JavaScript) – -Electronic data processing (EDP) – -Enhanced Versatile Disc (EVD) – -ENIAC – -Enterprise Java Beans (EJB) – -Entscheidungsproblem – -Equality (relational operator) – -Erlang – -Enterprise resource planning (ERP) – -ES EVM – -Ethernet – -Euclidean algorithm – -Euphoria – -Exploit (computer security) - -== F == -Fast Ethernet – -Federated Naming Service – -Field specification – -Final Cut Pro – -Finite-state automaton – -FireWire – -First-generation language – -Floating-point unit – -Floppy disk – -Formal language – -Forth – -Fortran – -Fourth-generation language – -Fragmentation – -Free On-line Dictionary of Computing – -Free Software Foundation – -Free software movement – -Free software – -Freescale 68HC11 – -Freeware – -Function-level programming – -Functional programming - -== G == -G5 – -GEM – -General Algebraic Modeling System – -Genie – -GNU – -GNU Bison – -Gnutella – -Graphical user interface – -Graphics Device Interface – -Greibach normal form – -G.hn - -== H == -hack (technology slang) – -Hacker (computer security) – -Hacker (hobbyist) – -Hacker (programmer subculture) – -Hacker (term) – -Halting problem – -Hard Drive – -Haskell – -HD DVD – -History of computing – -History of computing hardware – -History of Microsoft Windows – -History of operating systems – -History of the graphical user interface – -Hitachi 6309 – -Home computer – -Human–computer interaction \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 803348cfa..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,402 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Index of computing articles" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:33.910929+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== I == -IA-32 – -IA-64 – -IBM PC – -Interactive computation – -IBM – -iBook – -iCab – -iCal – -Icon – -iDVD – -IEEE 802.2 – -IEEE 802.3 – -IEEE floating-point standard – -iMac – -Image processing – -iMovie – -Indentation style -Inform – -Instruction register – -Intel 8008 – -Intel 80186 – -Intel 80188 – -Intel 80386 – -Intel 80486SX – -Intel 80486 – -Intel 8048 – -Intel 8051 – -Intel 8080 – -Intel 8086 – -Intel 80x86 – -Intel – -INTERCAL – -International Electrotechnical Commission – -Internet Explorer – -Internet – -iPhoto – -iPod – -iResQ – -Irreversible circuit – -iSync – -iTunes - -== J == -J (programming language) – -Java Platform, Enterprise Edition – -Java Platform, Micro Edition – -Java Platform, Standard Edition – -Java API – -Java – -Java virtual machine (JVM) – -JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) – -JPEG - -== K == -K&R – -KDE – -Kilobyte – -KL-ONE – -Kleene star – -Klez – -Kotlin - -== L == -LALR parser – -Lambda calculus – -Lasso – -LaTeX – -Leet – -Legal aspects of computing – -Lex – -LibreOffice – -Limbo – -Linked list – -Linux – -Lisp – -List of IBM products – -List of Intel processors – -List of programming languages – -List of operating systems – -List of Soviet computer systems – -LL parser – -Logic programming – -Logo – -Lotus 1-2-3 – -LR parser – -Lua – -Lynx language – -Lynx browser - -== M == -m4 – -macOS Server – -macOS – -Mac – -MAD – -Mainframe computer – -Malware – -Mary – -Mealy machine – -Megabyte – -Melissa worm – -Mercury – -Mesa – -Microcode – -Microprocessor – -Microprogram – -Microsequencer – -Microsoft Windows – -Microsoft – -MIPS architecture - -Miranda – -ML – -MMC – -MMU – -MMX – -Mobile Trin – -Modula – -MOO – -Moore's Law – -Moore machine – -Morris worm – -MOS Technology 6502 – -MOS Technology 650x – -MOS Technology 6510 – -Motorola 68000 – -Motorola 6800 – -Motorola 68020 – -Motorola 68030 – -Motorola 68040 – -Motorola 68060 – -Motorola 6809 – -Motorola 680x0 – -Motorola 68LC040 – -Motorola 88000 – -Mozilla – -MPEG – -MS-DOS – -Multics – -Multiprocessing – -MUMPS - -== N == -.NET – -NetBSD – -Netlib – -Netscape Navigator – -NeXT, Inc. – -Nial – -Nybble – -Ninety–ninety rule – -Non-uniform memory access – -Nondeterministic finite automaton - -== O == -Oberon – -Objective-C – -object – -OCaml – -occam – -OmniWeb – -One True Brace Style – -OpenBSD – -Open source – -Open Source Initiative – -OpenVMS - -Opera (web browser) – -Operating system advocacy – -Operating system - -== P == -PA-RISC – -Page description language – -Pancake sorting – -Parallax Propeller – -Parallel computing – -Parser (language) – -Parsing (technique) – -Partial function – -Pascal – -PDP – -Peer-to-peer network – -Perl – -Personal computer – -PHP – -PILOT – -PL/I – -Pointer – -Poplog – -Portable Document Format (PDF) – -Poser – -PostScript – -PowerBook – -PowerPC – -PowerPC G4 – -Prefix grammar – -Preprocessor – -Primitive recursive function – -Programming language – -Prolog – -PSPACE-complete – -Pulse-code modulation (PCM) – -Pushdown automaton – -Python - -== Q == -QuarkXPress – -QuickTime – -QWERTY - -== R == -R (programming language) – -RAM (random-access memory) – -RAM drive – -Random access – -RascalMPL – -Ratfor – -RCA 1802 – -Read-only memory (ROM) – -REBOL – -Recovery-oriented computing – -Recursive descent parser – -Recursion (computer science) – -Recursive set – -Recursively enumerable language – -Recursively enumerable set – -Reference (computer science) – -Referential transparency – -Register – -Regular expression – -Regular grammar – -Regular language – -RPG – -Retrocomputing – -REXX – -RFC – -RISC – -RS/6000 – -Ruby - -== S == -S – -S-Lang – -Safari (web browser) – -SAIL – -Script kiddie – -Scripting language – -SCSI – -Second-generation programming language – -Secure Sockets Layer – -sed – -Self (or SELF) – -Semaphore (programming) – -Sequential access – -Serverless computing – -SETL – -Shareware – -Shell script – -Shellcode – -SIMD – -Simula – -Sircam – -Slide rule – -SLIP – -SLR parser – -Smalltalk – -Server Message Block – -SMBus – -SMIL (computer) – -Smiley – -SNOBOL – -Software engineering – -SONET – -Space-cadet keyboard – -SPARC International – -Specialist (computer) – -SPITBOL – -SQL – -SQL slammer worm – -Squeak – -SR – -SSL – -Service-oriented architecture – -S/SL – -Stale pointer bug – -Standard ML (or SML) – -Stateless server – -Stepping level - -Structured programming – -Subject-oriented programming – -Subnetwork – -Supercomputer – -Swap space – -Symbolic mathematics – -Symlink – -Symmetric multiprocessing – -Syntactic sugar – -SyQuest Technology – -SYSKEY – -System board – -System programming language – -System R (IBM) – -System X (supercomputer) - -== T == -TADS – -Tcl – -TECO (text editor) – -Text editor – -TeX – -Third-generation language – -Timeline of computing – -Timeline of computing 1950–1979 – -Timeline of computing 1980–1989 – -Timeline of computing 1990–1999 – -Timeline of computing hardware before 1950 (2400 BC–1949) – -Tk – -TPU – -Trac – -Transparency (computing) – -Trin II – -Trin VX – -Turing machine – -Turing – -2B1Q - -== U == -UAT – -Unicode – -Unicon – -Unix – -Unix shell – -UNIX System V – -Unlambda – -USB – -Unreachable memory - -== V == -Var'aq – -VAX – -VBScript – -Vector processor – -Ventura Publisher – -Very-large-scale integration – -Video editing – -Virtual memory – -Visual Basic (classic) – -Visual Basic .NET – -Visual FoxPro – -Von Neumann architecture - -== W == -WD16 – -Web 2.0 – -Web browser – -Western Design Center – -The WELL - -Western Design Center 65C02 – -Western Design Center 65816 – -Whitespace – -Wiki – -Window manager – -Windows 1.0 – -Windows 2000 – -Windows 95 – -Windows Me – -Windows NT – -Windows XP – -Windows 7 – -Word processor – -World Wide Web – -WYSIWYG - -== X == -X Window System – -X86 – -Xmouse - -== Y == -Yacc – -YaST – -Yet another – -Yorick - -== Z == -Z notation – -Z shell – -Zilog Z80 – -Zooming User Interface – -ZX80 – -ZX81 – -ZX Spectrum \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 37ff0c932..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Industry funding of academic research" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:03.481091+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Industry funding of academic research in the United States is one of the two major sources of research funding in academia along with government support. Currently, private funding of research accounts for the majority of all research and development funding in the United States as of 2007 overall. Overall, Federal and Industrial sources contribute similar amounts to research, while industry funds the vast majority of development work. -While the majority of industry research is performed in-house, a major portion of this private research funding is directed to research in non-profit academic centers. As of 1999, industrial sources accounted for an estimated $2.2 billion of academic research funding in the US. However, there is little governmental oversight or tracking of industry funding on academic science and figures of the scale of industry research are often estimated by self-reporting and surveys which can be somewhat unreliable. -Much of this industry funding of academic research is directed toward applied research. However, by some accounts, industry may even fund up to 40% of basic research in the United States, with Federal funding of basic research falling below 50%, although this figure does not consider where this research is conducted. The role for funding of academic research from industrial sources has received much attention both in a historical and contemporary perspective. The practice has received both extensive political praise and scholarly criticism. - -== History == -Research in the US prior to World War II, heavily relied on funding from private sources without major organized federal research programs or either the scientists’ or associates’ personal funds. During WWII, governmental investment in research was widely regarded as a major contributor to military success and support for research was politically favorable. Following WW2, federal research funding in both Europe and the US increased in terms of relative percent of funding for research and absolute amount. Overall, the growth of industrial research funding has greatly outpaced public research funding growth, with US governmental research funding increasing by an average of 3.4% annually, while industrial research funding increased by an average of 5.4% annually from 1950 to 2004. -Since WW2, industry funding of science has consistently represented the second largest source of funding for academic science. Industry funding of academic science did expand during the 1980s and 1990s following the passing of the Bayh–Dole Act and a variety of both State and Federal proposals to increase funding for joint industry academic partnerships. In the 2000s there has been a small retraction of industry funding for academic science while overall industry R&D funding has expanded. ). However, industry funding may be broadening its scope as industry funding of basic science increasing dramatically over that same period, but much of this funding remains in-house. -Culturally, attitudes towards the industrial funding of academic research have changed over time. Within universities, commercial activities and industry funding were often spurned in the 19th century. More recently, commercializing scientific activity is viewed more favorably with extensive political and university support of translating scientific discovery into economic output. However, within the research community and the public, industrial funding of research remains controversial. The universality of this tangled industry, academic, and governmental exchange of funding and research adventures has led researchers to term this model of R&D the Triple Helix. - -== Types of industrially funded academic research == -University-industry partnerships can take on a variety of forms. On the smallest scale, individual research labs or researchers can partner with industry sources for funding. The details of such partnerships can differ substantially with any number of motives ranging from the academic lab testing of previously developed products, to performing early stage basic research related to industry research objectives, or even to individual researchers supporting their salary by consulting on related research problems in industry. While many such partnerships exist, due to their informal nature and resulting lack of record, it is difficult to track how extensive and impactful such relationships are, with most relying on surveys and other self-reporting measures. By closest approximation, according to the Research Value Mapping Survey, 17% of academics at major US research universities report receive grants from industry sources supporting their research. -Far more extensively, in many fields and countries, a narrow majority of academic scientists report having some soft industry relationships, primarily through consulting. Such informal industry academic relationships have a long-standing tradition as they served as a major source of funding for individual labs prior to WW2. In many cases, it was expected that researchers would pursue such relationships as this was expected to be a major source of funding for researcher’s salaries. Despite greatly expanded post-WW2 federal support for research, so called soft money salary support from industry remains a large and growing aspect of academic research salaries. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0b34d557a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Industry funding of academic research" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:03.481091+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== University Industry Research Centers (UIRCs) === -On a larger scale, there have been numerous attempts to create collaborative University-Industry Research Centers (UIRCs) to jointly host academic and industry researchers to address industry problems with direct, large scale collaborative centers. Early forms of UIRCS started in the 1950s and 1960s with the formation of research parks with industry sponsors. In the 1970s, there were multiple proposals at the federal level in the US to help fund and expand early UIRCs. However, funding fell through at multiple points. -The first UIRCs experienced difficulties in bridging the differences between academic and industrial culture. One such attempt occurred at Caltech where Caltech researchers partnered with Xerox and IBM through the Silicon Structures Project. Both industry and academic partners were concerned about the cultures of the other and found the structure ineffective. With such frustrations, it was difficult to secure partners to continue expanding UIRCs. -In the late 1970s, RPI created two three new UIRCs: 1) the Center for Integrated Computer Graphics, which received both NSF and industry support 2) the Center for Manufacturing Productivity and Technology Transfer, which was funded entirely by industry support and 3) the Center for Integrated Electronics, which received unprecedented industry support. These centers were generally regarded as highly successful and made expansion of governmental support for joint industry and academic ventures more favorable. In the early 1980s, states began contributing funding to UIRCs and other industry-academic partnerships to encourage local economic growth from innovation. By the mid-1980s, the federal government expanded financial support for UIRCs. -With mixed governmental and industry support, the UIRCs were more likely to be successful. Over time successful governmentally funded UIRCs could become independent from government support once having demonstrable successes that could continue to incentivize industry to contribute funding more aggressively. UIRCs, coupled to early seeding from both state and federal government, continued to greatly expand during the 1980s and early 1990s, eventually receiving nearly 70% of industry funding of academic research and incentivizing a tripling of industry funding of academic research during the 1980s. - -=== Contract Research Organizations (CROs) === -Contract research has also drawn increasing industry funding, particularly to Contract Research Organizations (CROs) from Biotech and Pharmaceutical corporations. Contract research is a popular form of outsourcing research in industry as industry has more influence over how the study is conducted than in either UIRCs or traditional academic grants. CROs, which are specifically designed for this function have drawn substantial industry clinical research funding away from academia and are growing rapidly. - -== Influence and criticisms == - -Much discussion has been placed on the effects of industrial research funding on the behavior of academic research scientists. Concerns center on whether researchers can remain impartial when they are being funded by a for-profit and potentially motivated industrial source, if this funding gives private sources an oversized impact on which research directions are pursued, and the potential negative effects of industrial funding on the openness of science. -A multitude of studies have found that pharmaceutical studies funded by industry organizations are significantly more likely to publish results in favor of the product being supported. This could, in part, be due to the fact that usually when an academic accepts industry funding, particularly when working on an existing product, researchers have to sign non-disclosure agreements which often prevent the publication of negative results and inhibit the openness of science. This could serve to significantly bias scientific results and diminish public trust of science. -There are additionally many scholars who have considered advantages of industrially funded academic research. Generally, increased industry funding may increase academic and industry interaction, prompting greater efficiency in translating and commercializing of science research. This increased commercialization activity from academics could serve as an economic and societal boost as the economy could be bolstered by new products hitting the market, while society could benefit directly from having increased access to the fruits of scientific production. Supporting this, academic science funded by industry sources does result in more patents per dollar, increased licensing of these patents, and even more citations per published paper than research supported by other sources, including federal at the University of California Berkeley. -In Germany, it also appears that applied research funded by industry sources results in a significant increase in patent citations, which could correspond to a serious increase in translation of applied research. Such increase in commercialization and translation of research could provide social and economic benefits. However, it is difficult to determine whether this increase in apparent impact is due to the industry funding itself or is just a read out that industry funds target work that tends to produce more citations per publication as well as more patents. - -== Disclosure == -The Sunshine Act, part of the Affordable Care Act, requires healthcare providers to disclose financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies and medical device manufacturers. This transparency initiative mandates that payments, including consulting fees, travel, research funding, and gifts, be publicly reported in the Open Payments database maintained by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services by companies. The goal is to prevent conflicts of interest and ensure that financial ties do not unduly influence medical decision-making. By making this information accessible, the Sunshine Act promotes accountability and allows patients to make informed choices about their healthcare providers. -Several initiatives have advocated for increased transparency in financial relationships and perceived conflict of interest between academic faculty and their industry partners within medical education. Anand Reddi has advocated that undisclosed conflicts of interest can compromise the objectivity of medical training and influence the content delivered to medical students and trainees. By advocating for voluntary disclosure policies, Reddi has contributed to efforts that aim to uphold integrity and trust in the education of future healthcare professionals both in resolutions at the American Medical Association but also in the peer-reviewed literature and op-eds. - -== See also == -Funding of science -Self-Organized Funding Allocation -Military research -Junk science -Public–private partnership - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index e528a4508..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Information wants to be free" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:39.255545+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -"Information wants to be free" is an expression that means either that all people should be able to access information freely, or that information (formulated as an actor) naturally strives to become as freely available among people as possible. It is often used by technology activists to criticize laws that limit transparency and general access to information. People who criticize intellectual property law say the system of such government-granted monopolies conflicts with the development of a public domain of information. The expression is often credited to Stewart Brand, who was recorded saying it at a Hackers Conference in 1984. - - -== History == -The phrase is attributed to Stewart Brand, who, in the late 1960s, founded the Whole Earth Catalog and argued that technology could be liberating rather than oppressing. What is considered the earliest recorded occurrence of the expression was at the first Hackers Conference in 1984, although the video recording of the conversation shows that what Brand actually said is slightly different. Brand told Steve Wozniak: - -On the one hand you have—the point you’re making Woz—is that information sort of wants to be expensive because it is so valuable—the right information in the right place just changes your life. On the other hand, information almost wants to be free because the costs of getting it out is getting lower and lower all of the time. So you have these two things fighting against each other. -Brand's conference remarks are transcribed accurately by Joshua Gans in his research on the quote as used by Steve Levy in his own history of the phrase. -A later form appears in his The Media Lab: Inventing the Future at MIT: - -Information Wants To Be Free. Information also wants to be expensive. ...That tension will not go away. -According to historian Adrian Johns, the slogan expresses a view that had already been articulated in the mid-20th century by Norbert Wiener, Michael Polanyi and Arnold Plant, who advocated for the free communication of scientific knowledge, and specifically criticized the patent system. - - -== Gratis versus libre == - -The various forms of the original statement are ambiguous: the slogan can be used to argue the benefits of propertied information, of liberated, free, and open information, or of both. It can be taken amorally as an expression of a fact of information-science: once information has passed to a new location outside of the source's control there is no way of ensuring it is not propagated further, and therefore will naturally tend towards a state where that information is widely distributed. Much of its force is due to the anthropomorphic metaphor that imputes desire to information. In 1990 Richard Stallman restated the concept normatively, without the anthropomorphization: - -I believe that all generally useful information should be free. By "free" I am not referring to price, but rather to the freedom to copy the information and to adapt it to one's own uses ... When information is generally useful, redistributing it makes humanity wealthier no matter who is distributing and no matter who is receiving. -Stallman's reformulation incorporates a political stance into Brand's value-neutral observation of social trends. - - -== Cypherpunk == - -Brand's attribution of will to an abstract human construct (information) has been adopted within a branch of the cypherpunk movement, whose members espouse a particular political viewpoint of anarchism. The construction of the statement takes its meaning beyond the simple judgmental observation, "Information should be free", by acknowledging that the internal force or entelechy of information and knowledge makes it essentially incompatible with notions of proprietary software, copyrights, patents, subscription services, etc. They believe that information is dynamic, ever-growing and evolving and cannot be contained within (any) ideological structure. -According to this philosophy, hackers, crackers, and phreakers are liberators of information which is being held hostage by agents demanding money for its release. Other participants in this network include cypherpunks who educate people to use public-key cryptography to protect the privacy of their messages from corporate or governmental snooping and programmers who write free software and open source code. Still others create Free-Nets allowing users to gain access to computer resources for which they would otherwise need an account. They might also break copyright law by swapping music, movies, or other copyrighted materials over the Internet. -Chelsea Manning is alleged to have said "Information should be free" to Adrian Lamo when explaining a rationale for US government documents to be released to WikiLeaks. The narrative goes on with Manning wondering if she is a "'hacker', 'cracker', 'hacktivist', 'leaker' or what". - - -== Literary usage == -In the "Fall Revolution" series of science-fiction books, author Ken Macleod riffs and puns on the expression by writing about entities composed of information actually "wanting", as in desiring, freedom and the machinations of several human characters with differing political and ideological agendas, to facilitate or disrupt these entities' quest for freedom. -In the Warcross duology by Marie Lu, the virtual space "The Pirate's Den" sports the slogan. -In the cyberpunk world of post-singularity transhuman culture described by Charles Stross in his books like Accelerando and Singularity Sky, the wish of information to be free is a law of nature. - - -== See also == - - -== References == - - -== External links == - -Does the cyberpunk movement represent a political resistance? Archived 22 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine -Roger Clarke \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9b948fa64..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Insect Fear Film Festival" -chunk: 1/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:04.620655+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Insect Fear Film Festival or IFFF is an annual free event held every spring since 1984, and is the first university-sponsored event of its kind in the U.S., typically taking place on a Saturday in February. Organized by the Entomology Graduate Students Association at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, the festival blends education with entertainment. It showcases films, shorts, and TV episodes that highlight insect biology and celebrate the role of insects in popular culture. -The purpose of the event is to dispel fears of insects by providing relative knowledge while various insect-themed monster movies are shown. Before the films begin, May Berenbaum, the festival organizer, the UI Entomology department head and professor, typically introduces each film, providing scientific context, debunking inaccuracies, and exploring why we fear insects. She also points out "biological improbabilities" and filmmaking flaws, often noting that some films are "so bad they’re actually entertaining." (However, the organisers often have to watch the films several times in order to identify a theme and select the best films. "It’s really excruciating sometimes," Berenbaum said.) -The festival typically includes several animated shorts and two or three feature-length films. The evening usually starts with a family-friendly film, as parents and children make up a large portion of the audience. By the second movie, however, "all bets are off." In addition to the screenings, this event is held alongside an insect petting zoo, exotic insect displays, an insect art contest, insect face painting, balloon insect folding, the Bugscope, a raffle with arthropod-themed prizes and other activities. -The festival is typically organized around a different theme each year, with past themes including insect invasions (e.g., The Naked Jungle and The Swarm), metamorphosis, cockroaches, mosquitos, and entomologists themselves. The theme influences not only the film selections but also pre-show activities and the design of the festival T-shirts, created by graduate students. These festival T-shirts, featuring the year's theme, are sold during the event to support insect-related outreach programs. The tradition of festival T-shirts began with the second festival. -The festival is usually held at Foellinger Auditorium. Due to the pandemic, the 38th IFFF in 2021 was held online, marking the first of two consecutive years the event took place virtually. In 2023, the festival returned to Foellinger Auditorium at UIUC. -The festival had showcased over 100 insect-related films, videos, and shorts by 2010. By 2024, it is estimated to have featured between 175 and 200 films, videos, and shorts. The most popular offering at the festival, according to the National Wildlife Federation's magazine in 1995, has been Beginning of the End (1957), which features giant grasshoppers invading the city of Chicago after consuming radiation-treated vegetables. -Recognized as the first university-sponsored public outreach event of its kind in the U.S., the festival is described by Adam Langer in The Film Festival Guide for Filmmakers, Film Buffs, and Industry Professionals (2000) as "specialized" and hosted at a "great university." It has garnered media coverage from outlets such as National Geographic Magazine, Canadian Broadcasting Company, National Public Radio, the Washington Post, and The New York Times. - -== Slogan and Aims == -"Scaring the general public with horrific films and horrific filmmaking." -The IFFF aims to spark a sense of wonder about the insect and arthropod world. It highlights the importance of scientific research for adults, while fostering curiosity in younger generations and potentially inspiring future careers in science. The festival serves as a bridge between technical knowledge and its real-world significance, encouraging a deeper appreciation for the natural world and the vital role insects play in it. - -== Founding and inspiration == -The film festival's founder, entomology professor and department head May Berenbaum, conceived the idea as a graduate student at Cornell University. One day, she saw a poster for a Godzilla festival hosted by the Asian-American Student Association and thought, "if they can have a sense of humor about their identity, why couldn’t we entomologists do the same?" When she pitched the idea, however, her department head dismissed it as undignified. Berenbaum brought the Insect Fear Film Festival to life after joining the University of Illinois faculty in 1980. With the support of department head Stanley Friedman, the first festival was held in March 1984. - -== Pre-film activities == -Before the films begin, attendees of the Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) have the opportunity to participate in various educational and interactive activities. - -=== Insect petting zoo === -Guided by graduate students from the UIUC Entomology Department, attendees can handle and interact with live insects and arthropods, including tarantulas, large ants, beetles, and other fascinating species, while learning about their biology. The insects on display may change each year, depending on the festival's theme, e.g. a cockroach petting zoo in 2013 and a "maggot petting zoo" in 2005, offering a fresh experience for each IFFF. The petting zoo offers a unique opportunity for attendees to gain a firsthand understanding of these creatures, helping to dispel the fears and misconceptions many people have about insects. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index ba151928d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Insect Fear Film Festival" -chunk: 2/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:04.620655+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Insect art contest === -Since 1993, the lFFF also features an Insect Art Contest for K–12 students, since 1993, inviting them to explore their creativity while learning about insects. Students (K–12) are encouraged to submit artwork that depicts insects and arthropods in any medium. The contest aims to inspire young minds to appreciate the beauty and complexity of these creatures, fostering a deeper understanding of the insect world. Winning entries are often displayed at the festival, providing an opportunity for students to showcase their work to the community. In 1990s, the contest was held with the Natural History Museum, where the winning drawings were displayed for two weeks. Due to the pandemic, the 2021 and 2022 Insect Art Contests were held online with a virtual art gallery to showcase students' artwork. In 2023, the contest returned to an in-person format. -The insect-themed artwork contest is usually due by mid-February annually. Please submit your artwork to the Entomology Graduate Student Association (EGSA), UIUC, or contact the IFFF coordinators, typically the EGSA presidents, for details. - -=== Bugscope === -At the Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), attendees will have the opportunity to experience a $600,000 high-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) firsthand, gaining a deeper understanding of the true nature of insects with Bugscope. This interactive experience allows participants to remotely control the SEM and explore insects and arthropods, such as bees, beetles, flies, mosquitoes, and spiders, at sizes as small as 0.5–4 nanometers. The Bugscope team provides expert guidance, answering questions and offering insights into insect biology. By examining these creatures in extraordinary detail, festival-goers can counter common misconceptions perpetuated by Hollywood's insect-themed horror films. - -=== Insect collection exhibit === -The exhibit showcased a diverse array of exotic insects, each thoughtfully curated to align with the festival's theme and the featured films of the year. The display typically included diverse collection of exotic insects and rare specimens from across the globe, spotlighting unique species that either tie into the festival's focus or appear in the annual feature films. Attendees had the opportunity to learn about the biology, behavior, and ecological roles of these insects from graduate students and experts, providing opportunities for up-close viewing and educational interaction. In 2021 and 2022, due to the pandemic, a virtual exhibit was held that provided a virtual tour of the Illinois Natural History Survey's insect collection. - -=== Insect (or Honey) Tasting === -In 1993, the IFFF served food made from insects for tasting. In 2000, the bee-themed year, the IFFF featured honey tasting. - -== Themes and films == - -=== 43rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2026) === -The 43rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) was held on February 28, 2026. The 2026 theme is “Insect-Human Hybrids,” focusing on films featuring mutant human–insect characters. Such hybrids are a recurring motif in folklore and popular culture, including figures such as Anansi and Seth Brundle from The Fly (1986). An episode of Sectaurs, adapted from the 1980s toy line featuring insect–human “tele-bonded” characters, was screened prior to the feature presentation. The feature film, Infestation (2009), depicts a global outbreak in which giant insects cocoon and transform humans. - -=== 42nd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2025) === -The 42nd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) took place on February 22, 2025. The year’s theme was “Tarantulas: Hairy, Scary Spiders.” Tarantulas, known for their multiple legs, rapid movements, and venomous fangs, were highlighted for the ways they evoke both fascination and fear. Hollywood bug wrangler Steven Kutcher presented clips from various horror films featuring tarantulas. The festival concluded with a screening of Arachnophobia (1990), a film in which a California town attempts to contain a deadly spider infestation.. - -=== 41st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2024) === -The theme of the 41st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) was "Ant-Men" providing attendees with a unique and entertaining way to explore the fascinating world of ants, a highly social insect. The event highlighted ants' complex behaviors and drew intriguing parallels to human life. The films featured included The Ant Bully (2006), in which a boy, Lucas, is shrunk to ant size by ants, makes friends with them, and helps defeat an evil exterminator; and Ant-Man (2015), which follows a superhero who uses size-changing technology to communicate with ants. - -=== 40th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2023) === -In 2023, the 40th annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) focused on "living fossil" arthropods - species that have remained largely unchanged for millions of years. Featured films included Joe's Apartment (1996), in which cockroaches help their roommate fight developers, and The Monster That Challenged the World (1957), in which giant velvet worms wreak havoc in California. The festival also screened trailers for other films about living fossils and three episodes of Pike's Lagoon (2018–19), an animated series about a horseshoe crab. May Berenbaum, the festival's founder and head of the Department of Entomology, introduced the films, presented the art awards, and explained the biology behind 'living fossils', highlighting where the films got the science right - and where they went wrong. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 058414a79..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Insect Fear Film Festival" -chunk: 3/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:04.620655+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== 39th annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2022) === -The 39th IFFF, themed "Venomous," took place online via Zoom on February 26, 2022. This year's festival featured a variety of engaging and educational activities, including a special presentation by Justin Schmidt, creator of the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, which rates the pain caused by insect stings. Attendees could explore a virtual insect petting zoo, learn about venomous insects through the Bugscope, and take a virtual tour of the Illinois Natural History Survey's insect collection. The event also included fun and interactive elements such as bee ventriloquism, insect-themed crafts, and an art contest featuring insect-themed artwork created by local K-12 students. The film program consisted of a mix of animated and live short films divided into three segments: first, exaggerated comic depictions of insect stings; second, dramatic or humorous reactions to stings, including severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis; and third, scientific insights into the world of venomous arthropods, showcasing their various venom delivery methods and potential beneficial uses. A highlight was a live stinging demonstration to provide a first-hand look at the process of venom delivery. The festival highlighted the fascinating diversity of venomous insects, from honeybee stings used for self-defense to predatory wasps that paralyze prey for their larvae. The event successfully blended education and entertainment, providing an interactive and engaging experience for all participants. - -=== 38th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2021) === -The 38th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), themed "Featuring Fleas," was held for the first time online via Zoom on February 27, 2021, due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The festival focused on fleas, exploring their fascinating biology and behavior, including their role as blood-feeding parasites and their remarkable ability to jump up to 50 times their body length. Highlights of the festival included a flea circus featuring Dr. Tim Cockerill of Falmouth University in England, who demonstrated the acrobatic talents of live fleas. Other activities included a virtual insect petting zoo, a flea bugscope that allowed attendees to learn about fleas up close, and flea-themed crafts. A virtual tour of the Illinois Natural History Survey (INHS) insect collection provided a glimpse into the diversity of insects, including flea specimens. The film program featured a century of flea-related films, shorts, and documentaries that explored the cultural and scientific significance of fleas, as well as their role in transmitting diseases such as the bubonic plague. The festival also included a virtual art contest featuring insect-themed artwork created by local K-12 students. This event marked a unique shift to an online format that offered an engaging mix of education, entertainment, and interactive experiences. - -=== 37th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2020) === -The 37th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) took place on Saturday, February 22, 2020, just before the COVID-19 lockdowns began in the U.S. in March 2020. This year's theme was "Crustacean Fear Films," highlighting the diverse group of arthropods, including crabs, lobsters, shrimp, and many others, with over 42,000 species in total. -The festival featured three crustacean-themed films, beginning with a kid-friendly short anthology showcasing crustaceans in TV and film. The first feature film, Attack of the Crab Monsters (1957), follows scientists trapped on a shrinking island, where they face giant, intelligent, and murderous crabs. The second film, The Bay (2012), is presented in "found footage" style and depicts an ecological disaster in a small Maryland town, caused by the deadly tongue-eating fish louse. - -=== 36th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2019) === -This year's featured insect was the often-misunderstood termite, which, despite its reputation as a pest, is actually vital to the environment. Termites play a crucial role in breaking down dead wood, which helps recycle nutrients back into ecosystems. The festival also highlighted the positive impact termites can have on sustainability. For example, engineers have studied termite mounds, which naturally maintain a cool temperature, and used this knowledge to develop energy-efficient cooling systems for buildings. This innovative "bio-inspired" approach shows how termites contribute not only to nature but also to sustainable human technologies. The films featured at the 2019 Insect Fear Film Festival included Alien Apocalypse (2005), a sci-fi thriller where giant termites are the alien invaders threatening to strip the Earth of its wood resources. This film, starring Bruce Campbell, was the main feature of the evening, aligning with the festival's focus on termites. In addition, there were short films shown before the main feature, including Woody the Woodpecker cartoons. These were chosen because woodpeckers often feed on wood-boring insects, such as termites, creating a fun and educational lead-up to the festival's focus on the featured insect. - -=== 35th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2018) === -The 35th annual Insect Fear Film Festival was held on February 24, 2018. This year's event focused on ticks, chosen for their portrayal as terrifying antagonists in film, thanks to their blood-feeding nature and their ability to spread diseases like Lyme disease. The festival showcased several films, including The Big Tick (2006), an episode of Ben 10 featuring a giant, tick-like alien, Bite of the Ruby Red (1955), an episode of Soldiers of Fortune about a scientist searching for a cure to a tick-borne fever. The main feature was Ticks (1993), a horror film in which mutated, oversized ticks terrorize a group of teenagers on a wilderness retreat. - -=== 34th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2017) === -The theme of the 2017 IFFF was "Illinois Alumnus Paul Hertzberg Insect Fear Films," spotlighting films produced by Paul Hertzberg, a U of I graduate from 1971. Hertzberg has produced over 150 films, including 2 Lava 2 Lantula (2016) and Caved In (2006), which were featured in the festival. In addition to the screenings, Hertzberg also gave a talk during the event. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0321b935c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Insect Fear Film Festival" -chunk: 4/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:04.620655+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== 33rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2016) === -The 33rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) took place on Saturday, February 27, at 6 p.m. in Foellinger Auditorium, with the theme "Exploding Arthropods." The event, hosted by the Entomology Graduate Student Association, highlighted real-life explosive insects, such as bombardier beetles, which spray hot chemicals as a defense, and exploding carpenter ants, which sacrifice themselves to protect their colonies. Parasitoid wasps, whose larvae chew their way out of their hosts, also contributed to the theme. These natural "explosions" were mirrored in the festival's films, featuring mutant cockroaches and giant, lava-breathing tarantulas. -The evening featured three films: Palm Rot (2015; 7.5 minutes), Bug (1975), and Lavalantula (2015). The event began with Palm Rot (2015; 7.5 minutes), a short animated film introduced by the event special guest and its creator, Ryan Gillis. Following that, Bug (1975) told the story of a scientist who unintentionally created a breed of intelligent, combustible cockroaches. The evening concluded with Lavalantula (2015), in which giant, lava-spewing tarantulas wreaked havoc in Los Angeles after a volcanic eruption. - -=== 32nd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2015) === -The 32nd IFFF was held on February 28, 2015, at 6 p.m. in Foellinger Auditorium. The theme for this year's festival was Female Entomologists in Fear Films. The event featured two family-friendly short episodes from the Discovery Kids show Growing Up Creepie. Following the shorts, the festival showcased the 2005 SyFy original Mansquito. In the film, Dr. Allen (Musetta Vander) is trying to find a cure for mosquito-borne Gillan's disease when an explosion in her lab exposes Ray Ericson (Matt Jordon) to high levels of radiation, gradually transforming him into a half-man, half-mosquito hybrid known as the Mansquito. - -=== 31st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2014) === -The 31st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival was held on February 22, 2014, at 6 p.m. in Foellinger Auditorium, with a focus on pesticides and the evolving public perception of their use, particularly DDT—a chemical compound banned by the USDA due to its harmful environmental effects. One of the highlights of this year's festival was the Pesticide Petting Zoo, which featured a collection of old pesticide containers and applicators that Dr. May Berenbaum, head of the Entomology Department at UIUC, has been collecting for years. These historical items were thoroughly cleaned and emptied, allowing visitors to safely handle and examine them for a glimpse into the past. -The festival also showcased a selection of films that explored the role of pesticides in society, including Riders of the Whistling Pines (1949), in which DDT is used to save the day, and Locusts: The 8th Plague (2005). In addition, short films such as Mickey's Garden (1935) and Pink Pest Control (1969) were featured. - -=== 30th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2013) === -The 30th IFFF took place on February 23, 2013, at the University of Illinois, marking a major milestone for the event. The theme of this year's festival, "The Ins-X Files: The Truth (About Insects) Is Out There," was dedicated to The X-Files, the iconic science fiction series known for its numerous insect-themed episodes. -Over 2,000 attendees gathered for the event, which featured special guest appearances by The X-Files creator Chris Carter and screenwriter Darin Morgan. Carter and Morgan spoke to the audience and answered questions following the screenings. One of the featured films was "War of the Coprophages" (1996) from season 3 of The X-Files, which centers on killer cockroaches. Carter personally selected this episode due to its connection to the festival's founder, May Berenbaum, a prominent entomologist. Berenbaum's research inspired the episode, and her name was used for the character of Dr. Bambi Berenbaum, an entomologist played by Bobbie Phillips. Additionally, the festival also showcased Carter's first feature film, The X-Files: Fight the Future (1998). - -=== 29th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2012) === -The 29th Insect Fear Film Festival, held at 6 p.m. on February 25, 2012, centered around the theme of "International Ants". During the event, many live ants were on display, including Dinoponera, one of the largest ant species in the world. The evening featured a mix of trailers, short films, and screenings of two films: Glass Trap (2005) is a chaotic tale involving a swarm of gigantic radioactive ants trapped in a skyscraper, where a group of employees must band together to escape in Los Angeles. The film features clumsy early CGI, and cringe-worthy, middle-school-level romantic interactions. The Bone Snatcher (2003) depicts an African ant colony that unites like Voltron to sabotage a Namibian mining operation, driven by a disturbing fascination with human skeletons. - -=== 28th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2011) === -The 28th Insect Fear Film Festival, themed "Killer Wasps," took place on February 26, 2011, at 6:00 p.m. While many wasps are harmless, parasitic, or herbivorous, our primal fear and impression of stinging insects took precedence. The festival featured social wasps like hornets and yellowjackets, as well as the infamous velvet ant, known for its painful sting. The evening also included wasp-related animated shorts and featured the screening of Monster from Green Hell (1957), where truck-sized mutant wasps terrorize the African savannah, seeking revenge for a failed cosmic science experiment. Additionally, Swarmed (2005) depicted genetically altered, pesticide-resistant killer yellowjackets, drawn to the scent of grilling meat. An angry swarm descends on a hamburger cook-off in a small Kansas town, presenting Hollywood's take on the menace of killer wasps. Gordon Yang, the line producer of Swarmed, was invited as the special guest. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index d4052b99b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Insect Fear Film Festival" -chunk: 5/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:04.620655+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== 27th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2010) === -The 27th IFFF, held on February 27, 2010, centered on the theme of prehistoric insects. The event offered an intriguing look into the origins of today's insects, with highlights including fossils like Meganeura, a dragonfly-like creature with a wingspan of nearly 30 inches that lived around 300 million years ago, and trilobites—ancient arthropods that once inhabited the seas. -The evening featured animated shorts The Deadly Mantis (1957), where a giant mantis is freed by nuclear testing, and Monster on the Campus (1958), in which a dragonfly's blood contamination turns a scientist into a Neanderthal. The evening also featured screenings of Black Scorpion (1957), in which volcanic activity unleashes giant scorpions in Mexico, followed by Deep Freeze (2001, also known as Ice Crawlers), which depicts the reappearance of grad-student-eating trilobites in the Antarctic. - -=== 26th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2009) === -The 26th IFFF, themed "Centipede Cinema," took place on February 28, 2009. The event focused on myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), which, despite their many legs, are arthropods, not insects. Centipedes, known for their predatory habits, and millipedes, which feed on decaying matter, were featured for their unique characteristics. The festival also included live displays of giant centipedes and safe-to-handle giant millipedes in a petting zoo. The film screenings began with family-friendly Disney shorts from the 1930s, followed by the feature films Centipede! (2004), in which a group of cave explorers is menaced by giant centipedes, and Centipede Horror (1982), where a powerful sorcerer casts a deadly centipede spell on the grandchildren of the man who destroyed his village 50 years earlier. - -=== 25th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2008) === -The 25th IFFF, held on February 23, 2008, focused on "social insects" such as ants, bees, wasps, and termites. Social insects were highlighted for their remarkable behaviors, such as farming fungus, ranching aphids, and building towering termite mounds. The festival featured live displays of bee colonies, termite workers, and giant tropical ants, as well as screenings of the family-friendly films Bee Movie (2007) and Antz (1998). Simon J. Smith, the director of Bee Movie, was a special guest speaker this year. - -=== 24th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2007) === -The 24th IFFF, held on February 24, 2007, featured "Japanese insect-themed films" curated by entomologist May Berenbaum. Known for its unique relationship with insects, Japan views them through a cultural lens that is often less fear-driven than in the West. The festival showcased heroic insect characters like Mothra (1961), the giant silkworm, who defends humanity despite causing destruction due to her enormous size, comparable to that of a Boeing 747. Other films included The Ultimate Teacher (1988), featuring a half-human, half-cockroach character (茶羽顔八, X-8), and Blue Gender (2002), an anime about monstrous insect-like creatures. The event also featured exhibits, including a silkworm display in honor of Mothra. - -=== 23rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2006) === -The 23rd IFFF, held on February 18, 2007, focused on "Mantis Movies." Despite Hollywood's exaggerations, such as the myth of sexual cannibalism, this year's festival aimed to correct misconceptions and showcase the true nature of these fascinating insects. Known for their predatory behavior and iconic "praying" posture, mantids have inspired both admiration and martial arts, including the creation of Tang Lang Ch'uan (Praying Mantis Kung Fu; 螳螂拳). The festival featured live mantid exhibits and a variety of films. -The festival featured several short films, including The Mantis Parable (2005), about a caterpillar and mantis; a Space Ghost Coast to Coast (1995) episode with Zorak, the alien mantis; and Mantis Stalks Its Prey (1995), a Chinese paper-cut animation about a mantid hunting its meal. In addition, the festival showcased The Deadly Mantis (1957), where a giant mantis is freed by nuclear testing and wreaks havoc in New York City, and "Teacher's Pet", an hour-long episode from the first season (1995) of Buffy the Vampire Slayer. - -=== 22nd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2005) === -The 22nd IFFF, held on February 19, 2025, focused on "forensic entomology"—the use of insects to solve crimes. While the practice has been recognized for over 700 years, it has only recently become a formal field. This year special featured activities such as a "maggot petting zoo" and "games to guess the post-mortem interval". -The festival's films included two cartoons featuring crime-solving insect superheroes: Creepy Crawlers (1985) and The Tick vs. Arthur (1994). It also showcased two feature films: Phenomena (1985), where Jennifer Connelly played a student who communicated with insects to help solve murders, and Flicks (1987), which featured a segment with Philip Alien, Space Detective, an alien cockroach solving crimes. -The festival culminated in the presentation of the IFFF's first "Image Award", given to William Petersen for his portrayal of forensic entomologist Gil Grissom on CSI. In CSI, Grissom uses maggots and other insect clues to solve murders, showcasing his deep knowledge of insects, which resonates with real-life entomologists. The festival organizers, EGSA at UIUC and the Entomology Department, also received a thank-you letter from Petersen for being honored with the award. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 22b2bf8d5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Insect Fear Film Festival" -chunk: 6/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:04.620655+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== 21st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2004) === -The 21st IFFF, held on February 28, 2004, focused on "genetically engineered insects." This year's theme traced the evolution of insect horror films, from radiation fears in the 1950s to insect mutations in the 1970s. With the rise of gene manipulation in the early 1980s, genetically modified insects became a new horror movie trope, reflecting public fears about the potential risks of emerging technologies. -The short films included Bus of the Undead (2001)from Aqua Teen Hunger Force and Insect Inside (1998) from The Powerpuff Girls. This year showcased three featured films: The Tuxedo (2002), in which Jackie Chan stars in a story where genetically engineered water striders grow to enormous size and threaten freshwater supplies. The film inaccurately suggests water striders have queens, which they do not. Mimic (1997), suggested by movie critic Roger Ebert, follows an entomologist who creates genetically modified "Judas Breed" cockroaches to combat a deadly disease, only for the bugs to evolve into human-like creatures that prey on people in New York City's subways. Despite the absurd use of litmus paper to identify the "Judas breed" of cockroaches, the film effectively highlights the dangers of genetic experimentation gone wrong. Tail Sting (2001), a cult film produced by University of Illinois alumni, features genetically altered scorpions escape during a flight and begin attacking passengers, turning an ordinary journey into a deadly ordeal. - -=== 20th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2003) === -The 20th Insect Fear Film Festival honored Bert I. Gordon, "Mr. BIG," a pioneer of the "big bug" genre, with a retrospective of his films featuring oversized creatures. With over 20 films, including at least ten focused on giant insects, Gordon was celebrated as the special guest for the festival's 20th anniversary and was presented with a plaque and certificate of appreciation for his lasting impact on the "big bug" genre. -Among the showcased films was Them! (1954), which depicted giant ants terrorizing Los Angeles and became Warner Brothers' biggest hit of the year. The festival also featured Beginning of the End (1957), set in Ludlow, Illinois, just 30 minutes north of UIUC, where giant grasshoppers cause destruction—though the crew never filmed in Ludlow, adding a fun trivia point. Another highlight was Earth vs. the Spider (1958), in which a giant spider, exposed to DDT, terrorizes a high school gymnasium. The film's depiction of cave-dwelling spiders was inspired by real species like the huntsman spider, though none are as large as the one on screen. Gordon's Empire of the Ants (1977), one of the few big bug films of the 1970s, followed a real estate developer selling land infested with giant, superintelligent ants and may have been the first to use the term “pheromone.” - -=== 19th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2002) === -The 19th annual Insect Fear Film Festival at the University of Illinois, held on February 9, 2002, centered on the theme "Alien Arthropods!" and explored the impact of non-native insects and arthropods invading the U.S. and causing economic damage. The festival featured three feature-length films and several short films, highlighting the concept of "alien" species. These included the 1970s sci-fi film Quatermass and the Pit (1967), the action-packed Starship Troopers (1997), and the horror film Spiders (2000). These films depicted humanity's struggle against insect-like extraterrestrials, tapping into public fears and misconceptions about arthropods. - -=== 18th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2001) === -The 18th IFFF, held on February 24, 2001, featured a focus on beetles. With over 250,000 species, beetles play crucial ecological roles, yet in films, they are often depicted as menacing, flesh-eating monsters. This year's screenings included beetle-related cartoons, short films, and three featured films: The Magic Voyage (1992), an animated adventure in which beetles accompany Christopher Columbus on his voyage; The Mummy (1999), a horror film featuring flesh-eating scarabs; and The Relic (1997), a science fiction thriller involving mutated, homicidal beetles. - -=== 17th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2000) === -The 17st IFFF, held on Feb. 26, 2000 focused on "bees", highlighting their ecological importance—pollinating a third of the food humans eat and producing honey, royal jelly, and propolis—while also exploring how they are often depicted as sinister in films, particularly low-budget horror movies. The festival featured two feature-length films: Terror Out of the Sky (1978), in which African killer bees invade New Orleans and target a busload of children, and Wax or the Discovery of Television Among the Bees (1991), a surreal cult film about a bee-keeping hobbyist whose mind is taken over by bees. Additionally, two sci-fi TV episodes were screened: ZZZZZ (1964), from The Outer Limits, where mutated, advanced bees create a female entomologist to mate with a researcher to destroy humanity, and Herrenfolk (1996), from The X-Files, which features an enormous bee colony supported by cloned children on a Canadian ginseng farm. - -=== 16th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1999) === -The 16th IFFF, held on 20 February 1999, focused on "Mosquitoes in the Movies" and featured a blood drive that allowed the Champaign County Community Blood Services to collect 21 pints of blood in one night. -The festival featured a variety of short films, including Winsor McCay's How a Mosquito Works (1912), Betty Boop's There’s Something About a Soldier and Walt Disney's The Winged Scourge (1943). It also screened an Army training film on malaria prevention and the U.S. Public Health classic It Must Be The Neighbors. The evening's films included Mosquito (1994), where giant mosquitoes terrorize a town after feeding on the blood of a dying alien, and Popcorn (1991), about college students who host a film festival and encounter disaster as well as Yellow Jack (1938). Dr. Berenbaum, the organizer, highlighted that while mosquitoes are major disease vectors, most films fail to portray this aspect. A rare exception was Yellow Jack (1938), which depicted Dr. Walter Reed's work linking mosquitoes to yellow fever. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index 72c0ebaa0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Insect Fear Film Festival" -chunk: 7/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:04.620655+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== 15th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1998) === -The 15th Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), held in February 1998, focused on "Roaches Redux." Dr. Berenbaum, the organizer, remarked on the irony that, in 1997, Americans spent approximately $250 million on cockroach poisons, only to spend nearly the same amount watching movies about them. -Short films of this year included animated Raid commercials from the 1960s, Warner Brothers' Bingo Crosbyana, episodes of Santa Bugito, and the trailer for Twilight of the Cockroaches. Feature-length highlights included War of the Coprophages (1996), an X-Files episode where Agent Mulder teams up with entomologist Dr. Bambi Berenbaum to battle possible alien cockroaches; Joe’s Apartment (1996), a comedy about a young man befriending singing, dancing cockroaches in New York, with special effects by UIUC alumnus Chris Trimble; and Men in Black (1997), featuring a cockroach-like alien. - -=== 14th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1997) === -The 15th IFFF, held in February 1997, embraced an "all ants, all the time!" theme and marked the first year the festival was held in Foellinger Auditorium. -AN(T)imated shorts of this year included Dance of the Ants, Gay Anties, Ant Pasted, Ants in the Plants, One Less Ant, and Porky’s Ant. The feature films showcased Them! (1954), a sci-fi classic about giant radiation-mutated ants invading Los Angeles sewers, starring Edmund Gwenn; Phase IV (1974), a tale of super-ants challenging humanity for Earth's dominance, featuring Nigel Davenport and Lynne Frederick; and Angels and Insects (1995), a sensual drama exploring the Victorian social hierarchy through the lens of a myrmecologist. - -=== 10th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1993) === -The tenth IFFF, held in 1993, featured a 12-hour insect movie marathon and, for the first time, served food created using insects. This was also the first year that a children's insect art competition was held, with the winning drawings displayed for two weeks at the Natural History Museum. - -=== 4th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1987) === -The fourth IFFF, held in 1987, focused on "female" insect fear films. The lineup included Mothra, Empire of the Ants, and Invasion of the Bee Girls. - -=== 1st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1984) === -The first Insect Fear Film Festival was held in March 1984 and established a format that has endured over the years. The inaugural event showcased Them! (1954) and Bug(1975), interspersed with animated shorts, including the 1980 Academy Award-winning Hungarian short The Fly(1986). - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 34203e181..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,66 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:05.857670+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The International Network of Engineers and Scientists for global responsibility (INES) is an independent non-profit-organization concerned about the impact of science and technology on society. -INES efforts focus on disarmament and international peace, ethics in science, responsibilities of scientists and the responsible use of science and technology, just and sustainable development. -INES was founded in 1991 in Berlin at the international congress Challenges - Science and Peace in a Rapidly Changing Environment and has become a network of over 200 organisations and individual members. - - -== Challenges for Scientists and Engineers == -Rapid changes in our environment and our societies are forcing us to become more conscious of our role in the world. Science and technology are employed in a worldwide competition for military and economic power. The impacts of this competition have global implications. We have entered a phase in which global developments are in conflict with basic requirements for human survival. Large stocks of weapons of mass destruction, the overexploitation of limited common resources, and a heavily unbalanced world economy provide fundamental challenges to human civilisation and may even threaten its existence. -Engineers and scientists play a key role, both in developing new knowledge that might threaten international security and in providing positive solutions for the future. They are as much a part of the problem as they can be a part of the solution. - - -== Activities == -Lobbies for nuclear disarmament and sustainable science. -Works for the reduction of military spending. -Promotes the awareness of ethical principles and the specific responsibility of engineers and scientists. -Participates in whistleblowing campaigns, which support those who have been victimised for acting upon such principles. -Encourages and facilitates public discourse and international communication among concerned scientists. -Organises international conferences and regional workshops. -Raises public awareness. -Promotes environmentally sound technologies. -Supports publishing books, e.g., Einstein, Peace Now!; Joseph Rotblat: Visionary for Peace. -INES is a member of the International Peace Bureau (IPB) and closely cooperates with IPB as well as the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) and the International Association of Lawyers Against Nuclear Arms (IALANA). -INES actively participates in the Middle Powers Initiative (MPI) and has been present at the European Social Forums since 2000 and at the World Social Forums. INES participates in the World Social Forum on Sciences. - - -== Goals == -Abolition of nuclear weapons -Promoting the responsible and sustainable use of science and technology -Implementing ethical principles in the education of scientists and engineers - - -== INES Bodies == - - -=== Council === -The INES Council elects an Executive Committee to implement the decisions of the Council and to manage the overall activities of the Network. Member organizations may designate one of its own members as a Council representative. - - -=== Executive committee === -The INES Executive Committee Archived 2009-08-21 at the Wayback Machine implements the decisions of the Council and manages overall activities of the Network which cannot be taken care of by decentralized action within the Network. The Executive Committee shall serve as the official representative of the Network. -The Executive Committee appoints an Executive Secretary who shall implement its decisions and shall be responsible to the Executive Committee. It also determines the duties and responsibilities of all other staff employed by the Central Network Office. - - -=== Advisory Council === -The INES Executive Committee may invite individuals to an [1] Archived 2009-08-21 at the Wayback Machine, which can be asked to give advice on specific issues related to the Networks activities. - - -== See also == -Nuclear Weapons: The Road to Zero -International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons -Anti-nuclear organizations -List of books about nuclear issues -List of films about nuclear issues - - -== External links == -INES official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index af43d4161..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "International Science Festival in Gothenburg" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:06.958116+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The International Science Festival in Gothenburg (Swedish: Vetenskapsfestivalen) is an annual festival in Gothenburg with science activities. - - -== About the festival == -The International Science Festival in Gothenburg took place for the first time in April 1997 and is since then an annual recurrent event. -The purpose is to communicate science to the public and schools in an easy accessible and in a thought provoking manner. Another objective is to create a positive attitude to research and science which is intended to encourage higher education. -About 100 000 visitors come each year. This makes it the largest popular science event in Sweden and one of the largest popular science events in Europe. -University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology contributes with the knowledge. -The International Science Festival in Gothenburg is a member of the European Science Events Association, EUSCEA. - - -== Theme == -Each year a special theme that the festival focuses on is chosen: (translated) - -2001: Food and eatables -2002: Travel and science expeditions, Life and Medicine -2003: Love and energy -2004: The meaning of life and sustainable development -2005: Design, physics, Finland -2006: Athletics & health -2007: Passion, pistil and personality -2008: Let's play -2009: Civilization in all times and countries -2010: Sustainable feature with small and large changes -2011: Creativity -2012: It's all in the brain -2013: Control or No Clue -2014: Act : React : Interact -2015: Life and Death -2016: Same but Different, 13-17 April - - -== See also == -Universeum - Public science centre in Gothenburg, Sweden -Hackerspace - Space for people into technology - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official homepage (2012) -Search for activities (parametric search) -Program for 2012, pdf 5 MB (English at page 46) -Where the paper version can be picked up in 2012, pdf 2 MB (Swedish) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2fa9ac792..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,83 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "International scientific vocabulary" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:53.912305+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -International scientific vocabulary (ISV) is the set of scientific and specialized words that are in current use in several modern languages. Although the language of origin of ISV may or may not be certain, they are used translingually, whether in naturalized, loanword, or calque forms. -The name "international scientific vocabulary" was first used by Philip Gove in Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961). As noted by David Crystal, science is an especially productive field for new coinages. It is also especially predisposed to immediate translingual sharing of words owing to its very nature: scientists working in many countries and languages, reading each other's latest articles in scientific journals (via foreign language skills, translation help, or both), and eager to apply any reported advances to their own context. - - -== Instances == -According to Webster's Third, "some ISV words (like haploid) have been created by taking a word with a rather general and simple meaning from one of the languages of antiquity, usually Latin and Greek, and conferring upon it a very specific and complicated meaning for the purposes of modern scientific discourse." An ISV word is typically a classical compound or a derivative which "gets only its raw materials, so to speak, from antiquity." Its morphology may vary across languages. -The online version of Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged (Merriam-Webster, 2002) adds that the ISV "consists of words or other linguistic forms current in two or more languages" that "differ from New Latin in being adapted to the structure of the individual languages in which they appear." In other words, ISV terms are often made with Greek, Latin, or other combining forms, but each language pronounces the resulting neo-lexemes within its own phonemic "comfort zone", and makes morphological connections using its normal morphological system. In this respect, ISV can be viewed as heavily borrowing loanwords from Neo-Latin. -McArthur characterizes ISV words and morphemes as "translinguistic", explaining that they operate "in many languages that serve as mediums for education, culture, science, and technology." Besides European languages, such as Russian, Swedish, English, and Spanish, ISV lexical items also function in Japanese, Malay, Philippine languages, and other Asian languages. According to McArthur, no other set of words and morphemes is so international. -It is not always practically relevant, to any concerns except philology and the history of science, which language any particular ISV term first appeared in, as its cognate naturalized counterparts in other languages are effectively coeval with it for most practical scientific purposes, as well as being self-evidently equivalent in surface analysis. This characteristic is corollary to the very nature of science: it is predisposed to immediate translingual sharing of words, as scientists, working in many countries and languages, are perennially reading each other's latest articles in scientific journals (via foreign language skills, translation help, or both), and eager to apply any reported advances to their own context. This theme applies even regardless of whether each instance of scientific exchange is openly collaborative (as in open science) or is driven by espionage or industrial espionage (as for example regarding weapons systems development). -The ISV is one of the concepts behind the development and standardization of the constructed language called Interlingua. Scientific and medical terms in Interlingua are largely of Greco-Latin origin, but, like most Interlingua words, they appear in a wide range of languages. Interlingua's vocabulary is established using a group of control languages selected as they radiate words into, and absorb words from, a large number of other languages. A prototyping technique then selects the most recent common ancestor of each eligible Interlingua word or affix. The word or affix takes a contemporary form based on the control languages. This procedure is meant to give Interlingua the most generally international vocabulary possible. - - -== Words and word roots that have different meanings from those in the original languages == -This is a list of scientific words and word roots which have different meanings from those in the original languages. - - -== Words and word roots that have one meaning from Latin and another meaning from Greek == -This is a list of scientific words and word roots which have one meaning from Latin and another meaning from Greek. - - -== Other words and word roots with two meanings == -This is a list of other scientific words and word roots which have two meanings. - - -== Other differences == -Another difference between scientific terms and classical Latin and Greek is that many compounded scientific terms do not elide the inflection vowel at the end of a root before another root or prefix that starts with a vowel, e.g. gastroenteritis; but elision happens in gastrectomy (not *gastroectomy). -The Greek word τέρας (τέρατο-) = "monster" is usually used to mean "monster (abnormal)" (e.g. teratology, teratogen), but some biological names use it to mean "monster (enormous)" (e.g. the extinct animals Teratornis (a condor with a 12-foot wingspan) and Terataspis (a trilobite 2 feet long)). - - -== Haplology == -A feature affecting clarity in seeing a scientific word's components is haplology, i.e. removing one of two identical or similar syllables that meet at the junction point of a compound word. Examples are: - -appendectomy = appendix, appendicis, (Latin for "appendix") + -ectomy (ultimately from Greek τομή, "a cutting") -Dracohors = draco, draconis, "Latin for dragon" + cohors, "cohort" -Hapalemur = hapalo- (Greek ἁπαλός, "gentle") + lemur - - -== See also == -Binomial nomenclature -Classical compound -Contemporary Latin -English words of Greek origin -Hybrid word -Internationalism (linguistics) -Latinisation of names -Lexicography -Language-for-specific-purposes dictionary (LSP dictionary) -Medical dictionary -Medical terminology -Scientific terminology -Scientific notation -Systematic name -Terminology -Trading zones (metaphor) – Metaphor applied to collaborations in science - - -=== Lists === -List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions -List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English -List of Greek and Latin roots in English -List of Latin abbreviations -List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names -List of Latin words with English derivatives -List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Dictionary of Botanical Epithets -List of Latin Words with Derivatives to English -Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998 entry on International Scientific Vocabulary \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Union_of_Scientists_for_Disarmament-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Union_of_Scientists_for_Disarmament-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index abd9e2714..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Union_of_Scientists_for_Disarmament-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Italian Union of Scientists for Disarmament" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Union_of_Scientists_for_Disarmament" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:08.141860+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Italian Union of Scientists for Disarmament (Italian: Unione Scienziati per il Disarmo) is an association established in 1982 with the purpose of providing information and analysis of arms control and disarmament. Members of the association believe that this task is part of the social responsibility of scientists. -The issues it addresses include nuclear arms control and disarmament, nuclear proliferation, consequences of nuclear explosions, control of fissile material, developments of military technology, conventional disarmament, chemical and biological disarmament, and general problems of conflict and conflict resolution. Members share their views with Italian policy-makers and opinion-makers. -It organizes conferences and meetings, including the biennial Castiglioncello conference, courses and seminars at Italian universities, and courses for high-school teachers. -It promotes the establishment of inter-departmental centers of research affiliated to Italian Universities, and has actively collaborated for many years with the CIRP-UniBa (Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerche sulla Pace, University of Bari). -It collaborates with international organizations of scientists and other Italian institutions, such as Archivio Disarmo (Roma) and Forum per i Problemi della Pace e della Guerra (Firenze). Members of USPID participate in Pugwash and ISODARCO meetings. -In 1995 it began a standing collaboration with Landau Network-Centro Volta, in Como. This institution organizes, together with UNESCO and under the sponsorship of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, conferences and research projects on topics including disarmament, non-proliferation and scientific-technological aspects of international security. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official USPID website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ddb17723a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Knismesis and gargalesis" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:40.363482+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Knismesis and gargalesis are the scientific terms, coined in 1897 by psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin, used to describe the two types of tickling. Knismesis refers to the light, feather-like type of tickling. This type of tickling generally does not induce laughter and is often accompanied by an itching sensation. Gargalesis refers to harder, laughter-inducing tickling, and involves the repeated application of high pressure to sensitive areas. -While the two terms are used in academic papers, they do not appear in many dictionaries and their origin is rarely declared. The term knismesis comes from the Ancient Greek κνισμός (knismós) meaning 'itching'. The term gargalesis stems from the Ancient Greek γαργαλίζω (gargalízō) meaning 'to tickle'. The suffix -esis is used to form nouns of action or process. - - -== Knismesis == -The knismesis phenomenon requires low levels of stimulation to sensitive parts of the body, and can be triggered by a light touch or by a light electric current. Knismesis can also be triggered by crawling insects or parasites, prompting scratching or rubbing at the ticklish spot, thereby removing the pest. It is possible that this function explains why knismesis produces a similar response in many different kinds of animals. In a famous example, described in Peter Benchley's Shark!, it is possible to tickle the area just under the snout of a great white shark, putting it into a near-hypnotic trance. - - -== Gargalesis == -The gargalesis type of tickle works on primates (which include humans), and possibly on other species. For example, ultrasonic vocalizations described as "chirping", which play into social behavior and even have therapeutic effects, are reported in rats in response to human tickling. However, adult female rats may find the tickling sensation adverse. Because the nerves involved in transmitting "light" touch and itch differ from those nerves that transmit "heavy" touch, pressure and vibration, it is possible that the difference in sensations produced by the two types of tickle is due to the relative proportion of itch sensation versus touch sensation. While it is possible to trigger a knismesis response in oneself, it is usually impossible to produce gargalesthesia, the gargalesis tickle response, in oneself. Hypergargalesthesia is the condition of extreme sensitivity to tickling. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ae2929f94..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Knowledge is power" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:41.476416+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia" or also "scientia potestas est") is a Latin aphorism meaning "knowledge is power", commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon. The expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase "scientia potentia est" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man. The related phrase "sapientia est potentia" is often translated as "wisdom is power". - -== History == - -=== Origins and parallels === -A proverb in practically the same wording is found in Hebrew, in the Biblical Book of Proverbs (24:5): גֶּבֶר-חָכָם בַּעוֹז; וְאִישׁ-דַּעַת, מְאַמֶּץ-כֹּחַ. This was translated in the Latin Vulgata as "vir sapiens fortis est et vir doctus robustus et validus" and in the King James Version as "A wise man is strong, a man of knowledge increaseth strength". The Persian poet Ferdowsi (940–1019/1025) wrote -توانا بود هر که دانا بود (tavânâ bûd har ke dânâ bûd) "Mighty is the one who has knowledge." - -=== Thomas Hobbes === -The first known reference of the exact phrase appeared in the Latin edition of Leviathan (1668; the English version had been published in 1651). This passage from Part 1 ("De Homine"), Chapter X ("De Potentia, Dignitate et Honore") occurs in a list of various attributes of man which constitute power; in this list, "sciences" or "the sciences" are given a minor position: - -Scientia potentia est, sed parva; quia scientia egregia rara est, nec proinde apparens nisi paucissimis, et in paucis rebus. Scientiae enim ea natura est, ut esse intelligi non possit, nisi ab illis qui sunt scientia praediti -In the English version this passage reads as thus: - -The sciences are small powers; because not eminent, and therefore, not acknowledged in any man; nor are at all, but in a few, and in them, but of a few things. For science is of that nature, as none can understand it to be, but such as in a good measure have attained it. -On a later work, De Corpore (1655), also written in Latin, Hobbes expanded the same idea: - -The end or scope of philosophy is, that we may make use to our benefit of effects formerly seen ... for the commodity of human life ... The end of knowledge is power ... lastly, the scope of all speculation is the performing of some action, or thing to be done. -In Hobbes and the social contract tradition (1988), Jean Hampton indicates that this quote is 'after Bacon' and in a footnote, that 'Hobbes was Bacon's secretary as a young man and had philosophical discussions with him' (Aubrey 1898, 331). - -=== Francis Bacon === - -The closest expression in Bacon's works is, perhaps, the expression "ipsa scientia potestas est", found in his Meditationes Sacrae (1597), which is translated as "knowledge itself is power": - -statuuntque latiores terminos scientiae Dei quam potestatis, vel potius ejus partis potestatis Dei (nam et ipsa scientia potestas est) qua scit, quam ejus qua movet et agit: ut praesciat quaedam otiose, quae non praedestinet et praeordinet. -One of many differing English translations of this section includes the following: - -This canon is the mother of all canons against heresies. The cause of error is twofold : ignorance of the will of God, and ignorance or superficial consideration of the power of God. The will of God is more revealed through the Scriptures… his power more through his creatures… So is the plenitude of God's power to be asserted, as not to involve any imputation upon his will. So is the goodness of his will to be asserted, as not to imply any derogation of his power. -… Atheism and Theomachy rebels and mutinies against the power of God; not trusting to his word, which reveals his will, because it does not believe in his power, to whom all things are possible… But of the heresies which deny the power of God, there are, besides simple atheism, three degrees… -The third degree is of those who limit and restrain the former opinion to human actions only, which partake of sin: which actions they suppose to depend substantively and without any chain of causes upon the inward will and choice of man; and who give a wider range to the knowledge of God than to his power; or rather to that part of God's power (for knowledge itself is power) whereby he knows, than to that whereby he works and acts; suffering him to fore know some things as an unconcerned looker on, which he does not predestine and preordain : a notion not unlike the figment which Epicurus introduced into the philosophy of Democritus, to get rid of fate and make room for fortune; namely the sidelong motion of the Atom; which has ever by the wiser sort been accounted a very empty device. - -Interpretation of the notion of power meant by Bacon must therefore take into account his distinction between the power of knowing and the power of working and acting, the opposite of what is assumed when the maxim is taken out of context. Indeed, the quotation has become a cliche. -In the better-known Novum Organum, Bacon wrote, "Human knowledge and human power meet in one; for where the cause is not known the effect cannot be produced. Nature to be commanded must be obeyed; and that which in contemplation is as the cause is in operation as the rule." - -=== Ralph Waldo Emerson === -Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote in his essay Old Age, included in the collection Society and Solitude (1870): - -Skill to do comes of doing; knowledge comes by eyes always open, and working hands; and there is no knowledge that is not power. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 67b45e525..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Knowledge is power" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:41.476416+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Wissen ist Macht in Germany === -After the 1871 unification of Germany, "Wissen ist Macht, geographisches Wissen ist Weltmacht" (Knowledge is power, geographical knowledge is world power) was often used in German geopolitics and the public discussion to support efforts for a German colonial empire after 1880. Julius Perthes, for example, used the motto for his publishing house. However, this installation of geographical research followed popular requests and was not imposed by the government. In particular, Count Bismarck was not much interested in German colonial adventures; his envoy Gustav Nachtigal started with the first protectorates, but was more interested in ethnological aspects. -After World War I, German geopolitics tried to contribute to efforts to regain world power. Scholars like Karl Haushofer, a former general, and his son Albrecht Haushofer (both in close contact with Rudolf Hess) got worldwide attention with their concept of geopolitics. Associations of German geographers and schoolteachers welcomed the Machtergreifung and hoped to get further influence in the new regime. -Germany's postwar geopolitics was much more cautious; concepts of political geography and projection of power had not been widespread scholarly topics in Germany until 1989. -Geographical knowledge is however still of importance in Germany. Germans tend to mock US politicians' and celebrities' comparable lack of interest in the topic. A Sponti (Außerparlamentarische Opposition) version of the slogan is "Wissen ist Macht, nichts wissen macht auch nichts", a pun about the previous motto meaning "Knowledge is power, knowing nothing is no problem, either." -The German Bundeswehr Bataillon Elektronische Kampfführung 932, an electronic warfare unit based in Frankenberg (Eder), still uses the Latin version Scientia potentia est as its motto. - -== Theories == -In the modern and contemporary inquiries of the proposition, Stephen Gill furthered Robert Cox's deconstructive statement on the ontology of knowledge, with an objective epistemological statement that "any theory of knowledge production needs to have a power dimension". - -== See also == -Information warfare -Intelligence (information gathering) -List of Latin phrases -Power-knowledge -Rationality and power -Sapiens dominabitur astris - -== References == - -== Bibliography == -Thomas Hobbes, Opera philosophica, quae latine scripsit, omnia in unum corpus nunc primum collecta studio et labore Gulielmi Molesworth, Bart. (London: Bohn, 1839–45). -Thomas Hobbes, The English Works of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury; Now First Collected and Edited by Sir William Molesworth, Bart. (London: Bohn, 1839–45). 11 vols. -Ralph Waldo Emerson, Society and Solitude. Twelve Chapters, Boston, The Riverside Press, 1892. - -== Further reading == -Haas, Ernst B. When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations. University of California, 1990. ISBN 0-520-06646-4. -Higdon, Lee. "Knowledge is power." University Business, September 2005. -Higdon argues that because the U.S. economy is a knowledge economy the decline in enrollment of non-U.S. students in U.S. universities "has serious long-term implications for the United States." -"Knowledge is power (But only if you know how to acquire it)." The Economist, May 8, 2003. -A report on corporate knowledge management. -Peterson, Ryan. "Michel Foucault: Power/Knowledge." Colorado State University Resource Centre for Communications Studies. -An exploration of what Peterson terms Foucault's "new model of the relations of power and knowledge" that contradicts Bacon. -Powers, Rod. "Knowledge is power in the military." U.S. Military: The Orderly Room. Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine - -== External links == - The dictionary definition of knowledge is power at Wiktionary -Scientiaestex Archived 2022-10-05 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index e0d1fa7ad..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,57 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "LHC@home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:12.898268+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -LHC@home is a volunteer computing project researching particle physics that uses the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. The project's computing power is utilized by physicists at CERN in support of the Large Hadron Collider and other experimental particle accelerators. -The project is run with the help of over 1,260 active volunteer users contributing more than 3,000 computers processing at a combined 52 teraFLOPS as of September 2024. The project is cross-platform, and runs on a variety of computer hardware configurations. - - -== Applications == -The LHC@home project currently runs four applications—Atlas, CMS, SixTrack, and Test4Theory—which deal with different aspects of research conducted in LHC such as calculating particle beam stability and simulating proton collisions. Atlas, CMS, and Test4Theory use VirtualBox, an x86 virtualization software package. - - -=== Atlas === -Atlas uses volunteer computing power to run simulations of the ATLAS experiment. It can be run in VirtualBox or natively on Linux. - - -=== Beauty === -Beauty (LHCb) compared the decay of bottom quarks (b) and bottom antiquarks (b), which also known as beauty quarks. The participation of volunteers in the application was suspended indefinitely on 19 November 2018. - - -=== CMS === -The CMS application (formerly a standalone project called CMS@Home) allows users to run simulations for the Compact Muon Solenoid experiment on their computers. - - -=== SixTrack === -SixTrack was first introduced as a beta on 1 September 2004 and a record 1000 users signed up within 24 hours. The application went public, with a 5000 user limit, on September 29 to commemorate CERN's 50th anniversary. Currently there is no user limit and qualification. -SixTrack was developed by Frank Schmidt of the CERN Accelerators and Beams Department and produces results that are essential for verifying the long term stability of the high energy particles in the LHC. Lyn Evans, head of the LHC project, stated that "the results from SixTrack are really making a difference, providing us with new insights into how the LHC will perform". - - -=== Test4Theory === -The Test4Theory application allows volunteers to run simulations of high energy particle collisions on their home computers. These simulations use theoretical models based on the Standard Model of particle physics, and are calculated using Monte Carlo methods. The theoretical models have adjustable parameters and the aim is that a given set of parameters (called a "tune") will fit the widest possible range of experimental results. -The Test4Theory results are therefore submitted to a database which contains a very wide set of experimental data from many accelerator experiments worldwide, including of course experiments at the Large Hadron Collider. The Theory Unit at CERN runs the MCPLots project, which run the database and the theoretical fitting process. - - -== See also == -Citizen Cyberscience Centre -List of volunteer computing projects -Worldwide LHC Computing Grid - - -== References == - - -== Further reading == -Barranco, Javier; Cai, Yunhai; Cameron, David; Crouch, Matthew; Maria, Riccardo De; Field, Laurence; Giovannozzi, Massimo; Hermes, Pascal; Høimyr, Nils; Kaltchev, Dobrin; Karastathis, Nikos; Luzzi, Cinzia; Maclean, Ewen; McIntosh, Eric; Mereghetti, Alessio (29 December 2017). "LHC@Home: a BOINC-based volunteer computing infrastructure for physics studies at CERN". Open Engineering. 7 (1): 379–393. Bibcode:2017OEng....7...42B. doi:10.1515/eng-2017-0042. ISSN 2391-5439. S2CID 53469564. - - -== External links == - - -=== Applications === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Classical-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Classical-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2c79d770a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Classical-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,46 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Leiden Classical" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Classical" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:10.537420+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Leiden Classical was a volunteer computing project run by the Theoretical Chemistry Department of the Leiden Institute of Chemistry at Leiden University. Leiden Classical used the BOINC system, and enabled scientists or science students to submit their own test simulations of various molecules and atoms in a classical mechanics environment. ClassicalDynamics is a program (and with it a library) completely written in C++. The library is covered by the LGPL license and the main program is covered by the GPL. The project shut down on June 5, 2018. - - -== Joining the project == -Participation was possible via the BOINC manager. Using this software one was once able to create an account in the project. Then someone can make a model of a dynamic system and simulation participating run. There are several models possible, to interactions between molecules or planets. - - -== User Submitted Calculations == -To create a personal calculation, a user's model had to have six defined variables: - -Colors of the molecules -Box in which the model is run -Number of particles in the simulation -Interaction between the particles -Gravity -Coulomb force -Lennard-Jones interaction -Morse interaction -Rydberg interaction -Harmonic spirit -Harmonic bending -Recurrent torsion interactions -Distance conditions -Confirmation parameter(s) - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Leiden Classical website archive -Leiden Classical forum archive \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ad5ecb7bd..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,77 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Leo Szilard Lectureship Award" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:11.675041+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Leo Szilard Lectureship Award (originally called the Leo Szilard Award) is given annually by the American Physical Society (APS) for "outstanding accomplishments by physicists in promoting the use of physics for the benefit of society". It is given internationally in commemoration of physicist Leo Szilard. - -"In the year's of Szilard's life and activity it became clearer than ever before how great the responsibility of scientists is to the society. And, to a large extent, it is due to Szilard that this awareness began to spread in the scientific community." - Andrei Sakharov -It is often awarded to physicists early in their careers who are active in areas such as environmental issues, arms control, or science policy. As of 2015 the recipient is given $3,000 plus $2,000 travel expenses and is expected to lecture at an APS meeting and at educational or research laboratories, to promote awareness of their activities. - - -== Recipients == -The award is given yearly and was first presented in 1974. - -1974 David R. Inglis -1975 Bernard T. Feld -1976 Richard Garwin -1977 not awarded -1978 Matthew Meselson -1979 Sherwood Rowland -1980 Sidney Drell -1981 Henry Way Kendall, Hans Bethe -1982 Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky -1983 Andrei Sakharov -1984 Kosta Tsipis -1985 James B. Pollack, O. Brian Toon, Thomas P. Ackerman, Richard P. Turco, Carl Sagan, John W. Birks, Paul J. Crutzen -1986 Arthur Rosenfeld -1987 Thomas B. Cochran -1988 Robert H. Williams -1989 Anthony Nero -1990 Theodore Postol -1991 John H. Gibbons -1992 Kurt Gottfried -1993 Ray Kidder, Roy Woodruff -1994 Herbert York -1995 Evgeny Velikhov, Roald Sagdeev -1996 David Hafemeister -1997 Thomas L. Neff -1998 David Baird Goldstein, Howard Geller -1999 John Alexander Simpson -2000 Jeremiah David Sullivan -2001 John Harte -2002 Henry C. Kelly -2003 Robert H. Socolow -2004 Marc Ross -2005 David K. Barton, Roger Falcone, Daniel Kleppner, Frederick K. Lamb, Ming K. Lau, Harvey L. Lynch, David Moncton, David Montague, David E. Mosher, William Priedhorsky, Maury Tigner, David R. Vaughan -2006 Paul G. Richards -2007 James E. Hansen -2008 Anatoli Diyakov, Pavel Podvig -2009 Raymond Jeanloz -2010 Frank von Hippel -2011 John F. Ahearne -2012 Siegfried Hecker -2013 Geoffrey West -2014 M. V. Ramana, Ramamurti Rajaraman -2015 Ashok Gadgil -2016 Joel Primack -2017 James Timbie -2018 Edwin Stuart Lyman -2019 Zia Mian -2020 France A. Córdova -2021 Steve Fetter -2022 Michael E. Mann -2023 Laura Grego - - -== See also == -David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics -List of physics awards - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln's_Birthday_Committee_for_Democracy_and_Intellectual_Freedom-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln's_Birthday_Committee_for_Democracy_and_Intellectual_Freedom-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6b1caf457..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln's_Birthday_Committee_for_Democracy_and_Intellectual_Freedom-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Lincoln's Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln's_Birthday_Committee_for_Democracy_and_Intellectual_Freedom" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:14.132962+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Lincoln's Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (LBCDIF) was an antifascist organization of scientists founded by Franz Boas in 1938 to discredit the theories of race being forwarded by the Nazis in Germany. -In the 1930s Franz Boas was one of the first scientists to become aware of the immense prestige and influence of scientists in that era. Even at his advanced age Boas wanted to find a way to use the influence of scientists to promote human welfare. At Columbia University he collaborated with Ruth Benedict, Leslie Dunn, Robert Lynd, Walter Rautenstrauch, Harold Urey and other members of the University Federation for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom to find a unifying political position that would bring scientists of all disciplines together on a common front. He decided antifascism was such a position, and based on his collaborations wrote the Manifesto on Freedom in Science. In 1938 the Manifesto was released with 1,284 signatures of prominent scientists, including Roger Adams, Robert Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein (see: Einstein Letter to LBCDIF). Boas used the excitement generated by the Manifesto to launch the LBCDIF. Twenty-six meetings were organized to uphold the principles of the Manifesto, and the success of these meetings encouraged the organizers to expand the Birthday Committee to an ongoing group called the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (ACDIF). - - -== References == -Kuznick, Peter J. (1987). Beyond the Laboratory. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46583-7. -Wang, Jessica (1999). American Science in an Age of Anxiety. UNC Press. ISBN 0-8078-4749-6. -Hoddeson, Lillian (2004). No Boundaries. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02957-7. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Astronomy_Outreach_Resources_in_Europe-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Astronomy_Outreach_Resources_in_Europe-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5d03cf3c9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Astronomy_Outreach_Resources_in_Europe-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,124 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Astronomy_Outreach_Resources_in_Europe" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:15.320333+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe originally started as an initiative within the framework of the Astronet EU FP7 project. - - -== Scientific Institutions, Observatories, and National Scientific Societies == - - -=== Scientific institutions and Observatories === -List of astronomical observatories (not only outreach) -IAU Office for Astronomy Outreach -European Southern Observatory (ESO) -ESO Science Outreach Network (ESON) -European Space Agency (ESA) -CERN outreach Archived 2009-08-03 at the Wayback Machine -Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC, Spain) -Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (IAA-CSIC, Spain) -Spanish National Observatory -Centre of AstroBiology (CAB-CSIC, Spain) -University of La Rioja (Spain) -Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (Ireland) -Queen Mary Astronomical Observatory (UK) -University of Oxford Dept of Physics (UK) -Nottingham Trend University Observatory (UK) -University of Glasgow A&A group (UK) -Observatoire de Paris -Observatoire de Bordeaux -Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM) -GLObal Robotic-telescopes Intelligent Array (GLORIA Project) -EU-HOU network of demonstration radio telescopes -Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) -Educational resources of INAF (work in progress) -Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari (Italy) -Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden) - - -=== National Astronomical Societies === -List of astronomical societies -AstroWeb -Sociedad Española de Astronomía (SEA) -Royal Astronomical Society (UK) -Swedish Astronomical Society (Sweden) - - -== Science Museums and Planetaria == -International Planetarium Society -Haus der Astronomie Heidelberg -CosmoCaixa Barcelona (Spain) -The Observatory (Greenwich) Science Centre (UK) -The Jodrell Bank Discovery Centre (UK) -NUI Galway Centre for Astronomy (UK) -University of Cambridge Centre for Astronomy (UK) -Herschel Museum of Astronomy (UK) -National Museums Scotland (UK) -Deutsches Museum (Germany) -Cité de l’Espace Toulouse -Tycho Brahe Planetarium (Denmark) - - -== Projects == -Hands on Universe (EU-HoU) -EU Universe Awareness (UNAWE) -Europlanet -EuroVO AIDA project -Creative Space (UK) - - -== Amateur astronomy groups == -List of Amateur astronomy groups in Europe -AstroWeb (2007) -List of Amateur astronomy groups in Spain - - -== Magazines, publications, and resources on the web == - - -=== Publications === -The ESO Messenger -Revista AstronomíA (Spain) -Astronomy Now (UK) -Astronomie Magazine (France) -Populär Astronomi (Sweden) -TUIMP "The Universe In My Pocket", free astronomy booklets in many languages - - -=== Blogs, social networks, and resources on the web === - -Space and Astronomy websites -UNAWE Space Scoop -Henrietta Leawitt (videos, Spanish) -SpaceWeather -Blogs in Spanish -Radioastronomy from Home -Beginners Guide to Astronomy - - -=== Campaigns === -Globe at night - - -== Commercial companies, astronomical lodging, star parties == -Astronomy events calendar -Turismo estelar (Spain) -European AstroFest 2015 (UK) -EducaCiencia.es (Spain) - - -== Other resources == -IAU network of contact points for outreach -IAU directory -IAU “Why is Astronomy important?” -Astronomy resources in Europe -Map of astronomical resources in project Radionet FP7 - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8cac0f9c5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,114 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of Balzan Prize recipients" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:18.531553+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of recipients of the Balzan Prize, one of the world's most prestigious academic awards. The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the humanities, natural sciences, culture, and peace on an international level. The Prizes are awarded in four subject areas: "two in literature, the moral sciences and the arts" and "two in the physical, mathematical and natural sciences and medicine." The special Prize for Humanity, Peace and Fraternity is presented at intervals of every three years or longer. - -== 1960s–1970s == -1961 -Nobel Foundation (Sweden) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -1962 -Andrey Kolmogorov (Soviet Union) --- Mathematics -Karl von Frisch (Austria) --- Biology -Paul Hindemith (Germany) --- Music -Samuel Eliot Morison (United States) --- History -Pope John XXIII (Vatican) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -1978 -Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -1979 -Ernest Labrousse (France) and Giuseppe Tucci (Italy) --- History -Jean Piaget (Switzerland) --- Social and political sciences -Torbjörn Caspersson (Sweden) --- Biology - -== 1980s == -1980 -Enrico Bombieri (Italy) --- Mathematics -Hassan Fathy (Egypt) --- Architecture and town planning -Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina) --- Philology, linguistics and literary criticism -1981 -Dan McKenzie (United Kingdom), Drummond Matthews (United Kingdom) and Frederick Vine (United Kingdom) --- Geology and geophysics -Josef Pieper (Germany) --- Philosophy -Paul Reuter (France) --- International public law -1982 -Jean-Baptiste Duroselle (France) --- Social sciences -Kenneth Vivian Thimann (United Kingdom / United States) --- Pure and applied botany -Massimo Pallottino (Italy) --- Sciences of antiquity -1983 -Edward Shils (United States) --- Sociology -Ernst Mayr (Germany / United States) --- Zoology -Francesco Gabrieli (Italy) --- Oriental studies -1984 -Jan Hendrik Oort (Netherlands) --- Astrophysics -Jean Starobinski (Switzerland) --- History and criticism of the literatures -Sewall Wright (United States) --- Genetics -1985 -Ernst H. J. Gombrich (Austria / United Kingdom) --- History of western art -Jean-Pierre Serre (France) --- Mathematics -1986 -Jean Rivero (France) --- Basic human rights -Otto Neugebauer (Austria / United States) --- History of science -Roger Revelle (United States) --- Oceanography / climatology -United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -1987 -Jerome Seymour Bruner (United States) --- Human psychology -Phillip V. Tobias (South Africa) --- Physical anthropology -Richard W. Southern (United Kingdom) --- Medieval history -1988 -Michael Evenari (Israel) and Otto Ludwig Lange (Germany) --- Applied botany (incl. ecological aspects) -René Étiemble (France) --- Comparative literature -Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt (Israel) --- Sociology -1989 -Emmanuel Lévinas (France / Lithuania) --- Philosophy -Leo Pardi (Italy) --- Ethologie -Martin John Rees (United Kingdom) --- High energy astrophysics - -== 1990s == -1990 -James Freeman Gilbert (United States) --- Geophysics (solid earth) -Pierre Lalive d'Epinay (Switzerland) --- Private international law -Walter Burkert (Germany) --- Study of the ancient world (Mediterranean area) -1991 -György Ligeti (Hungary / Austria) --- Music -John Maynard Smith (United Kingdom) --- Genetics and evolution -Vitorino Magalhães Godinho (Portugal) --- History: The emergence of Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries -Abbé Pierre (Henri Grouès) (France) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -1992 -Armand Borel (Switzerland) --- Mathematics -Ebrahim M. Samba (Gambia) --- Preventive medicine -Giovanni Macchia (Italy) --- History and criticism of the literatures -1993 -Jean Leclant (France) --- Art and archaeology of the ancient world -Lothar Gall (Germany) --- History: societies of the 19th and 20th centuries -Wolfgang H. Berger (Germany / United States) --- Paleontology with special reference to oceanography -1994 -Fred Hoyle (United Kingdom) and Martin Schwarzschild (Germany / United States) --- Astrophysics (evolution of stars) -Norberto Bobbio (Italy) --- Law and political science (governments and democracy) -René Couteaux (France) --- Biology (cell structure with special reference to the nervous system) -1995 -Alan J. Heeger (United States) --- Science of new non-biological materials -Carlo M. Cipolla (Italy) --- Economic history -Yves Bonnefoy (France) --- Art history and art criticism (as applied to European art from the Middle Ages to our times) -1996 -Arno Borst (Germany) --- History: medieval cultures -Arnt Eliassen (Norway) --- Meteorology -Stanley Hoffmann (Austria / United States / France) --- Political sciences: contemporary international relations -International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -1997 -Charles Coulston Gillispie (United States) --- History and philosophy of science -Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah (Sri Lanka / United States) --- Social sciences: social anthropology -Thomas Wilson Meade (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology -1998 -Andrzej Walicki (Poland / United States) --- History: the cultural and social history of the Slavonic world from the reign of Catherine the Great to the Russian revolutions of 1917 -Harmon Craig (United States) --- Geochemistry -Robert McCredie May (United Kingdom / Australia) --- Biodiversity -1999 -John Elliott (United Kingdom) --- History 1500–1800 -Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (Italy / United States) --- Science of human origins -Mikhail Gromov (Russia / France) --- Mathematics -Paul Ricœur (France) --- Philosophy \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index fc939a68e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,118 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of Balzan Prize recipients" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:18.531553+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== 2000s == -2000 -Ilkka Hanski (Finland) --- Ecological sciences -Martin Litchfield West (United Kingdom) --- Classical antiquity -Michael Stolleis (Germany) --- Legal history since 1500 -Michel G.E. Mayor (Switzerland) --- Instrumentation and techniques in astronomy and astrophysics -Abdul Sattar Edhi (Pakistan) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -2001 -Claude Lorius (France) --- Climatology -James Sloss Ackerman (United States) --- History of architecture (including town planning and landscape design) -Jean-Pierre Changeux (France) --- Cognitive neurosciences -Marc Fumaroli (France) --- Literary history and criticism (post 1500) -2002 -Anthony Grafton (United States) --- History of the humanities -Dominique Schnapper (France) --- Sociology -Walter J. Gehring (Switzerland) --- Developmental biology -Xavier Le Pichon (France) --- Geology -2003 -Eric Hobsbawm (United Kingdom) --- European history since 1900 -Reinhard Genzel (Germany) --- Infrared astronomy -Serge Moscovici (France) --- Social psychology -Wen-Hsiung Li (Taiwan / United States) --- Genetics and evolution -2004 -Andrew Colin Renfrew (United Kingdom) --- Prehistoric Archaeology -Michael Marmot (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology -Nikki R. Keddie (United States) --- The Islamic world from the end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century -Pierre Deligne (Belgium) --- Mathematics -Community of Sant'Egidio --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -2005 -Lothar Ledderose (Germany) --- History of the art of Asia -Peter Hall (United Kingdom) --- The social and cultural history of cities since the beginning of the 16th century -Peter R. Grant (United Kingdom) and Rosemary Grant (United States) --- Population biology -Russell J. Hemley (United States) and Ho-kwang (David) Mao (China) --- Mineral physics -2006 -Ludwig Finscher (Germany) --- History of western music since 1600 -Quentin Skinner (United Kingdom) --- Political thought: history and theory -Andrew Lange (United States) and Paolo de Bernardis (Italy) --- Observational astronomy and astrophysics -Elliott M. Meyerowitz (United States) and Christopher R. Somerville (Canada) --- Plant molecular genetics -2007 -Sumio Iijima (Japan) --- Nanoscience -Bruce A. Beutler (United States) and Jules A. Hoffmann (France) --- Innate Immunity -Michel Zink (France) --- European Literature (1000–1500) -Rosalyn Higgins (United Kingdom) --- International Law since 1945 -Karlheinz Böhm (Austria) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -2008 -Maurizio Calvesi (Italy) --- The Visual Arts since 1700 -Thomas Nagel (Serbia / United States) --- Moral Philosophy -Ian H. Frazer (Australia) --- Preventive Medicine, including Vaccination -Wallace S. Broecker (United States) --- Science of Climate Change -2009 -Terence Cave (United Kingdom) --- Literature since 1500 -Michael Grätzel (Germany / Switzerland) --- Science of New Materials -Brenda Milner (United Kingdom / Canada) --- Cognitive Neurosciences -Paolo Rossi Monti (Italy) --- History of Science - -== 2010s == -2010 -Manfred Brauneck (Germany) --- History of theatre in all its aspects -Carlo Ginzburg (Italy) --- European History (1400–1700) -Jacob Palis (Brazil) --- Mathematics (pure or applied) -Shinya Yamanaka (Japan) --- Stem Cells: Biology and potential applications -2011 -Peter Brown (Ireland) --- Ancient History (The Graeco-Roman World) -Bronislaw Baczko (Poland) --- Enlightenment Studies -Russell Scott Lande (United States / United Kingdom) --- Theoretical Biology or Bioinformatics -Joseph Ivor Silk (United States / United Kingdom) --- The Early Universe (From the Planck Time to the First Galaxies) -2012 -Ronald Dworkin (United States) --- Jurisprudence -Reinhard Strohm (Germany) --- Musicology -Kurt Lambeck (Australia) --- Solid Earth Sciences, with emphasis on interdisciplinary research -David Baulcombe (United Kingdom) --- Epigenetics -2013 -André Vauchez (France) --- Medieval History -Manuel Castells (Spain) --- Sociology -Alain Aspect (France) --- Quantum Information Processing and Communication -Pascale Cossart (France) --- Infectious diseases: basic and clinical aspects -2014 -Mario Torelli (Italy) --- Classical Archaeology -Ian Hacking (Canada) --- Epistemology and Philosophy of Mind -G. David Tilman (United States) --- Basic and/or applied Plant Ecology -Dennis Sullivan (United States) --- Mathematics (pure or applied) -Vivre en Famille (France) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples -2015 -Hans Belting (Germany) --- History of European Art (1300–1700) -Joel Mokyr (Netherland / United States / Israel) --- Economic History -Francis Halzen (Belgium / United States) --- Astroparticle Physics including neutrino and gamma-ray observation -David Karl (United States) --- Oceanography -2016 -Piero Boitani (Italy) --- Comparative Literature -Reinhard Jahn (Germany) --- Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, including neurodegenerative and developmental aspects -Federico Capasso (Italy) --- Applied Photonics -Robert Keohane (United States) --- International Relations: History and Theory -2017 -Aleida Assmann (Germany) and Jan Assmann (Germany) --- Collective Memory -Bina Agarwal (India / United Kingdom) --- Gender Studies -Robert D. Schreiber (United States) and James P. Allison (United States) --- Immunological Approaches in Cancer Therapy -Michaël Gillon (Belgium) --- The Sun's Planetary System and Exoplanets -2018 -Éva Kondorosi (Hungary / France) --- Chemical Ecology -Detlef Lohse (Germany) --- Fluid Dynamics -Jürgen Osterhammel (Germany) --- Global History -Marilyn Strathern (United Kingdom) --- Social Anthropology -Terre des hommes Foundation (Switzerland) --- Humanity, Peace and Fraternity among Peoples -2019 -Jacques Aumont (France) --- Film Studies -Michael Cook (United States / United Kingdom) --- Islamic Studies -Luigi Ambrosio (Italy) --- Theory of Partial Differential Equations -Erika von Mutius, Klaus F. Rabe, Werner Seeger and Tobias Welte (all Germany) --- Pathophysiology of respiration: from basic sciences to the bedside \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0dc89d5fb..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of Balzan Prize recipients" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:18.531553+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== 2020s == -2020 -Susan Trumbore (US / Germany) --- Earth System Dynamics -Jean-Marie Tarascon (France) --- Environmental Challenges: Materials Science for Renewable Energy -Joan Martinez Alier (Spain) --- Environmental Challenges: Responses from the Social Sciences and the Humanities -Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil) --- Human Rights -2021 -Saul Friedländer (France / US) --- Holocaust and Genocide Studies -Jeffrey I. Gordon (US) --- Microbiome in Health and Disease -Alessandra Buonanno (Italy / US) and Thibault Damour (France) --- Gravitation: physical and astrophysical aspects -Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (Italy / USA) --- Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Far East -2022 -Robert Langer (US) --- Biomaterials for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering -Martha Nussbaum (US) --- Moral Philosophy -Dorthe Dahl-Jensen (Denmark) and Hans Oerlemans (Netherlands) --- Glaciation and Ice-Sheet Dynamics -Philip Bohlman (US) --- Ethnomusicology -2023 -David Damrosch (US) --- World Literature -Jean-Jacques Hublin (France) --- Evolution of Humankind: Paleoanthropology -Eske Willerslev (Denmark) --- Evolution of Humankind: Ancient DNA and Human Evolution -Heino Falcke (Germany) --- High resolution images: from planetary to cosmic objects -2024 -John Braithwaite (Australia) --- Restorative Justice -Lorraine Daston (US / Germany) --- History of Modern and Contemporary Science -Michael N. Hall (US / Switzerland) --- Biological Mechanisms of Ageing -Omar M. Yaghi (US) --- Nanoporous Materials for Environmental Applications -2025 -Josiah Ober (US) --- Athenian Democracy Revisited -Rosalind Krauss (US) --- History of Contemporary Art -Christophe Salomon (France) --- Atoms and Ultra-Precise Measurement of Time -Carl H. June (US) --- Gene and Gene-Modified Cell Therapy - -== References == - -== External links == -Official website -"Prize Winners". Milano Zurigo. Retrieved 6 June 2022. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 616a4cc24..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of adiabatic concepts" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:08.871978+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Adiabatic (from Gr. ἀ negative + διάβασις passage; transference) refers to any process that occurs without heat transfer. This concept is used in many areas of physics and engineering. Notable examples are listed below. - - -== Automobiles == -Engine braking, a feature of some diesel engines, uses adiabatic expansion to diminish the vehicle's forward momentum. - - -== Meteorology == -Adiabatic lapse rate, the change in air temperature with changing height, resulting from pressure change. - - -== Quantum chemistry == -Adiabatic invariant Born–Oppenheimer approximation - - -== Thermodynamics == -Adiabatic process -Adiabatic ionization -Adiabatic index -Adiabatic accessibility - - -== Quantum mechanics == -Adiabatic theorem -Adiabatic quantum motor - - -== Electronics == -Adiabatic circuit -Adiabatic logic - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5c75eda63..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,92 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of agricultural journals" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:17.834830+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of agricultural journals which includes notable peer-reviewed scientific journals that publish research in agriculture, agronomy, crop science, soil science, horticulture, plant pathology, animal science, and related fields. - - -== Journals == -Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B -African Crop Science Journal -African Journal of Range & Forage Science -Agricultural and Forest Meteorology -Agricultural Economics -Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment -Agronomy Journal -American Journal of Agricultural Economics -American Journal of Enology and Viticulture -Animal (journal) -Annual Review of Phytopathology -Aquaculture (journal) -Aquaculture International -Aquaculture Research -Australasian Agribusiness Review -BioControl -Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry -Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science -Cahiers Agricultures -California Agriculture -Crop & Pasture Science -Crop Science -Fisheries Research -Folia Horticulturae -Hilgardia -HortScience -Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences -Journal of Agrarian Change -Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics -Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry -Journal of Agricultural Economics -Journal of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Statistics -The Journal of Agricultural Science -Journal of Animal Science -Journal of Central European Agriculture -Journal of Dairy Science -Journal of Experimental Botany -Journal of Horticultural Sciences -The Journal of Peasant Studies -Journal of Plantation Crops -Journal of Soil and Water Conservation -Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture -Open Agriculture -Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science -Pest Management Science -Phytopathology (journal) -Plant and Soil -Plant Disease (journal) -Plant Physiology -Potato Research -Queensland Agricultural Journal -Rangifer (journal) -Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems -Review of Agrarian Studies -Soil Biology and Biochemistry -Soil Research -Theoretical and Applied Genetics -Transactions of the ASABE -Tropical Grasslands (journal) -Tropicultura -Zemědělská ekonomika - - -== See also == -Agrivoltaics -Indian Council of Agricultural Research -List of biology journals -List of environmental journals -List of scientific journals -Precision agriculture - - -=== Agriculture conferences === -Paris International Agricultural Show -Annual Biocontrol Industry Meeting -InfoAg Conference -International Horticultural Congress -New Harvest \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6648b7ec1..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,59 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of applications of stainless steel" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:11.293556+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms. - -== Architecture == -The use of stainless steel in buildings can be both practical and aesthetic. In vogue during the Art Deco period, the most famous use of stainless steel can be seen in the upper portion of the Chrysler Building. Thanks to its durability, many of these buildings have retained their original appearance. -Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings, such as the exterior of the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons). The largest stainless steel building in North America is the aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility. La Geode in Paris has a dome composed of 6433 polished stainless steel triangles that form the sphere that reflects the sky. The development of high-strength stainless steel grades, such as "lean duplex" grades, has led to increasing use in structural applications. -Thanks to its low reflectivity, stainless steel is used as a roofing material for airports, which prevents pilots from being dazzled. It is also used for its ability to keep the surface of the roof close to ambient temperature. Examples of such airports include the Sacramento International Airport in California and the Hamad International Airport in Qatar. -Stainless steel is used for pedestrian and road bridges in the form of tubes, plates, or reinforcing bars. Examples include: the Cala Galdana Bridge in Menorca, the first stainless steel road bridge to be built; the Champlain Bridge in Montreal; the Oudesluijs bridge in Amsterdam, a bridge made using Construction 3D printing; the Padre Arrupe Bridge in Bilbao, which links the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao to the University of Deusto. the Sant Fruitos Pedestrian Bridge in Spain; Stonecutter's Bridge, Hong Kong; and The Helix Bridge, a pedestrian bridge in Singapore. - -== Art and monuments == - -=== Americas === -Cloud Gate, a sculpture by Anish Kapoor. (Chicago, United States) -Estacas, a sculpture by Ken Bortolazzo, created in 2009. Displayed at the Museum of Outdoor Arts in Greenwood Village, Colorado. -Gateway Arch (pictured) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804 metric tons) of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) plate, #3 finish, type 304 stainless steel. (St. Louis, United States) -Jaime Latapí López's Cristo de Chiapas. Created in 2007. (Tuxla Guttierez, Mexico) -Metamorphosis by David Černỳ. Created in 2011 (Charlotte, United States) -Unisphere, constructed as the theme symbol of the 1964 New York World's Fair, is constructed of Type 304L stainless steel as a spherical framework with a diameter of 120 feet (37 m). (New York City, United States) -United States Air Force Memorial has an austenitic stainless steel structural skin. (Arlington, United States) - -=== Asia === -The Blossom pavilion by Zhan Wang. Created in 2015. (Shanghai, China) - -=== Europe === -Worker and Kolkhoz Woman by Vera Mukhina. Created in 1937. (Moscow, Russia) -The aluminium cladding of the spheres and tubes of the Atomium was renovated with stainless-steel cladding in 2006. (Brussels, Belgium) -Juraj Jánošík monument (Terchova, Slovakia) -La Danse de la fontaine émergente by Chen Zhen. Created in 2008. (Paris, France) -Man of Steel, currently under construction. (Rotherham, England) -The Sibelius Monument is made entirely of stainless steel tubes (Helsinki, Finland) -Sun Voyager by Jon Gunnar Arnason, 9 m × 18 m × 7 m. Created in 1990. (Reykjavik, Iceland) -The Big Elk by Linda Bakke. Created in 2015. (Stor-Elvdal, Norway) -The Kelpies (Falkirk, Scotland) -A Sea of Steel consists of fourteen steel sculptures by different artists. (Wijk aan Zee, the Netherlands) - -== Water == -Stainless steels have a long history of application in contact with water due to their excellent corrosion resistance. Applications include a range of conditions including plumbing, potable water and wastewater treatment, desalination, and brine treatment. Types 304 and 316 stainless steels are standard materials of construction in contact with water. However, with increasing chloride contents, higher alloyed stainless steels such as Type 2205 and super austenitic and super duplex stainless steels are used. -Important considerations to achieve optimum corrosion performance are: - -the correct grade choice for the chloride content of the water; -avoidance of crevices when possible by good design; -adherence to good fabrication practices, particularly removing weld heat tint; -prompt drainage after hydrotesting. -The use of stainless steel piping has helped to reduce the losses of drinking water in Tokyo, Seoul, and Taipei. - -== Pulp, paper, and biomass conversion == -Stainless steels are used extensively in the pulp and paper industry to avoid iron contamination of the product and because of their corrosion resistance to the various chemicals used in the papermaking process. For example, duplex stainless steels are used in digesters to convert wood chips into wood pulp. 6% Mo superaustenitics are used in the bleach plant and Type 316 is used extensively in the paper machine. - -== Chemical and petrochemical processing == -Stainless steels are used extensively in the chemical and petrochemical industries for their corrosion resistance to aqueous, gaseous, and high-temperature environments, their mechanical properties at all temperatures, and occasionally for other special physical properties. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index b2548d8f1..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,45 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of applications of stainless steel" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:11.293556+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Food and beverage == -Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, particularly Types 304 and 316, is the material of choice for the food and beverage industry, though martensitic and ferritic (400 series) steels are also used. Stainless steels are advantageous because they do not affect the taste of the product, are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination of the food, and are durable. Within the food and beverage industry, stainless steel is extensively used in cookware, commercial food processing, commercial kitchens, brewing beer, winemaking, and meat processing. -Stainless steel's superiority over plastic in preserving flavor is reportedly why McDonald's traditionally procures soft drink syrup for its soda fountains from The Coca-Cola Company in stainless steel tanks, rather than the bag-in-box technology preferred by most fast food restaurant chains. -Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soy sauce, may require higher-alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride. - -== Vehicles == - -=== Automobiles === - -The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham had a stainless steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the DMC DeLorean production automobile used Type 304 stainless steel body panels over a glass-reinforced plastic monocoque. Intercity buses made by Motor Coach Industries are partially made of stainless steel. The aft body panel of the Porsche Cayman model (2-door coupe hatchback) is made of stainless steel. Due to the Cayman's many curves and angles, it was discovered during early body prototyping that conventional steel could not be formed without cracking. Thus, Porsche was forced to use stainless steel. The body of the Tesla Cybertruck, which went into production in 2023, is composed of 300-series stainless steel. -The largest use of stainless steel in cars is the exhaust line. Environment protection requirements aimed at reducing pollution and noise for the entirety of a car's lifespan led to the use of ferritic stainless steels (typically AISI409/409Cb in North America, EN1.4511 and 1.4512 in Europe). They are used for collector, tubing, muffler, catalytic converter, tailpipe. Heat-resisting grades EN1.4913 or 1.4923 are used in parts of turbochargers, while other heat-resisting grades are used for exhaust gas recirculation and for inlet and exhaust valves. In addition, common rail injection systems and their injectors rely on stainless steels. -Stainless steel has proved to be the best choice for miscellaneous applications, such as stiffeners for windshield wiper blades, balls for seat belt operation device in case of accident, springs, fasteners, etc. -Some automotive manufacturers use stainless steel as decorative highlights in their vehicles. - -=== Light commuter trains === -Stainless steel is now used as one of the materials for tramlinks, together with aluminium alloys and carbon steel. Duplex grades tend to be preferred thanks to their corrosion resistance and higher strength, allowing a reduction of weight and a long life in maritime environments. - -=== Passenger rail cars === -Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel panels for additional structural strength. This was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s but has since declined. One notable example was the early Pioneer Zephyr. Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling stock included the Budd Company (USA), which has been licensed to Japan's Tokyu Car Corporation, and the Portuguese company Sorefame. Many railcars in the United States are still manufactured with stainless steel. In India, where rail infrastructure is developing, new stainless steel coaches in being put into service. South Africa is also commissioning stainless steel coaches. - -=== Aircraft === - -Budd also built two airplanes, the Budd BB-1 Pioneer and the Budd RB-1 Conestoga, out of stainless steel tube and sheet. The first, which had fabric wing coverings, is on display at the Franklin Institute, being the longest continuous display of an aircraft ever, since 1934. The RB-2 was almost all stainless steel, save for the control surfaces. One survives at the Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base. -The American Fleetwings Sea Bird amphibious aircraft of 1936 was also built using a spot-welded stainless steel hull. -Due to its thermal stability, the Bristol Aeroplane Company built the all-stainless steel Bristol 188 high-speed research aircraft, which first flew in 1963. However, the practical problems encountered meant that later high-speed aircraft, such as the Concorde, employed aluminium alloys. The experimental Mach 3 American bomber, the XB70 Valkyrie, made extensive use of stainless steel in its external structure due to the extreme heat encountered at those high speeds. -The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 interceptor aircraft was built predominantly out of stainless steel due to the Soviet Union's inability to mass-produce an aircraft made from lightweight titanium, the only other way found to protect from the extreme kinetic heating. It severely hindered the aircraft's flight performance and the MiG-25 had to be kept extremely secret to prevent the NATO allies from finding out about the realities of the aircraft's performance. It however holds the world altitude record for aircraft, at ~123,000 feet. -The use of stainless steel in mainstream aircraft is hindered by its excessive weight compared to other materials, such as aluminium. - -=== Spacecraft === -Stainless steel (SS) also has an application in spaceflight. The early Atlas rockets used stainless steel in their fuel tanks. The tank structure of the Centaur upper stage of the Atlas V and Vulcan Centaur launchers uses SS. -The outer cladding of the modules and the Integrated Truss Structure of the International Space Station use stainless steel alloys. -Components of the Space Launch System use SS.. -Both stages of SpaceX Starship are largely made of type 300 SS. - -== Medicine == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7275b4fcb..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of applications of stainless steel" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:11.293556+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo. -Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal-treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. Surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) were also used in some early dental implants. - -== Energy == -Stainless steels are extensively used in all types of power stations, from nuclear to solar. Stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural supports in electrolytic power generation. -Stainless steel is used in electrolysers (proton exchange membranes and solid oxide electrolysers being the most common) that convert electrical energy into hydrogen gas by water electrolysis. Conversely, stainless steel is used in fuel cells which perform the opposite reaction, combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce water and electrical energy. - -== Culinary == -Stainless steel is often preferred for kitchen sinks because of its ruggedness, durability, heat resistance, and ease of cleaning. In better models, acoustic noise is controlled by applying resilient undercoating to dampen vibrations. The material is also used for cladding of surfaces such as appliances and backsplashes. -Cookware and bakeware may be clad in stainless steels to enhance their cleanability and durability and to permit their use in induction cooking (this requires a magnetic grade of stainless steel, such as 432). Because stainless steel is a poor conductor of heat, it is often used as a thin surface cladding over a core of copper or aluminium, which conducts heat more readily. -Cutlery is often made of stainless steel, for low corrosion, ease of cleaning, negligible toxicity, and ability to avoid flavoring the food by electrolytic activity. - -== Jewelry == -Stainless steel is used for jewelry and watches, with 316L being the type commonly used. Oxidizing stainless steel briefly gives it radiant colors that can also be used for coloration effects. - -== Firearms == -Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some handgun models, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 pistol, can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating. Unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off from rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster), or rust when scratched. - -== 3D printing == -Some 3D printing providers have developed proprietary stainless steel sintering blends for use in rapid prototyping. One popular stainless steel grade used in 3D printing is 316L stainless steel. Due to the high temperature gradient and fast rate of solidification, stainless steel products manufactured via 3D printing tend to have a more refined microstructure; this, in turn, results in better mechanical properties. However, stainless steel is not as commonly used as materials like Ti6Al4V, due to the availability of more cost-effective traditional manufacturing methods for stainless steel. - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 959a77899..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,164 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of asteroid-discovering observatories" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:12.545570+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The list of asteroid-discovering observatories contains a section for each observatory which has discovered one or more asteroids, along with a list of those asteroids. -For each numbered asteroid, the Minor Planet Center lists one or more discoverers who have been given credit for the discovery. Sometimes these are individuals (by modern rules there can be no more than three co-discoverers), and sometimes the credit is given to an organization (for instance, Purple Mountain Observatory). - - -== Observatories == - - -=== Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory === -The Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory is a private observatory near Andrushivka in Zhytomyr oblast, Ukraine. The observatory has IAU observatory code A50. -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory === - -The Korean Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory (BOAO), located at Mount Bohyeon near the city of Yeongcheon, is a member of the East-Asian Planet Search Network, an international collaboration between Korea, China and Japan. Each facility, BOAO (Korea), Xinglong Station (NAOC) (China), and Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (Japan), has a 2 m class telescope, a high dispersion echelle spectrograph, and an iodine absorption cell for precise RV measurements, looking for extrasolar planets. -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Cerro El Roble Astronomical Station === - -Between 1968 and 1982, Carlos Torres discovered or co-discovered with S. Cofré and others a number of asteroids from the Chilean Cerro El Roble Station. It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Chichibu Observatory === -This is the private observatory of Naoto Sato in Chichibu, Saitama, Japan. This Observatory has IAU observatory code 369. -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Dynic Astronomical Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Emerald Lane Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Fair Oaks Ranch Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Geisei Observatory === -Tsutomu Seki is the director of the Geisei Observatory in Geisei, Kōchi, Japan. -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Jurassien-Vicques Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Kingsnake Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Kitami Observatory === -Kitami Observatory has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Lime Creek Observatory === -Private observatory of Robert Linderholm (1933–2013); it discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Mount Nyukasa Station === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Nanyo Observatory === -Nanyo Civil Astronomical Observatory was established in 1986 by the Nanyo Astronomical Lovers Club, located in Nan'yō, Yamagata, Japan. This astronomy society was founded in 1983. -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Oaxaca Observatory === -Oaxaca Observatory has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Osservatorio Astronomico di Monte Agliale === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Osservatorio Astronomico di Pianoro === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Osservatorio Astronomico Sormano === - -The Sormano Astronomical Observatory in northern Italy has discovered the asteroid 344581 Albisetti. Previously accredited discoveries have now been reassigned to the various amateur astronomers using the observatory. These include Valter Giuliani, Piero Sicoli, Pierangelo Ghezzi, Francesco Manca, Paolo Chiavenna, Graziano Ventre and Augusto Testa. -Marco Cavagna, was also an observer and discoverer of minor planets at Sormano until his death in 2005. The observatory's 0.5-meter telescope was named in his honor. - - -=== Osservatorio Colleverde di Guidonia === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Rand Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Rozhen National Astronomical Observatory === -The Rozhen Observatory has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Sendai Astronomical Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Sunflower Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Tenagra II Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Tzec Maun Observatory (Mayhill) === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Uenohara Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Uto Observatory === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Yatsugatake-Kobuchizawa === -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -=== Yorii Observatory === -At Yorii Observatory, Japanese amateur astronomers Masaru Arai and Hiroshi Mori have discovered 45 minor planets (credited by the MPC as per 2016):Scr - - -=== Zeno Observatory === -Tom Stafford discovered a number of asteroids since 1997, including 12061 Alena, 12533 Edmond, 13436 Enid, 13688 Oklahoma, at Zeno Observatory (observatory code 727) in Edmond, Oklahoma. -It has discovered the following asteroids: - - -== See also == -List of minor planets § Main index -List of observatory codes -List of minor planet discoverers § Discovering dedicated institutions -Asteroid impact prediction § Surveys -List of near-Earth object observation projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Minor planet discoverers (alphabetically) -Minor planet discoverers (ordered by number of discoveries) -Reports from Geisei Observatory -The telescopes at Geisei Observatory -Marco Cavagna's obituary at the Sormano Observatory website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 50b903084..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of atomic clocks" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atomic_clocks" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:16.112416+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of some experimental laboratory atomic clocks worldwide. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5239a83d1..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of cities by scientific output" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:27.734058+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The following article lists the cities and metropolitan areas with the greatest scientific output, according to the Nature Index. The Nature Index attempts to objectively measure the scientific output of institutions, cities and countries by the amount of scientific articles and papers published in leading journals. Differences in quality are taken into account. Only articles published in 82 selected quality journals are counted. All these journals are in the English language. They were selected by a committee. If authors from several institutions from different cities are involved in a scientific article, it is divided accordingly, assuming that all researchers were equally involved in the article. -In 2019, Beijing was the city in the world with the largest scientific output, accounting for 2.8% of the world's total. New York City was second in the world, with about 2% of the world's total. Overall, China has the most cities in the top 100 list with 28, followed by the United States with 27. - - -== List == -Listed below are the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals in 2024, according to the Nature Index 2025 Science Cities: - - -== Leading cities in different fields == -The 10 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in the fields of biological sciences, Earth & environmental sciences, chemistry, health sciences, natural sciences and physical sciences: - - -== Notes == - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ebe07270d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of citizen science projects" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:28.923802+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Citizen science projects are activities sponsored by a wide variety of organizations so non-scientists can meaningfully contribute to scientific research. - - -== Precis == -Activities vary widely from transcribing old ship logbooks to digitize the data as part of the Old Weather project to observing and counting birds at home or in the field for eBird. Participation can be as simple as playing a computer game for a project called Eyewire that may help scientists learn more about retinal neurons. It can also be more in depth, such as when citizens collect water quality data over time to assess the health of local waters, or help discover and name new species of insects. An emerging branch of Citizen Science are Community Mapping projects that utilize smartphone and tablet technology. For example, TurtleSAT is a community mapping project that is mapping freshwater turtle deaths throughout Australia. -This list of citizen science projects involves projects that engage all age groups. There are projects specifically aimed at the younger age demographic like iTechExplorers which was created by a 14 year old in the UK to assess the effects of bedtime technology on the body's circadian rhythm and can be completed in a classroom setting. Other projects like AgeGuess focus on the senior demographics and enable the elderly to upload photos of themselves so the public can guess different ages. -Lists of citizen science projects may change. For example, the Old Weather project website indicates that as of January 10, 2015, 51% of the logs were completed. When that project reaches 100 percent, it will move to the completed list. - - -== Worldwide == -Citizen scientists anywhere in the world can participate in these projects. - - -== Regional == -These projects require that citizen scientists be local to a region of study. - - -=== Asia === - - -=== Australasia === - - -=== Europe === - - -=== North America === - - -== See also == -Participatory monitoring -List of grid computing projects -List of volunteer computing projects -List of free and open-source Android applications - - -== Notes == - - -== External links == -OpenHumans — quantified self projects -SciStarter — SciStarter lists more than 3,000 active and searchable global citizen science projects - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 81e21b4c9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 1/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail. - -== Astronomy and spaceflight == -There is no scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans, and astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no explanatory power in predicting future events. -Astronauts in orbit have the sensation of being weightless because they are in free fall around the Earth, not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the International Space Station the Earth's gravity is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects orbiting in space would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and gravitational fields extend even into the depths of intergalactic space. - The dark side of the Moon receives about the same amount of light from the Sun as the near side. The far side is called "dark" not because it never receives light but because it had never been seen until humans sent spacecraft around the Moon, since the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth due to tidal locking. -Black holes have the same gravitational effects as any other equal mass in their place. They will draw objects nearby towards them, just as any other celestial body does, except at very close distances to the black hole, comparable to its Schwarzschild radius. If, for example, the Sun were replaced by a black hole of equal mass, the orbits of the planets would be essentially unaffected. - Seasons are not caused by Earth being closer to the Sun in the summer than in the winter, but by the effects of Earth's 23.4-degree axial tilt. Each hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun in its respective summer, resulting in longer days and more direct sunlight, with the opposite being true in the winter. Earth reaches the point in its orbit closest to the Sun in January, and it reaches the point farthest from the Sun in July, so the slight contribution of orbital eccentricity opposes the temperature trends of the seasons in the Northern Hemisphere. -When a meteor or spacecraft enters the atmosphere, the heat of entry is not primarily caused by friction, but by adiabatic compression of air in front of the object. -Egg balancing is possible on every day of the year, not just the vernal equinox. -The Fisher Space Pen was not commissioned by NASA at a cost of millions of dollars, while the Soviets used pencils. Pencils posed a major risk to astronauts due to the release of substances such as shavings and pencil lead being a flight hazard. The pen was independently developed by Paul C. Fisher, founder of the Fisher Pen Company, with $1 million of his own funds (equivalent to $10 million in 2025). NASA tested and approved the pen for space use, then purchased 400 pens at $6 per pen (equivalent to $58 in 2025). The Soviet Union subsequently also purchased the Space Pen for its Soyuz spaceflights. -Tang, Velcro, and Teflon were not spun off from technology originally developed by NASA for spaceflight, though many other products (such as memory foam and space blankets) were. -The Sun is not yellow; rather, it emits light across the full spectrum of visible colors, and this combined light appears white when outside of Earth's atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere scatters shorter wavelengths of light, particularly blues and violets, more than longer wavelengths like reds and yellows, and this scattering is why the Sun appears yellow during the day or orange or red during sunrise and sunset. The scattered blue/violet light, appearing to come from all directions, is what makes the rest of the sky look blue. - The Great Wall of China is not the only human-made object visible from space or from the Moon. None of the Apollo astronauts reported seeing any specific human-made object from the Moon, and even Earth-orbiting astronauts can see it only with magnification. City lights, however, are easily visible on the night side of Earth from orbit. -The Big Bang model does not fully explain the origin of the universe. It does not describe how energy, time, and space were caused, but rather it describes the emergence of the present universe from an ultra-dense and high-temperature initial state. - -== Biology == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 283a49c43..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 2/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Mammals === -Bats are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the microbat family, use echolocation to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the megabat or fruit bat family cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision. - Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional bullfighters. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the bullfighter that incites it to charge, along with the spearing of the bull and mental agitation and abuse it endures beforehand. -Camels do not store water in their humps, but rather fatty tissue which can be used as a reserve source of calories. While they can go long periods without water, the water is stored in the animal's bloodstream, not their humps. -Domestic cats' behavioral and personality traits cannot be predicted from their coat color. Rather, these traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. -Not all cats are attracted and intoxicated by catnip, which affects only about two thirds of them. Alternatives exist, such as valerian root and leaves. -Dogs do not sweat by salivating. Dogs actually do have sweat glands, but not on their tongues; they sweat mainly through their footpads. However, dogs do primarily regulate their body temperature through panting. (See also: Dog anatomy § Temperature regulation) -Dogs do not consistently age seven times as quickly as humans. Aging in dogs varies widely depending on the breed; certain breeds, such as giant dog breeds and English bulldogs, have much shorter lifespans than average. Most dogs reach adolescence by one year old; smaller and medium-sized breeds begin to age more slowly in adulthood. -Old elephants near death do not leave their herd to go to an "elephants' graveyard" to die. -The hippopotamus does not produce pink milk, nor does it sweat blood. The skin secretions of the hippopotamus are red due to the presence of hipposudoric acid, a red pigment which acts as a natural sunscreen, and is neither sweat nor blood. It does not affect the color of their milk, which is white or beige. -Lemmings do not engage in mass suicidal dives off cliffs when migrating. The scenes of lemming suicides in the 1958 Disney documentary film White Wilderness, which popularized this idea, were completely fabricated. The lemmings in the film were actually purchased from Inuit children, transported to the filming location in Canada and repeatedly shoved off a nearby cliff by the filmmakers to create the illusion of a mass suicide. The misconception itself is much older, dating back to at least the late 19th century, though its exact origins are uncertain. -Mice do not have a special appetite for cheese, and will eat it only for lack of better options; they actually favor sweet sugary foods. The myth may have come from the fact that before the advent of refrigeration, cheese was usually stored outside and was therefore a food easy for mice to reach. -Porcupines do not shoot their quills. They can detach, and porcupines will deliberately back into attackers to impale them, but their quills do not project. -Rabbits are not especially partial to carrots. Their diet in the wild primarily consists of dark green vegetables such as grasses and clovers, and excessive carrot consumption is unhealthy for them due to containing high levels of sugar. -Tomato juice and sauce are ineffective at neutralizing the odor of a skunk. Rather, due to olfactory fatigue, a person sprayed by a skunk loses sensitivity to the smell over time. Effective treatments for skunk odor involve artificial compounds rather than household remedies. -There is no such thing as an "alpha" in a wolf pack. An early study that coined the term "alpha wolf" had observed only unrelated adult wolves living in captivity. In the wild, wolf packs operate like families: parents are in charge until the young grow up and start their own families, and younger wolves do not overthrow an "alpha" to become the new leader. -The phases of the Moon have no effect on the vocalizations of wolves, and wolves do not howl at the Moon. Wolves howl to assemble the pack usually before and after hunts, to pass on an alarm particularly at a den site, to locate each other during a storm, while crossing unfamiliar territory, and to communicate across great distances. - -=== Birds === -A human touching or handling eggs or baby birds will not cause the adult birds to abandon them. The same is generally true for other animals having their young touched by humans as well, with the possible exception of rabbits (as rabbits will sometimes abandon their nest after an event they perceive as traumatizing). -Eating rice, yeast, or Alka-Seltzer does not cause birds to explode and is rarely fatal. Birds can flatulate and regurgitate to expel gas, and some birds even include wild rice as part of their diet. The misconception has often led to weddings using millet, confetti, or other materials to shower the newlyweds as they leave the ceremony, instead of the throwing of rice that is traditional in some places. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md deleted file mode 100644 index b7d59f627..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 11/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Nutrition, food, and drink === -Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins. Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces). -Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm. -Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient temperature and humidity. Water requirements can be met from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables. -Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers. -Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women; women are merely more likely than men to suffer from eating disorders. -Neither spicy food nor coffee has a significant effect on the development of peptic ulcers. -Sugar does not cause clinical hyperactivity in children. Double-blind trials have shown no difference in behavior between children given sugar-full or sugar-free diets, even in studies specifically looking at children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or those considered sensitive to sugar. A 2019 meta-analysis found no positive effect of sugar consumption on mood but did find an association with lower alertness and increased fatigue within an hour of consumption, known as a sugar crash. Sugar can, however, lead to a jump in blood sugar levels, causing temporary hyperactivity even if it does not cause clinical hyperactivity. -Eating nuts, popcorn, or seeds does not increase the risk of diverticulitis. These foods may actually have a protective effect. -Eating less than an hour before swimming does not significantly increase the risk of experiencing muscle cramps, and does not increase the risk of drowning. One study shows a correlation between alcohol consumption and drowning, but not between eating and stomach cramps. -Vegan and vegetarian diets can provide enough protein for adequate nutrition. In fact, typical protein intakes of ovo-lacto vegetarians meet or exceed requirements. The American Dietetic Association maintains that appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful. However, a vegan diet does require dietary supplements. -Swallowed chewing gum does not take seven years to digest. Chewing gum is mostly indigestible, and passes through the digestive system at the same rate as other matter. -The beta carotene in carrots does not enhance night vision beyond normal levels for people receiving an adequate amount, only in those with a deficiency of vitamin A. -Spinach is not a particularly good source of dietary iron. While it does contain more iron than many vegetables such as asparagus, Swiss chard, kale, or arugula, it contains only about one-third to one-fifth of the iron in lima beans, chickpeas, apricots, or wheat germ. Additionally, the non-heme iron found in spinach and other vegetables is not as readily absorbed as the heme iron found in meats and fish. -Most cases of obesity are not related to slower resting metabolism. Resting metabolic rate does not vary much between people. Overweight people tend to underestimate the amount of food they eat, and underweight people tend to overestimate. In fact, overweight people tend to have faster metabolic rates due to the increased energy required by the larger body. -Eating normal amounts of soy does not cause hormonal imbalance. -There is no good evidence that low-carbohydrate diets have any health benefits besides weight loss, for which they are about as effective as other diets. Weight loss is primarily a result of caloric restriction, and is not significantly influenced by the balance between fat and carbohydrate in one's diet. - -==== Alcohol ==== -Alcoholic beverages do not make the entire body warmer. Alcoholic drinks create the sensation of warmth because they cause blood vessels to dilate and stimulate nerve endings near the surface of the skin with an influx of warm blood. This can actually result in making the core body temperature lower, as it allows for easier heat exchange with a cold external environment. -Alcohol does not necessarily kill brain cells. Alcohol can, however, lead indirectly to the death of brain cells in two ways. First, in chronic, heavy alcohol users whose brains have adapted to the effects of alcohol, abrupt ceasing following heavy use can cause excitotoxicity leading to cellular death in multiple areas of the brain. Second, in alcoholics who get most of their daily calories from alcohol, a deficiency of thiamine can produce Korsakoff's syndrome, which is associated with serious brain damage. -The order in which different types of alcoholic beverages are consumed ("Grape or grain but never the twain" and "Beer before liquor never sicker; liquor before beer in the clear") does not affect hangover severity. -Authentic absinthe has no hallucinogenic properties, and is no more dangerous than any other alcoholic beverage of equivalent proof. This misconception stems from late-19th- and early-20th-century distillers who produced cheap knockoff versions of absinthe, which used copper salts to recreate the distinct green color of true absinthe, and some also reportedly adulterated cheap absinthe with poisonous antimony trichloride, reputed to enhance the louche effect. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7e175a3af..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 12/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Sexuality and reproduction === -Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active. -It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina. -An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one. Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are unscientific. -Hand size and foot size do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may. -While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%. The effects of inbreeding depression, while still relatively small compared to other factors (and thus difficult to control for in a scientific experiment), become more noticeable if isolated and maintained for several generations. -Having sex before a sporting event or contest is not physiologically detrimental to performance. In fact some studies suggest that sex prior to sports activity can elevate male testosterone levels (which could potentially enhance performance for male athletes), while long periods of abstinence can reduce those levels. -The heightened sensitivity some women experience at the G-spot is not due to it being a distinct anatomical structure, but rather because pressure in that area may stimulate other internal structures, notably the Skene's gland. Many sexologists take issue with the term, concerned that women who "fail to find their G-spot" may feel abnormal. -Closeted or latent homosexuality is not correlated with internalized homophobia. A 1996 study claiming a connection in men has not been verified by subsequent studies, including a 2013 study that found no correlation. -The menstrual cycles of women who live together do not tend to synchronize. A 1971 study made this claim, but subsequent research has not supported it. -Having an abortion does not increase someone's risk of developing breast cancer. Some smaller, less reliable early studies suggested that abortion could be linked to breast cancer, but the scientific community has concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer. -There is no evidence that English-speaking Christian missionaries encouraged converts to use the missionary position in the colonial era. This notion probably originated from Alfred Kinsey's Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) through misunderstandings and misinterpretations of historical documents. - -=== Skin and hair === -Water-induced wrinkles are not caused by the skin absorbing water and swelling. They are caused by the autonomic nervous system, which triggers localized vasoconstriction in response to wet skin, yielding a wrinkled appearance. -A person's hair and fingernails do not continue to grow after death. Rather, the skin dries and shrinks away from the bases of hairs and nails, giving the appearance of growth. -Shaving does not cause terminal hair to grow back thicker or darker. This belief is thought to be due to the fact that hair that has never been cut has a tapered end, so after cutting, the base of the hair is blunt and appears thicker and feels coarser. The fact that short hairs are less flexible than longer hairs contributes to this effect. -MC1R, the gene mostly responsible for red hair, is not becoming extinct, nor will the gene for blond hair do so, although both are recessive alleles. Redheads and blonds may become rarer but will not die out unless everyone who carries those alleles dies without passing their hair color genes on to their children. -Acne is not caused by a lack of hygiene or eating fatty foods, though certain medications or a carbohydrate-rich diet may worsen it. -Dandruff is not caused by poor hygiene, though infrequent hair-washing can make it more obvious. The exact causes of dandruff are uncertain, but they are believed to be mostly genetic and environmental factors. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7d15615ed..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 13/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Inventions == -James Watt did not invent the steam engine, nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result. -Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favoring beheadings over other forms of execution that led to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine. -Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century, and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one for the floating ballcock. - Thomas Edison did not invent the light bulb. The team of inventors Edison employed at his laboratories in Menlo Park, New Jersey did, however, develop the first practical light bulb in 1880 (employing a carbonized bamboo filament), shortly prior to Joseph Swan, who invented an even more efficient bulb in 1881 (which used a cellulose filament). -Henry Ford did not invent either the automobile or the assembly line. He did improve the assembly line process substantially, sometimes through his own engineering but more often through sponsoring the work of his employees, and he was the main person behind the introduction of the Model T, regarded as the first affordable automobile. Karl Benz (co-founder of Mercedes-Benz) is credited with the invention of the first modern automobile, and the assembly line has existed throughout history. -Al Gore never said that he had "invented" the Internet. What Gore actually said was, "During my service in the United States Congress, I took the initiative in creating the Internet", in reference to his political work towards developing the Internet for widespread public use. Gore was the original drafter of the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, which provided significant funding for supercomputing centers, and this in turn led to upgrades of a major part of the already-existing early 1990s Internet backbone, the NSFNet, and development of NCSA Mosaic, the browser that popularized the World Wide Web. (See also: Al Gore and information technology) -Kodak did not refuse to invest in digital cameras, but was rather a pioneer in the field, and at one point was the market leader in digital camera sales in the United States. - -== Mathematics == - -Hindu-Arabic numerals were not originally designed to indicate their numeric value through the number of angles they contain. There are no historical records of this, and the myth is difficult to reconcile with digits past 3 or 4. -The Greek philosopher Pythagoras was not the first to discover what is now called the Pythagorean theorem, as it was known and used by the Babylonians and Indians centuries before him. Pythagoras may have been the first to introduce it to the Greeks, but the first record of it being mathematically proven as a theorem is in Euclid's Elements which was published some 200 years after Pythagoras. -There is no evidence that the ancient Greeks deliberately designed the Parthenon to match the golden ratio. The Parthenon was completed in 438 BCE, more than a century before the first recorded mention of the ratio by Euclid. Similarly, Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man makes no mention of the golden ratio in its text, although it describes many other proportions. -The repeating decimal written as 0.999... represents exactly the same quantity as 1. -The p-value is not the probability that the null hypothesis is true, or the probability that the alternative hypothesis is false; it is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the results actually observed under the assumption that the null hypothesis was correct, which can indicate the incompatibility of results with the specific statistical model assumed in the null hypothesis. This misconception, and similar ones like it, contributes to the common misuse of p-values in education and research. -If one were to flip a fair coin five times and get heads each time, it would not be any more likely for a sixth flip to come up tails. Phrased another way, after a long and/or unlikely streak of independently random events, the probability of the next event is not influenced by the preceding events. Humans often feel that the underrepresented outcome is more likely, as if it is due to happen. Such thinking may be attributed to the mistaken belief that gambling, or even chance itself, is a fair process that can correct itself in the event of streaks. - -== Physics == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4fd5923ec..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 14/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force. -Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way, Bernoulli's principle applies only within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper are in different flow fields. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow. -The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to drain, as the magnitude of the Coriolis acceleration is negligibly small compared to the inertial acceleration of flow within a typical basin. -General relativity does not imply that mass increases as an object approaches the speed of light; it is an object's momentum, a quantity dependent upon both mass and velocity, that increases asymptotically as it approaches the speed of light. The mass-energy equivalence equation is thus more accurately expressed as E=γmc², where γ is a variable dependent upon velocity. For an object at rest, γ=1 resulting in the familiar equation E=mc². -Neither gyroscopic forces nor geometric trail are required for a rider to balance a bicycle or for it to demonstrate self-stability. Although gyroscopic forces and trail can be contributing factors, it has been demonstrated that those factors are neither required nor sufficient by themselves. -A penny dropped from the Empire State Building would not kill a person or crack the sidewalk. A penny is too light and has too much air resistance to acquire enough speed to do much damage since it reaches terminal velocity after falling about 15 metres (50 ft). Heavier or more aerodynamic objects could cause significant damage if dropped from that height. -Using a programmable thermostat's setback feature to limit heating or cooling in a temporarily unoccupied building does not waste as much energy as leaving the temperature constant. Using setback saves energy (5–15%) because heat transfer across the surface of the building is roughly proportional to the temperature difference between its inside and the outside. -It is not possible for a person to completely submerge in quicksand, as commonly depicted in fiction, although sand entrapment in the nearshore of a body of water can be a drowning hazard as the tide rises. -Quantum nonlocality caused by quantum entanglement does not allow faster-than-light communication or imply instant action at a distance, despite its common characterization as "spooky action at a distance". Rather, it means that certain experiments cannot be explained by local realism. -The slipperiness of ice is not due to pressure melting. While it is true that increased pressure, such as that exerted by someone standing on a sheet of ice, will lower the melting point of ice, experiments show that the effect is too weak to account for the lowered friction. Materials scientists still debate whether premelting or the heat of friction is the dominant cause of ice's slipperiness. - -== Psychology and neuroscience == -Cannabis use in pregnancy is not low risk. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) within cannabis crosses the placenta, directly exposing the developing fetus to this chemical. Cannabis use in pregnancy is linked to increased risk of preterm delivery and lower birth weight, along with a higher likelihood of infants needing placement in the neonatal intensive care unit. Additionally, infants exposed to cannabis in pregnancy may have increased rates of behavioral conditions such as hyperactivity and impulsivity, attention deficits, sleep disorders, emotional disturbances, and a higher chance of substance use. According to a 2015 study, 70% of American women that had used marijuana in the past year thought that consumption of cannabis once or twice per week carried low to no risk of general harm. -True photographic memory (the ability to remember endless images, particularly pages or numbers, with such a high degree of precision that the image mimics a photo) has never been demonstrated to exist in any individual, although a small number of young children have eidetic memory, where they can recall an object with high precision for a few minutes after it is no longer present. Many people have claimed to have a photographic memory, but those people have been shown to have high precision memories as a result of mnemonic devices rather than a natural capacity for detailed memory encoding. There are rare cases of individuals with exceptional memory, but none of them have a memory that mimics that of a camera. -The phase of the Moon does not influence fertility, cause a fluctuation in crime, or affect the stock market. There is no correlation between the lunar cycle and human biology or behavior. However, the increased amount of illumination during the full moon may account for increased epileptic episodes, motorcycle accidents, or sleep disorders. -Repressed memories (the latent, oftentimes traumatic memories of early childhood that are recalled later in life) do not exist. This idea may have been popularized by Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time. However, a person cannot retain memories from infancy. The localized amnesia of childhood trauma is impossible, although false memories can be induced. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7dca492ce..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 15/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Mental disorders === -Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated. -Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence. -Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing. -There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. -Schizophrenia does not involve split or multiple personalities. It is characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, paranoia, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdrawal, decreased emotional expression, and apathy. The term was coined from the Greek roots schizein and phrēn, "to split" and "mind", in reference to a "splitting of mental functions" seen in schizophrenia, not a splitting of the personality. A split or multiple personality is dissociative identity disorder. - -=== Brain === -Broad generalizations are often made in popular psychology about certain brain functions being lateralized, or more predominant in one hemisphere than the other. These claims are often inaccurate or overstated. -The human brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex, does not reach "full maturity" or "full development" at any particular age (e.g. 16, 18, 21, 25, 30). Changes in structure and myelination of gray matter are recorded to continue with relative consistency all throughout life including until death. Different mental abilities peak earlier or later in life. The myth is believed to have originated from Jay Giedd's work on the adolescent brain funded by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, though it has also been popularized by Laurence Steinberg in his work with adolescent criminal reform who has considered ages 10–25 to constitute cognitive adolescence, despite denying any connection to the notion of the brain maturing at "25". - Humans do not generate all of the brain cells they will ever have by the age of two years. Although this belief was held by medical experts until 1998, it is now understood that new neurons can be created after infancy in some parts of the brain into late adulthood. -People do not use only 10% of their brains. While it is true that a small minority of neurons in the brain are actively firing at any one time, a healthy human will normally use most of their brain over the course of a day, and the inactive neurons are important as well. The idea that activating 100% of the brain would allow someone to achieve their maximum potential and/or gain various psychic abilities is common in folklore and fiction, but doing so in real life would likely result in a fatal seizure. This misconception was attributed to late 19th century leading thinker William James, who apparently used the expression only metaphorically. -Although Phineas Gage's brain injuries, caused by a several-foot-long tamping rod driven completely through his skull, caused him to become temporarily disabled, many fanciful descriptions of his aberrant behavior in later life are without factual basis or contradicted by known facts. - -=== Senses === - -Humans have more than the commonly cited five senses. The number of senses in various categorizations ranges from 5 to more than 20. In addition to sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing, which were the senses identified by Aristotle, humans can sense balance and acceleration (equilibrioception), pain (nociception), body and limb position (proprioception or kinesthetic sense), and relative temperature (thermoception). Other senses sometimes identified are the sense of time, echolocation, itching, pressure, hunger, thirst, fullness of the stomach, need to urinate, need to defecate, blood carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, and electric field sensation. -All different tastes can be detected on all parts of the tongue by taste buds, with slightly increased sensitivities in different locations depending on the person; the tongue map showing the contrary is fallacious. -There are not four primary tastes, but five: in addition to bitter, sour, salty, and sweet, humans have taste receptors for umami, which is a "savory" or "meaty" taste. Fat does interact with specific receptors in taste bud cells, but whether it is a sixth primary taste remains inconclusive. -The human sense of smell is not weak or underdeveloped. Humans have similar senses of smell to other mammals, and are more sensitive to some odors than rodents and dogs. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5f401ca37..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 16/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Toxicology == -Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight. -Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs. This does not mean gasoline is safe to drink; it is very dangerous when consumed. Inducing vomiting can make it worse. -A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person. It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent has been popularized by crime fiction authors. -Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to induce radiation poisoning, and bananas are not a radiation hazard. It would not be physically possible to eat enough bananas to cause radiation poisoning, as the radiation dose from bananas is non-cumulative. (See also: Banana equivalent dose) -Ingesting Visine, a brand of eye drops, does not cause diarrhea. It is neurotoxic, with consumption causing several serious side-effects. Pranks spiking people with Visine rose after the misconception was popularized by the film Wedding Crashers. - -== Transportation == - -The Bermuda Triangle does not have any more shipwrecks or mysterious disappearances than most other waterways. -Toilet waste is never intentionally jettisoned from a commercial aircraft. All waste is collected in tanks and emptied into toilet waste vehicles. Blue ice is caused by accidental leakage from the waste tank. Passenger train toilets, on the other hand, have indeed historically flushed onto the tracks; modern trains in most developed countries usually have retention tanks on board and therefore do not dispose of waste in such a manner. -Automotive batteries stored on a concrete floor do not discharge any faster than they would on other surfaces, in spite of a worry that concrete harms batteries. Early batteries with porous, leaky cases may have been susceptible to moisture from floors, but for many years lead–acid car batteries have had impermeable polypropylene cases. While most modern automotive batteries are sealed, and do not leak battery acid when properly stored and maintained, the sulfuric acid in them can leak out and stain, etch, or corrode concrete floors if their cases crack or tip over or their vent-holes are breached by floods. - -== References == - -== Sources == -Kahn, Charles H. (2001). Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History. Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87220-575-8. OCLC 46394974 – via Internet Archive. -Varasdi, J. Allen (1996). Myth Information. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-41049-1. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4a3386172..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 3/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the bald eagle in popular culture is actually that of a red-tailed hawk. Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of gulls. - Despite the saying "dumb as a dodo", the dodo's intelligence was above average for an avian, as it was a member of the family Columbidae (pigeons). The perceived stupidity of the dodo, a medium-sized flightless bird that was native to Mauritius, is due to naivety and passivity from living in isolation without significant predators. -Many believe that the dodo was hunted to extinction by European settlers due to its high culinary value. However, the dodo's meat was stated to be inedible by historical accounts, as one of its early names given by the Dutch was Walghvoghel (repulsive bird). The dodo's decline was caused more by predation of their eggs from invasive species as opposed to direct predation from humans. -A duck's quack actually does echo, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances. Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts was named Duck Quacks Don't Echo. -Ostriches do not stick their heads in the sand to hide from enemies or to sleep. This misconception's origins are uncertain but it was probably popularized by Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), who wrote that ostriches "imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed". -Sixty common starlings were released in 1890 into New York's Central Park by Eugene Schieffelin, but there is no evidence that he was trying to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America. This claim has been traced to an essay in 1948 by naturalist Edwin Way Teale, whose notes appear to indicate that it was speculation. - -=== Other vertebrates === -The skin of a chameleon is not adapted solely for camouflage purposes, nor can a chameleon change its skin color to match any background. Chameleons usually change color for social signaling, based on their mood, and for heat regulation. The use in social signaling may be to display bright colors for only brief periods of time to avoid increased visibility to predators. -Contrary to the allegorical story about the boiling frog, frogs die immediately when cast into boiling water, rather than leaping out; furthermore, frogs will attempt to escape cold water that is slowly heated before reaching their critical thermal maximum. -The Pacific tree frog and the Baja California chorus frog are some of the only frog species that make a "ribbit" sound. The misconception that all frogs, or at least all those found in North America, make this sound comes from its extensive use in Hollywood films. -The memory span of goldfish is much longer than just a few seconds. It is up to a few months long. -There is no credible evidence that the candiru, a South American parasitic catfish, can swim up a human urethra if one urinates in the water in which it lives. The sole documented case of such an incident, written in 1997, has been heavily criticized upon peer review, and this phenomenon is now largely considered a myth. -Pacus, South American fish related to piranhas, do not attack or feed on human testicles. This myth originated from a misinterpreted joke in a 2013 report of a pacu being found in Øresund, the strait between Sweden and Denmark, which claimed that the fish ate "nuts". -Piranhas do not eat only meat but are omnivorous, and they swim in schools only to defend themselves from predators and not to attack. They very rarely attack humans, only when under stress and feeling threatened, and even then, bites typically only occur on hands and feet. -Sharks can get cancer. The misconception that sharks do not get cancer was spread by the 1992 book Sharks Don't Get Cancer, which was used to sell extracts of shark cartilage as cancer prevention treatments. Reports of carcinomas in sharks exist, and current data does not support any conclusions about the incidence of tumors in sharks. -Great white sharks do not mistake human divers for seals or other pinnipeds. When attacking pinnipeds, the shark surfaces quickly and attacks violently. In contrast, attacks on humans are slower and less violent: the shark charges at a normal pace, bites, and swims off. Great white sharks have efficient eyesight and color vision; the bite is not predatory, but rather for identification of an unfamiliar object. -Snake jaws cannot unhinge. The posterior end of the lower jaw bones contains a quadrate bone, allowing jaw extension. The anterior tips of the lower jaw bones are joined by a flexible ligament allowing them to bow outwards, increasing the mouth gape. - -=== Invertebrates === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index d87f23f6d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 4/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -It is not true that aerodynamic theory predicts that bumblebees should not be able to fly; the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book, and was further popularized in the 2007 film Bee Movie. -While certainly critical to the pollination of many plant species, European honey bees are not essential to human food production, despite claims that without their pollination, humanity would starve or die out "within four years". In fact, the most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum, are wind-pollinated or self-pollinating, and only slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops is dependent upon insect pollination. -Bees do not always die if they use their sting. This happens for only a very small minority of species, which includes the honey bee, when they sting mammals, as they have thick skin. They are able to survive when they sting other insects. -Cockroaches would not be the only organisms capable of surviving in an environment contaminated with nuclear fallout. While cockroaches have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, they are not immune to radiation poisoning, nor are they exceptionally radiation-resistant compared to other insects. -Not all earthworms become two worms when cut in half. Only a limited number of earthworm species are capable of anterior regeneration. -Earwigs are not known to purposely climb into external ear canals, though there have been anecdotal reports of earwigs being found in the ear. The name may be a reference to the appearance of their hindwings, which are unique and distinctive among insects, and resemble a human ear when unfolded. -Houseflies have an average lifespan of 20 to 30 days, not 24 hours. However, females of one species of mayfly, which do not belong to the group of true flies, have an adult lifespan of as little as 5 minutes. -Applying urine to jellyfish stings does not relieve pain and may make the pain worse. The best immediate treatment for jellyfish stings is to rinse them in salt water. For some kinds of jellyfish stings, adding vinegar helps. - Female praying mantises do not always eat the males during mating. -The daddy longlegs spider (Pholcidae) is not the most venomous spider in the world. Their fangs are capable of piercing human skin, but the tiny amount of venom they carry causes only a mild burning sensation for a few seconds. Other species such as harvestmen and crane flies are also called daddy longlegs, and share the misconception of being highly venomous but unable to pierce the skin of humans. -People do not swallow large numbers of spiders during sleep. A sleeping person makes noises that warn spiders of danger. Most people also wake up from sleep when they have a spider on their face. -Though they are often called "white ants", termites are not ants, nor are they closely related to ants. Termites are actually highly derived cockroaches. -Ticks do not jump or fall from trees onto their hosts. Instead, they lie in wait to grasp and climb onto any passing host or otherwise trace down hosts via, for example, olfactory stimuli, the host's body heat, or carbon dioxide in the host's breath. - -=== Plants === -Carnivorous plants can survive without eating prey. Catching insects, however, supports their growth. -Mushrooms, molds, and other fungi are not plants, despite similarities in their morphology and lifestyle. The historical classification of fungi as plants is defunct, and although they are still commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, modern molecular evidence shows that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. -Poinsettias are not highly toxic to humans or cats. While it is true that they are mildly irritating to the skin or stomach, and may sometimes cause diarrhea and vomiting if eaten, they rarely cause serious medical problems. - Sunflowers do not always point to the Sun. Flowering sunflowers face a fixed direction (often east) all day long, but do not necessarily face the Sun. However, in an earlier developmental stage, before the appearance of flower heads, the immature buds do track the Sun (a phenomenon called heliotropism). - -=== Evolution and paleontology === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index d3ff4a04d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 5/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. Scientific facts and theories are not mutually exclusive, and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation. -The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated. The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as abiogenesis, and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the Big Bang model. -Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. Evolution through natural selection only causes successive generations of a population of organisms to become more fit for their environment than previous generations. A population can evolve to become simpler or to have a smaller genome, and atavistic ancestral genetic traits can reappear after having been lost through evolutionary change in previous generations. Biological devolution or de-evolution is a misnomer, not only because it implies that organisms can only evolve backward or forward, but also because it implies that evolution may cause organisms to evolve in the "wrong" direction. -The phrase "survival of the fittest" refers to biological fitness, not physical fitness. Biological fitness is the quantitative measure of individual reproductive success, e.g. the tendency of lineages containing individuals that produce more offspring in a particular environment to persist and thrive in that environment. Further, while the related concepts of "survival of the fittest" and "natural selection" are often used interchangeably, they are not the same: natural selection is not the only form of selection that determines biological fitness (see sexual selection, fecundity selection, viability selection, and artificial selection). -Evolution does not "plan" to improve an organism's fitness to survive. This misconception is encouraged as it is common shorthand for biologists to speak of a purpose as a concise form of expression (sometimes called the "metaphor of purpose"); it is less cumbersome to say "Dinosaurs may have evolved feathers for courtship" than "Feathers may have been selected for when they arose as they gave dinosaurs a selective advantage during courtship over their non-feathered rivals". However, this can result in many students explaining evolution as an intentional and purposeful process. -Mutations are not all equally likely, nor do they occur at the same frequency everywhere in the genome. Certain regions of an organism's genome will be more or less likely to undergo mutation depending on the presence of DNA repair mechanisms and other mutation biases. For instance, in a study on Arabidopsis thaliana, biologically important regions of the plant's genome were found to be protected from mutations, and beneficial mutations were found to be more likely, i.e. mutation was "biased in a way that benefits the plant". -Although the word dinosaur can be used pejoratively to describe something that is becoming obsolete due to failing to adapt to changing conditions, non-avian dinosaurs did not become extinct due to being generally maladapted or unable to cope with normal climatic change, a view found in many older textbooks. Moreover, not all dinosaurs are extinct (see below). -Birds are theropod dinosaurs, and consequently dinosaurs are not extinct. The word dinosaur is commonly used to refer only to non-avian dinosaurs, reflecting an outdated conception of the ancestry of avian dinosaurs, the birds. The evolutionary origin of birds was an open question in paleontology for over a century, but the modern scientific consensus is that birds evolved from small feathered theropods in the Jurassic. Not all dinosaur lineages were cut short at the end of the Cretaceous during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, and over 11,000 species of avian theropods survive as part of the modern fauna. - Despite their cultural depictions as "swimming dinosaurs", mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and other aquatic Mesozoic diapsids were not dinosaurs. Mosasaurs were actually lizards, and ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs were even more distantly related to dinosaurs. Though some dinosaurs were or are semiaquatic (Hesperornis, Spinosaurus, auks, penguins), none are known to have been fully marine. -Pterosaurs (informally called pterodactyls) are often called "flying dinosaurs" by popular media and the general public, but while pterosaurs were closely related to dinosaurs, dinosaurs are defined as the descendants of the last common ancestor of the Saurischia and the Ornithischia, which excludes the pterosaurs. - Dimetrodon is often mistakenly called a dinosaur or considered to be a contemporary of dinosaurs in popular culture, but it became extinct some 40 million years before the first appearance of dinosaurs. Being a synapsid, Dimetrodon is actually more closely related to mammals than to dinosaurs, lizards, or other diapsids. -Humans and non-avian dinosaurs did not coexist at any point, although humans and avian dinosaurs currently coexist. The last of the non-avian dinosaurs died 66 million years ago while the earliest members of the genus Homo (humans) evolved between 2.3 and 2.4 million years ago. -Fossil fuels do not originate from dinosaur fossils. Petroleum is formed when algae and zooplankton die and sink in anoxic conditions to be buried on the ocean floor without being decomposed by aerobic bacteria, and only a tiny amount of the world's deposits of coal contain dinosaur fossils; the vast majority of coal is fossilized plant matter. -Mammals did not evolve from any modern group of reptiles; rather, mammals descend from a Reptiliomorph, "reptile-like," ancestor. After the first fully terrestrial tetrapods evolved, one of their lineages split into the synapsids (the line leading to mammals) and the diapsids (the line leading to reptiles, including birds). The synapsids and the diapsids diverged about 320 million years ago, in the mid-Carboniferous period. The mammals themselves are the only survivors of the synapsid line. - Humans and other apes are Old World monkeys. There is a concerted social and religious effort to deny evidence which connects humans to their ancestors and fellow extant simians, but there is no way to naturally define the monkeys while excluding humans and other apes. -Humans did not evolve from either of the living species of chimpanzees or any other living species of apes. Humans and chimpanzees did, however, evolve from a common ancestor. This most recent common ancestor of living humans and chimpanzees would have lived between 5 and 8 million years ago. -Humans are animals, despite the fact that the word animal is colloquially used as an antonym for human. -Ecosystems do not naturally move back towards an equilibrium using negative feedback. The concept of an inherent "balance of nature" has been superseded by chaos theory. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 130c4adc6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 6/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Chemistry and materials science == -Himalayan salt does not have lower levels of sodium than conventional table salt. -Glass does not flow at room temperature as a high-viscosity liquid. Although glass shares some molecular properties with liquids, it is a solid at room temperature and begins to flow only at hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age. -Diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. Almost all commercially mined diamonds were formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 150 kilometers (93 mi) below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below 3.2 kilometers (2.0 mi) through geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal. -Neither "tin" foil nor "tin" cans still use tin as a primary material. Aluminum foil has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily use steel or aluminum as their main metal. -There is no special compound added to the water in swimming pools that will reveal the presence of urine and catch those who urinate in the pool. -Although the core of a wooden pencil is commonly referred to as "lead", wooden pencils do not contain the chemical element lead, nor have they ever contained it; "black lead" was formerly a name of graphite, which is commonly used for pencil leads. - -== Computing and the Internet == -The macOS and Linux operating systems are not immune to malware such as trojan horses or computer viruses. Specialized malware designed to attack those systems does exist (see Linux malware). However, the vast majority of viruses are developed for Microsoft Windows due to its larger market share. -The deep web is not primarily full of pornography, illegal drug trade websites, and stolen bank details. This information is primarily found in a small portion of the deep web known as the "dark web". Much of the deep web consists of academic libraries, databases, and anything that is not indexed by normal search engines, including most private email accounts and direct messages. -Private browsing (such as Chrome's "Incognito Mode") does not protect users from being tracked by websites, governments, or one's internet service provider (ISP), nor does it hide one's information when using devices or networks owned or maintained by one's employer, school, or other entity, such as a coffee shop. Such entities can still use information such as IP addresses and user accounts to uniquely identify users. Private browsing also does not provide additional protection against viruses or malware. It is usually only a feature to not record browsing and searching history on the browser. -Submerging a phone in rice after it has suffered from water damage has not been shown to be effective in repairing it. Even if submerging them in a desiccant were more effective than leaving them to dry in open air, common desiccants such as silica gel or cat litter are better than rice. -Mobile phones do not create considerable electromagnetic interference when used in hospitals. -The Apple logo was not inspired by Alan Turing or his death by cyanide-laced apple. Although Turing was found dead with a half-eaten apple near his bed in 1954 and was a key figure in computing history, Apple's logo designer Rob Janoff has repeatedly denied any connection. - -== Earth and environmental sciences == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4cf7a173a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 7/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Contemporary global warming is driven by human activities, despite claims that it is not occurring, lacks strong scientific consensus, or that warming is mostly caused by non-human factors. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete scientific consensus on climate change. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations (like CO2 and methane) via the burning of fossil fuels as well as other human activities such as deforestation, with secondary climate change feedback mechanisms (such as the melting of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight) assisting to perpetuate the change. - Global warming is not caused by the hole in the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have been released into the atmosphere. CFCs are strong greenhouse gases; however, the hole in the ozone layer is shrinking and in 2019 was the smallest it had been since 1982, while global warming continues. - Cooling towers in power stations and other facilities do not emit smoke, harmful fumes, or radiation; they emit water vapor and do not contribute to climate change. - Nuclear power is one of the safest sources of energy, resulting in orders of magnitude fewer deaths than conventional power sources per unit of energy produced. Extremely few people are killed or injured due to nuclear power on a yearly basis. (See also: Radiophobia) -Earthquake strength (or magnitude) is not commonly measured using the Richter scale. Although the Richter scale was used historically to measure earthquake magnitude (not earthquake damage), it was found in the 1970s that it does not reliably represent the magnitude of large earthquakes. It has therefore been largely replaced by the moment magnitude scale, although very small earthquakes are still sometimes measured using the Richter scale. Nevertheless, earthquake magnitude is still widely misattributed to the Richter scale. -Lightning can, and often does, strike the same place twice. Lightning in a thunderstorm is more likely to strike objects and spots that are more prominent or conductive. For instance, lightning strikes the Empire State Building in New York City on average 23 times per year. -Heat lightning does not exist as a distinct phenomenon. What is mistaken for "heat lightning" is usually ordinary lightning from storms too distant to hear the associated thunder. -The Yellowstone Caldera is not overdue for a supervolcano eruption. There is also no evidence that it will erupt in the near future. In fact, data indicates there will not be an eruption in the coming centuries. The most likely eruption would be hydrothermal rather than volcanic. A caldera-forming volcanic eruption (and subsequent impacts on global weather patterns and agricultural production) is the least likely scenario and has an extremely low likelihood. -The Earth's interior is not molten rock. This misconception may originate from a misunderstanding based on the fact that the Earth's mantle convects, and the incorrect assumption that only liquids and gases can convect. In fact, a solid with a large Rayleigh number can also convect, given enough time, which is what occurs in the solid mantle due to the very large thermal gradient across it. There are small pockets of molten rock in the upper mantle, but these make up a tiny fraction of the mantle's volume. The Earth's outer core is liquid, but it is liquid metal, not rock. -The Amazon rainforest does not provide 20% of Earth's oxygen. This is a misinterpretation of a 2010 study which found that approximately 34% of photosynthesis by terrestrial plants occurs in tropical rainforests (so the Amazon rainforest would account for approximately half of this). Due to respiration by the resident organisms, all ecosystems (including the Amazon rainforest) have a net output of oxygen of approximately zero. The oxygen currently present in the atmosphere was accumulated over billions of years. -Bird deaths due to wind turbines are extremely rare compared to those caused by cats, windows, vehicles, poison, and overhead power lines. - The white streaks seen in the sky after airplanes pass overhead are contrails consisting of condensed water vapor and engine exhaust. They are not chemtrails, nor are they part of a program to control the weather or some other nefarious purpose. - -== Economics == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8985329be..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 8/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The total number of people living in extreme absolute poverty globally decreased by two-thirds from 1990 to 2025 (measured using the international poverty line), with other poverty measurements showing similar trends. However, most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same. -Although the human population of Earth is increasing, the rate of human population growth is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global human overpopulation scenario unlikely. -For any given production set, there is not a set amount of labor input (a "lump of labor") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in Luddite and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and economies of learning can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production. -Income is not a direct factor in determining credit score in the United States. Rather, credit score is affected by the amount of unused available credit, which is in turn affected by income. Income is also considered when evaluating creditworthiness more generally. -The US public vastly overestimates the amount spent on foreign aid. -In the US, an increase in gross income will never reduce a taxpayer's post-tax earnings (net income) by putting them in a higher tax bracket. Tax brackets specify marginal tax rates: only income earned in the higher tax bracket is taxed at the higher rate. An increase in gross income can reduce net income in a welfare cliff, however, when benefits are withdrawn when passing a certain income threshold. Prevalence of the misconception varies by political party affiliation. -Constructing new housing decreases the cost of rent and the price of homes in both the immediate neighborhood and in the city as a whole. In real estate economics, "supply skepticism" leads many Americans to misunderstand the effect of increasing the supply of housing on housing costs. The misconception is unique to the housing market. -Businesses do not get a tax benefit by collecting charitable donations from their customers. Corporation taxes are based on profit; the customer's donation would not change the amount of profit and therefore the tax payable. A business would need to donate its own money to receive a tax break. -Import tariffs are taxes paid to the government by importers, not by exporting countries or manufacturers as is claimed by some, including Donald Trump. There is a near-unanimous consensus among economists that tariffs have a net-negative effect on economic growth and welfare, and harm consumers through higher prices by more than they benefit domestic producers and governments. - -== Geography == - -The Cape of Good Hope is not the southern tip of Africa; that distinction belongs to Cape Agulhas, located about 150 kilometres (90 mi) to the east-southeast. -The majority of the Sahara consists of rocks, rather than sand. -Rivers do not predominantly flow from north to south. Rivers flow downhill in all compass directions, often changing direction along their course. Many major rivers flow northward, including the Nile, the Yenisey, the Ob, the Rhine, the Lena, and the Orinoco. - -== Human body and health == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md deleted file mode 100644 index aabf4f95f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 9/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too. -Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people. As of 2019, this belief was in decline. -Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men, although it is more common among both men and women over 50. -Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened. -Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue, and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation. -Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the response do not show prior evidence of distress. -Herbal medicines are not necessarily safe and side-effect free; such medicines can have adverse effects. -Human blood in veins is not actually blue. Blood is red due to the presence of hemoglobin; deoxygenated blood (in veins) has a deep red color, and oxygenated blood (in arteries) has a light cherry-red color. Veins below the skin can appear blue or green due to subsurface scattering of light through the skin, and aspects of human color perception. Many medical diagrams also use blue to show veins, and red to show arteries, which contributes to this misconception. -Exposure to a vacuum, or experiencing all but the most extreme uncontrolled decompression, does not cause the body to explode or internal fluids to boil (although the fluids in the mouth and lungs will indeed boil at altitudes above the Armstrong limit); rather, it will lead to a loss of consciousness once the body has depleted the supply of oxygen in the blood, followed by death from hypoxia within minutes. -Exercise-induced delayed onset muscle soreness is not caused by lactic acid build-up. Muscular lactic acid levels return to normal levels within an hour after exercise; delayed onset muscle soreness is thought to be due to microtrauma from unaccustomed or strenuous exercise. -Stretching before or after exercise does not reduce delayed onset muscle soreness. -Urine is not sterile, not even in the bladder. This misconception may derive from urine bacterial screening tests, which return "negative" when bacteria levels are low, but nonzero. -Sudden immersion into freezing water does not typically cause death by hypothermia, but rather from the cold shock response, which can cause cardiac arrest, heart attack, or hyperventilation leading to drowning. -Cremated remains are not ashes in the usual sense. After the incineration is completed, the dry bone fragments are swept out of the retort and pulverized by a machine called a cremulator (essentially a high-capacity, high-speed blender) to process them into "ashes" or "cremated remains". - The lung's alveoli are not tiny balloons that expand and contract under positive pressure following the Young–Laplace equation, as is taught in some physiology and medical textbooks. The tissue structure is more like a sponge with polygonal spaces that unfold and fold under negative pressure from the chest wall. -Half of body heat is not lost through the head, and covering the head is no more effective at preventing heat loss than covering any other portion of the body. Heat is lost from the body in proportion to the amount of exposed skin. The head accounts for around 7–9% of the body's surface, and studies have shown that having one's head submerged in cold water causes a person to lose only 10% more heat overall. -Adrenochrome is not harvested from living people and has no use as a recreational drug. Hunter S. Thompson conceived a fictional drug of the same name in his book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, apparently as a metaphor and unaware that a real substance by that name existed; it is Thompson's fictional adrenochrome, and not the real chemical compound, that is the source of numerous conspiracy theories revolving around human trafficking to harvest the fictional drug. -Men and women have the same number of ribs: 24, or 12 pairs. The erroneous idea that women have one more rib than men may stem from the biblical creation story of Adam and Eve. -The use of cotton swabs (a.k.a. cotton buds or Q-Tips) in the ear canal has no associated medical benefits and poses definite medical risks. -The idea that a precise number of stages of grief exists is not supported in peer-reviewed research or objective clinical observation, let alone the five stages of grief model. -37 °C (98.6 °F) is not the normal or average temperature of the human body. That figure comes from an 1860 study, but modern research shows that the average internal temperature is 36.4 °C (97.5 °F), with small fluctuations. -The cells in the human body are not outnumbered 10 to 1 by microorganisms. The 10 to 1 ratio was an estimate made in 1972; current estimates put the ratio at either 3 to 1 or 1.3 to 1. -The total length of capillaries in the human body is not 100,000 km. That figure comes from a 1929 book by August Krogh, who used an unrealistically large model person and an inaccurately high density of capillaries. The true number is believed to be between 9,000 and 19,000 km. -Wood smoke, for example from wood-burning stoves, is not a benign form of pollution because it is "natural", but is as harmful as other common forms of air pollution such as diesel fumes. - -=== Disease and preventive healthcare === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md deleted file mode 100644 index 34ad75fd5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics" -chunk: 10/16 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:32.692550+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -It is not true that more people have died from the COVID-19 vaccine than from COVID-19 itself. Severe adverse reactions from the vaccine are rare, and an "exceedingly small" number of deaths have been caused by the vaccine. Meanwhile, the death toll from the disease itself is in the millions. -Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body. -Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet. -The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans. -Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and are ineffectual against viruses. However, they are sometimes prescribed to prevent or treat secondary infections. -There is little to no evidence that any illnesses are curable through essential oils or aromatherapy, and fish oil has not been shown to cure dementia. -In those with the common cold, the color of the sputum or nasal secretion may vary from colorless to yellow to green and does not indicate the class of agent causing the infection. The color of the sputum is determined by immune cells fighting an infection in the nasal area. -Vitamin C does not prevent or treat the common cold, although it may have a protective effect during intense cold-weather exercise. If taken daily, it may slightly reduce the duration and severity of colds, but it has no effect if taken after the cold starts. -Supplements of the plant echinacea do not prevent or reduce the severity of colds as widely believed. A 2014 review of 24 different randomized controlled trials found echinacea supplements do not prevent colds, with most showing no benefit over placebo. - Humans cannot catch warts from toads or other animals; the bumps on a toad are not warts. Warts on human skin are caused by human papillomavirus, which is known to affect only humans. -Cracking one's knuckles does not cause osteoarthritis. -In people with eczema, bathing does not dry the skin as long as a moisturizer is applied soon after. If moisturizer is not applied after bathing, then the evaporation of water from the skin can result in dryness. -There have never been any programs in the US that provide access to dialysis machines in exchange for pull tabs on beverage cans. This rumor has existed since at least the 1970s, and usually cites the National Kidney Foundation as the organization offering the program. The Foundation itself has denied the rumor, noting that dialysis machines are primarily funded by Medicare. -Rhinoceros horn in powdered form is not used as an aphrodisiac in traditional Chinese medicine as Cornu Rhinoceri Asiatici (犀角, xījiǎo, "rhinoceros horn"). It is prescribed for fevers and convulsions, a treatment not supported by evidence-based medicine. -Leprosy is not auto-degenerative as commonly supposed, meaning that it will not (on its own) cause body parts to be damaged or fall off. Leprosy causes rashes to form and may degrade cartilage and, if untreated, inflame tissue. In addition, leprosy is only mildly contagious, partly because 95% of those infected with the mycobacteria that cause leprosy do not develop the disease. Tzaraath, a Biblical disease that disfigures the skin, is often identified as leprosy, and may be the source of many myths about the disease. -Rust itself does not cause tetanus infection. The bacterium that causes tetanus thrives in low oxygen environments, including rust where the oxygen has combined with iron, so many people associate rust with tetanus. However, any puncture wound can introduce spores that cause a tetanus infection, not just rusty nails. -Quarantine has never been a standard procedure for those with severe combined immunodeficiency, despite the condition's popular nickname ("bubble boy syndrome") and its portrayal in films. A bone marrow transplant in the earliest months of life is the standard course of treatment. The exceptional case of David Vetter, who lived much of his life encased in a sterile environment because he would not receive a transplant until age 12, was an inspiration for the "bubble boy" trope. -Post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies does not require a painful series of injections into the abdomen with a long needle. Prior to the 1980s, the rabies vaccine did indeed require injection into the abdomen, but modern rabies vaccines are given as intramuscular injections into the deltoid muscle of the upper arm. -Statements in medication package inserts listing the frequency of side effects describe how often the effect occurs after taking a drug, but are not making any assertion that there is a causal connection between taking the drug and the occurrence of the side effect. In other words, what is being reported on is correlation, not necessarily causation. -There is no peer-reviewed scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect beyond acting as a placebo. -There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from genetically modified crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food. -Reading in dim light causes eye strain rather than permanent damage to the eye. -Color blindness cannot be significantly alleviated by glasses or lenses. While there are lenses marketed towards the colorblind, their efficacy is doubted by professionals, and they do not enable wearers to see new colors. -A fever from infection does not cause brain damage by itself. The myth has been linked to the association between fevers and typically non-serious febrile seizures. -Tourette's syndrome is not predominantly characterised by the compulsive or frequent use of profanity or taboo words and phrases (coprolalia), as it is commonly misunderstood to be. Only approximately 10% of people with Tourette's exhibit coprolalia at all, and most Tourette's tics (which can be physical or verbal) often go unnoticed by casual observers. -The Hippocratic Oath does not begin, "First do no harm" (Primum non nocere), nor is the word "First" present in the original text. Physicians taking the Hippocratic Oath vow, however, to "abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1b20ef9e2..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of crew members aboard the first voyage of James Cook" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:36.319982+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The first voyage of James Cook was a discovery expedition to the south Pacific Ocean, with aims of observing the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun and seeking evidence of the alleged southern territories, named by that time as Terra Australis Incognita. The ship chosen for the voyage was HMS Endeavour. The makeup of the crew during the voyage varied due the high mortality, for which contributed mainly malaria and dysentery, that the crew had contracted in Batavia. There was also one occurrence of successful desertion of Patrick Saunders, who after being disrated, escaped the ship. - - -== Personnel == -The following is a complete list of initial crew that departed from Plymouth on 26 August 1768 according to ship's journal. - - -== See also == -1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti -Personnel of Franklin's lost expedition - - -== Notes and references == - - -=== Notes === - - -=== References === - - -=== Works cited === -Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum (UK). ISBN 0-948065-43-5. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4da65046f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,88 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of cycles" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:37.513061+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of recurring cycles. See also Index of wave articles, Time, and Pattern. - - -== Planetary cycles == - - -=== Astronomical cycles === -Astronomy – Axial precession – CNO cycle – Eclipse cycle – Eclipse – Full moon cycle – Galactic year – Great Year – Lunar phase – Mesoamerican calendars – Metonic cycle – Milankovitch cycles – Mira – Moon – Nutation – Orbit – Orbital period – Saros cycle – Sothic cycle – Secularity – Sidereal year – Sunspot – Tide – Tropical year – Year - - -=== Climate and weather cycles === -Animal migration – Avalanche – Carbon cycle – Climate change – Climate change and agriculture – Climate model – Climate oscillation – Clock of the Long Now – Ecology – El Niño/La Niña – Environmental geography – Global cooling – Global warming – Historical temperature record – Hydrogen cycle – Ice age – Transhumance – Milankovitch cycles – Monsoon – Pleistocene – Season – Sulfur cycle – Sunspot – Tide – Timeline of meteorology – 1500-year climate cycle - - -=== Geological cycles === -Age of the Earth – Aluminum cycle – Arsenic cycle – Boron cycle – Bromine cycle – Cadmium cycle – Calcium cycle – Carbonate–silicate cycle – Chlorine cycle – Chromium cycle – Climate change – Copper cycle – Cycle of erosion – Dynamic topography – Dynamic topography – Earthquake cycle – Fluorine cycle – Glaciation – Gold cycle – Iodine cycle – Iron cycle – Lead cycle – Lithium cycle – Manganese cycle – Mass extinction cycles – Mercury cycle – Methane cycle – Ozone–oxygen cycle – Phosphorus cycle – Selenium cycle – Silica cycle – Supercontinent cycle – Vanadium cycle – Wilson cycle – Zinc cycle - - -== Organic cycles == - - -=== Agricultural cycles === -Agricultural cycle – Carbon cycle – Crop rotation – Fertile Crescent – Harvest – Nitrogen cycle – Organic farming – Phosphorus cycle – Season – Sulfur cycle – Soil degradation – Sustainable industries – Water cycle - - -=== Biological and medical cycles === -Alternation of generations – Beta oxidation – Bioelectricity – Biological pest control – Biological rhythm – Bipolar disorder – Cardiopulmonary resuscitation – Calvin–Benson cycle – Cell cycle – Chronobiology – Citric acid cycle – Circadian rhythm – Clinical depression – Digestion – Ecology – Endometrium – Feedback – Infradian rhythm - Life cycle – List of biochemistry topics – Marine biology – Menstrual cycle – Neurofeedback – Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – Organic farming – Periodical cicadas – Polymerase chain reaction – Soil degradation – Stomach cancer – Triage – Ultradian rhythm - Urea cycle – Zygote - - -=== Brain waves and cycles === -Bioelectricity – Circadian rhythm – Consciousness – Electroencephalography – Neurofeedback – Persistent vegetative state – Sjögren's syndrome – Sleep - Ultradian rhythm - - -== Physics cycles == -Cyclic process – Carnot cycle – Double-slit experiment – Dynamic theory of gravity – Physics of music – Resonance – Sonoluminescence – Speed of light – Sunspot - - -=== Mathematics of waves and cycles === -Almost periodic function – Amplitude modulation – Amplitude – Beat – Chaos theory – Cyclic group – Diffraction – Doppler effect – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Fibonacci sequence – Fourier series – Frequency domain – Frequency spectrum – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – Harmonic oscillator – Huygens–Fresnel principle – Longitudinal wave – Mechanical wave – Navier–Stokes equations – Partial differential equation – Periodic function – Permutation – Phase (waves) – Physics of music – Power spectrum – Signal – Sine wave – Spectrum of an operator – Translational symmetry – Transverse wave – Wave equation – Wave–particle duality – Wave – Waveform - - -=== Electromagnetic spectrum === -Absorption spectroscopy – Anders Jonas Ångström – Astronomical spectroscopy – Astronomy – Black body – Blazar – Bremsstrahlung – Caesium – Cherenkov radiation – Color – Diffraction – Digital signal processing – Direct-sequence spread spectrum – Dispersion (optics) – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Electromagnetic radiation – Electromagnetic spectroscopy – Electromagnetic spectrum – Electromagnetism – Emission line – Emission spectrum – FM broadcasting – Frequency domain – Frequency hopping – Frequency spectrum – Gamma-ray burst – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – History of radio – Hue – Isotope – Light – Optical brightener – Orbits (complex dynamics) –Particle in a spherically symmetric potential – Piezoelectricity – Power spectrum – RADAR – Radio frequency – Radio – Radiocommunications Agency – Redshift – SETI – Spectrogram – Spectrometer – Spectroscopy – Spectrum analyzer – Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect – Supernova – Telecommunication – Timbre – Very high frequency – Visible light – Visible spectrum – White noise - - -=== Sound waves === -Acoustic theory – Acoustics – Aerodynamics – Amplitude – Anemometer – Audio feedback – Beat (acoustics) – Bugging – Cherenkov radiation – Cold fusion – Compressibility – Delay-line memory – Diffraction – Doppler effect – Echo sounding – Electronic filter – FTIR – Krakatoa – Loudspeaker – Mach number – Microphone – Ossicles – Pan pipes – Parabolic microphone – Phonetics – Phonon – Piezoelectricity – Psychoacoustics – Sawtooth wave – Shock wave – SID – Sonar – Sonic boom – Sonoluminescence – Soundproofing – Sound recording – Sound – Speech processing – Speed of sound – Square wave – Subsonic – Subtractive synthesis – Synthesizer – Telephone – Transmission line – Triangle wave – Wave drag – Waveform - - -== Miscellaneous cycles == - - -=== Economic and business cycles === -Business cycle – Inflation / Recession – Monetary policy – Virtuous circle and vicious circle – Kitchin cycle – Juglar cycle – Kuznets swing - - -=== Music and rhythm cycles === -Harmonics – Interval cycle – Musica universalis – Music theory – Physics of music – Ring cycle – Rhythm – Song cycle - - -=== Political cycles === -Election Cycle – Campaign Cycle – Cycle between political extremes – American political cycle - - -=== Religious, mythological, and spiritual cycles === -Astrology – Mantra – Numerology – Pratītyasamutpāda – Samhain – Sexagenary cycle – Surya - - -=== Social and cultural cycles === -Dynastic cycle – Kondratiev wave – Social cycle theory – Tytler cycle – Strauss–Howe generational theory - - -=== Military and war === -War cycles - Joshua S. Goldstein - George Modelski - - -=== Literature === -Literature cycle – Play cycle – Sonnet cycle \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 671483c1e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,62 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of developers of optical scientific equipment" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:38.715581+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -A developer of optical scientific equipment is an individual who makes and adjusts optical aids for scientific purposes, including telescope optics and microscope lenses. - - -== Telescope developers == -James Gilbert Baker -Denis Albert Bardou -John A. Brashear -Laurent Cassegrain -Henri Chrétien -Alvan Clark -John Dollond -Charles Wesley Elmer and Richard Scott Perkin -Galileo Galilei -James Gregory -John Hadley -Chester Moore Hall -Robert Hooke -Johannes Kepler -Frederick James Hargreaves -Christiaan Huygens -Hans Lippershey -Raymond Augustin Mailhat -Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov -James Henry Marriott -Jacob Metius -Isaac Newton -Georg Simon Plössl -Russell W. Porter -Jesse Ramsden -George Willis Ritchey -Christoph Scheiner -Bernhard Schmidt -James Short -See also Timeline of telescope technology and List of astronomical instrument makers - - -== Microscope developers == -Ernst Karl Abbe -Denis Albert Bardou -Christopher Cock -Siegfried Czapski -Cornelius Drebbel -Galileo Galilei -Robert Hooke -Christiaan Huygens -Carl Kellner -Anton van Leeuwenhoek -Moritz von Rohr -See also Timeline of microscope technology - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ce87e3d69..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:39.971636+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Many proposed diseases and diagnoses are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience due to a lack of scientific evidence for their existence, proposed mechanism or action, or manifestation that cannot be explained by something else. - -== Definition == -Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology. -Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory. -In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate. -Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include: - -Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses. -Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction, baldness, jet lag, and halitosis. -Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate within the scientific and medical literature. -Functional disorders are a set of conditions that cannot be explained by structural or biochemical abnormalities. These raise challenges around diagnosis and treatment, with debate around whether they are psychogenic. They often present with non-specific symptoms that are consistent with multiple causes. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 936250724..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:39.971636+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Medical == -Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor, may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms. There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community. A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth. -Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls. Multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful. Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between autism and bowel disease. -Candida hypersensitivity is the spuriously claimed chronic yeast infections responsible for many common disorders and non-specific symptoms, such as fatigue, weight gain, constipation, dizziness, muscle and joint pain, and asthma. The notion has been strongly disabused by the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology. -Chronic Lyme disease is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection." This is different from Lyme disease, which is a known medical condition. Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent infection. It is distinct from post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome, a set of lingering symptoms which may persist after successful treatment of infection with Lyme spirochetes. The symptoms of "chronic Lyme" are generic and non-specific "symptoms of life". -Electromagnetic hypersensitivity is a reported sensitivity to electric and magnetic fields or electromagnetic radiation of various frequencies at exposure levels well below established safety standards. Symptoms are inconsistent, but can include headache, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, as well as similar non-specific indications. Provocation studies find that the discomfort of sufferers is unrelated to hidden sources of radiation, and "no scientific basis currently exists for a connection between EHS and exposure to [electromagnetic fields]." -Excited delirium, originally identified by pathologist Charles Wetli to account for the deaths of nineteen Black prostitutes due to "sexual excitement" while under the influence of cocaine; the women later turned out to be victims of a serial killer. The condition is primarily found in people under police restraint, especially after being tasered, and, while it is not in the ICD-10 or DSM-5, it is promoted by a number of doctors, many of whom are on the payroll of Axon, the manufacturer of the Taser. -Leaky gut syndrome is an alleged condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. Alternative medicine proponents claim it is the cause of many conditions including multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific. According to the UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven. Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an instance of deliberate health fraud. -Morgellons is a self-diagnosed, unexplained skin condition in which individuals have sores that they believe contain some kind of fibers. Morgellons is poorly characterized but the general medical consensus is that it is a form of delusional parasitosis. An attempt to link Morgellons to the cause of Lyme disease has been attacked by Steven Salzberg as "dangerous pseudoscience". -Multiple chemical sensitivity is an unrecognized controversial diagnosis characterized by chronic symptoms attributed to exposure to low levels of commonly used chemicals. Symptoms are typically vague and non-specific. They may include fatigue, headaches, nausea, and dizziness. -Rope worms -Shoenfeld's syndrome, a hypothesised autoimmune disorder proposed by Israeli immunologist Yehuda Shoenfeld. There is a lack of reproducible evidence for this syndrome, refuting its existence. In addition, supporting data from animal models are flawed. -Traditional Chinese medicine diagnoses, such as imbalances in yin and yang and blockages in the flow of qi -"Vaccine overload", a non-medical term for the notion that giving many vaccines at once may overwhelm or weaken a child's immature immune system and lead to adverse effects, is strongly contradicted by scientific evidence. -Vertebral subluxation is a chiropractic diagnosis that involves a site of impaired flow of innate or a spinal lesion that is postulated to cause neuromusculoskeletal or visceral dysfunction. Scientific consensus does not support the existence of chiropractic's vertebral subluxation. -Wilson's syndrome (not to be confused with Wilson's disease) is an alternative medicine concept, not recognized as a legitimate diagnosis in evidence-based medicine. Its supporters describe Wilson's syndrome as a mix of common and non-specific symptoms which they attribute to low body temperature and impaired conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), despite normal thyroid function tests. The American Thyroid Association (ATA) says Wilson's syndrome is at odds with established knowledge of thyroid function, has vague diagnostic criteria, and lacks supporting scientific evidence. The ATA further raised concern that the proposed treatments were potentially harmful. -Wind turbine syndrome is a proposed connection between adverse health effects and proximity to wind turbines. Proponents have claimed that these effects include death, cancer, and congenital abnormality. The distribution of recorded events, however, correlates with media coverage of wind farm syndrome itself, and not with the presence or absence of wind farms. Reviews of the scientific literature have consistently found no reason to believe that wind turbines are harmful to health. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 385eb2c56..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:39.971636+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Psychological == -Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia. -Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape. As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure. -Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder. -Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed mental health disorder in which a child expresses hostility or aversion to a parent as an effect of the manipulation of another parent. Given an absence of research-based support for its existence, parental alienation syndrome is not recognized as a mental health disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Medical Association or World Health Organization. Despite the fact it is frequently referenced as a defense strategy in family courts where parents, disproportionately fathers, are accused of domestic violence or coercive control, it does not meet the scientific standards demanded by legal tests such as the Frye test and Daubert standard for admissibility in the United States legal system. -Pathological demand avoidance is a proposed disorder characterised by avoidance of every day demands. It was proposed by British psychologist Elizabeth Newsom in 1983 for children who did not then meet the criteria for autism and which she felt shared certain other characteristics, such as an interest in pretend play. Largely ignored until recently, especially outside the UK, it's seen a surge in interest from parents due to social media. According to one paper, there is insufficient evidence to support it as an independent diagnosis. Alternative diagnoses to PDA include ADHD, generalised anxiety disorder, autism spectrum condition, attachment disorder, and oppositional defiance disorder; in some cases, autism is diagnosed, "with PDA profile." -Rapid-onset gender dysphoria is a proposed condition in which someone develops gender dysphoria due to social contagion. The term originates from a 2018 study which surveyed parents of transgender people from anti-transgender internet forums. While the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association cosigned a statement with 120 other medical organizations calling for rapid-onset gender dysphoria to not be used in clinical settings, the term is still used by anti-trans groups. -Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) is a term that has been applied to a wide variety of addictive, obsessive and compulsive behaviors including substance and process addictions, and personality and spectrum disorders. There is no consistent evidence to validate any such syndrome. "Reward deficiency syndrome" is not a medically recognized disorder. The diagnostic validity of RDS has not been recognized by the American Psychiatric Association in its diagnostic manual, the DSM. -Sluggish schizophrenia is a proposed form of slow-onset schizophrenia that political dissenters were institutionalised for in communist countries. It was diagnosed in people with no hallucinations or delusions under the assumption that they would appear later. -Stendhal syndrome is a proposed condition in which someone experiences rapid heartbeat, fainting, confusion, and even hallucinations when exposed to works of beauty. -Stockholm syndrome is a proposed condition in which a hostage develops an emotional bond with their kidnapper while in captivity. Stockholm syndrome is considered a contested illness and is not recognized in the DSM. - -== See also == -List of topics characterized as pseudoscience § Health and medicine -List of questionable diagnostic tests -List of fictional diseases -Culture-bound syndrome -Medically unexplained physical symptoms -Quackery - -== References == - -== External links == -Quackwatch: Index to "Fad" Diagnoses -Science-Based Medicine: Fake diseases, false compassion \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2c5a0c6dd..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of discoveries influenced by chance circumstances" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:42.390158+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Below are discoveries in science that involve chance circumstances in a particularly salient way. This page should not list all chance involved in all discoveries (i.e. it should focus on discoveries reported for their notable circumstances). - - -== Overview == - -Royston Roberts says that various discoveries required a degree of genius, but also some lucky element for that genius to act on. Richard Gaughan writes that accidental discoveries result from the convergence of preparation, opportunity, and desire. -Major everyday discoveries that were helped by luck in some way include products like vulcanized rubber, teflon, nylon, penicillin, cyanoacrylate (Super Glue), the implantable pacemaker, the microwave oven, Scotchgard, Saran wrap, Silly Putty, Slinky, safety glass, propeller, snowmaking, stainless steel, Perkin's mauve, and popsicles. Most artificial sweeteners have been discovered when accidentally tasted, including aspartame and saccharin. -Ideas include the theory of the Big Bang, tissue culture, radio astronomy, and the discovery of DNA. -Such archeological discoveries as the Rosetta Stone, the Dead Sea Scrolls and the ruins of Pompeii also emerged partly out of serendipity. -Many relevant and well known scientific theories were developed by chance at some degree along history. According to a legend, Archimedes realized his principle on hydrostatics when he entered in a bath full of water, which overflows (he then shouted out his famous "Eureka!"). And the unexpected, negative results of the Michelson–Morley experiment in their search of the luminiferous aether ultimately led to the special theory of relativity by Albert Einstein. -The optical illusion called the "flashed face distortion effect" suggests a new area of research in the neurology of face perception. - - -== Detailed examples == - - -=== Newton and gravity === - -In his book, Roberts recounts Sir Isaac Newton's discovery of gravity (using Newton's own descriptions and notes). Newton was sitting in his yard when he noticed an apple fall from a tree. The apple fell straight down, perpendicular to the ground, and Newton found himself wondering why the apple never falls upward or off to a side. Newton soon realized that it was a property of all matter to have an attractive force, including the apple, and even the moon –which moves as one would expect if it was passing the earth but nevertheless being attracted. It was another 20 years before Newton published his detailed theory of gravity, but he later visited the tree that helped him provoke the idea. Gaughan elaborates that Newton only had the opportunity to reflect on his orchard because of other chance circumstances: Newton was home because his university was shut down due to an outbreak of plague. - - -=== Nobel and blasting gelatin === -According to Roberts, the common story that Alfred Nobel's discovery of dynamite was an accident may not be true. On the other hand, Roberts says, Nobel did make a discovery with the help of luck soon after that. Nobel cut his finger on a piece of glass one day at work and subsequently applied collodion in order to form a protective layer over the wound (similar in principle to liquid bandage). Nobel was kept up at night by the pain in his finger, so he started to think about a problem he was having back at work: Nobel was trying to create a powerful explosive using nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine, but the two would not combine. Roberts reports that Nobel then realized that collodion (which he was using to dress his wound) could allow the two substances to combine, which led to the invention of blasting gelatin (as powerful as dynamite but much safer to handle). - - -=== Pasteur === - -The French scientist Louis Pasteur is responsible for various discoveries, some of which involved serendipity in some way. This seems to be the case with both his discovery that chemically identical molecules can have chirality (the way a right handed baseball glove will not work with the left hand), as well as his discovery of the chicken cholera vaccine. - - -==== Chirality ==== -Roberts writes "Pasteur was puzzled: the salts of tartaric acid and racemic acid were said to be identical in chemical composition and crystalline shape, but they had different effects on polarized light." Pasteur later prepared a solution of only racemic acid and found that it itself contained salt crystals with chirality and which affected light differently. This was somewhat lucky because the type of salt crystals that Pasteur was studying (sodium ammonium salt of racemic acid) is one of few salts that would be visibly different in Pasteur's time. Moreover, the salts only differentiate if the solution reaches a temperature below 26 °C (79 °F); Pasteur did not know about this temperature requirement, but he did happen to store the solution on a window sill over night and the cold Paris air activated it. - - -==== Chicken cholera vaccine ==== -Pasteur and his assistants had succeeded in isolating a microbe from chickens sick or dead from cholera. Chickens injected with the isolated microbe invariably died –a key element in Pasteur's reasoning that the microbe was responsible for the disease, rather than a result of the disease, as many thought. Pasteur was searching for a method of preventing the disease, but no matter what he did to the "broth" of microbes or to the chickens, all injected chickens died. Gaughan writes "Finally Pasteur had had enough, he needed a vacation. He told [his assistant] to take care of injecting more chickens with the next batch of bacteria." His assistant neglected the task, electing to go on vacation as well. When the men returned and injected chickens with the batch of bacteria that had sat around for a few weeks, none died, indicating to Pasteur that the batch of bacteria had been ruined. But when those same chickens were injected with a new batch of bacteria, none of them died, while chickens that hadn't previously been injected with the "spoiled" batch all died. Pasteur reasoned that the "attenuated" microbes in the spoiled batch "'used up' something within the body; something that wasn't there for the fully functional bacteria to eat." His explanation was wrong, but his chance creation of attenuated bacteria resulted in the first intentionally created vaccine. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index c4f5bd994..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,174 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of effects" -chunk: 1/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:45.930677+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study. - -== A == -Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy) -Accelerator effect (economics) -Accordion effect (physics) (waves) -Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves) -Additive genetic effects (genetics) -Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics) -Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues) -Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre) -Allais effect (fringe physics) -Allee effect (biology) -Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases) -Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine) -Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation) -Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres) -Askaryan effect (particle physics) -Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics) -Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology) -Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) -Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology) -Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics) -Autokinetic effect (vision) -Avalanche effect (cryptography) -Averch–Johnson effect (economics) - -== B == -Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology) -Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics) -Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection) -Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment) -Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs) -Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques) -Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms) (water) -Barkhausen effect (condensed matter) (magnetism) -Barnett effect (condensed matter) (magnetism) -Barnum effect (psychology) -Baskerville effect (cardiology) -Bauschinger effect (classical mechanics) (materials science) -Beaujolais effect (Ada programming language) -Ben Franklin effect (emotion) (psychology) -Bernoulli effect (equations) (fluid dynamics) (wind power) -Beta-silicon effect (physical organic chemistry) -Bezold effect (optical illusions) (psychological theories) -Bezold–Brücke effect (optical illusions) -Biefeld–Brown effect (physical phenomena) (propulsion) -Big-fish–little-pond effect (educational psychology) (pedagogy) -Birthday-number effect (psychology) -Black drop effect (astronomical transits) -Blazhko effect (astronomy) -Blocking effect (psychology) -Bloom (shader effect) (3D computer graphics) (demo effects) -Bohr effect (hematology) (hemoproteins) (respiratory physiology) -Boomerang effect (psychology) (social psychology) (psychology) -Bouba/kiki effect (cognitive science) -Bowditch effect (medicine) -Bradley effect (American political terms) (elections in the United States) (political history of the United States) (political neologisms) (politics and race) (polling) (psephology) (racism) -Bridgman effect (electricity) (electromagnetism) -Brookings effect (atmospheric science) (Curry County, Oregon) (Oregon coast) (Oregon geography) (winds) -Brown Willy effect (geography of Cornwall) (mesoscale meteorology) -Bruce effect (reproduction) -Bullwhip effect (distribution, retailing, and wholesaling) -Butterfly effect (chaos theory) (physical phenomena) (stability theory) -Bystander effect (crowd psychology) (social phenomena) -Bystander effect (radiobiology) (radiobiology) - -== C == -Cage effect (chemistry) -Calendar effect (behavioral finance) (market trends) -Callendar effect (atmospheric science) (climate) (climate change) -Captodative effect (organic chemistry) -Capture effect (broadcast engineering) (radio) (radio communications/) (telecommunications) (wireless communications) -Carnoustie effect (golf) (golf terminology) -Carryover effect (cooking techniques) (food and drink) -Cascade effect (ecology) -Cascade effect (spaceflight) -Casimir effect (quantum field theory) (physical phenomena) -Castle thunder (sound effect) (in-jokes) (sound effects) -Catapult effect (electromagnetism) -Catch-up effect (economics effects) -Catfish effect (human resource management) (management) (organizational studies and human resource management) (social psychology) -Cause and effect -Ceiling effect (medical treatment) (statistics) -Channel capture effect (ethernet) (network topology) -Cheerio effect (fluid mechanics) (physics) -Cherenkov effect (experimental particle physics) (fundamental physics concepts) (particle physics) (special relativity) -Chilling effect (law) (censorship) (freedom of expression) (American legal terms) -Chimney effect -Chorus effect (audio effects) (audio engineering) (effects units) (sound recording) -Christiansen effect (optical filters) -Christofilos effect (particle physics) -Cinderella effect (child abuse) -Cis effect (inorganic chemistry) -Clientele effect (economics) (finance) -Cluster effect (economics effects) -CNN effect (civil–military relations) (CNN) (news media) (warfare of the modern era) -Coandă effect (aerodynamics) (boundary layers) (physical phenomena) -Coattail effect (political terms) -Cobra effect (Economics) -Cocktail party effect (acoustical signal processing) (attention) -Cohort effect -Common-ion effect (ions) (physical chemistry) -Compton effect (astrophysics) (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) (observational astronomy) (quantum electrodynamics) (X-rays) -Contrast effect (cognition) (cognitive biases) (perception) (vision) -Coolidge effect (jokes) (sexual attraction) -Coriolis effect (atmospheric dynamics) (classical mechanics) (force) (physical phenomena) (urban legends) -Cotton effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (polarization) -Cotton–Mouton effect (magnetism) (optics) -Crabtree effect (biochemistry) -Cross-race effect (face recognition) -CSI effect (criminal law) (criminology) (CSI television series) (psychology) (television terminology) -Cupertino effect (computers) (spell checking) -Cytopathic effect (microbiology terms) - -== D == -Déjà vu effect -De Haas–van Alphen effect (condensed matter) (magnetism) (quantum physics) -(de Sitter effect: see) Geodetic effect (general relativity) -Debye–Falkenhagen effect -Decoy effect (consumer behavior) (decision theory) (economic theories) (finance theory) (marketing) -Delay (audio effect) (audio effects) (effects units) (musical techniques) -Dellinger effect (radio communications) -Dember effect (electrical phenomena) (physics) -Demo effect (demoscene) -Demonstration effect (human behavior) (sociological terms) -Denomination effect (behavioral economics) -Diderot effect (anthropology) (consumer behaviour) -Ding Hai effect (economy of Hong Kong) (Hong Kong culture) -Direct effect (European Union law) -Disposal tax effect (economics and finance) (finance) (taxation) -Disposition effect (economics and finance) -Dole effect (climatology) (oxygen) (paleoclimatology) (photosynthesis) -Domino effect (physics) (politics) -Doppler effect (Doppler effects) (radio frequency propagation) (wave mechanics) -Downing effect (psychology) -Dresselhaus effect (physics) -Droste effect (artistic techniques) -Dunning–Kruger effect (personality) (social psychology) - -== E == -Eagle effect (antibiotic resistance) (pharmacology) -Early effect (transistors) -Eberhard effect (science of photography) -Edge effect (ecological succession) (ecology) -Edison effect (atomic physics) (electricity) (Thomas Edison) (vacuum tubes) -Efimov effect (physics) -Einstein effect (disambiguation), several different effects in physics -Einstein–de Haas effect (science) -Electro-optic effect (nonlinear optics) -Electrocaloric effect (cooling technology) (heat pumps) -Electron-cloud effect (particle accelerators) (physics) -Electroviscous effects (colloid chemistry) (surface chemistry) -ELIZA effect (artificial intelligence) (human–computer interaction) (propositional fallacies) -Embedding effect (environmental economics) -EMC effect (particle physics) -Emerson effect (photosynthesis) -Endowment effect (behavioral finance) (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) -Enhanced Permeability and Retention effect (medicine) -Eötvös effect (geodesy) (topography) -Epps effect (econometrics) (statistical terminology) (statistics) -Ettinghausen effect (condensed matter) (electrodynamics) (thermodynamics) -Evershed effect (physics) (solar phenomena) -Exciter (effect) (audio effects) (effects units) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6d51a95c5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,150 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of effects" -chunk: 2/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:45.930677+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== F == -Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology) -False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability) -Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics) -Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena) -Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion) -Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors) -Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology) -Floor effect (statistics) -Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology) -Flutie effect (student sport) -Flux pinning (Physics) -Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy) -Focusing effect (cognitive biases) -Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena) -Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories) -Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics) -Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics) -Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception) -Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics) -Free surface effect (fluid mechanics) -Front projection effect (film production) -Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices) -Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects) - -== G == -Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics) -Gauche effect (stereochemistry) -Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism) -Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories) -Geodetic effect (general relativity) -Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r -Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (quantum electronics) (spintronics) -Gibbons–Hawking effect (general relativity) -Gibbs–Donnan effect (biology) (physics) -Gibbs–Thomson effect (petrology) (thermodynamics) -Glass house effect (culture) (surveillance) -Glasser effect (physics) -Goos–Hänchen effect (optical phenomena) -Great Salt Lake effect (natural history of Utah) -Green-beard effect (evolution) (evolutionary biology) (game theory) (selection) -Greenhouse effect (atmosphere) (atmospheric radiation) (climate change feedbacks and causes) (climate forcing) -Ground effect (aircraft) (aerodynamics) -Ground effect (cars) (aerodynamics) (motorsport terminology) -Gunn effect (diodes) (microwave technology) (physics) (terahertz technology) - -== H == -Haas effect (audio engineering) (sound) (speakers) -Haldane effect (hematology) (hemoproteins) (protein) -Hall effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) -Hall of mirrors effect (computer graphic artifacts) (Doom) (id software) (video game glitches) -Halo effect (cognitive biases) (educational psychology) (logical fallacies) (social psychology) -Hanbury Brown and Twiss effect (quantum optics) -Harem effect (harem) (human sexuality) (sex) (sexual orientation and identity) (sexual orientation and society) -Hawthorne effect (educational psychology) (psychological theories) (social phenomena) -Health effect (health) (health effectors) (pollution) -Holtzman effect (Dune technology) (physics in fiction) -Horizon effect (artificial intelligence) (game artificial intelligence) -Hostile media effect (cognitive biases) (criticism of journalism) (journalism standards) (psychological theories) -Hot chocolate effect (acoustics) (physics) (wave mechanics) -Hundredth monkey effect (behavioral science) (New Age) (urban legends) -Hydrophobic effect (chemical bonding) (supramolecular chemistry) -Hyperchromic effect (biochemistry) -Hypersonic effect (acoustics) (hearing) (psychology) (ultrasound) - -== I == -Ideomotor effect -IKEA effect (marketing) (psychology) -Imbert–Fedorov effect (optical phenomena) -In-camera effect (filming) (special effects) -Incidental effect (European Union law) -Indirect effect (European Union law) -Inductive effect (chemical bonding) -Inert-pair effect (atomic physics) (inorganic chemistry) (quantum chemistry) -inertial supercharging effect (automobile) (engine technology) -Inner-platform effect (anti-patterns) -International Fisher effect (economics and finance) (finance theories) (interest rates) -Inverse Doppler effect (Doppler effects) (wave mechanics) -Inverse Faraday effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) - -== J == -Jack-in-the-box effect (military) (military slang and jargon) (tanks) -Jahn–Teller effect (condensed matter physics) (inorganic chemistry) (organometallic chemistry) (quantum chemistry) -January effect (behavioral finance) (economics and finance) (market trends) (stock market) -Janus effect (effects) (sociology) -Johnsen–Rahbek effect (classical mechanics) (electrical engineering) -Joule–Thomson effect (thermodynamics) -Josephson effect (condensed matter physics) (sensors) (superconductivity) -Jupiter effect (astronomy) (science book) - -== K == -Kadenacy effect (automobile parts) (engine technology) -Kapitsa–Dirac effect (physics) -Kappa effect (geography) (psychology) -Karr Creates effect (JolliBini) (Jollibee x Karr Creates) -Kate Middleton effect (celebrity) (fashion) -Kautsky effect (fluorescence) -Kaye effect (fluid dynamics) -Ken Burns effect (film techniques) -Kendall effect (telecommunications) -Kerr effect (nonlinear optics) -Keynes effect (economics and finance) (Keynesian economics) -Keystone effect (technology) -Kinetic depth effect (perception) -Kinetic isotope effect (chemical kinetics) (physical organic chemistry) -Kirkendall effect (chemistry) (metallurgy) -Klein–Nishina effect (quantum field theory) -Knife-edge effect (radio frequency propagation) -Kohn effect (physics) -Kondo effect (condensed matter physics) (physical phenomena) -Kozai effect (astronomy) (celestial mechanics) -Kuleshov effect (cinema of Russia) (cognitive biases) (film editing) (film techniques) (psychological theories) - -== L == -Lake effect (snow or ice weather phenomena) -Lake Wobegon effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (social psychology) -Landau–Pomeranchuk–Migdal effect (high-energy physics) -Larsen effect (audio feedback) -Late effect (disease) -Lawn dart effect (psychology) -Lazarus effect (particle detectors) -Lead–lag effect (control theory) (economics and finance) -Leakage effect (tourism) -Learning effect (economics) (economics) (economics terminology) -Lee–Boot effect (biology) (reproduction) -Legalized abortion and crime effect (abortion debate) (criminology) -Leidenfrost effect (physical phenomena) -Lenard effect (physics) -Lense–Thirring effect (effects of gravitation) (tests of general relativity) -Leveling effect (chemistry) -Levels-of-processing effect (educational psychology) (psychology) (psychological theories) -Liquid Sky (effect) (lasers) (stage lighting) -Little–Parks effect (condensed matter physics) -Lockin effect (physics) -Lombard effect (phonetics) (human voice) (animal communication) (human communication) (noise pollution) -Lotus effect (nanotechnology) -Low-frequency effects (film sound production) (technology) -Lubberts effect (medicine) (radiography) (radiology) -Lunar effect (moon myths) (pseudoscience) -Luxemburg–Gorky effect (radio communication) (radio spectrum) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5a7c6d1d0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,171 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of effects" -chunk: 3/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:45.930677+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== M == -Magali effect -Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) -Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) -magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics) -Magnus effect (fluid dynamics) -Malmquist effect (astronomy) -Malter effect (physics) -Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal) -Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena) -Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production) -Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market) -Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis) -Massenerhebung effect (trees) -Maternal age effect (developmental biology) -Maternal effect (developmental biology) -Matthew effect (education) (education) -Matilda effect (Research) -Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge) -McClintock effect (menstruation) -McCollough effect (optical illusions) -McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories) -Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity) -Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics) -Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication) -Memory effect (electric batteries) -Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding) -Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound) -Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity) -Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics) -Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence) -Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms) -Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects) -Misinformation effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) -Missing letter effect (perception) (psychometrics) -Misnay–Schardin effect (explosives) -Mohring effect (microeconomics) (transportation) -Mössbauer effect (condensed matter physics) (nuclear physics) (physical phenomena) -Mozart effect (education psychology) (popular psychology) (psychological theories) (Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) -Mpemba effect (phase changes) (physical paradoxes) (thermodynamics) -Mullins effect (rubber properties) -Multiple-effect humidification (drinking water) (water supply) (water treatment) -Munroe effect (explosive weapons) (explosives) - -== N == -Name-letter effect (psychology) -Negative (positive) contrast effect (psychology) -Negativity effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) -Neglected firm effect (business analysis) -Nernst effect (electrodynamics) (thermodynamics) -Network effect (business models) (economics effects) (information technology) (monopoly [economics]) (networks) (transport economics) -Non-thermal microwave effect (chemical kinetics) -Nordtvedt effect (astronomy) (astrophysics) (effects of gravitation) (relativity) (theoretical physics) -Novaya Zemlya effect (arctic) (atmospheric optical phenomena) (atmospheric science) (Novaya Zemlya) (solar phenomena) -Novelty effect (learning) (psychology) -Nuclear Overhauser effect (chemical physics) (nuclear magnetic resonance) (physical chemistry) (spectroscopy) -Numerosity adaptation effect (cognitive science) (optical illusions) (perception) -Nut Island effect (human resource management) (organizational studies and human resource management) - -== O == -Oberth effect (physics) -Observer effect (information technology) (computer programming) -Observer effect (physics) (physics) -Observer-expectancy effect (cognitive biases) (cognitive psychology) -Occlusion effect (biology) (otology) -Octave effect (effects units) -Okorokov effect (physics) -Oligodynamic effect (biology and pharmacology of chemical elements) -Online disinhibition effect (Internet culture) (psychology) -Onnes effect (condensed matter physics) (fluid mechanics) (helium) -Opposition effect (astronomy) (optical phenomena) (observational astronomy) (radiometry) (scattering, absorption and radiative transfer [optics]) -Osborne effect (marketing) -Ostrich effect (adages) -Ouzo effect (Colloidal chemistry) (Chemical mixtures) (Condensed matter physics) (Soft matter) (Fluid dynamics) -Overconfidence effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) -Overjustification effect (educational psychology) (psychological theories) (psychology) -Overview effect (spaceflight) (transcendence) (psychology) -Ovsiankina effect (psychology) - -== P == -Pandemonium effect (gamma spectroscopy) -Partner effects (economics) (sociology) -Paschen–Back effect (atomic physics) (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (magnetism) -Pasteur effect (beer and brewery) (biochemistry) (fermentation) (metabolism) -Paternal effect – (developmental biology) -Pauli effect (experimental physics) (parapsychology) (psychokinesis) -Payne effect (rubber properties) -Pearson–Anson effect (electronics) -Peltier–Seebeck effect (thermoelectric effect) (electricity) (HVAC) (physical phenomena) (thermodynamics) -Peltzman effect (economics of regulation) (University of Chicago) -Penn effect (economics effects) -Petkau effect (radiobiology) -Phaser (effect) (audio effects) (effects units) -Phillips effect (employment) (inflation) -Photoacoustic Doppler effect (Doppler effects) (radar signal processing) (radio frequency propagation) (wave mechanics) -Photoelectric effect (Albert Einstein) (electrical phenomena) (foundational quantum physics) -Photorefractive effect (nonlinear optics) -Photothermal effect (particle physics) (photochemistry) (physics) -Picture superiority effect (cognitive biases) (educational psychology) (memory biases) (psychological theories) -Piezoresistive effect (electrical phenomena) -Pigou effect (economics effects) -Pioneer effect (astrodynamics) (pioneer program) -Placebo effect (bioethics) (clinical research) (experimental design) (history of medicine) (Latin medical phrases) (Latin words and phrases) (medical ethics) (medical terms) (medicinal chemistry) (mind–body interventions) (pharmacology) (psychological theories) (research methods) (theories) -Plasma effect (demo effects) -Plateau effect (systems science) (metaphors referring to places) -Plummer effect (iodine) (medicine) -Pockels effect (cryptography) (nonlinear optics) (polarization) -Polar effect (physical organic chemistry) -Polar effect (genetics) (genetics) -Portevin–Le Chatelier effect (engineering) (materials science) -Position-effect variegation (genetics) -Positivity effect (aging) (cognition) (cognitive biases) (memory) (memory biases) (psychological theories) (psychology) -Poynting effect (gases) -Poynting–Robertson effect (celestial mechanics) -Practical effect (special effects) -Pratfall effect (psychology) -Precedence effect (acoustics) (sound perception) -Primakoff effect (particle physics) -Priority effect (ecology) -Probe effect (software development philosophies) (system administration) -Proteus effect (consciousness) (psychology) -Proximity effect (atomic physics) (nuclear physics) (physics) -Proximity effect (audio) (acoustics) -Proximity effect (electromagnetism) (electrical engineering) -Proximity effect (electron beam lithography) (condensed matter physics) -Proximity effect (superconductivity) (superconductivity) -Pseudocertainty effect -Pulfrich effect (3D imaging) (optical illusions) -Purkinje effect (optical illusions) (perception) (vision) -Pygmalion effect (cognitive biases) - -== Q == -QMR effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (optics) (optical phenomena) -Quantum-confined Stark effect (quantum mechanics) -Quantum Hall effect (Hall effect) (condensed matter physics) (quantum electronics) (spintronics) -Quantum Zeno effect (quantum measurement) - -== R == -Raman effect (physics) -Ramp effect (drug addiction) (drug rehabilitation) -Ramsauer–Townsend effect (physical phenomena) (scattering) -Ransom note effect (typography) -Rashomon effect (psychology) -Ratchet effect (game theory) -Rear projection effect (special effects) -Rebound effect (medical sign) -Rebound effect (conservation) (economics paradoxes) (energy) (energy conservation) -Red-eye effect (science of photography) -Relativistic Doppler effect (Doppler effects) (special relativity) -Renner–Teller effect (molecular physics) -Reverse Cerenkov effect (physics) -Reverse short-channel effect (transistors) -Ringelmann effect (social psychology) -Ripple effect (education) (sociology) -Robin Hood effect (income distribution) (Robin Hood) (socioeconomics) (taxation) -Roe effect (abortion debate) (abortion in the United States) -Root effect (fish) (hemoproteins) (respiratory physiology) -Rope trick effect (nuclear weapons) -Rossiter–McLaughlin effect (Doppler effects) (extrasolar planets) (spectroscopy) (star systems) -Rusty bolt effect (radio electronics) -Russ Christ effect (PV rejection profile) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5cdfb02f0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,154 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of effects" -chunk: 4/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:45.930677+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== S == -Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography) -Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology) -Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity) -Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics) -Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil) -Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization) -Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory) -Schottky effect (diodes) -Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics) -Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology) -Second gas effect (anesthesia) -Second-system effect (software development) -Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) -Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy) -Shaft effect (motorcycle) -Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation) -Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry) -Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics) -Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science) -Side effect (computer science) (computer programming) -Side effect (disambiguation) -Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology) -Silk screen effect (technology) -Silo effect (management) (systems theory) -Simon effect (psychology) -Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) -Skin effect (electronics) -Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot) -Sleeper effect (social psychology) -Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics) -Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology) -Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance) -Snowball effect (language) (metaphors) -Somogyi effect (diabetes) -Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects) -Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film editing) -Southwest effect, The (airline terminology) (Southwest Airlines) -Spacing effect (cognitive biases) (educational psychology) (psychological theories) -Special effect (animation) (special effects) -Spin Hall effect (condensed matter physics) (Hall effect) (physics) (spintronics) -Spoiler effect (psephology) (voting theory) -Stack effect (filming) (television terminology) (digital electronics) (film techniques) -Stark effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) (physical phenomena) -Stars (shader effect) (3D computer graphics) (computer graphics) (demo effects) -Status effect (video game gameplay) -Stewart–Tolman effect (electrodynamics) -Stock sound effect (film and video technology) (film and video terminology) (film terminology) -Storage effect (demography) (population ecology) -Streisand effect (dynamic lists) (eponyms) (slang) -Stroop effect (perception) (psychological tests) -Steric effect (chemical kinetics) (chemical reactions) (collision theory) (molecular geometry) (stereochemistry) -Subadditivity effect (cognitive biases) -Subject-expectancy effect (cognitive biases) -Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect (physical cosmology) (radio astronomy) -SVG filter effect (computer graphics) (computer graphics techniques) (image processing) (Scalable Vector Graphics) -Szilard–Chalmers effect (nuclear chemistry) - -== T == -Tamagotchi effect (psychology) -Tanada effect (botany) -Tanzi effect (taxation) -Telescoping effect (memory biases) (psychology) -Testing effect (educational psychology) (memory) -Tetris effect (memory) (Tetris) -Thatcher effect (vision) -Therapeutic effect (medical treatment) (pharmacology) -Thermal flywheel effect (heat) (thermodynamics) -Thermal Hall effect (condensed matter) (Hall effect) (superconductivity) -Third-person effect (media studies) -Thorpe–Ingold effect (chemical kinetics) (organic chemistry) -Threshold effect (particle physics) (physics) (renormalization group) -Tinkerbell effect (sociology) -Tocqueville effect (sociology) -Training effect (cardiovascular system) (exercise physiology) (medicine) (respiratory system) (sports terminology) -Trans effect (coordination chemistry) -Transformer effect (electrodynamics) -Transverse flow effect (aerodynamics) -Trench effect (fire) -Triboelectric effect (electrical phenomena) (electricity) -Trickle-down economics -Trickle-down fashion -Trickle-up economics -Trickle-up fashion -Troxler effect (optical illusion) -Twisted nematic field effect (display technology) (liquid crystal displays) (liquid crystals) -Twomey effect (air pollution) (atmospheric radiation) (clouds, fog and precipitation) -Tyndall effect (physical phenomena) (scattering) - -== U == -Umov effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) (planetary science) -Unruh effect (quantum field theory) (thermodynamics) -Urban heat island effect (climate change feedbacks and causes) (climate forcing) - -== V == -Vandenbergh effect (biology) -Vaporific effect (fire) -Veblen effect (consumer theory) (goods) -Venturi effect (fluid dynamics) -Venus effect (artistic techniques) (cognitive science) (film techniques) (mirrors) (psychology) -Visual effects (computer generated imagery) -Visual effects art director -Voigt effect (magnetism) (optics) -Von Restorff effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) -Vroman effect (molecular and cellular biology) - -== W == -Wagon-wheel effect (optical illusion) -Wahlund effect (evolution) (population genetics) -Walker effect (illusions of self-motion) (spatial misconception) -Walkman effect (computing and society) (technology) -Wallace effect (evolutionary biology) (speciation) -Warburg effect (biochemistry) (oncology) (photosynthesis) -Wealth effect (economics and finance) (wealth) -Weapons effect (gun politics) -Weathervane effect (aviation terminology) -Weissenberg effect (physics) -Westermarck effect (psychology) (incest) -Wet floor effect (computer graphic techniques) (computer graphics) (Web 2.0) -Whitten effect (menstruation) -Wien effect (electrochemistry) -Wigner effect (condensed matter physics) (nuclear technology) (physical phenomena) (radiation effects) -Wilson effect (astronomy) (Sun) -Wilson–Bappu effect (physics) -Wimbledon effect (economic theories) (economy of Japan) (economy of London) -Windkessel effect (physiology) -Withgott effect (linguistics) (phonetics) -Wolf effect (scattering) (spectroscopy) -Wolff–Chaikoff effect (iodine) (medicine) -Woozle effect (psychology) (scientific method) (sociology) -Word superiority effect (cognitive science) -Worse-than-average effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (social psychology) - -== X == -Xenia effect (agriculture) (genetics) - -== Y == -Yarkovsky effect (celestial mechanics) -Yarkovsky–O'Keefe–Radzievskii–Paddack effect (celestial mechanics) -Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) - -== Z == -Zeeman effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) (magnetism) (physical phenomena) -Zeigarnik effect (cognitive biases) (educational psychology) (learning) (psychological theories) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d6bf28262..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of engineering blunders" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:48.248773+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of engineering blunders, i.e., gross errors or mistakes resulting from grave lack of proper consideration, such as stupidity, confusion, carelessness, or culpable ignorance, which resulted in notable incidents. - -Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused by a faulty blowout preventer. -Fort Montgomery was sometimes referred to as "Fort Blunder", because the first version of the U.S. Army fort was inadvertently built on the Canadian side of Lake Champlain. -Millennium Bridge, London, nicknamed "Wobbly Bridge"; it took almost two years to fix the engineering error -The NASA Mars Climate Orbiter, launched in 1998, burned up in the Martian atmosphere. A mixup between metric and US Standard measurements in the controlling software caused the spacecraft to miss its intended 140–150 km altitude above Mars during orbit insertion, instead entering the Martian atmosphere at about 57 km. -The NASA Genesis mission was an attempt to sample particles from the solar wind. It successfully collected a sample and returned to Earth. However at the last moment the landing parachute failed to open and the return capsule smashed into the ground at high speed, contaminating the samples. The parachute failure was traced to an accelerometer installed backwards. -Palace II, Brazil; parts of it collapsed, due to engineering error, killing eight people. -Quebec Bridge collapses -Sand Point Light: it was constructed with its tower facing the land instead of facing the water. Whether this was intentional or an engineering blunder is unknown. -Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940); it began to move vertically in windy conditions, so it was nicknamed "Galloping Gertie". It collapsed in November 1940, after four months of operation - - -== See also == -Category:Engineering failures; not all of them are due to engineering errors -Engineering disasters -Catastrophic failure Structural failures -Space accidents and incidents - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5deaeddc5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of existing technologies predicted in science fiction" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:56.701465+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This list of existing technologies predicted in science fiction includes every medium, mainly literature and film. In 1964 Soviet engineer and writer Genrikh Altshuller made the first attempt to catalogue science fiction technologies of the time. -Alongside first prediction of a particular technology, the list may include all subsequent works mentioning it until its invention. The list includes technologies that were first posited in non-fiction works before their appearance in science fiction and subsequent invention, such as ion thruster. To avoid repetitions, the list excludes film adaptations of prior literature containing the same predictions, such as "The Minority Report". The list also excludes emerging technologies that are not widely available. The names of some modern inventions (atomic bomb, robot, space station, oral contraceptive and borazon) exactly match their fictional predecessors. A few works correctly predicted the years when some technologies would emerge, such as the first sustained heavier-than-air aircraft flight in 1903 and the first atomic bomb explosion in 1945. - - -== Literature == - - -== Films and TV series == - - -== Notes == - - -== References == - - -=== Sources === -Bleiler, E. F.; Bleiler, Richard (1990). Science-Fiction: The Early Years. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-416-4. -Gerrold, David (2006). "Predictions". PCMag. Vol. 25, no. 13. ISSN 0888-8507. -Pilkington, Ace G. (2017). Science Fiction and Futurism: Their Terms and Ideas. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-9856-7. - - -== See also == -Clarke's three laws -List of emerging technologies -List of hypothetical technologies -Materials science in science fiction -Prophets of Science Fiction \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9c251cfe5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of experiments" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:57.994927+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The following is a list of historically important scientific experiments and observations demonstrating something of great scientific interest, typically in an elegant or clever manner. - -== Astronomy == -Ole Rømer makes the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light in 1676 by timing the motions of Jupiter's satellite Io with a telescope -Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detect the cosmic microwave background radiation, giving support to the theory of the Big Bang (1964) -Kerim Kerimov launches Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 as experiments on automatic docking eventually leading to the development of space stations (1967) -The Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team discover, by observing Type Ia supernovae, that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating (1998) -Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to observe that the moons of Jupiter appear to circle Jupiter. This evidence supports the heliocentric model, and weakens the geocentric model of the cosmos (1609) - -== Biology == -Robert Hooke, using a microscope, observes cells (1665). -Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovers microorganisms (1674–1676). -James Lind, publishes 'A Treatise of the Scurvy' which describes a controlled shipboard experiment using two identical populations but with only one variable, the consumption of citrus fruit (1753). -Edward Jenner tests his hypothesis for the protective action of mild cowpox infection for smallpox, the first vaccine (1796). -Gregor Mendel's experiments with the garden pea led him to surmise many of the fundamental laws of genetics (dominant vs recessive genes, the 1–2–1 ratio, see Mendelian inheritance) (1856–1863). -Charles Darwin demonstrates evolution by natural selection using many examples (1859). -Louis Pasteur uses S-shaped flasks to prevent spores from contaminating broth. This disproves the theory of Spontaneous generation (1861) extending the rancid meat experiment of Francesco Redi (1668) to the micro scale. -Charles Darwin and his son Francis, using dark-grown oat seedlings, discover the stimulus for phototropism is detected at the tip of the shoot (the coleoptile tip), but the bending takes place in the region below the tip (1880). -Emil von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō demonstrate passive immunity, protection of animals from infection by injection of immune serum (1890). -Thomas Hunt Morgan identifies a sex chromosome linked gene in Drosophila melanogaster (1910) and his student Alfred Sturtevant develops the first genetic map (1913). -Alexander Fleming demonstrates that the zone of inhibition around a growth of penicillin mould on a culture dish of bacteria is caused by a diffusible substance secreted by the mould (1928). -Frederick Griffith demonstrates (Griffith's experiment) that living cells can be transformed via a transforming principle, later discovered to be DNA (1928). -Karl von Frisch decodes the waggle dance honey bees use to communicate the location of flowers (1940). -George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum moot the "one gene-one enzyme hypothesis" based on induced mutations in bread mold Neurospora crassa (1941). -Luria–Delbrück experiment demonstrates that in bacteria, beneficial mutations arise in the absence of selection, rather than being a response to selection (1943). -Barbara McClintock breeds maize plants for color, which leads to the discovery of transposable elements or jumping genes (1944). -Linus Pauling and colleagues show in "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease" that a human genetic disease, sickle cell anemia, is caused by a molecular change in a specific protein, hemoglobin (1949). -Hershey–Chase experiment (by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase) uses bacteriophage to prove that DNA is the hereditary material (1952). -Meselson–Stahl experiment proves that DNA replication is semiconservative (1958). -The frameshift mutation experiment by Crick, Brenner and others used frameshift mutations to support the triplet nature of the genetic code (1961). -Nirenberg and Matthaei experiment demonstrating in vitro protein synthesis using synthetic RNA as to substitute for messenger RNA (1961). -John Gurdon clones an animal, a frog tadpole, from an egg cell using the nucleus from an intestinal cell (1962). -Roger W. Sperry shows the potential independence of the two sides of the human brain using split-brain patients (1962–1965). -Nirenberg and Leder experiment, binding tRNA to ribosomes with synthetic RNA to decipher the genetic code (1964). -Demonstration of the role of reverse transcriptases in tumor viruses, independently by Howard Temin and David Baltimore, 1970. -Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen selectively clone genes in bacteria, using bacterial plasmids cut by specific endonucleases (1975). -Mary-Dell Chilton shows that crown gall tumors of plants are caused by the transfer of a small piece of DNA from the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens into the host plant, where it becomes part of its genome (1977). -Napoli, Lemieux and Jorgensen discover the principle of RNA interference (1990). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index db8dcf32d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of experiments" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:57.994927+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Chemistry == -Robert Boyle uses an air pump to determine the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. This relationship came to be known as Boyle's law (1660–1662). -Joseph Priestley suspends a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery and synthesizes carbonated water (1767). -Antoine Lavoisier determines that oxygen combines with materials upon combustion, thus disproving phlogiston theory (1783). -Antoine Lavoisier determines that chemical reactions in a closed container do not alter total mass. From these observations he establishes the law of conservation of mass (1789). -Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford demonstrates that the heat developed by the friction of boring cannon is nearly inexhaustible. This result was presented in opposition to caloric theory (1798). -Humphry Davy uses electrolysis to isolate elemental potassium, sodium, calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, and chlorine (1807–1810). -Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac studies reactions among gases and determines that their volumes combine chemically in simple integer ratios (1809). -Robert Brown studies very small particles in water under the microscope and observes Brownian motion which was later named in his honor (1827). -Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes the organic compound urea using inorganic reactants, disproving the application of vitalism to chemical processes (1828). -Thomas Graham measures the rates of effusion for different gases and establishes Graham's law of effusion and diffusion (1833). -Julius Robert von Mayer and James Prescott Joule measure the heat generated by mechanical work. This establishes the principle of conservation of energy and the kinetic theory of heat (1842–1843). -Louis Pasteur separates a racemic mixture of two enantiomers by sorting individual crystals, and demonstrates their impact on the polarization of light (1849). -Anders Jonas Ångström observes the presence of hydrogen and other elements in the spectrum of the sun (1862). -François-Marie Raoult demonstrates that the decrease in the vapor pressure and freezing point of liquids caused by the addition of solutes is proportional to the number of solute molecules present. This establishes the concept of colligative properties (1878). -Svante Arrhenius studies the conductivity of salt solutions and determines that salts dissociate into ions in water (1884). -Svante Arrhenius determines the impact of temperature on reaction rates and formulates the concept of activation energy (1889). -William Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh (John Strutt) isolate the noble gases (1894–1898). -Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, and Pierre Curie discover radioactivity and describe its properties (1896). -Mikhail Tsvet (Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet) separates chlorophyll from other plant pigments using chromatography (1901). -Frederick Soddy and William Ramsay observe the production of helium from alpha particles during radioactive decay (1903). -Ernest Rutherford discovers that atoms have a very small positively charged nucleus in the gold-foil experiment, also known as the Geiger–Marsden experiment (1909). -Otto Hahn discovers nuclear isomerism (1921). -Albert Szent-Györgyi and Hans Adolf Krebs discover the citric acid cycle of oxidative metabolism (1935-1937). -Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discover the nuclear fission of uranium (1938). -Glenn Theodore Seaborg and colleagues create and isolate five transuranium elements. They reorganize the periodic table to its current form. (1941–1950). -Miller–Urey experiment demonstrates that organic compounds can arise spontaneously from inorganic ones (1953). -Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson delineate the path of carbon in photosynthesis using Chlorella and carbon dioxide labeled with carbon-14 (14CO2) (1945–1954). -Erwin Chargaff disproves the "tetranucleoide theory" of DNA structure and determines that the composition of double-stranded DNA follows the rule, %A = %T and %G = %C (Chargaff's rule). This discovery was critical to the formulation of the Watson-Crick Model of DNA structure. -Neil Bartlett mixes xenon and platinum hexafluoride leading to the first synthesis of a noble gas compound, xenon hexafluoroplatinate (1962). -Robert Burns Woodward announces the total synthesis of Vitamin B-12 by a team he led (1973). Insights from this work lead him and Roald Hoffmann to formulate the Woodward–Hoffmann rules for elucidating the stereochemistry of the products of organic reactions. -Frederick Sanger demonstrates the dideoxy- or chain termination method for determining DNA sequences (1975). -Kary Mullis demonstrates the polymerase chain reaction, a method for amplifying specific bits of DNA (1983). - -== Economics and political science == -The experiments of Muhammad Yunus on the applications of microcredit and microfinance in rural Bangladesh (1971) -Robert Axelrod's prisoner's dilemma computer tournaments, later documented in The Evolution of Cooperation (1984) - -== Geology == -Charles Mason conducts an experiment near the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion that attempts to measure the mean density of the Earth for the first time. Known as the Schiehallion experiment (1774) - -== Physics == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1f922ecd7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,63 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of experiments" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:57.994927+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Inclined plane experiment (1602–07): Galileo Galilei uses rolling balls to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion. -Atmospheric pressure vs. altitude experiment (1648): Blaise Pascal carries a barometer up a church tower and a mountain to determine that atmospheric pressure is due to a column of air. -Magdeburg hemispheres (1654): Otto von Guericke demonstrates atmospheric pressure using a pair of hollow copper hemisphere. -Spring of air experiment (1660): Robert Boyle shows that the volume of a given amount of gas is inversely related to the pressure upon it. -Kite experiment (1700s): Benjamin Franklin beginning in 1747 describes experiments in letters to Peter Collinson demonstrating electrical principles which were published in a book called Experiments and Observations on Electricity. -Voltaic pile (1796): Alessandro Volta constructs a new source of electricity, the electrical battery. -Cavendish experiment (1798): Henry Cavendish's torsion bar experiment measures the force of gravity in a laboratory. -Double-slit experiment (c.1805): Thomas Young shows that light is a wave in his double-slit experiment. -Arago spot (1819): Observation of circular diffraction by François Arago, validated a new wave theory of light by Augustin-Jean Fresnel disproving skeptics like Siméon Denis Poisson. -Ørsted experiment (1820): Hans Christian Ørsted demonstrates the connection of electricity and magnetism by experiments involving a compass and electric circuits. -Discovery of electromagnetic induction (1831): Michael Faraday discovers magnetic induction in an experiment with a closed ring of soft iron, with two windings of wire. -Joule's experiment (1834):James Prescott Joule demonstrates the mechanical equivalent of heat, an important step in the development of thermodynamics. -Doppler experiment (1845): Christian Doppler arranges to have trumpets played from a passing train. The ground-observed pitch was higher than that played when the train was approaching then lower than that played as the train passed and moved away, demonstrating the Doppler effect. -Foucault pendulum (1851): Léon Foucault's creates a pendulum to demonstrate the Coriolis effect and the rotation of the Earth. -Michelson–Morley experiment (1887): exposes weaknesses of the prevailing variant of the theory of luminiferous aether. -Hertz wireless experiments (1887): Heinrich Hertz demonstrates free space electromagnetic waves, predicted by Maxwell's equations, with a simple dipole antenna and spark gap oscillator. -Thomson's experiments with cathode rays (1897): J. J. Thomson's cathode ray tube experiments (discovers the electron and its negative charge). -Eötvös experiment (1909): Loránd Eötvös publishes the result of the second series of experiments, clearly demonstrating that inertial and gravitational mass are one and the same. -Oil-drop experiment (1909): Robert Millikan demonstrates that electric charge occurs as quanta (whole units). -Geiger–Marsden experiments (1911): Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment demonstrated that the positive charge and mass of an atom is concentrated in a small, central atomic nucleus, disproving the then-popular plum pudding model of the atom. - -Eddington experiment (1919): Arthur Eddington leads an expedition to the island of Principe to observe a total solar eclipse (gravitational lensing). This allows for an observation of the bending of starlight under gravity, a prediction of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. It was confirmed (although it was later shown that the margin of error was as great as the observed bending). -Stern–Gerlach experiment (1920): Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach demonstrates particle spin. -Chicago Pile-1 (1942): Enrico Fermi and Leó Szilárd build the first critical nuclear reactor (1942) -Wu experiment (1956): Chien-Shiung Wu leads the team that disproves the conservation of parity in particle physics. -Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment (1955): Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines confirm the existence of the neutrino. -Hafele-Keating experiment (1971): Joseph C. Hafele and Richard E. Keating show that atomic clocks flown around the world exhibit differences which are consistent with the predictions of special and general relativity. -Scout rocket experiment (1976): confirms the time dilation effect of gravity. -Aspect's experiment (1982): Alain Aspect demonstrates the violation of Bell inequalities in quantum entanglement in the 1980s. - -== Psychology == - -Ivan Pavlov's experiments with dogs and classical conditioning (1900s). -John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduct the Little Albert experiment showing evidence of classical conditioning (1920) -The Asch conformity experiments shows how group pressure can persuade an individual to conform to an obviously wrong opinion (1951) -B. F. Skinner's demonstrations of operant conditioning (1930s–1960s) -Harry Harlow's experiments with baby monkeys and wire and cloth surrogate mothers (1957–1974) -Stanley Milgram's experiments on human obedience (1963) -Walter Mischel's marshmallow experiment showing the importance to life outcomes of the ability to delay gratification (beginning late 1960s) -Philip Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment (1971) -Allan and Beatrix Gardner's attempts to teach American Sign Language to the chimpanzee Washoe (1970s) -Martin Seligman studies learned helplessness in dogs (1970s) -Rosenhan experiment (1972). It involved the use of healthy associates or "pseudopatients", who briefly simulated auditory hallucinations in an attempt to gain admission to 12 different psychiatric hospitals. The hospital staff failed to detect a single pseudopatient. The study is considered an important and influential criticism of psychiatric diagnosis. -Kansas City preventive patrol experiment (1972–1973) It was designed to test the assumption that the presence (or potential presence) of police officers in marked cars reduced the likelihood of a crime being committed. No relationship was found. -Elizabeth Loftus' and John C. Palmer's car crash experiment shows that leading questions can produce false memories (1974) -Benjamin Libet's experiment on free will shows that a readiness potential appears before the notion of doing the task enters conscious experience, sparking debate about the illusory nature of free will yet again. (1983) -Vilayanur S. Ramachandran's experiment on phantom limbs with the Mirror Box throw light on the nature of 'learned paralysis' (1998) - -== See also == -List of thought experiments -Timeline of scientific experiments - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index a7e70e396..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,107 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of firefighting mnemonics" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:59.208838+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of mnemonics related to firefighting or rescue. - - -== Mnemonics == -Incident priorities -LIP -Life safety -Incident Stabilization -Property conservation - - -=== Fire scene priorities === -RECEO - SV -Rescue victims -Exposures - stop fire spread -Confine - contain the fire -Extinguish -Overhaul - check for hidden fire spread -- targets of opportunity: -Salvage -Vent -Company Officer Checklist For Report On Conditions -SLICERS -Size up -Locate seat of fire -Identify flow path -Cool from safe distance -Extinguish fire -Rescue -Salvage - - -=== First attack response === -RACE (General first response to a fire.) -Rescue - move people who are in immediate danger. -Alarm - raise the alarm and alert persons to the presence of fire. -Confine - shut doors and reduce airflow and fuel sources to the fire, to reduce its spread. -Extinguish or Evacuate - extinguish the fire if it's safe to do so, or coordinate the evacuation from the area. - - -=== Response phases === -TRIPOD ( -The six different possible primary phases of a fire response.) -Transitional - moving from an offensive attack to a defensive position. -Rescue - victim rescue -Investigating -Preparing -Offensive -Defensive - - -=== Wildland firefighting safety === -PLACES --Safety checklist -PPE -Lookouts -Awareness -Communications -Escape routes -Safety zones - - -=== Fire safety === -EDITH -(A life-safety home education program.) -Exit -Drills -In -The -Home -Hazmat Placards -EGFFOPRCO -(Every Good Fire Fighter Occasionally Provides Real Cool Orgasms) -1. Explosives -2. Gas (flammable) -3. Flammable Liquids -4. Flammable Solids -5. Oxidizers -6. Poisons/Toxics -7. Radioactives -8. Corrosives -9. Other Regulated Materials/Miscellaneous - - -=== How to use a fire extinguisher === -PASS (Fire extinguisher use education for everyone) -Pull the pin -Aim at the base of the fire -Squeeze the handle or lever -Sweep from side to side - - -== See also == -List of medical mnemonics (Includes EMS mnemonics) - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index cb314ea75..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of forms of electricity named after scientists" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:47.132626+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of forms of electricity named after scientists. The terms in this list are mostly archaic usages but are found in many 19th and early 20th-century publications. - - -== Adjectives == -faradic -Of electricity that is alternating, especially when obtained from an induction coil. Named after Michael Faraday who built the first electromagnetic generator. -galvanic -Of electricity that is not alternating. Named after Luigi Galvani. -voltaic -Of electricity derived from an electrochemical cell or battery. Named after Alessandro Volta who built the first battery, the voltaic pile. In most contexts it can be considered a synonym of galvanic. - - -== Nouns (applications) == -Faradization -Electrotherapy treatment of a person with faradic electricity. Coined by Duchenne de Boulogne and named after Michael Faraday. -Franklinization -Electrotherapy by charging a person to high voltage with static electricity. Named after Benjamin Franklin. -d'Arsonvalization -Electrotherapy treatment of a person with high frequency electricity. Named after Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval. - - -== Nouns (forms) == -Faradism -Faradic electricity -Franklinism -High voltage static electricity as used in Franklinization -Galvanism -Originally, voltaic electricity, but can also be used to distinguish Galvani's animal electricity from Volta's chemical/metal contact electricity - - -== References == - - -== Bibliography == -Borck, Cornelius, Brainwaves: A Cultural History of Electroencephalography, Routledge, 2018 ISBN 1472469445. -Chalovich, Joseph M, Franklinization: Early Therapeutic Use of Static Electricity, ScholarShip, East Carolina University, 23 January 2012. -Martellucci, Jacopo (ed), Electrical Stimulation for Pelvic Floor Disorders, Springer, 2014 ISBN 3319069470. -de la Peňa, Carolyn Thomas, The Body Electric: How Strange Machines Built the Modern American, New York University Press, 2005 ISBN 081471983X. -Pinchuck, LS; Nikolaev, VI; Tsetkova, EA; Goldade, VA, Tribology and Biophysics of Artificial Joints, Elsevier, 2005 ISBN 0080458084. -Tate, Thomas, On Magnetism, Voltaic Electricity, and Electrodynamics, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1854 OCLC 316488126. -de Young, Mary, Encyclopedia of Asylum Therapeutics, 1750-1950s, McFarland, 2015 ISBN 0786468971. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6210d531f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of fossil primates" -chunk: 1/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:00.524154+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of fossil primates—extinct primates for which a fossil record exists. Primates are generally thought to have evolved from a small, unspecialized mammal, which probably fed on insects and fruits. However, the precise source of the primates remains controversial and even their arboreal origin has recently been questioned. As it has been suggested, many other mammal orders are arboreal too, but they have not developed the same characteristics as primates. Nowadays, some well known genera, such as Purgatorius and Plesiadapis, thought to be the most ancient primates for a long time, are not usually considered as such by recent authors, who tend to include them in the new order Plesiadapiformes, within superorder Euarchontoglires. Some, to avoid confusions, employ the unranked term Euprimates, which excludes Plesiadapiformes. That denomination is not used here. -There is an academic debate on the time the first primates appeared. One of the earliest probable primate fossils is the problematic Altiatlasius koulchii, perhaps an Omomyid, but perhaps a non-Primate Plesiadapiform, which lived in Morocco, during the Paleocene, around 60 Ma. However, other studies, including molecular clock studies, have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 85 Ma, that is to say, in the time previous to the extinction of dinosaurs and the successful mammal radiation. Nevertheless, there seems to be a consensus about the monophyletic origin of the order, although the evidence is not clear. -The order Primates, established by Linnaeus in 1758, includes humans and their immediate ancestors. However, contrarily to the common opinion, most primates do not have especially large brains. Brain size is a derived character, which only appeared with genus Homo, and was lacking in the first hominid. In fact, hominid encephalization quotient is only 1.5 Ma more recent than that of some dolphin species. The encephalization quotient of some cetaceans is therefore higher than that of most primates, including the nearest relatives of humans, such as Australopithecus. -This list follows partly from Walter Carl Hartwig's 2002 book The Fossil Primate Record and John G. Fleagle's 2013 book Primate Adaptation and Evolution (3rd edition). Parentheses around authors' names (and dates) indicates a change in generic name for the fossil, as stated in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). Since the publication of the book as well as the creation of this article, new fossil taxon have been discovered that has helped improved the taxonomy among primates in general. - -== Strepsirrhini == - -=== Infraorder Adapiformes === - -==== Adapiformes, incertae sedis ==== -Sulaimanius Gunnell et al., 2012 -Sulaimanius arifi (Gunnell et al., 2008) - -==== Adapoidea ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2493ecceb..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,232 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of fossil primates" -chunk: 2/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:00.524154+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Ekgmowechashalidae Szalay, 1976 -Bugtilemur Marivaux et al., 2001 -Bugtilemur mathesoni Marivaux et al., 2001 -Ekgmowechashala Macdonald, 1963 -Ekgmowechashala philotau Macdonald, 1963 -Ekgmowechashala zancanellai Samuels, Albright & Fremd, 2015 -Gatanthropus Ni et al., 2016 -Gatanthropus micros Ni et al., 2016 -Muangthanhinius Marivaux et al., 2006 -Muangthanhinius siami Marivaux et al., 2006 -Notharctidae Trouessart, 1879 -Notharctinae Trouessart, 1879 -Cantius Simons, 1962 -Cantius abditus Gingerich & Simmons, 1977 -Cantius angulatus Cope, 1875 -Cantius antediluvius Kihm, 1992 -Cantius eppsi Cooper, 1932 -Cantius frugivorus Cope, 1875 -Cantius lohseorum Robinson, 2016 -Cantius mckennai Gingerich & Simons, 1977 -Cantius nuniensis Cope, 1881 -Cantius ralstoni Matthew, 1915 -Cantius savagei Gingerich, 1977 -Cantius torresi Gingerich, 1986 -Copelemur Gingerich & Simons, 1977 -Copelemur australotutus Beard, 1988 -Copelemur praetutus Gazin, 1962 -Copelemur tutus Cope, 1877 -Hesperolemur Gunnell, 1995 -Hesperolemur actius Gunnell, 1995 -Megaceralemur Robinson, 2016 -Megaceralemur trigonodus (Matthew, 1915) -Megaceralemur matthewi Robinson, 2016 -Notharctus Leidy, 1870 -Notharctus pugnax Granger & Gregory, 1917 -Notharctus robustior Leidy, 1870 -Notharctus tenebrosus Leidy, 1870 -Notharctus venticolus Osborn, 1902 -Pelycodus Cope, 1875 -Pelycodus danielsae Froehlich & Lucas, 1991 -Pelycodus jarrovii Cope, 1874 -Pinolophus Robinson, 2016 -Pinolophus meikei Robinson, 2016 -Smilodectes Wortman, 1903 -Smilodectes gingerichi Beard, 1988 -Smilodectes gracilis Marsh, 1871 -Smilodectes mcgrewi Gingerich, 1979 -Cercamoniinae Gingerich, 1975 -Agerinia Crusafont-Pairo & Golpe-Posse, 1973 -Agerinia marandati Femenias-Gual, Minwer-Barakat, Marigó, Poyatos-Moré, and Moyà-Solà, 2017 -Agerinia roselli Crusafont-Pairo & Golpe-Posse, 1973 -Agerinia smithorum Femenias-Gual, Minwer-Barakat, Marigó, and Moyà-Solà, 2016 -Anchomomys Stehlin, 1916 -Anchomomys crocheti Godinot, 1988 -Anchomomys gaillardi Stehlin, 1916 -Anchomomys pygmaeus Rütimeyer, 1890 -Anchomomys quercy Stehlin, 1916 -Barnesia Thalmann, 1994 -Barnesia hauboldi Thalmann, 1994 -Buxella Godinot, 1988 -Buxella magna Godinot, 1988 -Buxella prisca Godinot, 1988 -Donrussellia Szalay, 1976 -Donrussellia gallica Russell, Louis & Savage, 1967 -Donrussellia louisi -Donrussellia magna -Donrussellia provincialis -Donrussellia russelli -Mazateronodon Marigó, Minwer-Barakat, & Moyà-Solà, 2010 -Mazateronodon endemicus Marigó, Minwer-Barakat, & Moyà-Solà, 2010 -Panobius Russell & Gingerich, 1987 -Panobius afridi Russell & Gingerich, 1987 -Periconodon Stehlin, 1916 -Periconodon helleri Schwartz et al., 1983 -Periconodon helveticus Rütimeyer, 1891 -Periconodon huerzeleri Gingerich, 1977 -Periconodon jaegeri Godinot, 1988 -Periconodon lemoinei Gingerich, 1977 -Protoadapis Lemoine, 1878 -Protoadapis angustidens Filhol, 1888 -Protoadapis brachyrhynchus Stehlin, 1912 -Protoadapis curvicuspidens Lemoine, 1878 -Protoadapis ignoratus Thalmann, 1994 -Protoadapis muechelnensis Thalmann, 1994 -Protoadapis recticuspidens Lemoine, 1878 -Protoadapis weigelti Gingerich, 1977 -Pronycticebus Grandidier, 1904 -Pronycticebus gaudryi Grandidier, 1904 -Pronycticebus neglectus Thalmann et al., 1989 -Asiadapidae Rose et al., 2009 -Anthrasimias Bajpai et al., 2008 -Anthrasimias gujaratensis Bajpai et al., 2008 -Asiadapis Rose et al., 2007 -Asiadapis cambayensis Rose et al., 2007 -Asiadapis tapiensis Rose et al., 2018 -Marcgodinotius Bajpai et al., 2005 -Marcgodinotius indicus Bajpai et al., 2005 -Adapidae Trouessart, 1879 -Adapinae Trouesart, 1879 -Adapis Cuvier, 1821 -Adapis bruni -Adapis collinsonae Hooker, 1986 -Adapis parisiensis de Blainville, 1841 -Adapis sudrei Gingerich, 1977 -Cryptadapis Godinot, 1984 -Cryptadapis laharpei Godinot, 1984 -Cryptadapis tertius Godinot, 1984 -Leptadapis Gervais, 1876 -Leptadapis assolicus -Leptadapis filholi Godinot & Couette, 2008 -Leptadapis capellae Crusafont-Pairo, 1967 -Leptadapis leenhardti Stehlin, 1912 -Leptadapis magnus Filhol, 1874 -Leptadapis ruetimeyeri Stehlin, 1912 -Magnadapis Godinot & Couette, 2008 -Magnadapis quercyi Godinot & Couette, 2008 -Magnadapis fredi Godinot & Couette, 2008 -Magnadapis laurenceae Godinot & Couette, 2008 -Magnadapis intermedius Godinot & Couette, 2008 -Microadapis Szalay, 1974 -Microadapis lynnae -Microadapis sciureus Stehlin, 1916 -Palaeolemur Delfortrie, 1873 -Palaeolemur betillei Delfortrie, 1873 -Paradapis Tattersall & Schwartz 1983 -Paradapis ruetimeyeri Stehlin 1912 -Paradapis priscus Stehlin, 1916 -Caenopithecinae Szalay & Delson 1979 -Adapoides Beard et al., 1994 -Adapoides troglodytes Beard et al., 1994 -Afradapis Seiffert et al., 2009 -Afradapis longicristatus Seiffert et al., 2009 -Aframonius Simons et al., 1995 -Aframonius diedes Simons et al., 1995 -Caenopithecus Rütimeyer, 1862 -Caenopithecus lemuroides Rütimeyer, 1862 -Darwinius Franzen et al., 2009 -Darwinius masillae Franzen et al., 2009 -Europolemur Weigelt, 1933 -Europolemur dunaifi Tattersall & Schwartz, 1983 -Europolemur klatti Weigelt, 1933 -Europolemur koenigswald Franzen, 1987 -Godinotia Franzen, 2000 -Godinotia neglecta Thalmann, Haubold & Martin, 1989 -Mahgarita Wilson & Szalay, 1976 -Mahgarita stevensi Wilson & Szalay, 1976 -Masradapis Seiffert, Boyer, Fleagle, Gunnell, Heesy, Perry, Sallam, 2017 -Masradapis tahai Seiffert, Boyer, Fleagle, Gunnell, Heesy, Perry, and Sallam, 2017 -Mescalerolemur Kirk & Williams, 2011 -Mescalerolemur horneri Kirk & Williams, 2011 -Sivaladapidae Thomas & Verma, 1979 -Ramadapis Gilbert, Patel, Singh, Campisano, Fleagle, Rust, and Patnaik, 2017 -Ramadapis sahnii Gilbert, Patel, Singh, Campisano, Fleagle, Rust, and Patnaik, 2017 -Sivaladapinae Thomas & Verma, 1979 -Indraloris Lewis, 1933 -Indraloris himalayensis Pilgrim, 1932 -Indraloris kamlialensis Flynn and Morgan, 2005 -Sinoadapis Wu & Pan, 1985 -Sinoadapis carnosus Wu & Pan, 1985 -Sivaladapis Gingerich & Sahni, 1979 -Sivaladapis nagrii Prasad, 1970 -Sivaladapis palaendicus Pilgrim, 1932 -Hoanghoniinae Gingerich et al., 1994 -Hoanghonius Zdansky, 1930 -Hoanghonius stehlini Zdansky, 1930 -Lushius Chow, 1961 -Lushius qinlinensis Chow, 1961 -Rencunius Gingerich et al., 1994 -Rencunius zhoui Gingerich et al., 1994 -Wailekia Ducrocq et al., 1995 -Wailekia orientale Ducrocq et al., 1995 -incertae sedis -Guangxilemur Qi & Beard, 1998 -Guangxilemur tongi Qi & Beard, 1998 -Kyitchaungia Beard et al. 2007 -Kyitchaungia takaii Beard et al. 2007 -Laomaki Ni et al. 2016 -Laomaki yunnanensis Ni et al. 2016 -Paukkaungia Beard et al. 2007 -Paukkaungia parva Beard et al. 2007 -Siamoadapis Chaimanee et al., 2007 -Siamoadapis maemohensis Chaimanee et al., 2007 -Yunnanadapis Ni et al. 2016 -Yunnanadapis folivorus Ni et al. 2016 -Yunnanadapis imperator Ni et al. 2016 - -=== Infraorder Chiromyiformes === -Daubentoniidae Gray, 1863 -Daubentonia É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1795 -Daubentonia robusta Lamberton, 1934 -Plesiopithecidae Simons and Rasmussen, 1994 -Plesiopithecus Simons, 1992 -Plesiopithecus teras Simons, 1992 -Propottidae Butler, 1984 -Propotto Simpson, 1967 -Propotto leakeyi Simpson, 1967 - -=== Infraorder Lemuriformes === - -==== Basal stem group Lemuriformes ==== -Family Azibiidae Gingerich, 1976 -Algeripithecus Godinot & Mahboubi, 1992 -Algeripithecus minutus Godinot & Mahboubi, 1992 -Azibius Sudre, 1975 -Azibius trerki Sudre, 1975 -Djebelemuridae Hartenberger and Marandat, 1992 -unnamed ('Anchomomys') -'Anchomomys' milleri Simons, 1997 -Djebelemur Hartenberger and Marandat, 1992 -Djebelemur martinezi Hartenberger & Marandat, 1992 -Namaia Pickford et al., 2008 -Namaia bogenfelsi Pickford et al., 2008 -Omanodon Gheerbrant et al., 1993 -Omanodon minor Gheerbrant et al., 1993 -Shizarodon Gheerbrant et al., 1993 -Shizarodon dhofarensis Gheerbrant et al., 1993 -Plesiopithecidae Simons and Rasmussen, 1994 -Plesiopithecus Simons, 1992 -Plesiopithecus teras Simons, 1992 - -==== Lemuroidea ==== -Subfossil lemurs: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6a25fa131..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,85 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of fossil primates" -chunk: 3/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:00.524154+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Archaeolemuridae G. Grandier, 1905 -Archaeolemur Filhol, 1895 -Archaeolemur edwardsi Filhol, 1895 -Archaeolemur majori Filhol, 1895 -Hadropithecus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 -Hadropithecus stenognathus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 -Palaeopropithecidae Tattersall, 1973 -Mesopropithecus Standing, 1905 -Mesopropithecus dolichobrachion Simons et al., 1995 -Mesopropithecus globiceps Lamberton, 1936 -Mesopropithecus pithecoides Standing, 1905 -Babakotia Godfrey et al., 1990 -Babakotia radofilai Godfrey et al., 1990 -Palaeopropithecus G. Grandidier, 1899 -Palaeopropithecus ingens G. Grandidier, 1899 -Palaeopropithecus kelyus Gommery et al., 2010 -Palaeopropithecus maximus Standing, 1903 -Archaeoindris Standing, 1909 -Archaeoindris fontoynontii Standing, 1909 -Megaladapidae Forsyth-Major, 1894 -Megaladapis Forsyth-Major, 1894 -Subgenus: Megaladapis -Megaladapis (Megaladapis) grandidieri Standing, 1903 -Megaladapis (Megaladapis) madagascariensis Forsyth-Major, 1894 -Subgenus: Peloriadapis -Megaladapis (Peloriadapis) edwardsi Grandidier, 1899 -Lemuridae Gray, 1821 -Pachylemur Lamberton, 1946 -Pachylemur insignis Filhol, 1895 -Pachylemur jullyi Lamberton, 1948 - -=== Lorisiformes === -Lorisidae Gray, 1821 -Karanisia Seiffert et al., 2003 -Karanisia clarki Seiffert et al., 2003 -Mioeuoticus Leakey, 1962 -Mioeuoticus bishopi Leakey, 1962 -Mioeuoticus kichotoi Kunimatsu, Tsujikawa, Nakatsukasa, Shimizu, Ogihara, Kikuchi, Nakano, Takano, Morimoto, and Ishida, 2017 -Mioeuoticus shipmani Phillips & Walker, 2000 -Nycticeboides Jacobs, 1981 -Nycticeboides simpsoni Jacobs, 1981 -Galagidae Gray, 1825 -Galago Geoffroy, 1796 -Galago farafraensis Pickford, Wanas & Soliman, 2006 -Galago howelli Wesselman, 1984 -Galago sadimanensis Walker, 1987 -Komba Simpson, 1967 -Komba minor Le Gros Clark & Thomas, 1952 -Komba robustus Le Gros Clark & Thomas, 1952 -Komba winamensis McCrossin, 1992 -Progalago MacInnes, 1943 -Progalago dorae MacInnes, 1943 -Progalago songhorensis Simpson, 1967 -Saharagalago Seiffert et al., 2003 -Saharagalago misrensis Seiffert et al., 2003 -Wadilemur Simons, 1997 -Wadilemur elegans Simons, 1997 - -== Haplorhini == -Teilhardina Simpson, 1940 -Teilhardina asiatica Ni et al., 2004 -Teilhardina belgica (Teilhard de Chardin, 1927) - -=== Tarsiiformes === - -==== Tarsiiformes, incertae sedis ==== -Altanius Dashzeveg & McKenna, 1977 -Altanius orlovi Dashzeveg & McKenna, 1977 -Altiatlasius Sigé et al., 1990 -Altiatlasius koulchii Sigé et al., 1990 - -==== Archicebidae ==== - -Archicebus Ni et al., 2013 -Archicebus achilles Ni et al., 2013 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index e27eb81d3..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,209 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of fossil primates" -chunk: 4/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:00.524154+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -==== Omomyoidea ==== -Omomyidae Trouessart, 1879 -Baataromomys Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 -Baataromomys ulaanus Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 -Kohatius Russell & Gingerich, 1980 -Kohatius coppensi Russell & Gingerich, 1980 -Microchoerinae Lydekker, 1887 -Melaneremia Hooker, 2007 -Melaneremia bryanti Hooker, 2007 -Microchoerus Wood, 1846 -Microchoerus creechbarrowensis Hooker, 1986 -Microchoerus edwardsi Filhol, 1880 -Microchoerus erinaceus Wood, 1846 -Microchoerus hookeri Minwer-Barakat, Marigó, Femenias-Gual, Costeur, Esteban-Trivigno, and Moyà-Solà, 2017 -Microchoerus ornatus Stehlin, 1916 -Microchoerus wardi Hooker, 1986 -Necrolemur Filhol, 1873 -Necrolemur anadoni Minwer-Barakat, Marigó & Moyà-Solà, 2015 -Necrolemur antiquus Filhol, 1873 -Necrolemur zitteli Schlosser, 1887 -Nannopithex Stehlin, 1916 -Nannopithex filholi Chantre & Gaillard, 1897 -Nannopithex humilidens Thalmann, 1994 -Nannopithex quaylei Hooker, 1986 -Nannopithex raabi Heller, 1930 -Nannopithex zuccolae Godinot et al., 1992 -Pseudoloris Stehlin, 1916 -Pseudoloris crusafonti Louis & Sudre, 1975 -Pseudoloris godinoti Köhler & Moyà-Solà, 1999 -Pseudoloris isabenae Crusafont-Pairo, 1967 -Pseudoloris parvulus Filhol, 1890 -Anaptomorphinae Cope, 1883 -Tribe: Anaptomorphini -Anaptomorphus Cope, 1872 -Anaptomorphus aemulus Cope, 1872 -Anaptomorphus westi Szalay, 1976 -Tetonius Matthew, 1915 -Tetonius homunculus Cope, 1882 -Tetonius matthewi Bown & Rose, 1987 -Tetonius mckennai Bown & Rose, 1987 -Absarokius Matthew, 1915 -Absarokius abbotti Loomis, 1906 -Absarokius australis Bown & Rose, 1987 -Absarokius nocerai Robinson, 1966 -Absarokius metoecus Bown & Rose, 1987 -Absarokius witteri Morris, 1954 -"Teilhardina" Simpson, 1940 -Teilhardina brandti Gingerich, 1993 -"Teilhardina" demissa Rose, 1995 -"Teilhardina" gingerichi Rose, Chew, Dunn, Kraus, Fricke, and Zack, 2012 -"Teilhardina" tenuicula Jepsen, 1930 -Bownomomys Morse et al., 2018 -Bownomomys americanus (Bown, 1976) -Bownomomys crassidens )Bown & Rose, 1987) -Anemorhysis Gazin, 1958 -Anemorhysis natronensis Beard et al., 1992 -Anemorhysis pattersoni Bown & Rose, 1984 -Anemorhysis pearcei Gazin, 1962 -Anemorhysis savagei Williams & Covert, 1994 -Anemorhysis sublettensis Gazin, 1952 -Anemorhysis wortmani Bown & Rose, 1984 -Chlororhysis Gazin, 1958 -Chlororhysis incomptus Bown & Rose, 1984 -Chlororhysis knightensis Gazin, 1958 -Pseudotetonius Bown, 1974 -Pseudotetonius ambiguus Bown, 1974 -Arapahovius Savage & Waters, 1978 -Arapahovius advena Bown & Rose, 1991 -Arapahovius gazini Savage & Waters, 1978 -Aycrossia Bown, 1979 -Aycrossia lovei Bown, 1979 -Strigorhysis Bown, 1979 -Strigorhysis bridgerensis Bown, 1979 -Strigorhysis huerfanensis Bown & Rose, 1987 -Strigorhysis rugosus Bown, 1979 -Gazinius Bown, 1979 -Gazinius amplus Bown, 1979 -Gazinius bowni Gunnell, 1995 -Tatmanius Bown & Rose, 1991 -Tatmanius szalayi Bown & Rose, 1991 -Tribe: Trogolemurini -Trogolemur Matthew, 1909 -Trogolemur amplior Beard et al., 1992 -Trogolemur fragilis Beard et al., 1992 -Trogolemur myodes Matthew, 1909 -Sphacorhysis Gunnell, 1995 -Sphacorhysis burntforkensis Gunnell, 1995 -Walshina López-Torres, Silcox, and Holroyd, 2018 -Walshina esmaraldensis López-Torres, Silcox, and Holroyd, 2018 -Walshina mcgrewi (Robinson, 1968) -Walshina shifrae (Krishtalka, 1978) -Omomyinae Trouessart, 1879 -Brontomomys Atwater and Kirk, 2018 -Brontomomys cerutti Atwater and Kirk, 2018 -Diablomomys Williams and Kirk, 2008 -Diablomomys dalquesti Williams and Kirk, 2008 -Ekwiiyemakius Atwater and Kirk, 2018 -Ekwiiyemakius walshi Atwater and Kirk, 2018 -Gunnelltarsius Atwater and Kirk, 2018 -Gunnelltarsius randalli Atwater and Kirk, 2018 -Tribe: Omomyiini -Omomys Leidy, 1869 -Omomys carteri Leidy, 1869 -Omomys lloydi Gazin, 1958 -Steinius Bown & Rose, 1984 -Steinius annectens Bown & Rose, 1991 -Steinius vespertinus Matthew, 1915 -Chumashius Stock, 1933 -Chumashius balchi Stock, 1933 -Tribe: Washakiini -Washakius Leidy, 1873 -Washakius insignis Leidy, 1873 -Washakius izetti Honey, 1990 -Washakius laurae Simpson, 1959 -Washakius woodringi Stock, 1938 -Shoshonius Granger, 1910 -Shoshonius bowni Honey, 1990 -Shoshonius cooperi Granger, 1910 -Dyseolemur Stock, 1934 -Dyseolemur pacificus Stock, 1934 -Loveina Simpson, 1940 -Loveina minuta Loomis, 1906 -Loveina wapitiensis Gunnell et al., 1992 -Loveina zephyri Simpson, 1940 -Tribe: Utahiini -Utahia Gazin, 1958 -Utahia carina Muldoon and Gunnell, 2002 -Utahia kayi Gazin, 1958 -Stockia Gazin, 1958 -Stockia powayensis Gazin, 1958 -Chipetaia Rasmussen, 1996 -Chipetaia lamporea Rasmussen, 1996 -Asiomomys Wang & Li, 1990 -Asiomomys changbaicus Wang & Li, 1990 -Tribe: Ourayiini -Wyomomys Gunnell, 1995 -Wyomomys bridgeri Gunnell, 1995 -Ageitodendron Gunnell, 1995 -Ageitodendron matthewi Gunnell, 1995 -Ourayia Gazin, 1958 -Ourayia hopsoni Robinson, 1968 -Ourayia uintensis Osborn, 1895 -Tribe: Macrotarsiini -Macrotarsius Clark, 1941 -Macrotarsius jepseni Robinson, 1968 -Macrotarsius macrorhysis Beard et al., 1994 -Macrotarsius montanus Clark, 1941 -Macrotarsius roederi Kelly, 1990 -Macrotarsius siegerti Robinson, 1968 -Hemiacodon Marsh, 1872 -Hemiacodon casamissus Beard et al., 1992 -Hemiacodon gracilis Marsh, 1872 -Yaquius Mason, 1990 -Yaquius travisi Mason, 1990 -Tribe: Uintaniini -Uintanius Matthew, 1915 -Uintanius ameghini Wortman, 1904 -Uintanius rutherfurdi Robinson, 1966 -Jemezius Beard, 1987 -Jemezius szalayi Beard, 1987 -Tribus: Rooneyini -Rooneyia Wilson, 1966 -Rooneyia viejaensis Wilson, 1966 -Tarsiidae Gray, 1825 -Hesperotarsius Zijlstra, Flynn, and Wessels, 2013 -Hesperotarsius sindhensis Zijlstra, Flynn, and Wessels, 2013 -Hesperotarsius thailandicus (Ginsburg & Mein, 1987) -Oligotarsius Ni et al., 2016 -Oligotarsius rarus Ni et al., 2016 -Tarsius Storr, 1780 -"Tarsius" eocaenus Beard et al., 1994 -"Tarsius" sirindhornae Chaimanee et al., 2011 -Xanthorhysis Beard, 1998 -Xanthorhysis tabrumi Beard, 1998 - -=== Eosimiiformes === - -==== Afrotarsiidae ==== -Afrasia Chaimanee et al. 2012 -Afrasia djijidae Chaimanee et al. 2012 -Afrotarsius Simons & Bown, 1985 -Afrotarsius chatrathi Simons & Bown, 1985 -Afrotarsius libycus Jaeger et al., 2010 - -==== Eosimiidae ==== -Eosimias Beard et al., 1994 -Eosimias centennicus Beard et al., 1996 -Eosimias sinensis Beard et al., 1994 -Bahinia Jaeger et al., 1999 -Bahinia banyueae Li et al., 2016 -Bahinia pondaungensis Jaeger et al., 1999 -Phileosimias Marivaux, Antoine, Baqri, Benammi, and Chaimanee, 2005 -Phileosimias brahuiorum Marivaux, Antoine, Baqri, Benammi, and Chaimanee, 2005 -Phileosimias kamali Marivaux, Antoine, Baqri, Benammi, and Chaimanee, 2005 -Phenacopithecus Beard and Wang, 2004 -Phenacopithecus krishtalkai Beard and Wang, 2004 -Phenacopithecus xueshii Beard and Wang, 2004 - -=== Simiiformes === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index fff82141c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,201 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of fossil primates" -chunk: 5/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:00.524154+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -==== Simiiformes, incertae sedis ==== -Amphipithecidae Godinot, 1994 -Pondaungia Pilgrim, 1927 -Pondaungia cotteri Pilgrim, 1927 -Amphipithecus Colbert, 1937 -Amphipithecus mogaungensis Colbert, 1937 -Krabia Chaimanee et al., 2013 -Krabia minuta Chaimanee et al., 2013 -Siamopithecus Chaimanee et al., 1997 -Siamopithecus eocaenus Chaimanee et al., 1997 -Proteopithecidae Simons, 1997 -Proteopithecus Simons, 1989 -Proteopithecus sylviae Simons, 1989 -Serapia Simons, 1992 -Serapia eocaena Simons, 1992 -Parapithecidae Schlosser, 1911 -Arsinoea Simons, 1992 -Arsinoea kallimos Simons, 1992 -Apidium Osborn, 1908 -Apidium bowni Simons, 1995 -Apidium moustafai Simons, 1962 -Apidium phiomense Osborn, 1908 -Parapithecus Schlosser, 1910 -Parapithecus fraasi Schlosser, 1910 -Parapithecus grangeri Simons, 1974 -Qatrania Simons & Kay, 1983 -Qatrania fleaglei Simons & Kay, 1988 -Qatrania wingi Simons & kay, 1983 -Biretia Bonis et al., 1988 -Biretia piveteaui Bonis et al., 1988 -Biretia fayumensis Seiffert et al., 2005 -Biretia megalopsis Seiffert et al., 2005 - -==== Platyrrhini ==== -Platyrrhini, incertae sedis -Branisella Hoffstetter, 1969 -Branisella boliviana Hoffstetter, 1969 -Atelidae Gray, 1825 -Pitheciinae Mivart, 1865 -Tribus: Callicebini -Xenothrix Williams & Koopman, 1952 -Xenothrix mcgregori Williams & Koopman, 1952 -Antillothrix MacPhee et al., 1995 -Antillothrix bernensis Rímoli, 1977 -Paralouatta Rivero & Arredondo, 1991 -Paralouatta varonai Rivero & Arredondo, 1991 -Paralouatta marianae -Tribus: Pitheciini -Soriacebus Fleagle et al., 1987 -Soriacebus adrianae Fleagle, 1990 -Soriacebus ameghinorum Fleagle et al., 1987 -Proteropithecia Kay et al., 1999 -Proteropithecia neuquenensis Kay et al., 1998 -Cebupithecia Stirton & Savage, 1951 -Cebupithecia sarmientoi Stirton & Savage, 1951 -Nuciruptor Meldrum & Kay, 1997 -Nuciruptor rubricae Meldrum & Kay, 1997 -Tribus: Homunculini -Homunculus Ameghino, 1891 -Homunculus patagonicus Ameghino, 1891 -Carlocebus Fleagle, 1990 -Carlocebus carmenensis Fleagle, 1990 -Carlocebus intermedius Fleagle, 1990 -Atelinae Gray, 1825 -Tribus: Alouattini -Stirtonia Hershkovitz, 1970 -Stirtonia tatacoensis Stirton, 1951 -Stirtonia victoriae Kay et al., 1987 -Tribus: Atelini -Caipora Cartelle & Hartwig, 1996 -Caipora bambuiorum Cartelle & Hartwig, 1996 -Atelinae, incertae sedis -Protopithecus Lund, 1838 -Protopithecus brasiliensis Lund, 1838 -Cebidae Bonaparte, 1831 -Cebinae Bonaparte, 1831 -Tribus: Saimiriini -Neosaimiri Stirton, 1951 -Neosaimiri fieldsi Stirton, 1951 -Laventiana Rosenberger et al., 1991 -Laventiana annectens Rosenberger et al., 1991 -Dolichocebus Kraglievich, 1951 -Dolichocebus gaimanensis Kraglievich, 1951 -Cebinae, incertae sedis -Chilecebus Flynn & al, 1995 -Chilecebus carrascoensis Flynn & al, 1995 -Killikaike Tejedor et al., 2006 -Killikaike blakei Tejedor et al., 2006 -Aotinae Elliot, 1913 -Aotus Illiger, 1811 -Aotus dindensis Setoguchi & Rosenberger, 1987 -Aotinae, incertae sedis -Tremacebus Hershkovitz, 1974 -Tremacebus harringtoni Rusconi, 1933 -Callitrichinae Thomas, 1903 -Tribus: Callimiconi -Mohanamico Luchterhand et al., 1986 -Mohanamico hershkovitzi Luchterhand et al., 1986 -Callitrichinae, incertae sedis -Patasola Kay & Meldrum, 1997 -Patasola magdalenae Kay & Meldrum, 1997 -Lagonimico Kay, 1994 -Lagonimico conclutatus Kay, 1994 -Micodon Setoguchi & Rosenberger, 1985 -Micodon kiotensis Setoguchi & Rosenberger, 1985 - -==== Catarrhini ==== - -===== Catarrhini, incertae sedis ===== -Limnopithecus Hopwood, 1933 -Limnopithecus evansi MacInnes, 1943 -Limnopithecus legetet Hopwood, 1933 -Kalepithecus Harrison, 1988 -Kalepithecus songhorensis Andrews, 1978 -Kalepithecus kogolensis Pickford et al., 2017 -Kamoyapithecus Leakey et al., 1995 -Kamoyapithecus hamiltoni Madden, 1980 -Kogolepithecus Pickford et al., 2003 -Kogolepithecus morotoensis Pickford et al., 2003 - -===== Propliothecoidea ===== -Oligopithecidae Kay & Williams, 1994 -Catopithecus Simons, 1989 -Catopithecus browni Simons, 1989 -Oligopithecus Simons, 1962 -Oligopithecus rogeri Gheerbrant et al., 1995 -Oligopithecus savagei Simons, 1962 -Talahpithecus Jaeger et al., 2010 -Talahpithecus parvus Jaeger et al., 2010 -Propliopithecidae Straus, 1961 -Moeripithecus Schlosser, 1910 -Moeripithecus markgrafi Schlosser, 1910 -Propliopithecus Schlosser, 1910 -Propliopithecus ankeli Simons et al., 1987 -Propliopithecus chirobates Simons, 1965 -Propliopithecus haeckeli Schlosser, 1910 -Aegyptopithecus Simons, 1965 -Aegyptopithecus zeuxis Simons, 1965 - -===== Pliopithecoidea ===== -Pliopithecidae Zapfe, 1960 -Lomorupithecus Rossie and MacLatchy, 2006 -Lomorupithecus harrisoni Rossie and MacLatchy, 2006 -Dionysopithecinae -Dionysopithecus Li, 1978 -Dionysopithecus orientalis Suteethorn et al., 1990 -Dionysopithecus shuangouensis Li, 1978 -Platodontopithecus Li, 1978 -Platodontopithecus jianghuaiensis Li, 1978 -Pliopitheciinae -Epipliopithecus Zapfe & Hurzeler, 1957 -Epipliopithecus vindobonensis Zapfe & Hurzeler, 1957 -Pliopithecus Gervais, 1849 -Pliopithecus antiquus Gervais, 1849 -Pliopithecus piveteaui Hürzeler, 1954 -Pliopithecus platyodon Bidermann, 1863 -Pliopithecus zhanxiangi Harrison et al., 1991 -Egarapithecus Moyà-Solà et al., 2001 -Egarapithecus narcisoi Moyà-Solà et al., 2001 -Crouzeliinae Ginsburg & Mein, 1980 -Plesiopliopithecus Zapfe, 1961 -Plesiopliopithecus auscitanensis Bergounioux & Crouzel, 1965 -Plesiopliopithecus lockeri Zapfe, 1961 -Plesiopliopithecus priensis Welcomme et al., 1991 -Plesiopliopithecus rhodanica Ginsburg & Mein, 1980 -Anapithecus Kretzoi, 1975 -Anapithecus hernyaki Kretzoi, 1975 -Laccopithecus Wu & Pan, 1984 -Laccopithecus robustus Wu & Pan, 1984 -Pliopithecoidea, incertae sedis -Paidopithex Pohlig, 1895 -Paidopithex rhenanus Pohlig, 1895 - -===== Dendropithecoidea ===== -Dendropithecidae Harrison, 2002 -Dendropithecus Andrews & Simons, 1977 -Dendropithecus macinnesi Le Gros Clark & Leakey, 1950 -Dendropithecus ugandensis Pickford et al., 2010 -Micropithecus Fleagle & Simons, 1978 -Micropithecus clarki Fleagle & Simons, 1978 -Micropithecus leakeyorum Harrison, 1989 -Simiolus Leakey & Leakey, 1987 -Simiolus andrewsi Harrison, 2010 -Simiolus cheptumoae Pickford & Kunimatsu, 2005 -Simiolus enjiessi Leakey & Leakey, 1987 -Simiolus minutus Rossie & Hill, 2018 - -===== Saadanioidea ===== -Saadaniidae Zalmout et al., 2010 -Saadanius Zalmout et al., 2010 -Saadanius hijazensis Zalmout et al. 2010 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 86ee9cc76..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,251 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of fossil primates" -chunk: 6/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:00.524154+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -===== Cercopithecoidea ===== -Nsungwepithecus Stevens et al., 2013 -Nsungwepithecus gunnelli Stevens et al., 2013 -Victoriapithecidae von Koenigswald, 1969 -Victoriapithecus von Koenigswald, 1969 -Victoriapithecus macinnesi von Koenigswald, 1969 -Prohylobates Fourtau, 1918 -Prohylobates tandyi Fourtau, 1918 -Prohylobates simonsi Delson, 1979 -Noropithecus Miller et al. 2009 -Noropithecus bulukensis Miller et al. 2009 -Cercopithecidae Gray, 1821 -Colobinae Jernon, 1867 -Tribus: Colobini -Microcolobus Benefit & Pickford, 1986 -Microcolobus tugenensis Benefit & Pickford, 1986 -Rhinocolobus M.G. Leakey, 1982 -Rhinocolobus turkanaensis M.G. Leakey, 1982 -Colobinae, incertae sedis -Mesopithecus Wagner, 1839 -Mesopithecus pentelicus Wagner, 1839 -Mesopithecus monspessulanus Gervais, 1849 -Mesopithecus sivalensis (Lydekker, 1878) -Myanmarcolobus Takai et al., 2015 -Myanmarcolobus yawensis Takai et al., 2015 -Rhinopithecus É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 -Subgenus: Rhinopithecus É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 -Rhinopithecus (Rhinopithecus) lantianensis Hu & Qi, 1978 -Dolichopithecus Depéret, 1889 -Dolichopithecus ruscinensis Depéret, 1889 -Libypithecus Stromer, 1913 -Libypithecus markgrafi Stromer, 1913 -Semnopithecus Desmarest, 1822 -Semnopithecus gwebinnensis Takai et al., 2016 -Parapresbytis Kalmykov & Maschenko, 1992 -Parapresbytis eohanuman (Borissoglebskaya, 1981) -Cercopithecoides Mollett, 1947 -Cercopithecoides kimeui M.G. Leakey, 1982 -Cercopithecoides williamsi Mollett, 1947 -Paracolobus R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 -Paracolobus chemeroni R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 -Paracolobus mutiwa M.G. Leakey, 1969 -Cercopithecinae Gray, 1821 -Tribus: Papionini -Subtribus: Macanina -Macaca Lacépède, 1799 -Macaca anderssoni Schlosser, 1924 -Macaca florentina Cocchi, 1872 -Macaca jiangchuanensis Pan et al., 1992 -Macaca libyca Stromer, 1920 -Macaca majori Schaub & Azzaroli in Comaschi Caria, 1969 (sometimes included in M. sylvanus) -?Macaca palaeindicus (Lydekker, 1884) -Procynocephalus Schlosser, 1924 -Procynocephalus subhimalayanus von Meyer, 1848 -Procynocephalus wimani Schlosser, 1924 -Paradolichopithecus Necrasov et al., 1961 -Paradolichopithecus arvernensis (Depéret, 1929) -Subtribus: Papionina -Parapapio Jones, 1937 -Parapapio ado Hopwood, 1936 -Parapapio broomi Jones, 1937 -Parapapio jonesi Broom, 1940 -Parapapio whitei Broom, 1940 -Parapapio lothagamensis Leakey, Teaford, and Ward, 2003 -Procercocebus Gilbert, 2007 -Procercocebus antiquus (Haughton, 1925) -Dinopithecus Broom, 1937 -Dinopithecus ingens Broom, 1937 -Gorgopithecus Broom & Robinson, 1946 -Gorgopithecus major Broom, 1940 -Theropithecus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843 -Subgenus: Theropithecus Delson, 1993 -Theropithecus (Theropithecus) darti Broom & Jensen, 1946 -Theropithecus (Theropithecus) oswaldi Andrews, 1916 -Subgenus: Omopithecus Delson, 1993 -Theropithecus (Omopithecus) baringensis R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 -Theropithecus (Omopithecus) brumpti Arambourg, 1947 -Soromandrillus Gilbert, 2013 -Soromandrillus quadratirostris (Iwamoto, 1982) -Papio Erxleben, 1777 -Papio izodi Gear, 1926 -Papio robinsoni Freedman, 1957 - -===== Hominoidea ===== -Hominoidea, incertae sedis -Otavipithecus Conroy et al., 1992 -Otavipithecus namibiensis Conroy et al., 1992 - -Proconsulidae Leakey, 1963 -Proconsulinae Leakey, 1963 -Ekembo McNulty et al., 2015 -Ekembo heseloni (Walker et al., 1993) -Ekembo nyanzae (Le Gros Clark & Leakey, 1950) -Proconsul Hopwood, 1933 -Proconsul africanus Hopwood, 1933 -Proconsul gitongai (Pickford and Kunimatsu, 2005) -Proconsul major Le Gros Clark & Leakey, 1950 -Proconsul meswae Harrison and Andrews, 2009 -Nyanzapithecinae Harrison, 2002 -Nyanzapithecus Harrison, 1986 -Nyanzapithecus alesi Nengo, Tafforeau, Gilbert, Fleagle, Miller, Feibel, Fox, Feinberg, Pugh, Berruyer, Mana, Engle, Spoor, 2017 -Nyanzapithecus harrisoni Kunimatsu, 1997 -Nyanzapithecus pickfordi Harrison, 1986 -Nyanzapithecus vancouveringorum Andrews, 1974 -Mabokopithecus von Koenigswald, 1969 -Mabokopithecus clarki von Koenigswald, 1969 -Oreopithecus Gervais, 1872 -Oreopithecus bamboli Gervais, 1872 -Rukwapithecus Stevens et al., 2013 -Rukwapithecus fleaglei Stevens et al., 2013 -Rangwapithecus Andrews, 1974 -Rangwapithecus gordoni Andrews, 1974 -Turkanapithecus Leakey & Leakey, 1986 -Turkanapithecus kalakolensis Leakey & Leakey, 1986 - -Pliobatidae Alba et al., 2015 -Pliobates Alba et al., 2015 -Pliobates cataloniae Alba et al., 2015 -Afropithecidae Begun, 2002 -Griphopithecinae Begun, 2002 -Griphopithecus Abel, 1902 -Griphopithecus alpani Tekkaya, 1974 -Griphopithecus suessi Abel, 1902 -Afropithecinae Andrews, 1992 -Afropithecus Leakey & Leakey, 1986 -Afropithecus turkanensis Leakey & Leakey, 1986 -Heliopithecus Andrews & Martin, 1987 -Heliopithecus leakeyi Andrews & Martin, 1987 -Nacholapithecus Ishida et al., 1999 -Nacholapithecus kerioi Ishida et al., 1999 -Equatorius Ward et al., 1999 -Equatorius africanus (Le Gros Clark and Leaky, 1950) -Hominidae Gray, 1825 -Kenyapithecinae Leakey, 1962 -Kenyapithecus Leakey, 1962 -Kenyapithecus wickeri Leakey, 1962 -Ponginae Elliot, 1913 -Sivapithecini -Sivapithecus Pilgrim, 1910 -Sivapithecus indicus Pilgrim, 1910 -Sivapithecus parvada Kelley, 1988 -Sivapithecus sivalensis Lydekker, 1879 -Gigantopithecus von Koenigswald, 1935 -Gigantopithecus blacki von Koenigswald, 1935 -Gigantopithecus giganteus Pilgrim, 1915 -Ankarapithecus Ozansoy, 1965 -Ankarapithecus meteai Ozansoy, 1965 -Lufengpithecini -Lufengpithecus Wu, 1987 -Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis Chaimanee et al., 2003 -Lufengpithecus hudiensis Zhang et al., 1987 -Lufengpithecus keiyuanensis Woo, 1957 -Lufengpithecus lufengensis Xu et al., 1978 -Homininae Gray, 1825 -Dryopithecini Gregory & Hellman, 1939 -Ouranopithecus Bonis & Melentis, 1977 -Ouranopithecus macedoniensis Bonis & Melentis, 1977 -Rudapithecus Kretzoi, 1969 -Rudapithecus hungaricus Kretzoi, 1969 -Hispanopithecus Villalta & Crusafont, 1944 -Hispanopithecus laietanus Villalta & Crusafont, 1944 -Hispanopithecus crusafonti (Begun, 1992) -Pierolapithecus Moyà-Solà, 2004 -Pierolapithecus catalaunicus Moyà-Solà, 2004 -Anoiapithecus Moyà-Solà et al., 2009 -Anoiapithecus brevirostris Moyà-Solà et al., 2009 -Dryopithecus Lartet, 1856 -Dryopithecus wuduensis Xue & Delson, 1988 -Dryopithecus fontani Lartet, 1856 -Nakalipithecus Kunimatsu et al. 2007 -Nakalipthecus nakayamai Kunimatsu et al. 2007 -Neopithecus Abel, 1902 -Neopithecus brancoi (Schlosser, 1901) -Gorillini -Samburupithecus Ishida & Pickford, 1997 -Samburupithecus kiptalami Ishida & Pickford, 1997 -Chororapithecus Suwa et al., 2007 -Chororapithecus abyssinicus Suwa et al., 2007 -Hominini -Graecopithecus von Koenigswald, 1972 -Graecopithecus freybergi von Koenigswald, 1972 -Sahelanthropus Brunet et al., 2002 -Sahelanthropus tchadensis Brunet et al., 2002 -Orrorin Senut et al., 2001 -Orrorin tugenensis Senut et al., 2001 -Ardipithecus White et al., 1995 -Ardipithecus ramidus White et al., 1994 -Ardipithecus kadabba -Australopithecus Dart, 1925 - paraphyletic in respect to Paranthropus and Homo -Australopithecus anamensis Leakey et al., 1995 -Australopithecus afarensis Johanson et al., 1978 -Australopithecus bahrelghazali Brunet et al., 1995 -Australopithecus africanus Dart, 1925 -Australopithecus garhi Asfaw et al., 1999 -Australopithecus sedibaBerger et al., 2010 -Paranthropus Broom, 1938 -Paranthropus aethiopicus Arambourg & Coppens, 1968 -Paranthropus boisei Leakey, 1959 -Paranthropus robustus Broom, 1938 -Homo Linnaeus, 1758 -Homo gautengensis Curnoe, 2010 -Homo rudolfensis Alexeev, 1986 -Homo habilis Leakey et al., 1964 -Homo luzonensis Détroit et al., 2019 -Homo erectus Dubois, 1892 -Homo floresiensis P. Brown et al., 2004 -Homo ergaster Groves & Mazak, 1975 -Homo antecessor Bermúdez de Castro et al., 1997 -Homo heidelbergensis Schoetensack, 1908 -Homo cepranensis Mallegni et al., 2003 -Homo neanderthalensis King, 1864 -Homo rhodesiensis Woodward, 1921 -Homo naledi Berger et al., 2015 -Kenyanthropus Leakey et al., 2001 -Kenyanthropus platyops Leakey et al., 2001 - -== See also == -Evolution of primates -List of fossil primates of South America -List of fossil sites -List of human evolution fossils -List of prehistoric mammals -Prehistoric Autopsy (2012 BBC documentary) - -== Notes == - -== References == - -=== Literature cited === -Cartmill, M. (2010). "Primate Classification and Diversity". In Platt, M.; Ghazanfar, A (eds.). Primate Neuroethology. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–30. ISBN 978-0-19-532659-8. -Hartwig, W. (2011). "Chapter 3: Primate evolution". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Bearder, S. K.; Stumpf, R. M (eds.). Primates in Perspective (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 19–31. ISBN 978-0-19-539043-8. -Szalay, F.S.; Delson, E. (1980). Evolutionary History of the Primates. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0126801507. OCLC 893740473. - -== Further reading == -Weiss, M.L.; Mann, A.E (1985). 'Human Biology and Behaviour: An anthropological perspective (4th ed.). Boston: Little Brown. ISBN 978-0-673-39013-4. -Jones, Steve; Martin, Robert D.; Pilbeam, David R, eds. (1994). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human evolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46786-5. -Hartwig, Walter Carl (2002). Hartwig, Walter (ed.). The Primate Fossil Record. Cambridge University Press. p. 544. Bibcode:2002prfr.book.....H. ISBN 978-0-521-08141-2. - -== External links == -Interactive map of fossil finds Archived 2012-02-22 at the Wayback Machine -"National Museums of Kenya: Casts Catalogue". National Museums of Kenya. Retrieved 2010-05-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) (note: the catalogue loads with pages in reverse order - i.e. last page first) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0504da20c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,184 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of geoscience organizations" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:02.629954+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of geoscience organizations, including such fields of geosciences as geology, geophysics, hydrology, oceanography, petrophysics, and related fields. - -== Intercontinental organizations == -Anthropocene Working Group -Association for Women Geoscientists (AWG) -Association of Applied Geochemists -Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society -Geochemical Society -International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment -International Association for Mathematical Geosciences (IAMG) -International Association of Cryospheric Sciences -International Association of GeoChemistry -International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy -International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS/AISH) -International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) – International non-governmental organization -International Association for the Conservation of Geological Heritage ProGEO -International Centre for Diffraction Data -International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) – Non-governmental geological organization -International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences -International Continental Scientific Drilling Program -International Geoscience Programme -International Glaciological Society (IGS) – International glaciology academic organization -International Mineralogical Association -International Organization for Biological Crystallization -International Permafrost Association -International Union for Quaternary Research -International Union of Crystallography -International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) – International non-governmental organization -International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) – International non-governmental organization -Geoscience Education, Training and Technology Transfer -International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) – International scientific union -OneGeology -Paleontological Society (PS) -Seismological Society of America (SSA) – International scientific society -Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM) – Non-profit scientific society -Society of Economic Geologists (SEG) – Scientific society -Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) – Nonprofit geoscience organization -Society of Mineral Museum Professionals (SMMP) – Professional organization -Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts (SPWLA) -Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (SVP) – American professional organization - -== Africa == -Council for Geoscience (CGS) – South African national science council -Geological Society of South Africa (GSSA) -Geological Survey of Tanzania -Nigerian Geological Survey Agency -Zimbabwe Geological Survey - -== Asia == -Asia Oceania Geosciences Society (AOGS) -Central Geological Survey (CGS) – Government agency in Taiwan -Centre for Earthquake Studies – Pakistan -Crystallographic Society of Japan – Japan -The Chamber of Geophysical Engineers of Turkey -China Geological Survey (GSC) – Chinese government agency -Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS) -Faculty of Earth Sciences, King Abdulaziz University – Saudi Arabia -Geological Society of Malaysia -Geological Society of Sri Lanka -Geological Survey of Bangladesh -Geological Survey of Japan -Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) – Government agency -Israel Geological Society -Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology -Saudi Geological Survey (SGS) – Saudi Arabian department -Seismological Society of Japan -Instituto de Geociências de Timor-Leste (IGTL) - -=== India === -Geological Society of India -Geological Survey of India – Indian governmental organization -National Geophysical Research Institute -Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology - -== Europe == -Albanian Geological Survey -Czech Geological Society -European Association of Geochemistry -European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers (EAGE) – Professional organization for geoscientists and engineers -European Association of Science Editors (EASE) -European Crystallographic Association -European Federation of Geologists (EFG) -European Geosciences Union (EGU) – International science society -GeoEcoMar – Romania -Geologica Belgica – Belgian scientific journal published by the University of Liège Library -Geological Survey of Austria (GBA) -Geological Survey of Belgium (GSB) -Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland -Geological Survey of Finland -Geological Survey of Norway (NGU) – Norwegian government agence -Geological Survey of Slovenia -Geologiska föreningen – Sweden -German Crystallographic Society -German Geophysical Society (DGG; German: Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft) -German Mineralogical Society (DMG; German: Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft) -Iceland GeoSurvey -National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) – Research institute in Italy - -=== British Isles === -Belfast Naturalists' Field Club – Northern Ireland -British Crystallographic Association -British Geological Survey (BGS) -British Organic Geochemical Society (BOGS) -British Society for Geomorphology -Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre – England -Edinburgh Geological Society – Scotland -Geological Curators' Group – England -Geological Society of Glasgow – Scotland -Geological Society of London (GSL) – England -Geological Survey of Ireland -Geologists' Association (GA) -Rockwatch -Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining -Institute of Theoretical Geophysics -Institution of Mining and Metallurgy -Oxford Geology Group -Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland -Palaeontographical Society -Palaeontological Association (PalAss) – Charitable organization -Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) – British learned society and charity -Royal Geological Society of Cornwall (RGSC) – England -Royal Geological Society of Ireland -School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh – Scotland -Sedgwick Club – University of Cambridge, England -South Wales Geologists' Association (SWGA) – Wales -Westmorland Geological Society – England -Yorkshire Geological Society – England - -=== France === -Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières -École Nationale Supérieure de Géologie -French Crystallographic Association -Société géologique de France - -=== Russia === -Geophysical Service of the Russian Academy of Sciences -Russian Mineralogical Society -Siberian Research Institute of Geology, Geophysics and Mineral Resources -Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum-Gas Geology and Geophysics -V. S. Sobolev Institute of Geology and Mineralogy - -== Americas == -Institute on Lake Superior Geology – US and Canada (Lake Superior region) -Mexican Geological Society (SGM) – Mexican learned society -National Association of Geoscience Teachers (NAGT) – North American organization -Pan American Institute of Geography and History - -=== Canada === -Alberta Geological Survey -Mineral Core Research Facility -Association of Professional Geoscientists of Ontario – Professional organization of Canada -Atlantic Geoscience Society -CAMESE (Canadian Association of Mining Equipment and Services for Export) – Trade organization based in Mississauga, Ontario -Canadian Geophysical Union -Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM) -Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists – Canadian professional society -Decennial Mineral Exploration Conferences (DMEC) -Geological Association of Canada -Geological Survey of Canada (GAC) – Government agency -Geological Survey of Newfoundland and Labrador -Lithoprobe (dissolved) -Ontario Geological Survey -Prospectors & Developers Association of Canada (PDAC) - -=== Central and South America === -Colegio de Geólogos – Chile -Colombian Geological Survey -Costa Rican Directorate of Geology and Mines -INGEMMET – Peru -National Geology and Mining Service – Chile -Servicio Geológico Minero – Argentina -Sociedad Geológica del Perú -Sociedade Brasileira de Geofísica – Brazil -UWI Seismic Research Centre – Trinidad \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 12d8b34c9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,83 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of geoscience organizations" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:02.629954+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== United States === -American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) – Professional geological association -American Crystallographic Association -American Gem Society (AGS), also known as American Gemological Society – American trade association -American Geosciences Institute (AGI) – Nonprofit scientific federation -American Geophysical Union (AGU) – Nonprofit organization of geophysicists -American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, also known as Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration (SME) -American Quaternary Association -Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO), also known as American Society of Limnology and Oceanography -Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists (AEG) -The Clay Minerals Society (CMS) – US-based non-profit organizationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets -Earth Science Women's Network (ESWN) -Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society (EEGS) -Gemological Institute of America (GIA) – Research institute in Carlsbad, California -Geological Society of America (GSA) – Nonprofit organization dedicated to geoscience -Geoscience Information Society (GSIS) -Keck Geology Consortium -Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory -Mineralogical Society of America (MSA) – Scientific organization promoting mineralogy -National Association of Black Geologists and Geophysicists (NABGG) -National Center for Earth-surface Dynamics -National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) – Program to understand and manage US soils -National Speleological Society (NSS) – Organization for exploration, conservation, and study of caves in the United States -Paleontological Research Institution (PRI) – U.S. non-profit organization -Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) – American scientific organization -National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists (NSCSS) – dissolved -United States Earth Science Organization (USESO) -United States Geological Survey (USGS) – Scientific agency of the US government -United States Geological Survey Library - -==== Regional US ==== -Arizona Geological Society -Arkansas Geological Survey -Berkeley Geochronology Center -California Geological Survey -Delaware Geological Survey -Delaware Mineralogical Society -Geological Society of Washington (GSW) – Learned society for geology -Indiana Geological and Water Survey -Jackson School of Geosciences – University of Texas at Austin -Kansas Geological Survey -Kentucky Geological Survey -Louisiana Geological Survey -Michigan Geological Survey -Mineral Core Research Facility -Minnesota Geological Survey -New York Mineralogical Club -Oklahoma Geological Survey -Oregon State Board of Geologist Examiners (OSBGE) -Pacific Section -Pennsylvania Geological Survey -Pittsburgh Association of Petroleum Geologists (PAPG) -Pittsburgh Geological Society (PGS) -Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists (RMAG) – Non-profit organisation in Denver, Colorado -Southern California Earthquake Center -Utah Geological Survey - -== Oceania == -Australian Geoscience Council Inc (AGC) - Umbrella organisation - Australian non-profit -Australian Institute of Geoscientists (AIG) - Australian non-profit -Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (AusIMM) - Australian non-profit -Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists (ASEG) - Australian non-profit -Geological Society of Australia (GSA) – Australian non-profit -Geoscience Australia – Agency of the Australian Government -Geological Survey of Queensland -Geological Survey of South Australia -Geological Survey of Victoria -Geological Survey of Western Australia -GNS Science – New Zealand -Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia (PESA) - Australian non-profit -The Australian and New Zealand Geomorphology Group (ANZGG) - Trans-Tasman non-profit - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0f6701200..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of hyperaccumulators" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:04.952089+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This article covers known hyperaccumulators, accumulators or species tolerant to the following: Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag), Arsenic (As), Beryllium (Be), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Mercury (Hg), Molybdenum (Mo), Naphthalene, Lead (Pb), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn). -See also: - -Hyperaccumulators table – 2: Nickel -Hyperaccumulators table – 3: Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, organic solvents, etc. - - -== Hyperaccumulators table – 1 == - -Cs-137 activity was much smaller in leaves of larch and sycamore maple than of spruce: spruce > larch > sycamore maple. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 94d26f74c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,59 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of ice cores" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:10.851086+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of ice cores drilled for scientific purposes. Note that many of these locations are on moving ice sheets, and the latitude and longitude given is as of the date of drilling. - -== Africa == - -== Antarctica == - -== Asia == - -=== Mainland and arctic islands === - -=== Southeast Asia === - -== Europe == - -=== Alps === - -=== Iceland === - -=== Scandinavia === - -=== Spitzbergen === - -== North America == - -=== Canada === - -=== Greenland === - -=== United States === - -== Oceania == - -=== New Zealand === - -== South America == - -=== Bolivia === - -=== Peru === - -== See also == - -List of Arctic research programs -List of research stations in the Arctic -Research stations in Antarctica - -== Notes == - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 37623f53b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of ice cores" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:10.851086+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Sources == -Abram, Nerilie J.; Mulvaney, Robert; Wolff, Eric W.; Mudelsee, Manfred (2007). "Ice core records as sea ice proxies: An evaluation from the Weddell Sea region of Antarctica" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 112 (D15): 1–13. Bibcode:2007JGRD..11215101A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.473.4635. doi:10.1029/2006JD008139. Alley, R.B.; Koci, B.R. (1988). "Ice-core analysis at Site A, Greenland: preliminary results". Annals of Glaciology. 10: 1–4. Bibcode:1988AnGla..10....1A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.6746. doi:10.1017/S0260305500004067. Aristarain, A.J. (1981). "First glaciological studies on the James Ross Island ice cap, Antarctic peninsula". Journal of Glaciology. 27 (97): 371–379. Bibcode:1981JGlac..27..371A. doi:10.1017/S0022143000011412. Benson, Carl S. (1984). "Ice core drilling on Mt. Wrangell, Alaska 1982". In Holdsworth, G.; et al. (eds.). Ice Drilling Technology. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. pp. 61–68. Bentley, Charles R.; Koci, Bruce R. (2007). "Drilling to the beds of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets: a review". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47....1B. doi:10.3189/172756407786857695. Bird, I.G. (1976). "Thermal ice drilling: Australian developments and experience". In Splettstoesser, John F. (ed.). Ice-Core Drilling. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-8032-5843-3. Bory, A.J.; Biscaye, P.E.; Piotrowski, A.M.; Steffensen, J.P. (2003). "Regional variability of ice core dust composition and provenance in Greenland". Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4 (12): 1107. Bibcode:2003GGG.....4.1107B. doi:10.1029/2003GC000627. S2CID 129148230. Dahl-Jensen, Dorthe; Kirk, Marie; Larsen, Lars.B.; Sheldon, Simon G.; Steffensen, J.P. "Field season 2016: East GReenland Ice core Project (EGRIP) 2015–2020: Establishing the EGRIP drilling camp" (PDF). Ice and Climate Group, Niels Bohr Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-04-09. Etheridge, D.M.; et al. (1992). "Changes in tropospheric methane between 1841 and 1978 from a high-accumulation-rate Antarctic ice core". Tellus B. 44 (4): 282–294. Bibcode:1992TellB..44..282E. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.t01-3-00006.x. Gillet, F.; et al. (1976). "A new electrothermal drill for coring in ice". In Splettstoesser, John F. (ed.). Ice-Core Drilling. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 19–27. ISBN 978-0-8032-5843-3. Gillet, F. (1984). "Ice core quality in electro-mechanical drilling". In Holdsworth, G.; et al. (eds.). Ice Drilling Technology. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. pp. 73–80. Goodwin, Bradley P.; Mosley-Thompson, Ellen; Wilson, Aaron B.; Porter, Stacy; Sierra-Hernandez, M. Roxana (1 April 2016). "Accumulation Variability in the Antarctic Peninsula: The Role of Large-Scale Atmospheric Oscillations and Their Interactions" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 29 (7): 2579–2596. Bibcode:2016JCli...29.2579G. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0354.1. Hofstede, Coen M.; et al. (2004). "Firn accumulation records for the past 1000 years on the basis of dielectric profiling of six cores from DronningMaud Land, Antarctica". Journal of Glaciology. 50 (169): 279–291. Bibcode:2004JGlac..50..279H. doi:10.3189/172756504781830169. Holdsworth, G. (1984). "The Canadian Rufli-Rand electro-mechanical core drill and reaming devices". In Holdsworth, G.; et al. (eds.). Ice Drilling Technology. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. pp. 21–32. Holdsworth, G. (2004). "Ice core climate signals from Mount Logan, Yukon A.D. 1700-1897". In Bradley, Raymond S.; Jones, Philip D. (eds.). Climate Since A.D. 1500 (reprint of 1995 2nd revised ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 483–504. ISBN 978-0-415-07593-0. Johnsen, S.J.; et al. (1992). "Irregular glacial interstadials recorded in a new Greenland ice core". Nature. 359 (6393): 311–313. Bibcode:1992Natur.359..311J. doi:10.1038/359311a0. S2CID 4364364. Jouzel, J. (2013). "A brief history of ice core science over the last 50 yr". Climate of the Past. 9 (6): 2525–2547. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9.2525J. doi:10.5194/cp-9-2525-2013. Kolobov, D.D.; Savatyugin, L.M. (October–December 1982). "Bottom sediments under the Novolazarevskiy ice shelf". Polar Geography and Geology. VI (4): 267–271. doi:10.1080/10889378209377176. Korotkevich, Ye S. (1978). "Skvoznoye burenie shelfovogo lednika v raione stantsii Novolazarevskoy" [Through drilling a shelf glacier in the region of Novolazarev Station]. Soviet Antarctic Expedition Bulletin. 98: 49–52. Langway, C.C. (May 1967). "Stratigraphic analysis of a deep ice core from Greenland". CRREL Research Reports. 77: 1–71. Langway, Chester C. (1976). "The Polar Ice-Core Storage Facility at USA CRREL". In Splettstoesser, John (ed.). Ice-Core Drilling. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 71–75. ISBN 978-0803258433. Langway, Chester C.; Oeschger, H.; Dansgaard, W. (1985). "The Greenland Ice Sheet Program in Perspective". In Langway, Chester C.; Oeschger, H.; Dansgaard, W. (eds.). Greenland Ice Core: Geophysics, geochemistry, and the environment. Washington D.C.: American Geophysical Union. pp. 1–8. ISBN 978-0875900575. Langway, Chester C. (2008). "The history of early polar ice cores" (PDF). Cold Regions Science and Technology. 52 (2): 101–117. Bibcode:2008CRST...52..101L. doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2008.01.001. hdl:11681/5296. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-18. Langway, Chester C.; Chiang, Erick (December 1976). "Ice core storage and information exchange". Antarctic Journal: 290–291. Langway, Chester C.; Chiang, Erick (October 1977). "Central ice core storage facility and information exchange". Antarctic Journal: 154–156. Langway, Chester C.; Herron, Michael M. (October 1977). "Polar ice core analysis". Antarctic Journal: 152–154. Legrand, M.. (1997). "Glaciochemistry of polar ice cores: A review". Reviews of Geophysics. 35 (3): 219–243. Bibcode:1997RvGeo..35..219L. doi:10.1029/96RG03527. S2CID 55357216. Litwak, John (1984). "The PICO intermediate drill system". In Holdsworth, G.; et al. (eds.). Ice Drilling Technology. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. pp. 41–44. MacKinnon, P.K. (1980). "Ice Cores". Glaciological Data. Washington DC: World Data Center A for Glaciology [Snow and Ice]. ISSN 0149-1776. Mock, Steven J. (November 1976). "Geodetic positions of borehole sites of the Greenland Ice Sheet Program". CRREL Reports. 76–41: 1–14. Archived from the original on April 7, 2017. Morgan, V.I.; McCray, A.P.; Wehrle, E. (1984). "Ice drilling at Cape Folger, Antarctica" (PDF). CRREL Reports. 84–34: 85–86. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2017-04-19. Morgan, V.I.; et al. (1997). "Site information and initial results from deep ice drilling on Law Dome, Antarctica". Journal of Glaciology. 43 (143): 3–10. Bibcode:1997JGlac..43....3M. doi:10.1017/S0022143000002768. Mosley-Thompson, E.; McConnell, J.R.; Bales, R.C.; Li, Z.; Lin, P.-N.; Steffen, K.; Thompson, L.G.; Edwards, R.; Bathke, D. (27 December 2001). "Local to regional-scale variability of annual net accumulation on the Greenland ice sheet from PARCA cores". Journal of Geophysical Research. 106 (D24): 33839–33851. Bibcode:2001JGR...10633839M. doi:10.1029/2001JD900067. Mulvaney, Robert; et al. (1992). "The ratio of MSA to non-sea-salt sulphate in Antarctic Peninsula ice cores". Tellus B. 44 (4): 295–303. Bibcode:1992TellB..44..295M. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.t01-2-00007.x. Mulvaney, Robert; et al. (2002). "1000 year ice-core records from Berkner Island, Antarctica". Annals of Glaciology. 35: 45–51. Bibcode:2002AnGla..35...45M. doi:10.3189/172756402781817176. Osterberg, Erich C.; et al. (2014). "Mount Logan ice core record of tropical and solar influences on Aleutian Low variability: 500–1998 A.D." Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 119 (19): 11189–11204. Bibcode:2014JGRD..11911189O. doi:10.1002/2014JD021847. Pasteur, E.C.; et al. (1995). "A 340 year record of biogenic sulphur froIn the Weddell Sea area, Antarctica". Annals of Glaciology. 21: 169–174. Bibcode:1995AnGla..21..169P. doi:10.1017/S0260305500015779. Patton, D.E.; Peterson, V.L.; Stonehocker, G.H.; Wright, J.W. (1965). Waynick, A.H. (ed.). Geomagnetism and Aeronomy. Washington D.C.: American Geophysical Union. Peel, David A.; et al. (1988). "Stable-isotope / air-temperature relationships in ice cores from Dolleman Island and the Palmer Land Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula" (PDF). Annals of Glaciology. 10: 130–136. Bibcode:1988AnGla..10..130P. doi:10.1017/S0260305500004304. Peel, D.A.; Mulvaney, R. (1992). "Time-trends in the pattern of ocean-atmosphere exchange in an ice core from the Weddell Sea sector of Antarctica". Tellus B. 44 (4): 430–442. Bibcode:1992TellB..44..430P. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.00018.x. Peel, D.A. (2004). "Ice core evidence from the Antarctic Peninsula region". In Bradley, Raymond S.; Jones, Philip D. (eds.). Climate Since A.D. 1500 (reprint of 1995 2nd revised ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 549–571. ISBN 978-0-415-07593-0. Peel, David A.; et al. (2013). "Climatic Changes in the Atlantic Sector of Antarctica Over the Past 500 Years from Ice-Core and Other Evidence". In Jones, Philip Douglas; Bradley, Raymond Stephen; Jouzel, Jean (eds.). Climatic Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 200 Years. Berlin: Springer. pp. 1–8. ISBN 978-3-642-64700-0. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 510a00961..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of ice cores" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:10.851086+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Rapp, Donald (2012). Ice Ages and Interglacials: Measurements, Interpretation, and Models (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-30028-8. Rasmussen, S.O.; et al. (2013). "A first chronology for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling (NEEM) ice core". Climate of the Past. 9 (6): 2713–2730. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9.2713R. doi:10.5194/cp-9-2713-2013. Thompson, L.G.; et al. (1994). "Climate since AD 1510 on Dyer Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula: evidence for recent climate change" (PDF). Annals of Glaciology. 20: 420–426. Bibcode:1994AnGla..20..420T. doi:10.3189/1994aog20-1-420-426. Thwaites, Richard J.; Wilson, Christopher; McCray, Anthony P. (1984). "Relationship between bore-hole closure and crystal fabrics in Antarctic ice core from Cape Folger" (PDF). Journal of Glaciology. 30 (105): 171–179. Bibcode:1984JGlac..30..171T. doi:10.1017/S0022143000005906. Ueda, Herbert T.; Talalay, Pavel G. (October 2007). "Fifty Years of Soviet and Russian Drilling Activity in Polar and Non-Polar Ice". Erdc/Crrel Tr-07-20. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Vasiliev, N.I.; et al. (2007). "Deep drilling at Vostok station, Antarctica: history and recent events". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 10–23. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47...10V. doi:10.3189/172756407786857776. Weidick, Anker (1995). "Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World: Greenland" (PDF). United States Geological Survey Professional Papers. 1386-C: 1–153. Zagorodnov, V.; et al. (1998). "Antifreeze thermal ice core drilling: an effective approach to the acquisition of ice cores" (PDF). Cold Regions Science and Technology. 28 (3): 189–202. Bibcode:1998CRST...28..189Z. doi:10.1016/S0165-232X(98)00019-6. Zagorodnov, V.; Nagornov, O.; Scambos, T.A.; Muto, A.; Mosley-Thompson, E.; Pettit, E.C.; Tyuflin, S. (2012). "Borehole temperatures reveal details of 20th century warming at Bruce Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula". The Cryosphere. 6 (3): 675–686. Bibcode:2012TCry....6..675Z. doi:10.5194/tc-6-675-2012. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6596785f9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of inductees in the International Rubber Science Hall of Fame" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:13.117836+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The International Rubber Science Hall of Fame recognizes the careers of notable professionals in rubber technology. It is jointly sponsored by the Maurice Morton Institute of Polymer Science at The University of Akron and the Rubber Division of the American Chemical Society. -The Goodyear Polymer Center at the University of Akron houses the Hall of Fame's portrait gallery. - - -== Inductees == -The following are members of the International Rubber Hall of Fame: - - -== See also == -Charles Goodyear Medal: Another ACS rubber award -Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award: Another ACS rubber award -International Rubber Science Hall of Fame: Another ACS award -Rubber Chemistry and Technology: An ACS journal -List of chemistry awards - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Awards page of ACS Rubber Division \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8d981513c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,59 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of laser applications" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:10.046930+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. - -== Scientific == -In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: - -A wide variety of interferometric techniques -Raman spectroscopy -Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy -Atmospheric remote sensing -Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena -Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. -Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology applications in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. -Three-dimensional structural modifications and writing inside technological materials. -Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. -In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. -Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. -The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. - -=== Spectroscopy === -Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range of wavelengths. By careful design of the laser components, the purity of the laser light (measured as the "linewidth") can be improved more than the purity of any other light source. This makes the laser a very useful source for spectroscopy. The high intensity of light that can be achieved in a small, well collimated beam can also be used to induce a nonlinear optical effect in a sample, which makes techniques such as Raman spectroscopy possible. Other spectroscopic techniques based on lasers can be used to make extremely sensitive detectors of various molecules, able to measure molecular concentrations in the parts-per-1012 (ppt) level. Due to the high power densities achievable by lasers, beam-induced atomic emission is possible: this technique is termed Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). - -=== Heat treatment === -Heat treating with the lasers allows selective surface hardening against wear with little or no distortion of the component. Because this eliminates much part reworking that is currently done, the laser system's capital cost is recovered in a short time. An inert, absorbent coating for laser heat treatment has also been developed that eliminates the fumes generated by conventional paint coatings during the heat-treating process with CO2 laser beams. -One consideration crucial to the success of a heat treatment operation is control of the laser beam irradiance on the part surface. The optimal irradiance distribution is driven by the thermodynamics of the laser-material interaction and by the part geometry. -Typically, irradiances between 500 and 5000 W/cm^2 satisfy the thermodynamic constraints and allow the rapid surface heating and minimal total heat input required. For general heat treatment, a uniform square or rectangular beam is one of the best options. For some special applications or applications where the heat treatment is done on an edge or corner of the part, it may be better to have the irradiance decrease near the edge to prevent melting. - -=== Weather === -Research shows that scientists may one day be able to induce rain and lightning storms (as well as micro-manipulating some other weather phenomena) using high energy lasers. Such a breakthrough could potentially eradicate droughts, help alleviate weather related catastrophes, and allocate weather resources to areas in need. - -=== Lunar laser ranging === - -When the Apollo astronauts visited the Moon, they planted retroreflector arrays to make possible the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. Laser beams are focused through large telescopes on Earth aimed toward the arrays, and the time taken for the beam to be reflected back to Earth measured to determine the distance between the Earth and Moon with high accuracy. - -=== Photochemistry === -Some laser systems, through the process of mode locking, can produce extremely brief pulses of light - as short as picoseconds or femtoseconds (10−12 - 10−15 seconds). Such pulses can be used to initiate and analyze chemical reactions, a technique known as photochemistry. The short pulses can be used to probe the process of the reaction at a very high temporal resolution, allowing the detection of short-lived intermediate molecules. This method is particularly useful in biochemistry, where it is used to analyse details of protein folding and function. - -=== Laser scanner === - -Laser barcode scanners are ideal for applications that require high speed reading of linear codes or stacked symbols. - -=== Laser cooling === - -A technique that has recent success is laser cooling. This involves atom trapping, a method where a number of atoms are confined in a specially shaped arrangement of electric and magnetic fields. Shining particular wavelengths of light at the ions or atoms slows them down, thus cooling them. As this process is continued, they all are slowed and have the same energy level, forming an unusual arrangement of matter known as a Bose–Einstein condensate. - -=== Nuclear fusion === - -Some of the world's most powerful and complex arrangements of multiple lasers and optical amplifiers are used to produce extremely high intensity pulses of light of extremely short duration, e.g. laboratory for laser energetics, National Ignition Facility, GEKKO XII, Nike laser, Laser Mégajoule, HiPER. These pulses are arranged such that they impact pellets of tritium–deuterium simultaneously from all directions, hoping that the squeezing effect of the impacts will induce atomic fusion in the pellets. This technique, known as "inertial confinement fusion", so far has not been able to achieve "breakeven", that is, so far the fusion reaction generates less power than is used to power the lasers, however; experiments at the National Ignition Facility were able to demonstrate fusion reactions that generate more energy than was contained within the lasers driving the reaction. - -=== Particle acceleration === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index e826b4eaa..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,62 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of laser applications" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:10.046930+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators. This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies. - -=== Microscopy === -Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. -Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy. - -== Military == - -=== Directly as an energy weapon === -A laser weapon is directed-energy weapon based on lasers. - -=== Defensive countermeasures === -Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles. - -=== Disorientation === -Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner. - -=== Guidance === -Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by means of a laser beam. - -=== Target designator === - -Another military use of lasers is as a laser target designator. This is a low-power laser pointer used to indicate a target for a precision-guided munition, typically launched from an aircraft. The guided munition adjusts its flight-path to home in to the laser light reflected by the target, enabling a great precision in aiming. The beam of the laser target designator is set to a pulse rate that matches that set on the guided munition to ensure munitions strike their designated targets and do not follow other laser beams which may be in use in the area. The laser designator can be shone onto the target by an aircraft or nearby infantry. Lasers used for this purpose are usually infrared lasers, so the enemy cannot easily detect the guiding laser light. - -=== Firearms === - -==== Laser sight ==== - -The laser has in most firearms applications been used as a tool to enhance the targeting of other weapon systems. For example, a laser sight is a small, usually visible-light laser placed on a handgun or a rifle and aligned to emit a beam parallel to the barrel. Since a laser beam has low divergence, the laser light appears as a small spot even at long distances; the user places the spot on the desired target and the barrel of the gun is aligned (but not necessarily allowing for bullet drop, windage, distance between the direction of the beam and the axis of the barrel, and the target mobility while the bullet travels). -Most laser sights use a red laser diode. Others use an infrared diode to produce a dot invisible to the naked human eye but detectable with night vision devices. The firearms adaptive target acquisition module LLM01 laser light module combines visible and infrared laser diodes. In the late 1990s, green diode pumped solid state laser (DPSS) laser sights (532 nm) became available. - -==== Eye-targeted lasers ==== -A less-lethal laser weapon was developed by the U.S. Air Force to temporarily impair an adversary's ability to fire a weapon or to otherwise threaten enemy forces. This unit illuminates an opponent with harmless low-power laser light and can have the effect of dazzling or disorienting the subject or causing them to flee. Several types of dazzlers are now available, and some have been used in combat. -There remains the possibility of using lasers to blind, since this requires relatively low power levels and is easily achievable in a man-portable unit. However, most nations regard the deliberate permanent blinding of the enemy as forbidden by the rules of war (see Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons). Although several nations have developed blinding laser weapons, such as China's ZM-87, none of these are believed to have made it past the prototype stage. -In addition to the applications that cross over with military applications, a widely known law enforcement use of lasers is for lidar to measure the speed of vehicles. - -==== Holographic weapon sight ==== -A holographic weapon sight uses a laser diode to illuminate a hologram of a reticle built into a flat glass optical window of the sight. The user looks through the optical window and sees a cross hair reticle image superimposed at a distance on the field of view. - -== Medical == - -Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sunspots, wrinkles, birthmarks, and hair): see laser hair removal. Laser types used in dermatology include ruby (694 nm), alexandrite (755 nm), pulsed diode array (810 nm), Nd:YAG (1064 nm), Ho:YAG (2090 nm), and Er:YAG (2940 nm). -Eye surgery and refractive surgery -Soft tissue surgery: CO2, Er:YAG laser -Laser scalpel (General surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic) -Photobiomodulation (i.e. laser therapy) -"No-Touch" removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord. -In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic procedures, tooth whitening, and oral surgery -Cancer treatment -Burn and surgical scar management: scar contracture CO2 (especially the newer fractionated CO2 lasers), redness and itch (Pulsed Dye laser - PDL), post-inflammatory hyper-pigmentation (Q-switched lasers :Ruby, Alexandrite), burn scar unwanted hair growth and trapped hairs (Ruby, IPL and numerous hair removal lasers) - -== Industrial and commercial == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2a3907be5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,71 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of laser applications" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:10.046930+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing. -In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. -Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs. -A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes: - -Laser cutting -Laser welding -Laser drilling -Laser marking -Laser cleaning -Laser cladding, a surface engineering process applied to mechanical components for reconditioning, repair work or hardfacing -Photolithography -Optical communications over optical fiber or in free space -Laser peening -Guidance systems (e.g., ring laser gyroscopes) -Laser rangefinder / surveying, -Lidar / pollution monitoring, -Digital minilabs -Barcode readers -Laser engraving of printing plate -Laser bonding of additive marking materials for decoration and identification, -Laser pointers -Laser mice -Laser accelerometers -OLED display manufacturing -Holography -Bubblegrams -Optical tweezers -Writing subtitles onto motion picture films. -Power beaming, which is a possible solution to transfer energy to the climber of a Space elevator -3D laser scanners for accurate 3D measurement -Laser line levels are used in surveying and construction. Lasers are also used for guidance for aircraft. -Extensively in both consumer and industrial imaging equipment. -In laser printers: gas and diode lasers play a key role in manufacturing high resolution printing plates and in image scanning equipment. -Diode lasers are used as a lightswitch in industry, with a laser beam and a receiver which will switch on or off when the beam is interrupted, and because a laser can keep the light intensity over larger distances than a normal light, and is more precise than a normal light it can be used for product detection in automated production. -Laser alignment -Additive manufacturing -Plastic welding -Metrology - handheld and robotic laser systems for Aerospace, Automotive and Rail applications -To store and retrieve data in optical discs, such as CDs and DVDs -Blu-ray - -=== Entertainment and recreation === -Laser lighting displays accompany many music concerts -Laser tag -Laser harp: a musical instrument were the strings are replaced with laser beams -As a light source for digital cinema projectors - -=== Surveying and ranging === - -== Images == - -== See also == -List of laser articles -Non-lethal weapon - -== References == - -== External links == - -Coherent.com article on Applications for lasers \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 64b780d76..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,65 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of life sciences" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:16.606681+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life — such as animals (including human beings), microorganisms, and plants. This is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines. -Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro scale (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry), while others focus on larger scales (e.g., cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind—neuroscience. Life-science discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, they have provided information on certain diseases, which has helped in the understanding of human health. - -== Basic life science branches == - -Biology – scientific study of life -Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms -Histology – the study of tissues -Neuroscience – the study of the nervous system -Astrobiology – the study of the formation and presence of life in the universe -Biotechnology – study of combination of both the living organism and technology -Biochemistry – the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually focused on the cellular level -Quantum biology – the study of quantum phenomena in organisms -Bioinformatics – developing of methods or software tools for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data to generate useful biological knowledge -Biophysics – study of biological processes by applying the theories and methods that have been traditionally used in the physical sciences -Biomechanics – the study of the mechanics of living beings -Botany – study of plants -Agrostology – the study of grasses and grass-like species -Dendrology - the study of woody plants and trees -Phycology – the study of algae -Cell biology (cytology) – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell -Developmental biology – the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure -Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment -Enzymology – study of enzymes -Evolutionary biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time -Evolutionary developmental biology – the study of the evolution of development including its molecular control -Genetics – the study of genes and heredity -Immunology – the study of the immune system -Marine biology – the study of ocean organisms -Biological oceanography – the study of life in the oceans and their interaction with the environment -Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living organisms -Aerobiology – study of the movement and transportation of microorganisms in the air -Bacteriology – study of bacteria -Virology – study of viruses and virus-like agents -Molecular biology – the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry, genetics, and microbiology -Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macro-molecules -Mycology – the study of fungi -Paleobiology – the study of prehistoric organisms -Parasitology – the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them -Pathology – study of the causes and effects of disease or injury -Human biology – the biological study of human beings -Pharmacology – study of drug action -Biological (or physical) anthropology – the study of humans, non-human primates, and hominids -Biolinguistics – the study of the biology and evolution of language -Physiology – the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms -Population biology – the study of groups of conspecific organisms -Population dynamics – the study of short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. Population dynamics deals with the way populations are affected by birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration, and studies topics such as ageing populations or population decline. -Synthetic biology – the design and construction of new biological entities such as enzymes, genetic circuits and cells, or the redesign of existing biological systems -Systems biology – the study of the integration and dependencies of various components within a biological system, with particular focus upon the role of metabolic pathways and cell-signaling strategies in physiology -Theoretical biology – use of abstractions and mathematical models to study biological phenomena -Toxicology – the study of poisons -Zoology – the study of (generally non-human) animals -Ethology – the study of animal behavior - -== Applied life science branches and derived concepts == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 147a17488..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of life sciences" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:16.606681+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Agriculture – science and practice of cultivating plants and livestock -Agronomy – science of cultivating plants for resources -Biocomputers – systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are used to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biological computing has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology. Biocontrol – bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms. Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology -Bioelectronics – field at the convergence of electronics and biological sciences. The electrical state of biological matter significantly affects its structure and function, compare for instance the membrane potential, the signal transduction by neurons, the isoelectric point (IEP) and so on. Micro- and nano-electronic components and devices have increasingly been combined with biological systems like medical implants, biosensors, lab-on-a-chip devices etc. causing the emergence of this new scientific field. Biomaterials – any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science. Biomedical science – healthcare science, also known as biomedical science, is a set of applied sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology of use in healthcare or public health. Such disciplines as medical microbiology, clinical virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology and pathophysiology are medical sciences. Biomonitoring – measurement of the body burden of toxic chemical compounds, elements, or their metabolites, in biological substances. Often, these measurements are done in blood and urine. Biopolymer – polymers produced by living organisms; in other words, they are polymeric biomolecules. Since they are polymers, biopolymers contain monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides (RNA and DNA), which are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotide monomers; polypeptides, which are short polymers of amino acids; and polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures. Biotechnology – manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology -Conservation biology – the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management. Environmental health – multidisciplinary field concerned with environmental epidemiology, toxicology, and exposure science. Fermentation technology – study of use of microorganisms for industrial manufacturing of various products like vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, beer, wine, etc. Food science – applied science devoted to the study of food. Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce and conserve these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, study of the effects of food on the human body, sensory evaluation of products using panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological, physical (texture and rheology) and chemical testing. Genomics – application of recombinant DNA, DNA sequencing methods, and bioinformatics to sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of genomes (the complete set of DNA within a single cell of an organism). The field includes efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology or genetics and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks. Health sciences – sciences which focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. These two subject matters relate to multiple academic disciplines, both STEM disciplines, as well as emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research), and are both relevant to current health science knowledge. Medical devices – A medical device is an instrument, apparatus, implant, in vitro reagent, or similar or related article that is used to diagnose, prevent, or treat disease or other conditions, and does not achieve its purposes through chemical action within or on the body (which would make it a drug). Whereas medicinal products (also called pharmaceuticals) achieve their principal action by pharmacological, metabolic or immunological means, medical devices act by other means like physical, mechanical, or thermal means. Medical imaging – the technique and process used to create images of the human body (or parts and function thereof) for clinical or physiological research purposes -Immunotherapy – the "treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response". Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as suppression immunotherapies. Kinesiology – scientific study of human movement. Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, addresses physiological, mechanical, and psychological mechanisms. Applications of kinesiology to human health include: biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise. Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments. Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques. Optogenetics – a neuromodulation technique employed in neuroscience that uses a combination of techniques from optics and genetics to control and monitor the activities of individual neurons in living tissue—even within freely-moving animals—and to precisely measure the effects of those manipulations in real-time. The key reagents used in optogenetics are light-sensitive proteins. Spatially-precise neuronal control is achieved using optogenetic actuators like channelrhodopsin, halorhodopsin, and archaerhodopsin, while temporally-precise recordings can be made with the help of optogenetic sensors like Clomeleon, Mermaid, and SuperClomeleon. Pharmacogenomics – field of science and technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. Pharmacogenomics (a portmanteau of pharmacology and genomics) deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity. Pharmacology – branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action, where a drug can be broadly defined as any human-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5e8d8dd27..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of life sciences" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:16.606681+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. Proteomics – the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins, produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes. - -== See also == -Outline of biology -Divisions of pharmacology -Control theory - -== References == - -== Further reading == -Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (Rev. and expanded 3rd ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d7c8712dd..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,48 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of mechanical engineering journals" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:20.105659+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of mechanical engineering journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals that cover research in mechanical systems, acoustics, thermodynamics, electromechanics, fluid mechanics, manufacturing, robotics, and other related fields. - - -== Journals == -Applied Mechanics Reviews -ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems -Experimental Mechanics -Heat and Mass Transfer -International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing -International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer -International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture -International Journal of Plasticity -Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering -Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics -Journal of Fluid Mechanics -Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer Research -Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems -Journal of Micro/Nanopatterning, Materials, and Metrology -Journal of Sound and Vibration -Mechanism and Machine Theory -Meccanica -Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science -Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L - - -== See also == -American Society for Precision Engineering -International Conference on Robotics and Automation -Lists of academic journals -List of American Society of Mechanical Engineers academic journals -List of engineering awards -List of aerospace engineering journals -List of engineering journals and magazines -List of materials science journals -List of mechanical engineering software -List of physics journals -List of scientific journals -Mechanical engineering \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8d03087e8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:54.152495+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA, Latin: Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea) is a transnational and interdisciplinary network, connecting about 2,000 recommended scientists and artists worldwide, including 38 Nobel Prize laureates. The European Academy of Sciences and Arts is a learned society of scientists and artists, founded by Felix Unger. The academy was founded 1990, is situated in Salzburg and has been supported by the city of Vienna, the government of Austria, and the European Commission. The EASA is now headed by President Klaus Mainzer, TUM Emeritus of Excellence at the Technical University of Munich and Senior Professor at the Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker Center of the University of Tübingen. Below is a list of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (MEASA). - - -== I – Humanities == - - -== II – Medicine == - - -== III – Arts == - - -== IV – Natural sciences == - - -== V – Social sciences, law and economics == - - -== VI – Technical and environmental sciences == - - -== VII – World religions == - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Members at European Academy of Sciences and Arts \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index adfe2f4a8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,72 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of nuclear science journals" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:21.302910+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of nuclear science journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals covering nuclear physics, nuclear engineering, reactor design, radiation detection, and related areas of nuclear technology. - - -== Journals == -Acta Physica Polonica B -Annals of Nuclear Energy -Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science -Applied Radiation and Isotopes -Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables -Chinese Physics C -European Physical Journal A -Fusion Engineering and Design -Health Physics -IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science -International Journal of Energy Research -International Journal of Radiation Biology -Journal of Instrumentation -Journal of Physics G -Journal of Nuclear Materials -Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry -Journal of Radiological Protection -Magnetohydrodynamics (journal) -Nuclear Fusion -Nuclear Physics (journal) -Nuclear Physics A -Nuclear Physics B -Nuclear Physics and Atomic Energy -Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research -Nuclear Science and Engineering -Nuclear Science and Techniques -Nuclear Technology -Nukleonik -Physical Review and their sub-journals -Physical Review Accelerators and Beams -Physical Review C -Physics Letters B -Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion -Progress in Nuclear Energy -Radiation Measurements -Radiation Protection Dosimetry -Review of Scientific Instruments - - -== See also == -American Nuclear Society -International Atomic Energy Agency -List of energy journals -List of engineering journals and magazines -List of physics journals -List of plasma physics software -List of computational physics software -List of computational chemistry software -List of scientific journals -List of unsolved problems in nuclear physics -Lists of academic journals -Radiation chemistry - - -=== Conferences === -Gordon Research Conferences -International Conference on High Energy Physics -International Conference on Neutrino Physics and Astrophysics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4c6cc7d6e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of people who achieved posthumous recognition" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:22.539710+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This article is a chronological list of people who achieved posthumous recognition, which is the fame, honour, or critical breakthrough bestowed upon them only after their death. The phenomenon appears in many fields, including arts, literature and science, and has been described in cultural and historical studies. -The list is organized chronologically by year of birth. Please add to this list people who meet all of the following criteria: - -People who had limited or small recognition in their lifetime, After their death, their work or actions received a clear growth in recognition through various honours such as prizes, memorials or institutions named after them and so on. -Reliable secondary sources, stating that the person became famous only after their death or that their work, even if initially famous, was forgotten but later rediscovered. - - -== Science == - - -== Literature & Poetry == - - -== Art == - - -== Music == - - -== See also == -Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh -Posthumous fame of El Greco -Reception of Johann Sebastian Bach's music – History of musical appreciation -Posthumous award – Award granted after death -Posthumous publication – Publishing a work after the creator's death - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index f6dd71db9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,79 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of quantum-mechanical potentials" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:23.702979+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of potential energy functions that are frequently used in quantum mechanics and have any meaning. - - -== One-dimensional potentials == -Rectangular potential barrier -Delta potential (aka "contact potential") -Double delta potential -Step potential -Periodic potential -Barrier potential -Gaussian potential -Eckart potential - - -== Wells == -Quantum well -Potential well -Finite potential well -Infinite potential well -Double-well potential -Semicircular potential well -Circular potential well -Spherical potential well -Triangular potential well - - -== Interatomic potentials == -Interatomic potential -Bond order potential -EAM potential -Coulomb potential -Buckingham potential -Lennard-Jones potential -Morse potential -Morse/Long-range potential -Rosen–Morse potential -Trigonometric Rosen–Morse potential -Stockmayer potential -Pöschl–Teller potential -Axilrod–Teller potential -Mie potential - - -== Oscillators == -Harmonic potential (harmonic oscillator) -Morse potential (morse oscillator) -Morse/Long-range potential (Morse/Long-range oscillator) -Kratzer potential (Kratzer oscillator) - - -== Quantum Field theory == -Yukawa potential -Coleman–Weinberg potential -Uehling potential -Woods–Saxon potential -Cornell potential - - -== Miscellaneous == -Quantum potential -Pseudopotential -Superpotential -Komar superpotential -Kolos–Wolniewicz potential - - -== See also == -List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions -List of integrable models \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index abe09ad61..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,90 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of renewable energy journals" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:24.795911+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of renewable energy journals that focus on topics related to solar energy, wind power, bioenergy, geothermal energy, energy storage, and other renewable energy topics. - - -== Journals == - - -=== General renewable and sustainable energy === -Applied Energy -Energies -Energy and Buildings -Energy Conversion and Management -Energy for Sustainable Development -Journal of Cleaner Production -Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy -Nature Energy -Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews -Renewable Energy -Smart Energy - - -=== Solar energy === -Progress in Photovoltaics -Solar Energy -Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells - - -=== Wind energy === -IET Renewable Power Generation -Wind Energy -Wind Engineering - - -=== Bioenergy and biofuels === -Bioresource Technology -GCB Bioenergy - - -=== Geothermal energy === -Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research - - -=== Energy systems, storage, and integration === -ACS Energy Letters -ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering -Advanced Energy Materials -Batteries -Energy -Energy & Environmental Science -Energy Reports -Energy Storage Materials -Energy Technology -International Journal of Energy Research -International Journal of Hydrogen Energy -Journal of the Electrochemical Society -Journal of Power Sources -Joule -Nano Energy - - -=== Policy and economics === -Energy Economics -Energy Policy -Energy Research & Social Science -Resource and Energy Economics -The Energy Journal - - -== See also == -List of books about renewable energy -List of energy and fuel journals -List of environmental journals -List of engineering journals and magazines -List of long-duration energy storage technologies -List of scientific journals -Lists of academic journals -Photovoltaic Specialists Conference -Windpower Monthly - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ae50fa93b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of research funders by preprint licensing policy" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:43.899013+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of funders of research by their open licensing policies for preprints. With the exception of some government employees and contractors, the majority of authors keep the copyright to their work. Many funders require their grantees to disseminate the work using licenses with specific reuse rights. Other details of funder open access policies can be found at the Registry of Open Access Repositories and the Open Policy Finder from JISC (formerly SHERPA). - - -== Policies by funder == - - -== Exceptions for government employees and contractors == -In some countries, work performed by government employees or contractors is owned by the government and subject to their licensing stipulations. For example, in the US, work performed by government employees, such as employees of the NIH is deemed Public Domain in the US, and the US government holds copyright elsewhere. Government licensing policies may override funder requirements. - - -== See also == -List of academic publishers by preprint policy - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 88bbf0765..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,216 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of science magazines" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:25.928754+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -A science magazine is a periodical publication with news, opinions, and reports about science, generally written for a non-expert audience. In contrast, a periodical publication, usually including primary research and/or reviews, that is written by scientific experts is called a "scientific journal". Science magazines are read by non-scientists and scientists who want accessible information on fields outside their specialization. -Articles in science magazines are sometimes republished or summarized by the general press. - - -== Examples of general science magazines == - - -=== Africa === - - -=== Asia === - - -==== Bangladesh ==== -Byapon – Youth Science Magazine in Bengali -Bigganchinta[1] -BigganBarta (বিজ্ঞানবার্তা) – Free PDF Science Magazine in Bengali -Bangachi (ব্যাঙাচি) – Free Science Magazine in Bengali published by Banger Chhater Biggan -Biggan Ananda (বিজ্ঞান আনন্দ) - Published by Bangladesh Science Fiction Society (BSFS) -Zero to Infinity (জিরো টু ইনফিনিটি) - - -==== India ==== -Resonance, published by Indian Academy of Sciences -Current Science -Dream 2047, published by Vigyan Prasar -Jnan o Bijnan, published by Bangiya Bijnan Parishad -Sandarbh -Science Reporter -Safari - - -==== Japan ==== -Newton press -Nikkei Science - - -==== Kazakhstan ==== -OYLA - - -==== Pakistan ==== -Global Science - - -==== South Korea ==== -Donga Science - - -==== Turkey ==== -Bilim ve Teknik - - -=== Europe === -EuroScientist - - -==== Austria ==== -Universum - - -==== Czechia ==== -Vesmír - - -==== Denmark ==== -Aktuel Naturvidenskab -Illustreret Videnskab - - -==== Finland ==== -Tiede - - -==== France ==== -La Recherche -Pour la Science -Science & Vie - - -==== Germany ==== -Spektrum der Wissenschaft -Welt der Physik -Bild der Wissenschaft -Laborjournal -Science Notes -DUZ - - -==== Italy ==== -Popular Science Italia -Airone -Focus -Le Scienze - - -==== Netherlands ==== -Quest -Zenit - - -==== Poland ==== -Wiedza i Życie - - -==== Russia ==== -Khimiya i Zhizn -Nauka i Zhizn -Tekhnika Molodezhi -Kvant -Vokrug sveta -Znanie – Sila - - -==== Serbia ==== -SciTech - - -==== Sweden ==== -Illustrerad Vetenskap - - -==== United Kingdom ==== -All About Space -BBC Focus -BBC Science Focus -BBC Sky at Night -Laboratory News -New Scientist -Physics World -Scientific European - - -=== North America === - - -==== United States ==== - - -===== General ===== -American Scientist -Behavioral Scientist -Discover -MIT Technology Review -Popular Mechanics -Knowable Magazine -Popular Science -Nautilus -New Scientist -Quanta Magazine -Science (1979–1986) -Science News -Scientific American -Seed - - -===== Astronomy/Aerospace ===== -Air & Space -Astronomy -Mercury -Planetary Report -Sky & Telescope -Spinoff - - -===== Others ===== -Physics Today -Scientific American Mind -The Scientist -Skeptic -Technologist -Weatherwise - - -=== Oceania === - - -==== Australia ==== -Australasian Science -Australian Geographic -Cosmos -New Scientist - - -=== South America === - - -==== Brazil ==== -Galileu -Superinteressante -Ciência Hoje -Revista Pesquisa FAPESP - - -==== Chile ==== -Argo Navis - - -== See also == - -Popular science -Science book -Science journalism - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 00d77e34b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,132 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of scientific constants named after people" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:35.047195+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of physical and mathematical constants named after people. -Eponymous constants and their influence on scientific citations have been discussed in the literature. - -Apéry's constant – Roger Apéry -Archimedes' constant (π, pi) – Archimedes -Avogadro constant – Amedeo Avogadro -Balmer's constant – Johann Jakob Balmer -Belphegor's prime – Belphegor (demon) -Bohr magneton – Niels Bohr -Bohr radius – Niels Bohr -Boltzmann constant – Ludwig Boltzmann -Brun's constant – Viggo Brun -Cabibbo angle – Nicola Cabibbo -Chaitin's constant – Gregory Chaitin -Champernowne constant – D. G. Champernowne -Chandrasekhar limit – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar -Copeland–Erdős constant – Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein -Eddington number – Arthur Stanley Eddington -Dunbar's number – Robin Dunbar -Embree–Trefethen constant -Erdős–Borwein constant -Euler–Mascheroni constant ( - - - - γ - - - {\displaystyle \gamma } - -) – Leonhard Euler and Lorenzo Mascheroni -Euler's number ( - - - - e - - - {\displaystyle e} - -) – Leonhard Euler -Faraday constant – Michael Faraday -Feigenbaum constants – Mitchell Feigenbaum -Fermi coupling constant – Enrico Fermi -Gauss's constant – Carl Friedrich Gauss -Graham's number – Ronald Graham -Hartree energy – Douglas Hartree -Hubble constant – Edwin Hubble -Josephson constant – Brian David Josephson -Kaprekar's constant – D. R. Kaprekar -Kerr constant – John Kerr -Khinchin's constant – Aleksandr Khinchin -Landau–Ramanujan constant – Edmund Landau and Srinivasa Ramanujan -Legendre's constant (one, 1) – Adrien-Marie Legendre -Loschmidt constant – Johann Josef Loschmidt -Ludolphsche Zahl – Ludolph van Ceulen -Mean of Phidias (golden ratio, - - - - ϕ - - - {\displaystyle \phi } - -, phi) – Phidias -Meissel–Mertens constant -Moser's number -Newtonian constant of gravitation (gravitational constant, - - - - G - - - {\displaystyle G} - -) – Sir Isaac Newton -Planck constant ( - - - - h - - - {\displaystyle h} - -) – Max Planck -Reduced Planck constant or Dirac constant ( - - - - h - - - {\displaystyle h} - --bar, ħ) – Max Planck, Paul Dirac -Ramanujan–Soldner constant – Srinivasa Ramanujan and Johann Georg von Soldner -Richardson constant – Owen Willans Richardson -Rayo's number – Agustin Rayo -Rydberg constant – Johannes Rydberg -Sommerfeld constant – Arnold Sommerfeld -Sagan's number – Carl Sagan -Sackur–Tetrode constant – Otto Sackur and Hugo Tetrode -Sierpiński's constant – Wacław Sierpiński -Skewes' number – Stanley Skewes -Stefan–Boltzmann constant – Jožef Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann -Theodorus' constant (√3 ≅ ±1.732050807568877...) – Theodorus of Cyrene -Tupper's number – Jeff Tupper -Viswanath's constant – Divakar Viswanath -von Klitzing constant – Klaus von Klitzing -Wien displacement law constant – Wilhelm Wien - - -== See also == -List of eponymous laws, for a list of laws named after people -List of scientific laws named after people -List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants - - -== Notes and references == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 00c6924c5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of scientific equations named after people" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:51.809612+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list of scientific equations named after people (eponymous equations). - - -== See also == -Eponym -List of eponymous laws -List of laws in science -List of equations -Scientific constants named after people -Scientific phenomena named after people -Scientific laws named after people - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index c9906cc4a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,97 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of types of equilibrium" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:52.970857+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This is a list presents the various articles at Wikipedia that use the term equilibrium (or an associated prefix or derivative) in their titles or leads. It is not necessarily complete; further examples may be found by using the Wikipedia search function, and this term. - - -== Biology == -Equilibrioception, the sense of a balance present in human beings and animals -Equilibrium unfolding, the process of unfolding a protein or RNA molecule by gradually changing its environment -Genetic equilibrium, theoretical state in which a population is not evolving -Homeostasis, the ability of an open system, especially living organisms, to regulate its internal environment -Punctuated equilibrium, theory in evolutionary biology -Sedimentation equilibrium, analytical ultracentrifugation method for measuring protein molecular masses in solution -Equilibrium Theory (Island biogeography), MacArthur-Wilson theory explaining biodiversity character of ecological islands -Osmotic equilibrium, balance between solvent flow and pressure across a membrane - - -== Physics == -Equilibrant force, which keeps any object motionless and acts on virtually every object in the world that is not moving -Equilibrium mode distribution, the state of fiber optic or waveguide transmission in which the propagation mode does not vary with distance along the fiber or changes in the launch mode -Hydrostatic equilibrium, the state of a system in which compression due to gravity is balanced by a pressure gradient force -Hyperbolic equilibrium point, a mathematical concept in physics -Mechanical equilibrium, the state in which the sum of the forces, and torque, on each particle of the system is zero -Radiative equilibrium, the state where the energy radiated is balanced by the energy absorbed -Secular equilibrium, a state of radioactive elements in which the production rate of a daughter nucleus is balanced by its own decay rate -Thermodynamic equilibrium, the state of a thermodynamic system in which there are no net flows of matter or energy - - -== Chemistry == -Chemical equilibrium, the state in which the concentrations of the reactants and products have stopped changing in time -Diffusive equilibrium, when the concentrations of each type of particle have stopped changing -Thermal equilibrium, a state where an object and its surroundings cease to exchange energy in the form of heat, i.e. they are at the same temperature -Donnan equilibrium, the distribution of ion species between two ionic solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane or boundary -Dynamic equilibrium, the state in which two reversible processes occur at the same rate -Equilibrium constant, a quantity characterizing a chemical equilibrium in a chemical reaction -Partition equilibrium, a type of chromatography that is typically used in GC -Quasistatic equilibrium, the quasi-balanced state of a thermodynamic system near to equilibrium in some sense or degree -Schlenk equilibrium, a chemical equilibrium named after its discoverer Wilhelm Schlenk taking place in solutions of Grignard reagents -Solubility equilibrium, any chemical equilibrium between solid and dissolved states of a compound at saturation -Vapor–liquid equilibrium, where the rates of condensation and vapourization of a material are equal - - -== Economics == -Competitive equilibrium, economic equilibrium when all buyers and sellers are small relative to the market -Economic equilibrium, the situation in a system under examination where the economic forces of supply and demand are balanced -Equilibrium price, the price at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded -General equilibrium theory, a branch of theoretical microeconomics that studies multiple individual markets -Intertemporal equilibrium, an equilibrium concept over time -Lindahl equilibrium, a method proposed by Erik Lindahl for financing public goods -Partial equilibrium, the equilibrium price and quantity which come from the cross of supply and demand in a competitive market -Radner equilibrium, an economic concept defined by economist Roy Radner in the context of general equilibrium -Recursive competitive equilibrium, an economic equilibrium concept associated with a dynamic program -Static equilibrium (economics), the intersection of supply and demand in any market -Sunspot equilibrium, an economic equilibrium in which non-fundamental factors affect prices or quantities -Underemployment equilibrium, a situation in Keynesian economics with a persistent shortfall relative to full employment and potential output -Dynamic stochastic general equilibrium, an econometric method that applies general equilibrium theory and microeconomic principles. - - -== Mathematics == -Correlated equilibrium, in game theory, a solution concept that is more general than Nash equilibrium -Equilibrium point, in mathematics, a constant solution to a differential equation -Nash equilibrium, the basic solution concept in game theory -Quasi-perfect equilibrium, in game theory, a refinement of Nash Equilibrium for extensive form games -Sequential equilibrium, in game theory, a refinement of Nash Equilibrium for games of incomplete information -Perfect Bayesian equilibrium, in game theory, a refinement of Nash equilibrium for games of incomplete information, simpler than sequential equilibrium -Symmetric equilibrium, in game theory, an equilibrium arising from all players using the same strategy -Trembling hand perfect equilibrium, in game theory, an equilibrium arising from players that "slip up" and choose unintended strategies -Proper equilibrium in game theory, an equilibrium, a subset of trembling hand, arising when players make costly trembles with lower probabilities - - -== Planetary sciences (including geology) == - -Hydrostatic equilibrium, the state of a system in which compression due to gravity is balanced by a pressure gradient force -Isostatic equilibrium, in geology, the balance between gravitation and buoyancy of the Earth's crust in the mantle - - -== Other == -Social equilibrium, a system in which there is a dynamic working balance among its interdependent parts -Equilibrium moisture content, the moisture content at which the wood is neither gaining nor losing moisture -Reflective equilibrium, the state of balance or coherence among a set of beliefs arrived at by a process of deliberative mutual adjustment - - -== See also == -Balance (disambiguation) -Equilibrium (disambiguation) -Stability (disambiguation) - - -== External links == -Equilibrium article in Scholarpedia. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3904b7958..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "List of volunteer computing projects" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:19.306884+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Volunteer computing projects are a type of distributed computing where volunteers donate computing time to specific causes. The donated computing power comes from idle CPUs and GPUs in personal computers, video game consoles, and Android devices. Each project seeks to utilize the computing power of many internet connected devices to solve problems and perform large scale computational research in a cost-effective manner. - - -== Active projects == - - -== Completed projects == - - -== See also == - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 055cad680..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,84 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Lists of engineering software" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:49.531357+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -These are lists of engineering software tools used for design, analysis, simulation, and management across different engineering disciplines. - - -== Lists of engineering software == -Comparison of EDA software and list of electrical engineering software -Comparison of electromagnetic simulation software -Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software -Comparison of optimization software -Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling -Comparison of system dynamics software -List of aerospace engineering software -List of automotive engineering software -List of bioinformatics software and structural alignment software -List of building information modeling software -List of chemical engineering software -List of chemical process simulators -List of civil engineering software -List of computational chemistry software and list of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software -List of computational fluid dynamics software -List of computational materials science software -List of computational physics software -List of computer-aided engineering software -List of computer-aided manufacturing software and list of 3D printing software -List of construction software -List of data science software -List of discrete event simulation software -List of finite element analysis software -List of gene prediction software -List of genetic engineering software -List of geotechnical engineering software -List of HDL simulators -List of hydrology software -List of mechanical engineering software -List of molecular design software -List of numerical analysis software and list of numerical libraries -List of open-source artificial intelligence software -List of plasma physics software -List of power engineering software and wind energy software -List of programming software development tools and list of open-source libraries -List of protein structure prediction software -List of RNA structure prediction software -List of robotics simulation software -List of scientific simulation software -List of sequence alignment software -List of software for nanostructures modeling -List of software for nuclear engineering -List of structural engineering software - - -== See also == -Comparison of 3D computer graphics software -Comparison of CAD, CAM and CAE file viewers -Comparison of version-control software -List of 3D modeling software and comparison of computer-aided design software -List of CAD file formats -List of computer simulation software -List of engineering software for Linux -List of mathematical software -List of open-source software for mathematics -List of computational physics software - - -== See also == - -Computational engineering -Computer-aided engineering -Engineering education, Engineering education in the United States, List of engineering schools -List of CAx companies -List of engineering branches -List of engineering journals and magazines -Lists of engineers -List of free and open-source software packages for engineering -List of free electronics circuit simulators -Outline of engineering \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_Control_Project-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_Control_Project-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 91156c480..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_Control_Project-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Malaria Control Project" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_Control_Project" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:16.507777+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -malariacontrol.net was a volunteer computing project to simulate the transmission dynamics and health effects of malaria. It was part of the Africa@home project. The project was terminated on 21 June 2016. - - -== History == -The malariacontrol.net domain name was first registered on 19 May 2005 under Swiss Tropical Institute. This project was under Africa@home where the latter was conceived and developed by European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). malariacontrol.net was the first to use volunteer computing to model diseases. The model simulates malaria infection in 50,000 to 100,000 people. Each work unit lasted for an hour in average personal computers and the results were returned to University of Geneva for evaluation by researchers. malariacontrol.net ran all the simulations by using stochastic simulation model. -Since 4 November 2010, using the financial support from Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Malariacontrol.net developed an open-source software named "Open Malaria" which can be used to simulate outcomes in various types of malaria transmission settings. -On 21 June 2016, malariacontrol.net announced that the project has been terminated due to financial constraints in upgrading their servers for further volunteer computing operations. - - -== Impact == -Over 10 years, malariacontrol.net has produced 30 peer-reviewed articles. -In 2008, among the studies performed were the effectiveness of different types of Malaria vaccines in high and low malaria transmission settings, effectiveness of Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine in preventive treatment of malaria in infants, and using individual-based stochastic simulations in Plasmodium falciparum control. -In 2012, malariacontrol.net has studied the effectiveness of using RTS,S malaria vaccine in World Health Organization's Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) in different malarial transmission settings and reported that such programme only has modest benefits over 14 years period. The study suggested that the RTS,S vaccine should be used in targeted mass vaccination in low malarial transmission settings in order to get the most benefits out of it. -In 2013, malariacontrol.net had examined the effectiveness of Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDT) and other surveillance tools in detecting malaria infections among high and low Plasmodium falciparum transmissions. The project also recommended that screening the whole human population for malaria before treating them would be more cost effective when compared to indiscriminate treatment of the whole population with antimalarial drugs. Another study also revealed that both Pyrethroid-only mosquito nets and Piperonyl butoxide mosquito nets are cost effective in preventing malarial infections in both Pyrethroid-susceptible and Pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes. - - -== Reception == -As of 2010, malariacontrol.net had about 10,000 active users with 37,002 registered members. Similar to the general BOINC users, malariacontrol.net mainly had a volunteer base of males ranged from 20 to 50 years old, mostly staying in European countries and North America. Most of them learned about this project through BOINC website and their main motivation was the satisfaction of doing something good for the betterment of humankind. - - -== See also == -malariacontrol.net archive -malariacontrol.net screensaver video on YouTube - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 971d2c405..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,53 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "March of Progress" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:17.721545+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The March of Progress, originally titled The Road to Homo Sapiens, is an illustration that presents 25 million years of human evolution. It was created for the Early Man volume of the Life Nature Library, published in 1965, and drawn by the artist Rudolph Zallinger. It has been widely parodied and imitated to create images of progress of other kinds. - -== Illustration == - -=== Context === -The illustration is part of a section of text and images commissioned by Time-Life Books for the Early Man volume (1965) of the Life Nature Library, by F. Clark Howell. -The illustration is a foldout entitled "The Road to Homo Sapiens". It shows a sequence of figures, drawn by natural history painter and muralist Rudolph Zallinger (1919–1995). The 15 human evolutionary forebears are lined up as if they were marching in a parade from left to right. The first two sentences of the caption read "What were the stages of man's long march from apelike ancestors to sapiens? Beginning at right and progressing across four more pages are milestones of primate and human evolution as scientists know them today, pieced together from the fragmentary fossil evidence." - -=== Sequence of species === -The 15 primate figures in Zallinger's image, from left to right, are listed below. The datings follow the original graphic and may no longer reflect current scientific opinion. - -Pliopithecus, 22–12 million years old "ancestor of the gibbon line" -Proconsul, 21–9 million years old primate which may or may not have qualified as an ape -Dryopithecus, 15–8 million years old fossil ape, the first such found (1856) and probable ancestor of modern apes -Oreopithecus, 15–8 million years old -Ramapithecus, 13–8 million years old ape and possible ancestor of modern orangutans (now considered a female Sivapithecus) -Australopithecus, 2–3 million years old; then considered the earliest "certain hominid" -Paranthropus, 1.8–0.8 million years old -Advanced Australopithecus (Homo habilis), 1.8–0.7 million years old -Homo erectus, 700,000–400,000 years old, then the earliest known member of the genus Homo -Early Homo sapiens, 300,000–200,000 years old; from Swanscombe, Steinheim and Montmaurin, then considered probably the earliest H. sapiens -Solo Man, 100,000–50,000 years old; described as an extinct Asian "race" of H. sapiens (now considered a sub-species of H. erectus) -Rhodesian Man, 50,000–30,000 years old; described as an extinct African "race" of H. sapiens (now considered either H. rhodesiensis or H. heidelbergensis and dated much earlier) -Neanderthal Man, 100,000–40,000 years old -Cro-Magnon Man, 40,000–5,000 years old -Modern Man, 40,000 years to the present - -=== Intention === -Contrary to appearances and some complaints, the original 1965 text of "The Road to Homo Sapiens" reveals an understanding of the fact that a linear presentation of a sequence of primate species, all in the direct line of human ancestors, would not be a correct interpretation. For example, the fourth of Zallinger's figures (Oreopithecus) is said to be "a likely side branch on man's family tree". Only the next figure (Ramapithecus) is described as "now thought by some experts to be the oldest of man's ancestors in a direct line" (something no longer considered likely). That implies that the first four primates are not to be considered actual human ancestors. Likewise, the seventh figure (Paranthropus) is said to be "an evolutionary dead end". In addition, the colored stripes, across the top of the figure, which indicate the age and duration of the various lineages clearly imply that there is no evidence of direct continuity between extinct and extant lineages and also, multiple lineages of the figured hominids occurred contemporaneously at several points in the history of the group. - -== Reception == - -The image has frequently been copied, modified, and parodied. -It has also been criticized as "unintentionally and wrongly" implying that "evolution is progressive". The image has been described as having a "visual logic" of linear progression. The Lancet called it "proverbial, much quoted or adapted, familiar to multitudes who have never seen its original version or heard of its maker". The image has become better-known than the science behind it. -With regard to the way the illustration has been interpreted, the anthropologist and author of the section, F. Clark Howell, remarked: - -The artist didn't intend to reduce the evolution of man to a linear sequence, but it was read that way by viewers. ... The graphic overwhelmed the text. It was so powerful and emotional. -Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002) condemned the iconology of the image in several pages of his 1989 book, Wonderful Life, reproducing several advertisements and political cartoons that make use of the illustration to make their various points. In a chapter, "The Iconography of an Expectation", he asserted that - -The march of progress is the canonical representation of evolution – the one picture immediately grasped and viscerally understood by all. ... The straitjacket of linear advance goes beyond iconography to the definition of evolution: the word itself becomes a synonym for progress. ... [But] life is a copiously branching bush, continually pruned by the grim reaper of extinction, not a ladder of predictable progress. -The intelligent design advocate Jonathan Wells wrote in Icons of Evolution: Science or Myth? (2002), "Although it is widely used to show that we are just animals, and that our very existence is a mere accident, the ultimate icon goes far beyond the evidence." The book likens a selection of evolution theory textbook topics to the cover illustration thus qualified. - -Riley Black, writing for Scientific American, argues that the idea of a "march of progress", as depicted in the 1965 Time-Life illustration, dates back to the medieval great chain of being and the 19th century idea of the "missing link" in the fossil record. In her view, to understand life and evolution, "step one involves casting out types of imagery which constrain rather than enlighten." Writing in Wired, Black added that "There is perhaps no other illustration that is as immediately recognizable as representing evolution, but the tragedy of this is that it conveys a view of life that does not resemble our present understanding of life's history." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 468bab69c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "March of Progress" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:17.721545+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Parodies and adaptations == -The March of Progress has often been imitated, parodied, or adapted for commercial or political purposes. The cover of the 1972 Doors album Full Circle references the March of Progress, as does the 1985 Supertramp album Brother Where You Bound, while the poster for the 1992 comedy film Encino Man shows an ape evolving into a skateboarder. The December 2005 issue of The Economist depicts hominids progressing up a flight of stairs to transform into a woman in a black dress holding a glass of champagne to illustrate "The Story of Man". - -== Predecessors == - -Thomas Henry Huxley's frontispiece to his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature was intended simply to compare the skeletons of apes and humans, but its unintentional left-to-right progressionist sequence has according to the historian Jennifer Tucker "become an iconic and instantly recognizable visual shorthand for evolution". -An illustration, with the caption "Evolution", showing two sequences of four images, each illustrating a gradual transformation of an animal into a human, appeared in the 1889 edition of Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. - -== References == - -== External links == - Media related to March of Progress at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_World_(radio_programme)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_World_(radio_programme)-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3bc9c4c3c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_World_(radio_programme)-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Material World (radio programme)" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_World_(radio_programme)" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:19.057970+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Material World was a weekly science magazine programme broadcast on Thursday afternoons on BBC Radio 4. Its regular presenter was Quentin Cooper, with contributions from scientists who were researching areas discussed in each programme. - - -== History == -The programme began in April 1998 as The Material World, presented by Trevor Phillips. Phillips was a chemistry graduate of Imperial College, and also one of the few regular black broadcasters on Radio 4. -In September 2000, Phillips was told that his close links with the Labour Party conflicted with BBC impartiality rules and meant he could no longer present BBC programmes. He was replaced with Quentin Cooper, who presented the programme until its end in 2013. -From 5 April 2010 the programme was repeated on Monday evenings at 21.00, the former slot of Costing the Earth. For a short time, when programmes on 5 Live began webstreaming with video, Material World was also webcast. -On 14 June 2013 it was announced that the show was to be cancelled and replaced by a new show, Inside Science. The last programme presented by Quentin Cooper was broadcast on 20 June 2013 with the final episode airing a week later on 27 June 2013, presented by Gareth Mitchell. -Material World was one of the BBC's main conduits for up-to-date scientific news, along with Frontiers, Science in Action, and Bang Goes the Theory. - - -== Structure == -A typical episode covered three or four topics, giving each 7–10 minutes. For many years the programme was divided into two sections of fifteen minutes on separate topics. It took the form of interviewing a guest scientist or engineer. Cooper often ended the programme with a terrible scientific pun. -Many past programmes are available for online listening via the programme's website. Some sequential sets of programmes were made in collaboration with the Open University. - - -== See also == -Association of British Science Writers - - -== References == - - -== External links == -BBC Radio 4's Material World official site -BBC Radio 4's Material World Archive page -Co-operation with the Open University -Assistance with the Open University -So You Want To Be A Scientist? \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index e51010e2f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "MilkyWay@home" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:20.218958+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -MilkyWay@home is a volunteer computing project in the astrophysics category, running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. Using spare computing power from over 38,000 computers run by over 27,000 active volunteers as of November 2011, the MilkyWay@home project aims to generate accurate three-dimensional dynamic models of stellar streams in the immediate vicinity of the Milky Way. With SETI@home and Einstein@home, it is the third computing project of this type that has the investigation of phenomena in interstellar space as its primary purpose. Its secondary objective is to develop and optimize algorithms for volunteer computing. - -== Purpose and design == -MilkyWay@home is a collaboration between the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's departments of Computer Science and Physics, Applied Physics and Astronomy and is supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation. It is operated by a team that includes astrophysicist Heidi Jo Newberg and computer scientists Malik Magdon-Ismail, Bolesław Szymański and Carlos A. Varela. -By mid-2009 the project's main astrophysical interest is in the Sagittarius Stream, an immense stellar stream emanating from the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy that wraps around the Milky Way. Mapping such interstellar streams and their dynamics with high accuracy may provide crucial clues for understanding the structure, formation, evolution, and gravitational potential distribution of the Milky Way and similar galaxies. It could also provide insight on the dark matter issue. As the project evolves, it might turn its attention to other star streams. -Using data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, MilkyWay@home divides starfields into wedges of about 2.5 deg. width and applies self-optimizing probabilistic separation techniques (i.e., evolutionary algorithms) to extract the optimized tidal streams. The program then attempts to create a new, uniformly dense wedge of stars from the input wedge by removing streams of data. Each stream removed is characterized by six parameters: percent of stars in the stream; the angular position in the stripe; the three spatial components (two angles, plus the radial distance from Earth) defining the removed cylinder; and a measure of width. For each search, the server application keeps track of a population of individual stars, each of which is attached to a possible model of the Milky Way. - -== Project details and statistics == -MilkyWay@home has been active since 2007, and optimized client applications for 32-bit and 64-bit operating systems became available in 2008. Its screensaver capability is limited to a revolving display of users' BOINC statistics, with no graphical component. Instead, animations of the best computer simulations are shared through YouTube. -The work units that are sent out to clients used to require only 2–4 hours of computation on modern CPUs, however, they were scheduled for completion with a short deadline (typically, three days). By early 2010, the project routinely sent much larger units that take 15–20 hours of computation time on the average processor core, and are valid for about a week from a download. This made the project less suitable for computers that are not in operation for periods of several days, or for user accounts that do not allow BOINC to compute in the background. As of 2018, many GPU-based tasks only require less than a minute to complete on a high-end graphics card. -The project's data throughput progress has been very dynamic recently. In mid-June 2009, the project had about 24,000 registered users and about 1,100 participating teams in 149 countries and was operating at 31.7 TeraFLOPS. As of 12 January 2010, these figures were at 44,900 users and 1,590 teams in 170 countries, but average computing power had jumped to 1,382 TFlops, which would rank MilkyWay@home second among the TOP500 list of supercomputers. MilkyWay@home is currently the 2nd largest volunteer computing project behind Folding@Home which crossed 5,000 TFlops in 2009. -That data throughput massively outpaced new user acquisition is mostly due to the deployment of client software that uses commonly available medium and high performance graphics processing units (GPUs) for numerical operations in Windows and Linux environments. MilkyWay@home CUDA code for a broad range of Nvidia GPUs was first released on the project's code release directory on June 11, 2009, following experimental releases in the MilkyWay@home (GPU) fork of the project. An OpenCL application for AMD Radeon GPUs is also available. -MilkyWay@home is a whitelisted gridcoin project. It is the second-largest manufacturer of gridcoins. - -== Scientific results == -Large parts of the MilkyWay@home project are created for Nathan Cole's thesis and there are also several other theses and scientific publications inspired by the resulting calculations of this projects applications. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index c7044533c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "MilkyWay@home" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:20.218958+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Mendelsohn, Eric J.; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Shelton, Siddhartha; Widrow, Lawrence M.; Thompson, Jeffery M.; Grillmair, Carl J. (1 February 2022). "Estimate of the Mass and Radial Profile of the Orphan–Chenab Stream's Dwarf-galaxy Progenitor Using MilkyWay@home". The Astrophysical Journal. 926 (2): 106. arXiv:2201.03637. Bibcode:2022ApJ...926..106M. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac498a. S2CID 245853837. Donlon, T.; Newberg, H.; Weiss, J.; Guffey, A.; Thompson, J. (2021-06-01). "A Trifurcated Sagittarius Stream in the South". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 53 (5): 403.03. Bibcode:2021DDA....5240303D. Mendelsohn, E. J.; Newberg, H. J.; Shelton, S.; Widrow, L.; Thompson, J.; Grillmair, C. (2021-06-01). "Estimate of the Mass and Radial Profile of the Orphan Stream's Dwarf Galaxy Progenitor Using MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 53 (5): 403.01. Bibcode:2021DDA....5240301M. Mendelsohn, E. J.; Newberg, H. J.; Donlon, T.; Thompson, J. M. (2020-08-01). "N-Body Simulations with MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 52 (4): 200.01. Bibcode:2020DDA....5120001M. Donlon, Thomas; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Sanderson, Robyn; Widrow, Lawrence M. (2020-10-01). "The Milky Way's Shell Structure Reveals the Time of a Radial Collision". The Astrophysical Journal. 902 (2): 119. arXiv:2006.08764. Bibcode:2020ApJ...902..119D. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb5f6. S2CID 219708644. Shelton, Siddhartha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Weiss, Jake; Bauer, Jacob S.; Arsenault, Matthew; Widrow, Larry; Rayment, Clayton; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Mendelsohn, Eric; Newby, Matthew; Rice, Colin; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Thompson, Jeffery M.; Varela, Carlos; Willett, Benjamin; Ulin, Steve; Newberg, Lee (14 February 2021). "An Algorithm for Reconstructing the Orphan Stream Progenitor with MilkyWay@home Volunteer Computing". arXiv:2102.07257. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) -Newberg, Heidi Jo; Shelton, Siddhartha; Mendelsohn, Eric; Weiss, Jake; Arsenault, Matthew; Bauer, Jacob S.; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Lee A.; Newby, Matthew; Rayment, Clayton; Rice, Colin; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Thompson, Jeffery M. (June 2019). "Streams and the Milky Way dark matter halo". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 14 (S353): 75–82. doi:10.1017/S174392131900855X. S2CID 208163330. Shelton, Siddhartha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Weiss, Jake; Bauer, Jacob S.; Arsenault, Matthew; Widrow, Larry; Rayment, Clayton; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Mendelsohn, Eric; Newby, Matthew; Rice, Colin; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Thompson, Jeffery M. (2021-02-14). "An Algorithm for Reconstructing the Orphan Stream Progenitor with MilkyWay@home Volunteer Computing". arXiv:2102.07257. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) -Weiss, Jake; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Desell, Travis (22 October 2018). "A Tangle of Stellar Streams in the North Galactic Cap". The Astrophysical Journal. 867 (1): L1. arXiv:1807.03754. Bibcode:2018ApJ...867L...1W. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aae5fc. S2CID 55047680. Shelton, Siddhartha (December 2018). Constraining dwarf galaxy properties using tidal streams (Thesis). Bibcode:2018PhDT.......235S. hdl:20.500.13015/2346. Weiss, Jake (2018). The Stellar Density of the Major Substructure in the Milky Way Halo (Thesis). ProQuest 2125438843. Weiss, Jake; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Newby, Matthew; Desell, Travis (27 September 2018). "Fitting the Density Substructure of the Stellar Halo with MilkyWay@home". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 238 (2): 17. arXiv:1808.06659. Bibcode:2018ApJS..238...17W. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aadb92. S2CID 119327847. Newberg, Heidi Jo; Shelton, Siddhartha; Weiss, Jake (2018-01-01). "Characterizing Milky Way Tidal Streams and Dark Matter with MilkyWay@home". American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts #231. 231: 212.07. Bibcode:2018AAS...23121207N. Newberg, Heidi; Shelton, Siddhartha (2018-04-01). "Reconstructing the Dwarf Galaxy Progenitor from Tidal Streams Using MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 49: 303.02. Bibcode:2018DDA....4930302N. Dumas, Julie; Newberg, Heidi J.; Niedzielski, Bethany; Susser, Adam; Thompson, Jeffery M.; Weiss, Jake; Lewis, Kim M. (16 September 2015). "Testing the Dark Matter Caustic Theory Against Observations in the Milky Way". The Astrophysical Journal. 811 (1): 36. arXiv:1508.04494. Bibcode:2015ApJ...811...36D. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/811/1/36. S2CID 62792604. Weiss, Jake; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Arsenault, Matthew; Bechtel, Torrin; Desell, Travis; Newby, Matthew; Thompson, Jeffery M. (2016-01-01). "Using A New Model for Main Sequence Turnoff Absolute Magnitudes to Measure Stellar Streams in the Milky Way Halo". American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts #227. 227: 341.19. Bibcode:2016AAS...22734119W. Shelton, Siddhartha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Arsenault, Matthew; Bauer, Jacob; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newby, Matthew; Rice, Colin; Thompson, Jeffrey; Ulin, Steve; Weiss, Jake; Widrow, Larry (2016-01-01). "Measuring Dark Matter With MilkyWay@home". American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts #227. 227: 139.11. Bibcode:2016AAS...22713911S. Xu, Yan; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Carlin, Jeffrey L.; Liu, Chao; Deng, Licai; Li, Jing; Schönrich, Ralph; Yanny, Brian (11 March 2015). "Rings and Radial Waves in the Disk of the Milky Way". The Astrophysical Journal. 801 (2): 105. arXiv:1503.00257. Bibcode:2015ApJ...801..105X. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/801/2/105. S2CID 119124338. Scibelli, Samantha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Carlin, Jeffrey L.; Yanny, Brian (2 December 2014). "Census of blue stars in SDSS DR8". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 215 (2): 24. arXiv:1411.5744. Bibcode:2014ApJS..215...24S. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/215/2/24. S2CID 8621834. Newberg, Heidi Jo (August 2012). "Determining distances to stars statistically from photometry". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 8 (S289): 74–81. arXiv:1411.5999. doi:10.1017/S174392131202114X. S2CID 119071864. Xu, Yan; Newberg, Heidi (May 2013). "Exploration of Galactic Structures beyond the Sun toward the anti-center of the Milky Way". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 9 (S298): 450. doi:10.1017/S1743921313007151. S2CID 123228241. Newberg, Heidi Jo; Newby, Matthew; Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (May 2013). "MilkyWay@home: Harnessing volunteer computers to constrain dark matter in the Milky Way". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 9 (S298): 98–104. arXiv:1411.6003. doi:10.1017/S1743921313006273. S2CID 8058974. Newby, Matthew (August 2013). The Sagittarius tidal stream and the shape of the galactic stellar halo (Thesis). Bibcode:2013PhDT........69N. hdl:20.500.13015/971. ProQuest 1466022697. Newby, Matthew; Cole, Nathan; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos; Willett, Benjamin; Yanny, Brian (13 May 2013). "A Spatial Characterization of the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy Tidal Tails". The Astronomical Journal. 145 (6): 163. arXiv:1304.1476. Bibcode:2013AJ....145..163N. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/6/163. Guevara, Gustavo; Desell, Travis; LaPorte, Jason; Varela, Carlos A. (1 April 2011). "Modular Visualization of Distributed Systems". CLEI Electronic Journal. 14 (1). doi:10.19153/cleiej.14.1.7. S2CID 4876137. Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Heidi; Newberg, Lee A.; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Varela, Carlos A. (2016-12-30). "A Robust Asynchronous Newton Method for Massive Scale Computing Systems". arXiv:1702.02204. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) -Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos A.; Willett, Benjamin A.; Arsenault, Matthew; Newberg, Heidi (2011). "Evolving N-Body Simulations to Determine the Origin and Structure of the Milky Way Galaxy's Halo Using Volunteer Computing". 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Processing Workshops and PhD Forum. pp. 1888–1895. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.731.7231. doi:10.1109/IPDPS.2011.346. ISBN 978-1-61284-425-1. S2CID 10643895. Desell, Travis; Anderson, David P.; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; New, Heidi; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Varela, Carlos A. (2010). "An analysis of massively distributed evolutionary algorithms". IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation. pp. 1–8. doi:10.1109/CEC.2010.5586073. ISBN 978-1-4244-6909-3. S2CID 581517. Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos A.; Newberg, Heidi; Anderson, David P. (2010). "Validating Evolutionary Algorithms on Volunteer Computing Grids". Distributed Applications and Interoperable Systems. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6115. pp. 29–41. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13645-0_3. ISBN 978-3-642-13644-3. Cole, Nate; Desell, Travis; Lombraña González, Daniel; Fernández De Vega, Francisco; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Heidi; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2010). "Evolutionary Algorithms on Volunteer Computing Platforms: The Milky Way@Home Project". Parallel and Distributed Computational Intelligence. Studies in Computational Intelligence. Vol. 269. pp. 63–90. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-10675-0_4. ISBN 978-3-642-10674-3. Desell, Travis (December 2009). Asynchronous global optimization for massive-scale computing (Thesis). hdl:20.500.13015/2902. OCLC 1150135368. Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos; Newberg, Heidi; Cole, Nathan (2009). "Robust Asynchronous Optimization for Volunteer Computing Grids". 2009 Fifth IEEE International Conference on e-Science. pp. 263–270. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.158.8407. doi:10.1109/e-Science.2009.44. ISBN 978-1-4244-5340-5. S2CID 5214001. Desell, Travis; Waters, Anthony; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Varela, Carlos A.; Newby, Matthew; Newberg, Heidi; Przystawik, Andreas; Anderson, David (2010). "Accelerating the Milky Way@Home Volunteer Computing Project with GPUs". Parallel Processing and Applied Mathematics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6067. pp. 276–288. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14390-8_29. ISBN 978-3-642-14389-2. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2ea9c22cf..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "MilkyWay@home" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:20.218958+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Desell, Travis; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2008). "An asynchronous hybrid genetic-simplex search for modeling the Milky Way galaxy using volunteer computing". Proceedings of the 10th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation. pp. 921–928. doi:10.1145/1389095.1389273. ISBN 9781605581309. S2CID 10952453. Cole, Nathan; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Desell, Travis; Dawsey, Kristopher; Hayashi, Warren; Liu, Xinyang Fred; Purnell, Jonathan; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos; Willett, Benjamin; Wisniewski, James (20 August 2008). "Maximum Likelihood Fitting of Tidal Streams with Application to the Sagittarius Dwarf Tidal Tails". The Astrophysical Journal. 683 (2): 750–766. arXiv:0805.2121. Bibcode:2008ApJ...683..750C. doi:10.1086/589681. S2CID 1660060. Desell, Travis; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2008). "Asynchronous genetic search for scientific modeling on large-scale heterogeneous environments". 2008 IEEE International Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Processing. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1109/IPDPS.2008.4536169. ISBN 978-1-4244-1693-6. S2CID 1107218. Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Desell, Travis; Varela, Carlos (2008). "The Effects of Heterogeneity on Asynchronous Panmictic Genetic Search". Parallel Processing and Applied Mathematics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4967. pp. 457–468. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.78.2043. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-68111-3_48. ISBN 978-3-540-68105-2. Desell, Travis; Cole, Nathan; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Heidi; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2007). "Distributed and Generic Maximum Likelihood Evaluation". Third IEEE International Conference on e-Science and Grid Computing (E-Science 2007). pp. 337–344. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.65.4065. doi:10.1109/E-SCIENCE.2007.30. ISBN 978-0-7695-3064-2. S2CID 1043475. - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - -== External links == - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindModeling@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindModeling@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 21d43bad9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindModeling@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,50 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "MindModeling@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindModeling@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:21.437032+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -MindModeling@Home is an inactive non-profit, volunteer computing research project for the advancement of cognitive science. MindModeling@Home is hosted by Wright State University and the University of Dayton in Dayton, Ohio. -In BOINC, it is in the area of Cognitive Science and category called Cognitive science and artificial intelligence. It can only operate on a 64-bit operating system, preferably on a computer with multiple cores, running a Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, or Linux operating system. This project is not compatible with mobile devices, unlike other projects on BOINC. - - -== Research focus == -N-2 Repetition: understanding how people have a harder time returning to a task from another one -Observing how people read through their eye movement for the purpose of helping people reduce eye strain and processing what they read better and faster. -Modeling decision-making: resolving around decisions made from visual processing (focus and filtering) -Integrated Learning Models (ILM) to create algorithms based on how people learn and make decisions -How the brain performs tasks sequentially and simultaneously by measuring its blood flow - - -== Problems == -Its status is inactive. However, it is "not down or closed," as its servers are still running. -The projects are long; prolonged amounts of computing time can overheat a computer. The solution is to stop work on the project until the computer cools down. -It is subject to power outages, as seen on October 7, 2018 -When the website will be out of beta mode is unknown, as it has been in beta since 2007 - - -== Scientific results == -Godwin H.J., Walenchok S. et al. Faster than the speed of rejection: Object identification processes during visual search for multiple targets. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 41–4, (2016). -Moore L. R., Gunzelmann G. An interpolation approach for fitting computationally intensive models. Cognitive Systems Research 19, (2014). -Moore L.R. Cognitive model exploration and optimization: a new challenge for computational science. Comput Math Organ Theory 17, 296–313. (2011). -Moore L.R., Kopala M., Mielke T. et al. Simultaneous performance exploration and optimized search with volunteer computing. 19th ACM International Symposium on High Performance Distributed Computing, (2010). -Harris J., Gluck K.A., Moore L.R. MindModeling@Home. . . and Anywhere Else You Have Idle Processors. 9th International Conference on Cognitive Modelling, (2009). -Gluck K., Scheutz M. Combinatorics meets processing power: Large-scale computational resources for BRIMS. 16th Conference on Behavior Representation in Modeling and Simulation, BRIMS. 1. 73–83. (2007). - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official website -BOINC -Video of the MindModeling@Home trailer on YouTube -MindModeling@Home screensaver video on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namara_Catherine_Misango-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namara_Catherine_Misango-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index bf2b5d4f9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namara_Catherine_Misango-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Namara Catherine Misango" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namara_Catherine_Misango" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:21.426784+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Namara Catherine Misango is a Ugandan medical doctor and researcher who specializes in emergency medicine. - - -== Early life == -Misango was born to Ibrahim Misango and Shirley Misango. -Her academic life started at Green Hill Academy in the Uganda's central region. She received a scholarship from the Daily Monitor which earned her a free ordinary level education at Mount Saint Mary's College Namagunga from 2011 to 2014. She earned a scholarship from New Vision to continue in the same school, where she opted for the subject combination of physics, chemistry and biology aka PCB. She received a sponsorship to study at Makerere University, where she earned a Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery. -She again got another sponsorship to do Master of Medicine in Emergency Medicine at Makerere University where Seed Global Health helped to pay for tuition, and research. -Where still at her first degree course at Makerere University, she got an opportunity to study at Magna Graecia University in Italy on sponsorship, where she was able to compare the Italian medical system with that of Uganda. - - -=== Career === -Misango started work at Aga Khan University Hospital as an intern doctor. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 27125026e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Natural science" -chunk: 1/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:15.977564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Natural science or empirical science is a branch of science concerned with the description, understanding, and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and reproducibility of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. -Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology. Physical science is subdivided into physics, astronomy, Earth science, and chemistry. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches, also known as fields. As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements that can be explained as clear statements of the "laws of nature". -Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy. Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, René Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton debated the benefits of a more mathematical as against a more experimental method in investigating nature. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on. Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences. - -== Criteria == - -Philosophers of science have suggested several criteria, including Karl Popper's controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones. Validity, accuracy, and quality control, such as peer review and reproducibility of findings, are amongst the most respected criteria in today's global scientific community. -In natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proven to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined. - -== Branches of natural science == - -=== Biology === - -This field encompasses a diverse set of disciplines that examine phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies. Biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification, and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment. -The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to early periods of civilization, while microbiology was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. However, it was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole. -Some key developments in biology were the discovery of genetics, evolution through natural selection, the germ theory of disease, and the application of the techniques of chemistry and physics at the level of the cell or organic molecule. -Modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of all life. At a higher level, anatomy and physiology look at the internal structures, and their functions, of an organism, while ecology looks at how various organisms interrelate. - -=== Earth science === - -Earth science (also known as geoscience) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth, including geology, geography, geophysics, geochemistry, climatology, glaciology, hydrology, meteorology and oceanography. -Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of economic geology and mineralogy did not occur until the 18th century. The study of the earth, particularly paleontology, blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines, such as geophysics, in the 20th century led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to petroleum and mineral resources, climate research, and to environmental assessment and remediation. - -==== Atmospheric sciences ==== - -Although sometimes considered in conjunction with the Earth sciences, due to the independent development of its concepts, techniques, and practices and also the fact of it having a wide range of sub-disciplines under its wing, atmospheric science is also considered a separate branch of natural science. This field studies the characteristics of different layers of the atmosphere from ground level to the edge of space. The timescale of the study also varies from day to century. Sometimes, the field also includes the study of climatic patterns on planets other than Earth. - -==== Oceanography ==== - -The serious study of oceans began in the 19th century. As a field of natural science, it is relatively young, but stand-alone programs offer specializations in the subject. Though some controversies remain as to the categorization of the field under earth sciences, interdisciplinary sciences, or as a separate field in its own right, most modern workers in the field agree that it has matured to a state where it has its own paradigms and practices. - -==== Planetary science ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8d1162742..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Natural science" -chunk: 2/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:15.977564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Planetary science, or planetology, is the scientific study of planets, which include terrestrial planets like the Earth, and other types of planets, such as gas giants and ice giants. Planetary science also concerns other celestial bodies, such as dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. This largely includes the Solar System, but recently has started to expand to exoplanets, particularly terrestrial exoplanets. It explores various objects, spanning from micrometeoroids to gas giants, to establish their composition, movements, genesis, interrelation, and past. Planetary science is an interdisciplinary domain, having originated from astronomy and Earth science, and currently encompassing a multitude of areas, such as planetary geology, cosmochemistry, atmospheric science, physics, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetology, glaciology, and exoplanetology. Related fields encompass space physics, which delves into the impact of the Sun on the bodies in the Solar System, and astrobiology. -Planetary science comprises interconnected observational and theoretical branches. Observational research entails a combination of space exploration, primarily through robotic spacecraft missions utilizing remote sensing, and comparative experimental work conducted in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical aspect involves extensive mathematical modelling and computer simulation. -Typically, planetary scientists are situated within astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments in universities or research centers. However, there are also dedicated planetary science institutes worldwide. Generally, individuals pursuing a career in planetary science undergo graduate-level studies in one of the Earth sciences, astronomy, astrophysics, geophysics, or physics. They then focus their research within the discipline of planetary science. Major conferences are held annually, and numerous peer-reviewed journals cater to the diverse research interests in planetary science. Some planetary scientists are employed by private research centers and frequently engage in collaborative research initiatives. - -=== Chemistry === - -Constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations, and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications. -Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called "the central science" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. -Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of alchemy, a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gases, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the conservation of mass. -The discovery of the chemical elements and atomic theory began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of states of matter, ions, chemical bonds and chemical reactions. The success of this science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy. - -=== Physics === - -Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. Physics is generally regarded as foundational because all other natural sciences use and obey the field's principles and laws. Physics relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for formulating and quantifying principles. -The study of the principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives from direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the governing laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very early on, with philosophy gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental testing and observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in physics include Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation and classical mechanics, an understanding of electricity and its relation to magnetism, Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, the development of thermodynamics, and the quantum mechanical model of atomic and subatomic physics. -The field of physics is vast and can include such diverse studies as quantum mechanics and theoretical physics, applied physics and optics. Modern physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a particular area rather than being "universalists" like Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, and Lev Landau, who worked in multiple areas. - -=== Astronomy === - -Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, and comets. Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere, including objects that can be observed with the naked eye. It is one of the oldest sciences. -Astronomers of early civilizations performed methodical observations of the night sky, and astronomical artefacts have been found from much earlier periods. There are two types of astronomy: observational astronomy and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring and analyzing data, mainly using basic principles of physics. In contrast, theoretical astronomy is oriented towards developing computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index c3b47b97a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Natural science" -chunk: 3/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:15.977564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, geology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe. -Astronomy includes examining, studying, and modeling stars, planets, and comets. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation. However, some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium). There is considerable overlap with physics and in some areas of earth science. There are also interdisciplinary fields such as astrophysics, planetary sciences, and cosmology, along with allied disciplines such as space physics and astrochemistry. -While the study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail. -The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation. However, it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into formal science, with the introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography, along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories. - -== Interdisciplinary studies == - -The distinctions between the natural science disciplines are not always sharp, and they share many cross-discipline fields. Physics plays a significant role in the other natural sciences, as represented by astrophysics, geophysics, chemical physics, and biophysics. Likewise, chemistry is represented by such fields as biochemistry, physical chemistry, geochemistry, and astrochemistry. -A particular example of a scientific discipline that draws upon multiple natural sciences is environmental science. This field studies the interactions of physical, chemical, geological, and biological components of the environment, with particular regard to the effect of human activities and the impact on biodiversity and sustainability. This science also draws upon expertise from other fields, such as economics, law, and social sciences. -A comparable discipline is oceanography, as it draws upon a similar breadth of scientific disciplines. Oceanography is subcategorized into more specialized cross-disciplines, such as physical oceanography and marine biology. As the marine ecosystem is vast and diverse, marine biology is further divided into many subfields, including specializations in particular species. -There is also a subset of cross-disciplinary fields with strong currents that run counter to specialization by the nature of the problems they address. Put another way, In some fields of integrative application, specialists in more than one field are a key part of most scientific discourse. Such integrative fields, for example, include nanoscience, astrobiology, and complex system informatics. - -=== Materials science === - -Materials science is a relatively new, interdisciplinary field that deals with the study of matter and its properties and the discovery and design of new materials. Originally developed through the field of metallurgy, the study of the properties of materials and solids has now expanded into all materials. The field covers the chemistry, physics, and engineering applications of materials, including metals, ceramics, artificial polymers, and many others. The field's core deals with relating the structure of materials with their properties. -Materials science is at the forefront of research in science and engineering. It is an essential part of forensic engineering (the investigation of materials, products, structures, or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property) and failure analysis, the latter being the key to understanding, for example, the cause of various aviation accidents. Many of the most pressing scientific problems that are faced today are due to the limitations of the materials that are available, and, as a result, breakthroughs in this field are likely to have a significant impact on the future of technology. -The basis of materials science involves studying the structure of materials and relating them to their properties. Understanding this structure-property correlation, material scientists can then go on to study the relative performance of a material in a particular application. The major determinants of the structure of a material and, thus, of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and how it has been processed into its final form. These characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and kinetics, govern a material's microstructure and thus its properties. - -== History == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 115bd7dd2..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Natural science" -chunk: 4/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:15.977564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Some scholars trace the origins of natural science as far back as pre-literate human societies, where understanding the natural world was necessary for survival. People observed and built up knowledge about the behaviour of animals and the usefulness of plants as food and medicine, which was passed down from generation to generation. These primitive understandings gave way to more formalized inquiry around 3500 to 3000 BC in the Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian cultures, which produced the first known written evidence of natural philosophy, the precursor of natural science. While the writings show an interest in astronomy, mathematics, and other aspects of the physical world, the ultimate aim of inquiry about nature's workings was, in all cases, religious or mythological, not scientific. -A tradition of scientific inquiry also emerged in Ancient China, where Taoist alchemists and philosophers experimented with elixirs to extend life and cure ailments. They focused on the yin and yang, or contrasting elements in nature; the yin was associated with femininity and coldness, while yang was associated with masculinity and warmth. The five phases – fire, earth, metal, wood, and water – described a cycle of transformations in nature. The water turned into wood, which turned into the fire when it burned. The ashes left by fire were earth. Using these principles, Chinese philosophers and doctors explored human anatomy, characterizing organs as predominantly yin or yang, and understood the relationship between the pulse, the heart, and the flow of blood in the body centuries before it became accepted in the West. -Little evidence survives of how Ancient Indian cultures around the Indus River understood nature, but some of their perspectives may be reflected in the Vedas, a set of sacred Hindu texts. They reveal a conception of the universe as ever-expanding and constantly being recycled and reformed. Surgeons in the Ayurvedic tradition saw health and illness as a combination of three humours: wind, bile and phlegm. A healthy life resulted from a balance among these humours. In Ayurvedic thought, the body consisted of five elements: earth, water, fire, wind, and space. Ayurvedic surgeons performed complex surgeries and developed a detailed understanding of human anatomy. -Pre-Socratic philosophers in Ancient Greek culture brought natural philosophy a step closer to direct inquiry about cause and effect in nature between 600 and 400 BC. However, an element of magic and mythology remained. Natural phenomena such as earthquakes and eclipses were explained increasingly in the context of nature itself instead of being attributed to angry gods. Thales of Miletus, an early philosopher who lived from 625 to 546 BC, explained earthquakes by theorizing that the world floated on water and that water was the fundamental element in nature. In the 5th century BC, Leucippus was an early exponent of atomism, the idea that the world is made up of fundamental indivisible particles. Pythagoras applied Greek innovations in mathematics to astronomy and suggested that the earth was spherical. - -=== Aristotelian natural philosophy (400 BC–1100 AD) === - -Later Socratic and Platonic thought focused on ethics, morals, and art and did not attempt an investigation of the physical world; Plato criticized pre-Socratic thinkers as materialists and anti-religionists. Aristotle, however, a student of Plato who lived from 384 to 322 BC, paid closer attention to the natural world in his philosophy. In his History of Animals, he described the inner workings of 110 species, including the stingray, catfish and bee. He investigated chick embryos by breaking open eggs and observing them at various stages of development. Aristotle's works were influential through the 16th century, and he is considered to be the father of biology for his pioneering work in that science. He also presented philosophies about physics, nature, and astronomy using inductive reasoning in his works Physics and Meteorology. - -While Aristotle considered natural philosophy more seriously than his predecessors, he approached it as a theoretical branch of science. Still, inspired by his work, Ancient Roman philosophers of the early 1st century AD, including Lucretius, Seneca and Pliny the Elder, wrote treatises that dealt with the rules of the natural world in varying degrees of depth. Many Ancient Roman Neoplatonists of the 3rd to the 6th centuries also adapted Aristotle's teachings on the physical world to a philosophy that emphasized spiritualism. Early medieval philosophers including Macrobius, Calcidius and Martianus Capella also examined the physical world, largely from a cosmological and cosmographical perspective, putting forth theories on the arrangement of celestial bodies and the heavens, which were posited as being composed of aether. -Aristotle's works on natural philosophy continued to be translated and studied amid the rise of the Byzantine Empire and Abbasid Caliphate. -In the Byzantine Empire, John Philoponus, an Alexandrian Aristotelian commentator and Christian theologian, was the first to question Aristotle's physics teaching. Unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus instead relied on observation and argued for observation rather than resorting to a verbal argument. He introduced the theory of impetus. John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as inspiration for Galileo Galilei during the Scientific Revolution. -A revival in mathematics and science took place during the time of the Abbasid Caliphate from the 9th century onward, when Muslim scholars expanded upon Greek and Indian natural philosophy. The words alcohol, algebra and zenith all have Arabic roots. - -=== Medieval natural philosophy (1100–1600) === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 50ead6d10..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Natural science" -chunk: 5/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:15.977564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Aristotle's works and other Greek natural philosophy did not reach the West until about the middle of the 12th century, when works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin. The development of European civilization later in the Middle Ages brought with it further advances in natural philosophy. European inventions such as the horseshoe, horse collar and crop rotation allowed for rapid population growth, eventually giving way to urbanization and the foundation of schools connected to monasteries and cathedrals in modern-day France and England. Aided by the schools, an approach to Christian theology developed that sought to answer questions about nature and other subjects using logic. This approach, however, was seen by some detractors as heresy. -By the 12th century, Western European scholars and philosophers came into contact with a body of knowledge of which they had previously been ignorant: a large corpus of works in Greek and Arabic that were preserved by Islamic scholars. Through translation into Latin, Western Europe was introduced to Aristotle and his natural philosophy. These works were taught at new universities in Paris and Oxford by the early 13th century, although the practice was frowned upon by the Catholic church. A 1210 decree from the Synod of Paris ordered that "no lectures are to be held in Paris either publicly or privately using Aristotle's books on natural philosophy or the commentaries, and we forbid all this under pain of ex-communication." -In the late Middle Ages, Spanish philosopher Dominicus Gundissalinus translated a treatise by the earlier Persian scholar Al-Farabi called On the Sciences into Latin, calling the study of the mechanics of nature Scientia naturalis, or natural science. Gundissalinus also proposed his classification of the natural sciences in his 1150 work On the Division of Philosophy. This was the first detailed classification of the sciences based on Greek and Arab philosophy to reach Western Europe. Gundissalinus defined natural science as "the science considering only things unabstracted and with motion," as opposed to mathematics and sciences that rely on mathematics. Following Al-Farabi, he separated the sciences into eight parts, including: physics, cosmology, meteorology, minerals science, and plant and animal science. -Later, philosophers made their own classifications of the natural sciences. Robert Kilwardby wrote On the Order of the Sciences in the 13th century that classed medicine as a mechanical science, along with agriculture, hunting, and theatre, while defining natural science as the science that deals with bodies in motion. Roger Bacon, an English friar and philosopher, wrote that natural science dealt with "a principle of motion and rest, as in the parts of the elements of fire, air, earth, and water, and in all inanimate things made from them." These sciences also covered plants, animals and celestial bodies. -Later in the 13th century, a Catholic priest and theologian Thomas Aquinas defined natural science as dealing with "mobile beings" and "things which depend on a matter not only for their existence but also for their definition." There was broad agreement among scholars in medieval times that natural science was about bodies in motion. However, there was division about including fields such as medicine, music, and perspective. Philosophers pondered questions including the existence of a vacuum, whether motion could produce heat, the colours of rainbows, the motion of the earth, whether elemental chemicals exist, and where in the atmosphere rain is formed. -In the centuries up through the end of the Middle Ages, natural science was often mingled with philosophies about magic and the occult. Natural philosophy appeared in various forms, from treatises to encyclopedias to commentaries on Aristotle. The interaction between natural philosophy and Christianity was complex during this period; some early theologians, including Tatian and Eusebius, considered natural philosophy an outcropping of pagan Greek science and were suspicious of it. Although some later Christian philosophers, including Aquinas, came to see natural science as a means of interpreting scripture, this suspicion persisted until the 12th and 13th centuries. The Condemnation of 1277, which forbade setting philosophy on a level equal with theology and the debate of religious constructs in a scientific context, showed the persistence with which Catholic leaders resisted the development of natural philosophy even from a theological perspective. Aquinas and Albertus Magnus, another Catholic theologian of the era, sought to distance theology from science in their works. "I don't see what one's interpretation of Aristotle has to do with the teaching of the faith," he wrote in 1271. - -=== Newton and the Scientific Revolution (1600–1800) === -By the 16th and 17th centuries, natural philosophy evolved beyond commentary on Aristotle as more early Greek philosophy was uncovered and translated. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century, the invention of the microscope and telescope, and the Protestant Reformation fundamentally altered the social context in which scientific inquiry evolved in the West. Christopher Columbus's discovery of a new world changed perceptions about the physical makeup of the world, while observations by Copernicus, Tyco Brahe and Galileo brought a more accurate picture of the solar system as heliocentric and proved many of Aristotle's theories about the heavenly bodies false. Several 17th-century philosophers, including René Descartes, Pierre Gassendi, Marin Mersenne, Nicolas Malebranche, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Francis Bacon, made a break from the past by rejecting Aristotle and his medieval followers outright, calling their approach to natural philosophy superficial. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8013cbed5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Natural science" -chunk: 6/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:15.977564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The titles of Galileo's work Two New Sciences and Johannes Kepler's New Astronomy underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favour of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world. Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he argued that people should use the arts and sciences to gain dominion over nature. To achieve this, he wrote that "human life [must] be endowed with discoveries and powers." He defined natural philosophy as "the knowledge of Causes and secret motions of things; and enlarging the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible." Bacon proposed that scientific inquiry be supported by the state and fed by the collaborative research of scientists, a vision that was unprecedented in its scope, ambition, and forms at the time. -Natural philosophers came to view nature increasingly as a mechanism that could be taken apart and understood, much like a complex clock. Natural philosophers including Isaac Newton, Evangelista Torricelli and Francesco Redi, Edme Mariotte, Jean-Baptiste Denis and Jacques Rohault conducted experiments focusing on the flow of water, measuring atmospheric pressure using a barometer and disproving spontaneous generation. Scientific societies and scientific journals emerged and were spread widely through the printing press, touching off the Scientific Revolution. Newton in 1687 published his The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, or Principia Mathematica, which set the groundwork for physical laws that remained current until the 19th century. -Some modern scholars, including Andrew Cunningham, Perry Williams, and Floris Cohen, argue that natural philosophy is not properly called science and that genuine scientific inquiry began only with the scientific revolution. According to Cohen, "the emancipation of science from an overarching entity called 'natural philosophy is one defining characteristic of the Scientific Revolution." Other historians of science, including Edward Grant, contend that the scientific revolution that blossomed in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries occurred when principles learned in the exact sciences of optics, mechanics, and astronomy began to be applied to questions raised by natural philosophy. Grant argues that Newton attempted to expose the mathematical basis of nature – the immutable rules it obeyed – and, in doing so, joined natural philosophy and mathematics for the first time, producing an early work of modern physics. - -The Scientific Revolution, which began to take hold in the 17th century, represented a sharp break from Aristotelian modes of inquiry. One of its principal advances was the use of the scientific method to investigate nature. Data was collected, and repeatable measurements were made in experiments. Scientists then formed hypotheses to explain the results of these experiments. The hypothesis was then tested using the principle of falsifiability to prove or disprove its accuracy. The natural sciences continued to be called natural philosophy, but the adoption of the scientific method took science beyond the realm of philosophical conjecture and introduced a more structured way of examining nature. -Newton, an English mathematician and physicist, was a seminal figure in the Scientific Revolution. Drawing on advances made in astronomy by Copernicus, Brahe, and Kepler, Newton derived the universal law of gravitation and laws of motion. These laws applied both on Earth and in outer space, uniting two spheres of the physical world previously thought to function independently, according to separate physical rules. Newton, for example, showed that the tides were caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon. Another of Newton's advances was to make mathematics a powerful explanatory tool for natural phenomena. While natural philosophers had long used mathematics as a means of measurement and analysis, its principles were not used as a means of understanding cause and effect in nature until Newton. -In the 18th century and 19th century, scientists including Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Alessandro Volta, and Michael Faraday built upon Newtonian mechanics by exploring electromagnetism, or the interplay of forces with positive and negative charges on electrically charged particles. Faraday proposed that forces in nature operated in "fields" that filled space. The idea of fields contrasted with the Newtonian construct of gravitation as simply "action at a distance", or the attraction of objects with nothing in the space between them to intervene. James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century unified these discoveries in a coherent theory of electrodynamics. Using mathematical equations and experimentation, Maxwell discovered that space was filled with charged particles that could act upon each other and were a medium for transmitting charged waves. -Significant advances in chemistry also took place during the Scientific Revolution. Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, refuted the phlogiston theory, which posited that things burned by releasing "phlogiston" into the air. Joseph Priestley had discovered oxygen in the 18th century, but Lavoisier discovered that combustion was the result of oxidation. He also constructed a table of 33 elements and invented modern chemical nomenclature. Formal biological science remained in its infancy in the 18th century, when the focus lay upon the classification and categorization of natural life. This growth in natural history was led by Carl Linnaeus, whose 1735 taxonomy of the natural world is still in use. Linnaeus, in the 1750s, introduced scientific names for all his species. - -=== 19th-century developments (1800–1900) === - -By the 19th century, the study of science had come into the purview of professionals and institutions. In so doing, it gradually acquired the more modern name of natural science. The term scientist was coined by William Whewell in an 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Sciences. But the word did not enter general use until nearly the end of the same century. - -=== Modern natural science (1900–present) === -According to a famous 1923 textbook, Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances, by the American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis and the American physical chemist Merle Randall, the natural sciences contain three great branches: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index fe799b1ed..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Natural science" -chunk: 7/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:15.977564+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of natural science which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of primary postulates — they are mechanics, electrodynamics, and thermodynamics. -Today, natural sciences are more commonly divided into life sciences, such as botany and zoology, and physical sciences, which include physics, chemistry, astronomy, and Earth sciences. - -== See also == -Branches of science -Empiricism -List of academic disciplines and sub-disciplines -Natural history -Natural Sciences (Cambridge), for the Tripos at the University of Cambridge - -== References == - -=== Bibliography === - -== Further reading == -Defining Natural Sciences Ledoux, S. F., 2002: Defining Natural Sciences, Behaviourology Today, 5(1), 34–36. -Stokes, Donald E. (1997). Pasteur's Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation. Revised and translated by Albert V. Carozzi and Marguerite Carozzi. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-8177-6. - -The History of Recent Science and Technology -Natural Sciences Contains updated information on research in the Natural Sciences including biology, geography and the applied life and earth sciences. -Reviews of Books About Natural Science This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics in natural science. -Scientific Grant Awards Database Contains details of over 2,000,000 scientific research projects conducted over the past 25 years. -E!Science Up-to-date science news aggregator from major sources including universities. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index cc17d37ee..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Neo-colonial science" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:22.641112+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science, frequently described as helicopter research, parachute science or research, parasitic research, or safari study, is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country, collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with little or no involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-author. -Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research. Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as funded research centers) and the careers of local scientists. This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance colonialism—and critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to decolonize knowledge. -This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers may not ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues. The result of this approach is that local communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage. Ultimately, especially for fields dealing with global issues like conservation biology which rely on local communities to implement solutions, neo-colonial science prevents institutionalization of the findings in local communities in order to address issues being studied by scientists. - -== Effects == -The use of helicopter research has also led to a stigma of research within minority groups; some going so far as to deny research within their communities. Such safari studies lead to long-term negative effects for the scientific community and researchers, as distrust develops within peripheral communities. - -=== Donor robbery === -Funds for research in developing countries are often provided by bilateral and international academic and research programmes for sustainable development. Through 'donor robbery' a large proportion of such international funds may end up in the wealthier countries via consultancy fees, laboratory costs in rich universities, overhead or purchase of expensive equipment, hiring expatriates and running "enclave" research institutes, depending on international conglomerates. - -=== Use of open data === -The current tendency of freely availing research datasets may lead to exploitation of, and rapid publication of results based on data pertaining to developing countries by rich and well-equipped research institutes, without any further involvement and/or benefit to local communities; similarly to the historical open access to tropical forests that has led to the disappropriation ("Global Pillage") of plant genetic resources from developing countries. - -=== Professional discourse === -In certain fields of research, such as global public health, both the journals and professionals creating the field have defined much of their work under colonial structures and assumptions. This in turn prevents participation in the field from early in the process, even before authorship or credit is given during the publishing representation of editorial boards of journals publishing in environmental sciences and public health, with a vast majority of editors based in high-income countries despite the global scope of the journals' fields. - -== Mitigation == -Some journals and publishers are implementing policies that should mitigate the impact of parachute science. One of the conditions for publication set by the journal Global Health Action is that, "Articles reporting research involving primary data collection will normally include researchers and institutions from the countries concerned as authors, and include in-country ethical approval." Similarly The Lancet Global Health placed restriction encouraged submissions to review their practices for including local participants. Similarly in 2021, PLOS announced a policy that required changes in reporting for researchers working in other countries. -A number of research communities are putting protocols in place for indigenous health information. In the US, the Cherokee Nation established a specific Institutional Review Board, aiming at ensuring the protection of the rights and welfare of tribal members involved in research projects. The Cherokee Nation IRB does not allow helicopter research. The Human Heredity and Health in Africa (H3Africa) Initiative launched guidelines for working with genetic information from the continent in 2018. -An Ethiopian soil scientist, Mitiku Haile, suggests that such "free riding" should be "condemned by all partners and, if found, should be brought to the attention of the scientific community and the international and national funding agencies". -Also in Africa, since the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic in 2020, travel restrictions on international scholars tend to local scientists stepping up to lead research. - -== Examples by field == -Examples of neo-colonial approaches to science include: - -In the medical world: "A popular term for a clinical or epidemiologic research project conducted by foreign scientists who use local contacts to gain access to a population group and obtain samples" -In anthropology, particularly when related to peripheral ethnic groups: "Any investigation within the community in which a researcher collects data, leaves to disseminate it, and never again has contact with the tribe." -In geosciences, a 2020 study found that 30% of studies about Africa contained an African author. (See also: Ubirajara jubatus.) -When scientists from a central, dominant ethnic or sociological group conduct research in areas where minority groups are living (often peripheral areas), there is also a risk for helicopter research, though it may not appear directly from the academic affiliation of the researchers. For instance, within the United States, it has been used primarily in the study of Native Americans. - -=== Climate change === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index f2edac81c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Neo-colonial science" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:22.641112+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -An analysis of research money from 1990 to 2020 for climate change, found that 78% of research money for research on Climate change in Africa, was spent in European and North American institutions and more was spent for former British colonies than other countries. This in turn both prevents local researchers from doing groundbreaking work, because they don't have the funding for experimental activities and reduces investment in local researchers ideas and in topics important to the Global South, such as climate change adaptation. - -=== Soil science === -Soil scientists have qualified helicopter research as a perpetuation of "colonial" science. Typically researchers from rich countries would come to establish soil profile pits or collect soil and peat samples, which is often more easily done in poor countries given the availability of cheap labour and goodwill of villagers to dig a pit on their land against small payment. The profile will be described and samples taken with the help of local people, possibly also university staff. In case of helicopter research, the outcomes are then published such as discovery in tropical peatlands, sometimes in high-level journals without the involvement of local colleagues. "Overall, helicopter research tends to produce academic papers that further the career of scientists from developed countries, but provide little practical outcomes for nations where the studies are conducted, nor develop the careers of their local scientists." - -=== Coral Reef research === -A 2021 study in Current Biology quantified the amount of parachute research happening in coral reef studies and found such approaches to be the norm. - -== Examples by region == - -=== Europe === -The 2015 description of Tetrapodophis was performed by three European scientists. When the Brazilian newspaper Estadão – Brazil being the country where the fossil hails from – questioned lead researcher David M. Martill, he replied "It should be fossils for all. No countries existed when the animals were fossilized. [..] what difference would it make [partnering with Brazilian scientists]? I mean, do you want me also to have a black person on the team for ethnicity reasons, and a cripple and a woman, and maybe a homosexual too, just for a bit of all round balance? [..] Now I don't work in Brazil. But I still work on Brazilian fossils. There are hundreds of them in museums all over Europe, America and in Japan." - -=== Central Africa === -A 2009 study found that Europeans participated in 77% of regionally co-authored papers in Central African countries. Even though local authors are credited with the work, they aren't always given participatory roles in the final production of the research itself—instead playing roles in fieldwork. - -=== Indonesia === -In April 2018, a publication about Indonesia's Bajau people received great attention. These "sea nomads" had a genetic adaptation resulting in large spleens that supply additional oxygenated red blood cells. A month later this publication was criticised by Indonesian scientists. Their article in Science questioned the ethics of scientists from the United States and Denmark who took DNA samples of the Bajau people and analyzed them, without much involvement of Bajau or other Indonesian people. - -== See also == - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 15e0a398e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Noli turbare circulos meos!" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:44.944125+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -"Nōlī turbāre circulōs meōs!" is a Latin phrase, meaning "Do not disturb my circles!" It is said to have been uttered by Archimedes—in reference to a geometric figure he had outlined on the sand—as he was about to be killed by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse. - - -== Origin == -According to Valerius Maximus, the phrase was uttered by the ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Archimedes. When the Romans conquered the city of Syracuse after the siege of 214–212 BC, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus gave the order to retrieve Archimedes. Some soldiers entered the house of Archimedes and one of the soldiers asked Archimedes who he was. But, according to Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7), Archimedes just answered "Noli, obsecro, istum disturbare" ("Do not, I entreat you, disturb that (sand)"), because he was so engrossed in the circles drawn on the sand in front of him. After that, one of the soldiers killed Archimedes, despite the order of Marcus Claudius Marcellus. - - -== Authenticity == -Plutarch does not mention the quote in his Parallel Lives. Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7) attests the Latin form "noli ... istum disturbare" ("I ask you not to disturb that sand"). Valerius's is the only version of the phrase that survives from antiquity. In the modern era, it was paraphrased as "Noli turbare circulos meos" and then translated to Katharevousa Greek as "μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε!" ("Mē mou tous kuklous taratte!"). - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OProject@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OProject@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 00dfdbfd7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OProject@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "OProject@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OProject@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:23.784355+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -OProject@Home was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) and was based on a dedicated library OLib. The project was directed by Lukasz Swierczewski, an IT student at the College of Computer Science and Business Administration in Łomża, Computer Science and Automation Institute. As of 2016 it seems to have been abandoned. - - -== Subprojects == -Shor's Algorithm -Shor's Algorithm DP -GSCE-SV -ALX -Weird Engine -Shor's Algorithm and Shor's Algorithm DP were the main subprojects of OProject@Home. The objective was to test quantum algorithms (e.g. Shor's algorithm) of quantum computing. GSCE-SV verifies the correctness of Goldbach's conjecture, while ALX is a Non-CPU-intensive (nci) subproject capable of running on ARM-based CPUs running Android or Linux. It is used to research and develop artificial intelligence and computer networks. The project supports the PlayStation 3. -The Weird Engine subproject calculates the weird numbers (sequence A006037 in the OEIS). Numbers are available in the project database. According to the OEIS it is the largest publicly available database of such numbers. -These ongoing work on the application analyzing status of water on Earth. OProject@Home uses data from NASA and NOAA satellites. Analyzed data are taken from devices AVHRR and AMSR that are used to measure the Earth's radiation predominantly in the infrared. Based on the information is easy to calculate the sea surface temperature and ice concentration at any point on Earth. This information will enable to perform the analysis and simulations climate. -The subprojects running on the platform OProject@Home are important to science because they address difficult and unsolved problems in physics and theoretical mathematics. For example, Goldbach's conjecture, proposed in 1742 has never been disproven. It is not even clear whether the problem can be solved, as the range of numbers are infinite. It's also not known if there are any odd weird numbers. All calculated weird numbers are even. Climate change and global warming has also raised a number of controversies, and a future goal is to effectively analyze the entire Earth to predict the probability of various possible threats to people. Such systems can warn against natural disasters such as hurricanes or cyclones that may arise in the future. Although this is a future development, a sample video showing the sea surface temperature for 1982 has been generated in order to show what this can result in. The simulation is based on publicly available databases from organisations such as NOAA and NASA. -As with other volunteer computing projects, progress relies on recruiting a number of users willing to donate computing power to the project. These projects are usually run in the background and when the computer is idle and have little or no performance impact when a person is using the computer. -A side effect of the project is to develop high-performance algorithms for the various subprojects. The source code of the programs are open and available for public download on Google Code, licensed under the GPL license. All the data generated by the project is also available from the project website, also distributed under the GPL license. The project is also open to new subprojects, although the current focus is on the continued development of the software, in order to ensure a more stable platform. -The project was officially launched on 13 August 2012. As of 9 October 2012, over 2243 volunteers with over 1779 hosts have participated in the project. OProject@Home has 9th place between all BOINC projects by the amount of new hosts after well-known WCG, SETI@Home, MilkyWay, Collatz conjecture, PrimeGrid projects. On 30 September 2012 the project lead released the news about the launch OProject@Home in BOINC official website, and later on the same day the project was added to the overall list of volunteer systems. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 92fad466b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "One small step" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:48.458610+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -On July 21, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the Moon, he said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind". Recordings of Armstrong's Apollo 11 transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", leading to some controversy about whether he said the word or not. -After years of Armstrong and NASA insisting that the static obscured it, Armstrong conceded that he must have dropped the "a" after carefully listening to the recording. Several scientific analyses have been conducted with some suggesting that he did say the "a" and others suggesting that he did not. As a result, the "a" is often included in brackets in the quote. - - -== Background == -The Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11 in 1969. After Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder. At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a Lunar Module landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now." He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface at 02:56 UTC July 21, 1969, then said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." The exact time of Armstrong's first step on the Moon is unclear. -When Armstrong made his proclamation, Voice of America was rebroadcast live by the BBC and many other stations worldwide. An estimated 530 million people viewed the event, 20 percent out of a world population of approximately 3.6 billion. - - -== Wording == -Armstrong prepared his famous epigram on his own. In a post-flight press conference, he said that he chose the words "just prior to leaving the LM". In a 1983 interview in Esquire magazine, he explained to George Plimpton: "I always knew there was a good chance of being able to return to Earth, but I thought the chances of a successful touch down on the moon surface were about even money—fifty–fifty ... Most people don't realize how difficult the mission was. So it didn't seem to me there was much point in thinking of something to say if we'd have to abort landing." -In 2012, his brother Dean Armstrong said that Neil showed him a draft of the line months before the launch. Historian Andrew Chaikin, who interviewed Armstrong in 1988 for his book A Man on the Moon, disputed that Armstrong claimed to have conceived the line during the mission. -People have speculated that the line was inspired by The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien, in which Bilbo Baggins's jump over Gollum is described as "not a great leap for a man, but a leap in the dark". After leaving NASA in 1971 and moving to a farm in Lebanon, Ohio, Armstrong named the farm "Rivendell", a valley in Tolkien's works. In the 1990s Armstrong also had email address related to Tolkien. Armstrong however said that it was only after Apollo 11 that he read the works of Tolkien. People have also speculated that the idea for the quote may have come from an April 19, 1969, memo by Willis Shapley in which he wrote "the first lunar landing as an historic step forward for all mankind". Armstrong said that he did not remember reading the memo. -Recordings of Armstrong's transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", resulting in "man" having the same perceived meaning as "mankind" rather than "a person". NASA and Armstrong insisted for years that static obscured it. Armstrong stated he would never make such a mistake, but after repeatedly listening to recordings, he eventually conceded he must have dropped the "a". Armstrong later said he "would hope that history would grant me leeway for dropping the syllable and understand that it was certainly intended, even if it was not said—although it might actually have been". -There have since been claims and counter-claims about whether acoustic analysis of the recording reveals the presence of the missing "a". Peter Shann Ford, an Australian computer programmer, conducted a digital audio analysis and claims that Armstrong did say "a man", but the "a" was inaudible due to the limitations of communications technology of the time. Ford and James R. Hansen, Armstrong's authorized biographer, presented these findings to Armstrong and NASA representatives, who conducted their own analysis. Armstrong found Ford's analysis "persuasive". Linguists David Beaver and Mark Liberman wrote of their skepticism of Ford's claims on the blog Language Log. A 2016 peer-reviewed study again concluded Armstrong had included the article. NASA's transcript continues to show the "a" in parentheses. - - -== Protection by Armstrong == -Armstrong guarded the use of his name, image, and famous quote. When it was launched in 1981, MTV wanted to use his quote in its station identification, with the American flag replaced with the MTV logo, but he refused the use of his voice and likeness. He sued Hallmark Cards in 1994, when they used his name, and a recording of the "one small step" quote, in a Christmas ornament without his permission. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, which Armstrong donated to Purdue University. - - -== Legacy and cultural impact == -When Pete Conrad of Apollo 12 became the third man to walk on the Moon, on November 19, 1969, his first words referenced Armstrong. The shorter of the two, when Conrad stepped from the LM onto the surface he proclaimed "Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me." -Things named after the quote include a 1999 Star Trek: Voyager episode, the 2008 documentary film One Small Step: The Story of the Space Chimps, as well as a 2018 animated short film, a 1990 novella and the 2019 non-fiction book One Giant Leap. -The sculpture of Armstrong at Purdue University has an inscription of the quote. -The quote has been described by Richard Gray for weather.com as the most famous disputed quote in history. Ian Crouch of The New Yorker has described the quote as "among the most famous proclamations of the [20th] century". -In December 2020, the One Small Step to Protect Human Heritage in Space Act was enacted, to protect American lunar landing sites. - - -== See also == -"We choose to go to the Moon", 1962 speech by John F. Kennedy -"Houston, we have a problem", a 1970 quote attributed to Jack Swigert and Jim Lovell during the Apollo 13 mission and shortened to this well-known form for the 1995 Apollo 13 film -"Where no man has gone before", quotation from Star Trek - - -== References == - - -== Sources == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index a4e82c2cb..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Orbit@home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:24.942335+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -orbit@home was a BOINC-based volunteer computing project of the Planetary Science Institute. It uses the "Orbit Reconstruction, Simulation and Analysis" framework to optimize the search strategies that are used to find near-Earth objects. -On March 4, 2008, orbit@home completed the installation of its new server and officially opened to new members. On April 11, orbit@home launched a Windows version of their client. On February 16, 2013, the project was halted due to lack of grant funding. However, on July 23, 2013, the Orbit@home project was selected for funding by NASA's Near Earth Object Observation program. It was announced that orbit@home is to resume operations sometime in 2014 or 2015. As of July 13, 2018, orbit@home is offline according to its website, and the upgrade announcement has been removed. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8a45559e4..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Organic (model)" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:58.480942+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Organic describes forms, methods and patterns found in living systems such as the organisation of cells, to populations, communities, and ecosystems. -Typically organic models stress the interdependence of the component parts, as well as their differentiation. Other properties of organic models include: - -the growth, life or development cycle -the ability to adapt, learn, and evolve -emergent behaviour or emergent properties -steady change or growth, as opposed to instant change -regulatory feedback -composed of heterogeneous (diverse) parts -Organic models are used especially in the design of artificial systems, and the description of social systems and constructs. - - -== Uses == -In the social sciences, the organic model has been drawn upon for ideas such as mechanical and organic solidarity and organic unity. Carl Ritter advanced the idea of Lebensraum using the metaphor of an organic, growing state. -In computer science, organic networks grow in an ad hoc manner, while organic computing is autonomous and able to self-organise and heal. -Bionics (biomimicry) is the engineering of technology through the use of systems found in biology. -Organic architecture stresses interrelatedness as it combines the site, buildings, furnishings, and surroundings into a unified whole, each adapted to the others. Examples include the use of passive solar and wind energy as elements of design so that the building can be easily adapted to maintain the desired levels of human comfort within the structure. -In economics and business, organic growth refers to market growth that has happened gradually, and not through a sudden buyout or acquisition. An organic organisation is one which is flexible and has a flat structure, or one of minimal height. -In military, organic refers to mixtures of military unit types. - - -== See also == -Genetic algorithm -Cybernetics -Organic law -Ecological Engineering - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index a6a95f2e5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,73 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of Earth science" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:44.730718+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: - -Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. -Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn has many branches. - -== Earth's spheres == - -Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the natural environment (the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere. Earth's ecosphere lies it self within the heliosphere (the Sun's astrosphere). Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are: - -Magnetosphere – The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field -Atmosphere, the gases that surround the Earth (its air) -By altitude -Exosphere – The outermost layer of an atmosphere -Exobase – The lower boundary of the exosphere -Thermopause – The upper boundary of the thermosphere -Thermosphere – The layer of the atmosphere above the mesosphere and below the exosphere -Mesopause – The temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere -Mesosphere – The layer of the atmosphere directly above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere -Stratopause – The upper boundary of the stratosphere -Stratosphere – The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere -Ozone layer – The region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiation -Tropopause – The boundary of the atmosphere between the troposphere and stratosphere -Troposphere – The lowest layer of the atmosphere -Planetary boundary layer – The lowest part of the atmosphere, directly influenced by contact with the planetary surface -By air turbulence -Heterosphere – Upper parts of the atmosphere in which the component gases are not well mixed -Turbopause – The altitude in the Earth's atmosphere below which turbulent mixing dominates -Homosphere – Lower parts of the atmosphere in which the component gases are well mixed -Other -Ionosphere – The ionized part of Earth's upper atmosphere -Biosphere – The global sum of all ecosystems on Earth -Anthroposphere – The part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitat -Noosphere (rare) – The sphere of human thought -Hydrosphere – The combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite -Cryosphere – Those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form -Geosphere/Solid Earth – (Also sometimes a collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere) The union of all solid parts of Earth and the Inner of Earth. -Pedosphere – The outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes -Outer layers -By composition -Crust (geology) – The outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. -Moho Discontinuity– The line between the crust and the Earth's mantle. -Earth's mantle – The part of the interior of the planet Earth between the crust and the core. -By diffusion of seismic waves -Lithosphere – The rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties. -Asthenosphere – The highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile region of the Earth's upper mantle -Mesozone – The part of the Earth's mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere, but above the outer core. -Gutenberg discontinuity– The line between the mantle and the Earth's core. -Earth's core – The inner part of the planet, formed by differential buoyancy of the component materials causing the denser materials to accumulate nearer to the centre. -Outer core – A fluid layer composed of mostly iron and nickel between Earth's solid inner core and its mantle. -Lehmann Discontinuity – The line between the inner core and the outer core. -Inner core – The innermost part of the Earth, a solid ball of iron-nickel alloy. - -== Branches of Earth science == - -=== Atmospheric science === -Atmospheric sciences – The study of the atmosphere, its processes, and interactions with other systems - -Climatology – The scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time -Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting. -Paleoclimatology – The study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth -Atmospheric chemistry – The branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the atmosphere is studied -Atmospheric physics – The application of physics to the study of the atmosphere -Paleotempestology – The study of past tropical cyclone activity using geological proxies and historical documents \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0c68148ce..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,82 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of Earth science" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:44.730718+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Geology === -Geology – The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. -Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value -Engineering geology – The application of the geology to engineering practice. -Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. -Quaternary geology – The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago -Planetary geology – The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects -Petroleum geology – The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels -Historical geology – The study of the geological history of Earth -Hydrogeology – The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater -Structural geology – The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust independent of extent -Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems -Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils -Geodesy – The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth -Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field -Geomicrobiology – Science of the interactions between microbiology and geology -Geomorphology – The scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them -Glaciology – Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice -Geophysics – The physics of the Earth and its environment in space, and the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods -Micropaleontology – The branch of paleontology that studies microfossils -Mineralogy – Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts -Gemology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials -Mineral physics – The science of materials that compose the interior of planets -Paleontology – Scientific study of prehistoric life -Palynology – The study of dust -Petrology – The branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks -Physical geodesy – The study of the physical properties of the Earth's gravity field -Sedimentology – The study of natural sediments and of the processes by which they are formed -Seismology – The scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planet -Paleoseismology – The study of earthquakes that happened in the past -Stratigraphy – The study of rock layers and their formation -Volcanology – The study of volcanoes, lava, magma and associated phenomena - -=== Geography === -Geography – The science that studies the terrestrial surface, the societies that inhabit it and the territories, landscapes, places or regions that form it. - -Physical geography – The branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography -Human geography – The study of cultures, communities and activities of peoples of the world -Cartography -Topography -Geostatistics – A branch of statistics focusing on spatial data sets -Environmental chemistry – The scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places -Environmental soil science – The study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. -Geographic information science – Scientific study of geographic data and information -Edaphology – The science concerned with the influence of soils on living things. -Pedology – The study of soils in their natural environment -Spatial decision support systems – Computerised aid to land use decisions -Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) – Various satellite navigation systems -Hydrology – The science of applying engineering techniques to the properties of the Earth's water, especially its movement in relation to land. -Satellite navigation – Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide. autonomous geo-spatial positioning -Remote sensing – Acquisition of information at a significant distance from the subject. -Photogrammetry – The science of making measurements using photography. - -=== Oceanography === -Oceanography – The study of the physical and biological aspects of the ocean - -Biological oceanography – The study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. -Physical oceanography – The study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean -Chemical oceanography – The study of ocean chemistry -Paleoceanography – The study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past -Limnology – The science of inland aquatic ecosystems -Marine geology – The study of the history and structure of the ocean floor - -=== Planetary science === -Planetary science – The study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes that form them. - -Planetary geology – study of the geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects -Selenography – study of the surface and physical features of the Moon -Theoretical planetology – the theoretical study of the internal structure of planets by making assumptions about their chemical composition and the state of their materials, then calculating the radial distribution of various properties such as temperature, pressure, or density of material across the planet's internals. - -== History of Earth science == -History of Earth science – history of the all-embracing sciences related to Earth. Earth science and all of its branches are branches of physical science. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index e63c8fdfd..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,87 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of Earth science" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:44.730718+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. -History of atmospheric chemistry -History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. -History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. -History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time -History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. -History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. -History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how they are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. -History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology -History of marine biology – history of the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water -History of parasitology – The history of parasitology studies parasites, their hosts, and their relationships. -History of population dynamics – history of population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. -History of environmental chemistry – The history of environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. -History of environmental soil science – The history of environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. -History of environmental geology – The history of environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in solving environmental problems. -History of toxicology – history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. -History of geodesy – history of the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space -History of geography – history of the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth -History of geoinformatics – the history of the science and the technology used to develop and use information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences, and related branches of engineering. -History of geology – history of studying Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere. -History of planetary geology – the history of the planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies, such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. -History of geomorphology – history of the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them -History of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets -History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. -History of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally, ice, and natural phenomena that involve ice. -History of hydrology – history of studying water movement, distribution, and quality on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. -History of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). -History of mineralogy – history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. -History of meteorology – history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere, which explains and forecasts weather events. -History of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean -History of paleoclimatology – history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth -History of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life -History of petrology – history of the geology branch that studies rocks' origin, composition, distribution, and structure. -History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters -History of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or other planet-like bodies -History of soil science – history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth, including soil formation, classification, and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties concerning the use and management of soils. -History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects, including planets, moons, and asteroids. -History of volcanology – history of studying volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena. - -== Earth science programs == -NASA Earth Science - -== Earth science organizations == -List of geoscience organizations - -== Earth science journals == -Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences -Earth-Science Reviews -Nature Geoscience -Radiocarbon -Reviews of Geophysics - -== People influential in Earth science == -James Hutton -Alfred Wegener -Isabelle Daniel -Robert Hazen -Naomi Oreskes -Michael E. Mann - -== See also == - -Outline of science – -Outline of natural science – -Outline of physical science – -Outline of Earth science -Outline of formal science – -Outline of social science – -Outline of applied science – - -== References == - -== External links == - -Earth Science Picture of the Day, a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center -Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration -National Earth Science Teachers Association \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 006205349..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,136 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of biochemistry" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:19.710984+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: -Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. - - -== Applications of biochemistry == -Testing -Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by extension identifying their potential to cause cancer in humans. -Pregnancy test – one uses a urine sample and the other a blood sample. Both detect the presence of the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). This hormone is produced by the placenta shortly after implantation of the embryo into the uterine walls and accumulates. -Breast cancer screening – identification of risk by testing for mutations in two genes—Breast Cancer-1 gene (BRCA1) and the Breast Cancer-2 gene (BRCA2)—allow a woman to schedule increased screening tests at a more frequent rate than the general population. -Prenatal genetic testing – testing the fetus for potential genetic defects, to detect chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome or birth defects such as spina bifida. -PKU test – Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic disorder in which the individual is missing an enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase. Absence of this enzyme allows the buildup of phenylalanine, which can lead to intellectual disability. -Genetic engineering – taking a gene from one organism and placing it into another. Biochemists inserted the gene for human insulin into bacteria. The bacteria, through the process of translation, create human insulin. -Cloning – Dolly the sheep was the first mammal ever cloned from adult animal cells. The cloned sheep was, of course, genetically identical to the original adult sheep. This clone was created by taking cells from the udder of a six-year-old ewe and growing them in the lab. -Gene therapy – a modified or healthy gene is inserted into the organism to replace a disease-causing gene. Commonly a virus that has been altered to carry human DNA is used to deliver the healthy gene to the targeted cells of the patient. This process was first used successfully in 1990 on a four-year-old patient who lacked an immune system due to a rare genetic disease called severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). - - -== Branches of biochemistry == - - -=== Main branches === -Animal biochemistry -Plant biochemistry -Metabolism -Enzymology - - -=== Other branches === -Biotechnology, -Bioluminescence, -Molecular chemistry, -Enzymatic chemistry, -Genetic engineering, -Pharmaceuticals, -Endocrinology, -Neurochemistry, -Hematology, -Nutrition, -Photosynthesis, -Environmental, -Toxicology - - -== History of biochemistry == - - -== General biochemistry concepts == -Major categories of bio-compounds: -Carbohydrates : sugar – disaccharide – polysaccharide – starch – glycogen -Lipids : fatty acid – fats – essential oils – oils – waxes – cholesterol -Nucleic acids : DNA – RNA – mRNA – tRNA – rRNA – codon – adenosine – cytosine – guanine – thymine – uracil -Proteins : -amino acid – glycine – arginine – lysine -peptide – primary structure – secondary structure – tertiary structure – conformation – protein folding -Chemical properties: -molecular bond – covalent bond – ionic bond – hydrogen bond – ester – ethyl -molecular charge – hydrophilic – hydrophobic – polar -pH – acid – alkaline – base -oxidation – reduction – hydrolysis -Structural compounds: -In cells: flagellin – peptidoglycan – myelin – actin – myosin -In animals: chitin – keratin – collagen – silk -In plants: cellulose – lignin – cell wall -Enzymes and enzyme activity: -enzyme kinetics – enzyme inhibition -proteolysis – ubiquitin – proteasome -kinase – dehydrogenase -Membranes : fluid mosaic model – diffusion – osmosis -phospholipids – glycolipid – glycocalyx – antigen – isoprene -ion channel – proton pump – electron transport – ion gradient – antiporter – symporter – quinone – riboflavin -Biomolecule (list) -Biomolecular engineering -Biomolecular structure -Multi-state modeling of biomolecules -Energy pathways : -pigments : chlorophyll – carotenoids – xanthophyll – cytochrome – phycobilin – bacteriorhodopsin – hemoglobin – myoglobin – absorption spectrum – action spectrum – fluorescence -Photosynthesis : light reaction – dark reaction -Fermentation : Acetyl-CoA – lactic acid -Cellular respiration : Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – NADH – pyruvate – oxalate – citrate -Chemosynthesis -Regulation -hormones : auxin -signal transduction – growth factor – transcription factor – protein kinase – SH3 domain -Malfunctions : tumor – oncogene – tumor suppressor gene -Receptors : Integrin – transmembrane receptor – ion channel -Techniques : electrophoresis – chromatography – mass spectrometry – x-ray diffraction – Southern blot – fractionation – Gram stain – Surface Plasmon Resonance – Microscale Thermophoresis - - -== Biochemical techniques == - - -=== Molecular genetics === -DNA sequencing -Polymerase chain reaction -Northern blotting -Southern blotting -Fusion proteins -DNA microarray -Bioinformatics -Flow cytometry - - -=== Protein purification === -Western blotting -Chromatography -ELISA - - -=== Structural determination === -X-ray crystallography -NMR -Electron microscopy -Molecular dynamics -Mass spectrometry -Isotopic labeling - - -=== Interactions between biomolecules === -Coimmunoprecipitation -Electrophoretic mobility shift assay -Southwestern blotting - - -== External links == - -Biochemistry, 5th ed. Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of NCBI. -Biochemistry, 2nd ed. Full text of Garrett and Grisham. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3a4e6f67c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,112 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of health sciences" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:03.782056+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to health sciences: -Health sciences – those sciences that focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. Health sciences relate to multiple academic disciplines, including STEM disciplines and emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research). - - -== Medicine and its branches == -Medicine is an applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Below are some of the branches of medicine. - -Anesthesiology is the brand of medicine that deals with life support and anesthesia during surgery. -Angiology deals with the diseases of the circulatory system. -Audiology focuses on preventing and curing hearing damage. -Bariatrics deals with the causes, prevention, and treatment of obesity. -Cardiology deals with disorders of the heart and the blood vessels. -Critical care medicine focuses on life support and the intensive care of the seriously ill. -Dentistry is the branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition but also the oral mucosa, and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial (jaw and facial) area. -Dermatology deals with the skin, its structure, functions, and diseases. -Emergency medicine focuses on care provided in the emergency department. -Endocrinology deals with disorders of the endocrine system. -Family medicine is a medical specialty devoted to comprehensive health care for people of all ages. -Gastroenterology deals with the study and care of the digestive system. -General Practice (often called Family Medicine) is a branch of medicine that specializes in primary care. -Geriatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the general health and well-being of the elderly. -Gynecology deals with the health of the female reproductive systems and the breasts. -Hematology deals with the blood and the circulatory system. -Hepatology deals with the liver, gallbladder and the biliary system. -Infectious disease is a branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and management of infectious disease, especially for complex cases and immunocompromised patients. -Clinical immunology is the study of the human immune system. -Kinesiology is the scientific study of human or non-human body movement. -Laboratory medicine deals with diagnostic laboratory examinations and tests and their interpretation what makes in a medical laboratory. -Medical physics is the branch of medicine and science that deals with applications of physics concepts, theories, and methods to medicine or health care. -Neurology deals with the brain and the nervous system. -Nephrology is the branch of medicine which deals with the kidneys. -Oncology is the branch of medicine that studies of cancer. -Ophthalmology deals with the eyes. -Orthopedics is a branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system -Otolaryngology deals the ears, nose and throat. -Pathology is the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of the disease. -Pediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the general health and well-being of children. -Pharmacy is the art and practice of preparing, preserving, compounding, and dispensing medical drugs -Pharmacology is study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines. -Public health and preventive medicine is the branch of medicine concerned with the health of populations. -Pulmonology is the branch of medicine that deals with the respiratory system. -Psychiatry deals with the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders. -Clinical psychology is a health discipline concerned with the biopsychosocial study of the mind, brain, behavior and the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of psychological disorders. -Radiology is the branch of medicine that employs medical imaging to diagnose and treat disease. -Rheumatology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of rheumatic diseases. -Splanchnology deals with visceral organs. -Surgery is the branch of medicine that uses operative techniques to investigate or treat both disease and injury, or to help improve bodily function or appearance. -Urology is the branch of medicine that deals with the urinary system and the male reproductive system. -Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, disorder, and injury in nonhuman/animals. - - -== History of health sciences == -History of medicine - - -== General health sciences concepts == -Disease -Healing -Health -Health care -Health informatics -Doctor -Dentist -Physician -Surgeon -Veterinarian -Hospital -Nurse -Medication -Operation - - -== Diagnostic methods == -Physical examination -Auscultation -Percussion -Medical history -Medical imaging -X-ray -CT scan -PET scan -MRI -SPECT (Single-photon emission computed tomography) -Ultrasound -Microscopy -Phlebotomy -Rating scales - - -== See also == -Academic health science centre -Biomedical sciences -Health economics -List of health sciences topics -List of life sciences - - -== External links == - -Links to Health Professions websites -National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences -The US National Library of Medicine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 73192b10f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,369 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of library and information science" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:15.417719+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to library and information science: -Library and information science (LIS) is the scientific study of issues related to libraries and the information fields. This includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. The organization of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research goal of library science. Given its interdisciplinary nature, it overlaps with the fields of computer science, various social sciences, statistics, and systems analysis. - -== Nature of library and information science == - -=== Definition === -Library and information science can be described as all of the following: - -The study of libraries and information both in terms of theory and practice. -Field of science – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer reviewed research is published. There are many library and information-related scientific journals. -Social science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society. - -=== Essence === -Library and information science -Library science -Information science -Glossary of library and information science -Cataloging -Classification -Information architecture -Librarian -Library - -== Branches of library and information science == -Archival science -Bibliographic databases -Cataloging -Library instruction -Preservation -Readers' advisory -Reference - -== Types of library and information professionals == - -Librarian -Application specialist – see integrated library system -Cataloguing librarian – see library catalog -Collections librarian – see library collection development -Electronic resources librarian – see electronic resource management -Law librarian – expert in legal research -Metadata librarian – see metadata -Reference librarian – helps patrons with research -Research instruction librarian – see library instruction -Teacher-librarian -Archivist -Curator -Indexer -Information architect -Information consultant (may be a qualified librarian) -Prospect researcher -Records manager (see Records management) - -== History of library and information science == -History of library science - -History of Information Science -List of larger libraries in the ancient world - -== Types of libraries == -Academic library -Archive -Digital library -National library -List of national libraries -Public library -Carnegie library -Research library -School library -Special library - -== Specific libraries == -List of libraries - -== Library and information resources == -Document - -=== Information media === -Audiobook -Bibliographic database -Book -List of books -Bookmark -Braille book -CD-ROM -Clay Tablet -Codex -Compact audio cassette -Compact disc -DVD -Ebook -Film Stock -Gramophone record -Information architecture -Laserdisc -Magnetic tape -Manuscript -Map -Microfiche -Microfilm -Microprint -Newsgroup -Newspaper -Pamphlet -Phonograph cylinder -Photograph -Scroll (parchment) -Sheet music -Slide library -Videotape -Web site -Wire recording - -=== Types of publications === -Academic journal -Almanac -List of almanacs -Atlas -Comic book -Dictionary -Encyclopedia -Lists of encyclopedias -Gazetteer -Graphic novel -Lexicon -Magazine -Newspaper -Specific newspapers -Reference work -Serial -Series of books -Telephone directory -Thesaurus - -=== Catalogs and indexes === -AACR2 -Accession number -Authority control -Bliss bibliographic classification -Classification -Collation -Colon classification -Colophon -Dewey Decimal Classification -Controlled vocabulary -Index -International Standard Bibliographic Description -Library catalog -Library of Congress Classification -Machine Readable Cataloging -NUCMC -OCLC -OPAC -Resource Description and Access -Subject -Universal Decimal Classification -WorldCat - -== Information science == -Glossary of information science terms -Human-computer interaction -Integrated library system -Evidence-based library and information practice - -=== Organization of information === -Cataloging and classification -List of Catalogs and indexes -Subject indexing -Taxonomic classification -Scientific classification -Statistical classification -Security classification -Film classification -Categorization -Data modeling -Knowledge management/ Knowledge engineering -Information architecture -Information system - -=== Electronic information storage and retrieval === -Data storage -Boolean expression -Computer storage -Data management -Data storage device -Database -Digital library -Document management -Expert system -Fuzzy logic -Geographic Information System -Invisible web -Keyword -Knowledge management -Memory -Metadata -OpenURL -Precision -Recall -Semantic web -XML -Information retrieval -Controlled vocabulary -Cross-language information retrieval -Digital libraries -Document classification -Educational psychology -Federated search -Full text search -Geographic information system -Information extraction -Information seeking -Knowledge visualization -Question answering -Search engines -Search index -tf-idf - -=== Infometrics === -Bibliometrics – studies quantitative aspects of recorded information -Webometrics – studies quantitative aspects of the World Wide Web -Cybermetrics – similar to webometrics, but broadens its definition to include electronic resources - -==== Scientometrics ==== -Scientometrics – studies quantitative aspects of science - -Bradford's law -Citation -Data mining -Impact factor -Information retrieval -Peer review -Web mining - -=== Informatics === -Informatics - -Bioinformatics -Biodiversity Informatics -Biomedical informatics -Business Informatics -Ecoinformatics -Cheminformatics -Community informatics -Geoinformatics -Health informatics -Laboratory informatics -Neuroinformatics -Social informatics - -=== Information and society === -Information society -Censorship -Copyright -Freedom of Information Act -Information access -Intellectual freedom -Intellectual property -Literacy -USA PATRIOT Act -Open source -Privacy -Cultural studies -Technological determinism -Groupware -Human-computer interaction -Information ethics -Usability engineering/ User-centered design - -== Library operations and management == -Library management – - -Five laws of library science -Information -Information literacy -Knowledge management - -=== Research methods === -Bibliography -Digital reference services -Genealogy -Reference works -Library reference desk -Reference interview -Research -Museme - -==== Organizing and searching Wikipedia ==== -Wikipedia resources for researchers -Wikipedia:Categorization -Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia -Wikipedia:Common words, searching for which is not possible -Wikipedia:How to explore Wikipedia -Wikipedia:Naming conventions (and its subpages) -Wikipedia:Searching -Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check - -=== Selection and acquisition of library materials === -Children's literature -Information explosion -ISBN -ISSN -Library acquisitions -Library collection development -Literature -Public Lending Right -Young adult literature - -=== Preservation === -Preservation - -Archival science -Archive -Archivist -Art conservation and restoration -Conservation -Curator -Digital preservation -Film preservation -Historic preservation -Library binding -Mass deacidification -Preservationist -Slow fire - -=== Other library services and processes === -Bookmobile -Interlibrary loan -Library circulation -Library portal -Library technical services -RFID -Reference management software - -== Politics of library science == -Government information -REFORMA - -=== Legal issues === -Censorship -Copyright -Intellectual freedom -Intellectual property -Intellectual property rights -Intellectual freedom -Legal deposit -Library Bill of Rights -Open access (publishing) -Public lending right -Serials crisis - -==== Laws ==== -Children's Internet Protection Act -Digital Millennium Copyright Act -Freedom of Information Act -Patriot Act -USA PATRIOT Act - -==== Legal precedents ==== -New York Times Company v. Tasini \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 83000be74..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,169 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of library and information science" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:15.417719+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Social issues === -Decreased funding for established libraries -Digital divide -Digitization -Education for librarianship -Information access -Information and communication technologies (ICT's) -Sustainability and ICT's -Information explosion -Information policy -Information literacy -Information Society -Literacy -Remote access - -== Education and training == -Education for librarianship – - -List of I-Schools -Academic courses in library science - -Collection management -Cataloging and classification -Database management -Information architecture -Information systems and technology -Knowledge management -List of Library Science schools -Management -Preservation -Reference -Research methods -Statistics - -== Professional organizations == - -American Association of School Librarians -American Library Association -Australian Library and Information Association -Canadian Library Association -Association for Library Service to Children -Association of Research Libraries -International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) -Public Library Association -Special Libraries Association - -== Non-profit organizations == -Librarians Without Borders -Bibliothèques Sans Frontières -African Library Project -Friends of Libraries - -== Notable people in library science == -List of librarians -Librarians in popular culture -Sanford Berman -Daniel J. Boorstin -William Warner Bishop -Lee Pierce Butler -John Cotton Dana -Melvil Dewey -John Fiske (philosopher) -Michael Gorman -Seymour Lubetzky -Eric Moon -Paul Evan Peters -S. R. Ranganathan -Jesse Shera -Howard D. White - -== List of Topic in Library School == -Collection Development -Information Literacy -Digital Libraries -Library Management -Cataloging and Classification -Information Retrieval -Library Automation -Reference Services -Database Management -Knowledge Management -Digital Scholarship -Library Marketing -Community Outreach -Information Architecture -Taxonomy and Ontology -User Experience (UX) -Library Assessment -Information Policy -Copyright and Licensing -Open Access -Digital Preservation -Data Curation -Library Instruction -Information Systems -Collection Maintenance -Interlibrary Loan -Library Consortia -Information Literacy Instruction -Digital Asset Management -Library Space Planning -Information Ethics -Library Outreach -Community Engagement -Information Literacy Standards -Digital Library Software -Library Website Design -Online Public Access Catalogs (OPACs) -Library Discovery Layers -Information Literacy Assessment -Library Impact Studies -Information Literacy Curriculum -Digital Scholarship Centers -Library Makerspaces -Information Literacy Frameworks -Library Support for Research -Digital Humanities -Library Data Analytics -Information Literacy and Critical Thinking -Library Support for Student Success -Library Instruction for Diverse Populations -Information Literacy and Digital Citizenship -Library Services for People with Disabilities -Information Literacy and Media Literacy -Library Support for Entrepreneurship -Information Literacy and Critical Library Instruction -Library Services for Underserved Communities -Information Literacy and Transliteracy - -== See also == -Wikipedia:WikiProject Libraries -Category:Library science journals -Category:Library science magazines -Wikiproject BID (library, information, documentation) at the German Wikipedia -Portail SID (information literacy and libraries) at the French Wikipedia. -How to find a book on Wikibooks -Document management system -Grey literature -History of public library advocacy -Informatics -Library of Congress -Library anxiety -OCLC -Preservation (library and archive) -Public library advocacy -Serials, periodicals and journals -The works of Michael Gorman - -== External links == - -Visualizing Library and Information Science from the practitioner's perspective -LISNews.org Librarian and Information Science News -LISWire.com Librarian and Information Science Wire - -=== History === -Jefferson's Library - Exhibition including a sample page from "Catalog of Library of Thomas Jefferson" -Chronology of information science and technology Archived 2011-05-14 at the Wayback Machine - From the 17th to the 20th century -Chronology of chemical information science -Information science pioneers Archived 2011-05-14 at the Wayback Machine - Biographies of pioneers and famous information scientists \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8a1ea1244..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,73 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of science" -chunk: 1/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:07.567282+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science: -Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. - -== Study and experimentation == - -Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable. - -Design of experiments -History of experiments -Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments. -Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory. -Empirical evidence is evidence gathered through direct observation instead of indirect theory. -Falsifiability is the ability to test a hypothesis through experimentation to determine whether it is false. Karl Popper argued that a claim must be falsifiable to be recognized as scientific. -Hard and soft science are descriptions of how measurable and precise a branch of science is. Hard sciences like biology and physics are more measurable while soft sciences like anthropology and psychology are less measurable. -Laboratories are places where scientists engage in research and study. -Measurement is the use of precise units to describe a quantity. -Models are representations of scientific phenomena to assist in studying or explaining them. -Observations are the use of one's senses to obtain information, and the resulting discoveries. -Observational studies are a type of research conducted solely by observing without controlling variables or testing specific hypotheses. -Reproducibility or replicability is the ability for subsequent experiments to confirm the accuracy of previous ones by producing the same result. This may be through an identical experiment or a test of the same hypothesis under different conditions. -Prediction is the use of observation to determine future results through inference. -The scientific method is a series of steps taken to engage in experimentation and produce factual results. The exact steps to be taken, or whether an all-encompassing sequence exists, is the subject of debate. -History of scientific method -Outline of scientific method -Timeline of the history of the scientific method - -== Scientific knowledge == - -Anomalies are abnormal or deviating phenomena that are inconsistent with previous data or cannot be precisely classified or explained. -Classification is the use of categories to organize and describe individual subjects. This can be done descriptively to explain existing differences or prescriptively to create groups in a way that is useful. -Consilience is the process in which distinct findings can produce novel conclusions when considered together. -Data are sets of facts or information. -Deductive reasoning is reasoning conducted purely through logic. -Discoveries are the finding or explanation of new information. -Inductive reasoning is the use of varied observations to make an inference. -Explanation is the understanding of why a phenomenon occurs. -Hypotheses are proposals of scientific fact that have yet to be definitively verified. -Objectivity is the answering of scientific questions impartially without affecting the results with biases. -Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that leads people to seek evidence that supports existing beliefs and interpret new evidence as supporting these beliefs. -Reliability is the consistency in data as it is collected to demonstrate reproducibility. -Scientific laws are descriptions of scientific fact that apply universally under all circumstances. -Scientific theories are descriptions of scientific fact that are known to be true but cannot be proven to apply universally. -Validity is the accurate correspondence and relevance of data to the real-world phenomena it is meant to measure. Valid data is derived from objective observation or experimentation. -Verisimilitude is the degree to which a claim approaches the truth. The verisimilitude between two false ideas can be compared to determine which is less flawed. - -== Branches of science == - -Science is divided into disciplines that explore different subject matter. Each discipline has its own considerations when being studied, and different methods are used between them. Scientists typically specialize in one discipline. Interdisciplinary sciences pull from multiple fields of study. - -== History == - -=== Timeline === - -Science in the ancient world -Science in the middle ages -Science in the Renaissance – The Renaissance allowed for expanded intellectual thought that influenced later scientific developments. -The Scientific Revolution – A period of activity occurred c. 1550 – c. 1700 which developed the modern conception of what is now considered science. The scientific movement remained tied with Christianity, and most theories of the world blended empiricism and religion. It culminated in the studies of Isaac Newton and his 1687 treatise Principia. It also included the Copernican Revolution that was initiated by Nicolaus Copernicus and his argument for heliocentrism. -Science in the Age of Enlightenment -19th century in science – Science first developed in the 19th century as its own subject that encompassed varying fields of inquiry. Biology and chemistry continued a period of growth that had begun in the late-18th century. -20th century in science – Physics became the dominant branch of science in the 20th century through the development of atomic technology. Logical empiricism was a major influence in the mid-20th century, but it lost favor by the 1970s. The science wars were a period of disagreement in the late-20th century about whether mainstream science should be held as an authoritative feature of society. -21st century in science - -=== Historical disciplines === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 63a3bf9b6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,45 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of science" -chunk: 2/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:07.567282+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Alchemy is the historical study of what is now associated with chemistry. It was accepted as a science until the end of the 17th century. -Astrology is a method used in ancient and medieval times to study the social sciences through physical phenomena. -Cosmogony is the study of Earth's origins through divine creation. -Natural history is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with biology. -Natural philosophy is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with physics and astronomy. - -== Philosophy of science == - -Philosophy of science encompasses the questions, assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. - -Anti-realism is the opposition to scientific realism. Anti-realists believe that scientific theories cannot be objectively true or that they do not correlate to objectively real phenomena. -Antiscience is a criticism and rejection of modern science and the scientific community. -Denialism is the rejection of scientific facts that conflict with one's previous beliefs. -Empiricism is the belief that truth is obtained from sense experience. Empiricists believe that science is a systematic and detailed application of common everyday thought and inquiry. -Constructive empiricism is the belief that scientific theories can be true but successful testing does not affirm their truth. -Logical positivism is an empiricist school of thought that was developed in Europe by the Vienna Circle in the 20th century. -Operationalism is an empiricist school of thought developed by Percy Williams Bridgman in 1927. It holds that all terms used in science must correspond to an observational test. -Verificationism is the empiricist belief that testability and verifiability must be possible for a claim to have meaning. -Evidentialism is the belief that a claim should only be accepted if there is evidence supporting it. -Fallibilism is the belief that no claim can ever be known with absolute certainty. The term was defined by Charles Sanders Peirce. -Holism is the belief that individual scientific claims cannot be understood without also considering related claims, as it is only a network of claims that allows scientific prediction. This argument, the Duhem–Quine thesis, was developed by Willard Van Orman Quine as a response to logical positivism by adapting the philosophy of Pierre Duhem. -Instrumentalism is the belief that science should be used as a guide predict phenomena without presenting it as a means of finding truth. -Normal science is a system defined by Thomas Kuhn which described science in a given field as beginning with a paradigm shift that emerges from a new theory. -Pragmatism is the belief that claims should be accepted based on value rather than evidence. -Realism is the belief that true scientific theories can describe existing phenomena instead of merely hypothetical phenomena. -Reductionism is the understanding of phenomena through fundamental causes and explanations. -Relativism is the belief that knowledge cannot be understood objectively, but in relation to other forms of knowledge. -Reliabilism is the belief that a fact is considered knowledge when it is derived from reliable methods. -Science studies is the blending of perspectives and theories on scientific study to create a holistic understanding of science. -Scientism is the belief that science should go beyond mere explanation and become the guiding force in society. -Skepticism is the belief that unproven or widely-accepted beliefs should be questioned. - -== Scientific community == - -The scientific community encompasses scientists, their interactions, and their influences on one another. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9dfdd32bb..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of science" -chunk: 3/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:07.567282+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Consensus is general agreement among scientists on a conclusion or finding. -Demarcation is the division of scientific and non-scientific ideas, and the resulting dispute over how to divide them. Different fields of study may be evaluated on the level of experimental rigor, how much they engage in abstraction, how closely related they are with the humanities, or other qualities. -Funding of science can come from governments and donors. -Junk science is the presentation of uncertain scientific claims as facts, typically to a legal or political end. -List of topics characterized as pseudoscience -Meta-analysis is the comparing of several studies on the same topic to draw conclusions. -A paradigm is the overall understanding and accepted system of how science functions. -Paradigm shifts are historical periods of total change in how science is practiced. The concept was introduced by Thomas Kuhn. -Peer review is a process in which an academic provides feedback on scientific writing, often anonymously, before publication. -Pseudoscience is unscientific practice or belief that is presented as scientific or uses scientific language to suggest credibility. -History of pseudoscience -Regulation of science involves the use of policy to limit scientific activity that regulators determine to be dangerous, unethical, or ineffective. -Scientific controversy occurs when multiple schools of thought within a discipline contradict each other. This can include disputes about methods or theory. -Scientific dissent occurs when a scientist disagrees with the scientific community over accepted practices or findings. -Scientific misconduct is the publication of false, misleading, or plagiarized findings. -List of scientific misconduct incidents -Data fabrication is the use of fake data to present a conclusion. -HARKing (hypothesizing after results are known) is the practice of writing hypotheses to falsely claim that one had correctly predicted results before testing them. -P-hacking is the selective use or presentation of data to guarantee certain findings. -Scientific papers describe data and findings and compare them to previous hypotheses. -Lists of publications in science -Abstracts are summaries of a paper's goals and findings that precede the full paper. -Citation analysis is the tracking of when scientific papers are cited by other papers. -Scientific journals are the primary venue for publishing scientific papers. -Scientific priority is the recognition of a scientist's claim over a discovery. -Scientific societies are organizations that emerged in Europe during the mid-17th century as an alternative to universities. -Scientific writing is the recording and description of scientific knowledge or research, written in a way that it can be precisely explained to other members of the scientific community. -Scientists are the practitioners of scientific study. The term scientist was coined by William Whewell in 1840. -Sociology of science considers interactions, incentives, and norms within the scientific community. It was developed as an independent field in the mid-20th century by Robert K. Merton. -Women in science and their role has changed over time. Women were historically excluded from scientific activity in most cases, but an increased role has developed with the rise of feminist movements. -Timeline of women in science - -== Science in society == - -Funding of science can come from both public and private sources, including governments and corporations. -Politicization of science encompasses challenges to scientific activities, or regulations on their practice, for political purposes. This can be instigated by governments, advocacy groups, or the public. -List of books about the politics of science -Religion and science are distinguished by science's dependence on known facts and its constraint to explain what can be demonstrated in nature, while religion depends on faith and can be interpreted more broadly. -Baháʼí and science -Buddhism and science -Christianity and science -Hinduism and science -Islam and science -Science communication is the description of science to the general public. It involves the translation of precise technical terms to ones that are more generally understandable to those without background knowledge in a scientific field. -Popular science is a genre of writing on scientific subjects intended for consumption by the general public. It developed in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. -Science fiction is a genre of speculative fiction in which scientific knowledge, ideas, and technology are central in its stories. -Science journalism is the coverage of news about science and scientific developments. -Science policy is the public policy governing how science can be conducted. It may be used to organize scientific activity to be more efficient, or to apply science for purposes like economic growth, social benefit, and military strength. -History of science policy -Scientific literacy is the ability to understand science, particularly in the context of the general public. - -== See also == - -Lists of scientists -Outline of academia -Outline of academic disciplines -Outline of history -Scientific terminology - -== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 28618eb41..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Outline of science" -chunk: 4/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:07.567282+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== References == -Agassi, Joseph (1981). Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science. D. Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1244-8. -Armstrong, Jon Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2022). The Scientific Method: A Guide to Finding Useful Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-09642-3. -Bird, Alexander (2005). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-504-8. -Browne, Janet; Porter, Roy; Bynum, William F., eds. (1981). Dictionary of the History of Science. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-29316-4. -Collocott, Thomas C., ed. (1971). Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. & R. Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-13202-4. -Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth (2010) [1984]. Oxford Dictionary of Science (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. -Erickson, Mark (2005). Science, Culture and Society: Understanding Science in the 21st Century. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-2974-2. -Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7. -Hagstrom, Warren O. (1965). The Scientific Community. Basic Books. LCCN 65-10539. -Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. -Morris, Christopher G., ed. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1. -Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten, eds. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-05179-6. -Nickles, Thomas. "The Problem of Demarcation". In Pigliucci & Boudry (2013), pp. 101–120. -Prothero, Donald. "The Holocaust Denier's Playbook and the Tobacco Smokescreen". In Pigliucci & Boudry (2013), pp. 341–360. -Shackel, Nicholas. "Pseudoscience and Idiosyncratic Theories of Rational Belief". In Pigliucci & Boudry (2013), pp. 417–438. -Wilkins, John S. "The Salem Region". In Pigliucci & Boudry (2013), pp. 397–416. -Stocklmayer, Susan M.; Gore, Michael M.; Bryant, Chris, eds. (2001). Science Communication in Theory and Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-0130-7. -Aikenhead, Glenn. "Science Communication with the Public: A Cross Cultural Event". In Stocklmayer, Gore & Bryant (2001), pp. 23–46. -Gilbert, J.K. "Towards a Unified Model of Education and Entertainment in Science Centres". In Stocklmayer, Gore & Bryant (2001), pp. 123–142. -Spinks, Peter. "Science Journalism: The Inside Story". In Stocklmayer, Gore & Bryant (2001), pp. 151–168. -Webster, Andrew (1991). Science, Technology, and Society: New Directions. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1723-0. - -== External links == - Media related to Science at Wikimedia Commons - Quotations related to Science at Wikiquote - Works related to Science at Wikisource \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POEM@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POEM@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 59e362b30..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POEM@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "POEM@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POEM@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:28.624372+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -POEM@Home was a volunteer computing project hosted by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It modeled protein folding using Anfinsen's dogma. POEM@Home was started in 2007 and, due to advances using GPUs that rendered the BOINC program redundant, concluded in October 2016. The POEM@home applications were proprietary. - - -== Scientific objectives == -The project studied how protein structure determined protein function, predict a protein's structure from its amino acid sequence, investigated how proteins interact with each other, and understand how malfunctioning proteins can cause functional disorders. The resulting knowledge could then be used in the development of medical treatments. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -POEM@Home website -Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_science_movement-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_science_movement-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 925fd715d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_science_movement-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "People's science movement" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_science_movement" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:26.180411+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The people's science movement (PSM) aims to popularise science and scientific outlook among common people. Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad, Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti, Assam Science Society, Bigyan Prachar Samiti (Orissa), We the Sapiens and the All India Peoples Science Network are some popular people's science movements in India. - - -== People's science movements in India == -Bangiya Bijnan Parishad (1948) -Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad (1962) -Pondicherry Science Forum (1985) -Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti -Tamil Nadu Science Forum (1980) -Jan Vignana Vedika -Delhi Science Forum (1978) -Assam Science Society (1956) -Tripura Science Forum -Bigyan Prachar Samiti, Odisha -Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Uttar Pradesh -Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Haryana -Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Utharkhand -We, the Sapiens -All India Peoples Science Network (1988) - - -== References == - -"Secularism and People's Science Movement in India" and "Towards a People's Science Movement" from Economic and Political Weekly -"People's Science Movement" from Science, technology, imperialism, and war -"The People's Science Movements" from Knowing Nature -"Science for social change" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 66f00a3c0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Peter Lwabi" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:04.756686+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Lwabi Peter Solomon is a consultant pediatric cardiologist at Mulago National Referral Hospital in Kampala, Uganda. He concurrently serves as the deputy executive director of Uganda Heart Institute (UHI). He also serves as the Head of the Pediatric Cardiology Division at Makerere University School of Medicine. Peter Lwabi also sits on the Board of Directors of UHI. Lwabi is a Senior Consultant cardiac pediatrician who has trained numerous medical personnel, including nurses, medical students, postgraduate students, and cardiology fellows. He provides mentorship and clinical oversight to research and training initiatives, - - -== Education and background == -He holds bachelors of medicine and bachelors of surgery and masters of medicine, paediatrics & child health - - -== Leadership == -He worked as the president of the Uganda Heart Association. He also head of the Pediatric Cardiology Division at the Makerere University School of Medicine.A member of the Board of Directors at the Uganda Heart Institute - - -== See also == -Roy Mugerwa -Aggrey Kiyingi - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Website of Uganda Ministry of Health Archived 2024-11-25 at the Wayback Machine -A bad heart condition has caused her body to swell \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 373b37c31..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Phlegmatizer" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:59.618272+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -A phlegmatizer is a compound that minimizes the explosive tendency of another compound or material. The term is derived from the word phlegmatic, meaning 'not easily excited'. Many chemical compounds that are potentially explosive have useful non-explosive applications. One large family of phlegmatizers are phthalate esters, which are used as solvents to minimize the explosive tendency of organic peroxides, such as dibenzoyl peroxide and MEKP, which are widely used initiators for polymerizations. - - -== See also == -Phlegmatized explosive - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index b535cf414..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Photochemical action plots" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:00.897410+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Photochemical action plots are a scientific tool used to understand the effects of different wavelengths of light on photochemical reactions. The methodology involves exposing a reaction solution to the same number of photons at varying monochromatic wavelengths, monitoring the conversion or reaction yield of starting materials and/or reaction products. Such global high-resolution analysis of wavelength-dependent chemical reactivity has revealed that maxima in absorbance and reactivity often do not align. Photochemical action plots are historically connected to (biological) action spectra. - - -== Historical development == -The study of biological responses to specific wavelengths dates back to the late 19th century. Research primarily focused on assessing photodamage from solar radiation using broad-band lamps and narrow filters. These studies quantified effects such as cell viability, production of erythema, vitamin D3 degradation, DNA changes, and skin cancer appearance. The first biological action spectrum was recorded by Engelmann, who used a prism to produce different colors of light and then illuminated cladophora in a bacteria suspension. He discovered the effects of different light wavelengths on photosynthesis, marking the first recorded action spectrum of photosynthesis. -Critical evaluations of active wavelength regions in these studies helped identify contributing chromophores to processes such as photosynthesis. These chromophores are key for converting solar energy into chemical energy, with their absorption closely matching the rate of photosynthesis, usually determined by oxygen production or carbon fixation. This correlation led to the discovery of chlorophyll as a key chromophore in plant growth. Such studies have also been instrumental in identifying DNA as the core genetic material, key wavelengths leading to skin cancer, the transparent optical window of biological tissue, and the influence of color on circadian rhythms. -In the late 20th century, action spectra became essential in developing optical devices for photocatalysis and photovoltaics, particularly in measuring photocurrent efficiency at various wavelengths. These studies have been vital in understanding primary contributors to photocurrent generation, leading to advancements in materials, morphologies, and device designs for improved solar energy capture and utilization. -In photochemistry, action spectra have been mainly used in photodissociation studies. These involve a monochromatic light source, often a laser, coupled with a mass spectrometer to record wavelength-dependent ion dissociation in gaseous phases. These spectra help identify contributing chromophores in molecular systems, characterize radical generation and unstable isomers, and understand higher state electron dynamics. -The field underwent a transformation when a team led by Barner-Kowollik and Gescheidt recorded the first modern-day photochemical action plot using a tuneable monochromatic nanosecond pulsed laser system, discovering a strong mismatch between photochemical reactivity and absorptivity and marking a critical advancement in mapping wavelength-dependent conversions in photoinduced polymerizations. Following this, numerous photochemical action plots have been recorded in various molecular and polymerization systems. - - -== Experimental setup == -Key differences between traditional (biological) action spectra and modern photochemical action plots lie in the precision resolution of wavelengths (monochromaticity) and that an exact number of photons at each wavelength is applied coupled with the fact that covalent bond forming reactions were investigated for the first time.In the field of photochemical analysis, it is common to measure the extinction of chemicals with high precision, often at the sub-nanometer scale, using UV/Vis spectroscopy. To understand fundamental relationships between a chemical's absorbance and its photoreactivity, a detailed analysis of the reactivity at a similar level of resolution is required. Traditional methods using broadly emitting light sources or filters have inherent limitations in resolving true wavelength dependence in photoreactivity. To record an action plot, a wavelength-tuneable laser system is employed, capable of delivering a stable number of photons at each wavelength. The photoreactive reaction mixture is divided into aliquots and subjected to monochromatic light independently. The photochemical process' yield or conversion is subsequently measured using sensors like UV-Vis absorption or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) frequency changes. - - -== Findings and implications == -A key finding of modern photochemical action plots is that the absorption spectrum of a photoreactive molecule or reaction mixture correlates poorly with photochemical reactivity as a function of wavelength in many cases. Initial studies showed a significant red-shift in photopolymerization yield compared to the absorption spectrum of the employed photoinitiators, which showed extremely low absorptivity in those regions. This mismatch between absorption spectra and photochemical action plots has by now been observed in a wide array of photoreactive systems. A prominent example is the photoinduced [2+2] cycloaddition of the stilbene derivative, styrypyrene, which exhibited an 80 nm discrepancy between the action plot and absorption spectrum. Current research focuses on understanding the reasons behind these frequently observed mismatches, with a recent theory positing that local microenvironments around the chromophore generate a distribution of molecules with access to longer lived and lower energetic excited states that are accessible at longer wavelength. For photochemical applications, the consequences of the absorptivity/reactivity mismatch are far reaching, as only photochemical action plots can reveal the most effective wavelength for a given process, moving away from the past paradigm that absorption spectra provide guidance for selecting the most effective wavelength. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index fb65b2b26..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics" -chunk: 1/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:05.875333+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Physics is the scientific study of matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines. A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist. -Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines. Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, these natural sciences branched into separate research endeavors. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines, such as mathematics and philosophy. -Advances in physics often enable new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism, solid-state physics, and nuclear physics led directly to the development of technologies that have transformed modern society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus. - -== History == - -The word physics comes from the Latin physica ('study of nature'), which itself is a borrowing of the Greek φυσική (phusikḗ 'natural science'), a term derived from φύσις (phúsis 'origin, nature, property'). - -=== Ancient astronomy === - -Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. Early civilizations dating before 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, had a predictive knowledge and a basic awareness of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. The stars and planets, believed to represent gods, were often worshipped. While the explanations for the observed positions of the stars were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for later astronomy, as the stars were found to traverse great circles across the sky, which could not explain the positions of the planets. -According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. Egyptian astronomers left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies, while Greek poet Homer wrote of various celestial objects in his Iliad and Odyssey; later Greek astronomers provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the Northern Hemisphere. - -=== Natural philosophy === - -Natural philosophy has its origins in Greece during the Archaic period (650 BCE – 480 BCE), when pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales rejected non-naturalistic explanations for natural phenomena and proclaimed that every event had a natural cause. They proposed ideas verified by reason and observation, and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment; for example, atomism was found to be correct approximately 2000 years after it was proposed by Leucippus and his pupil Democritus. - -=== Aristotle and Hellenistic physics === - -During the classical period in Greece (6th, 5th and 4th centuries BCE) and in Hellenistic times, natural philosophy developed along many lines of inquiry. Aristotle (Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384–322 BCE), a student of Plato, -wrote on many subjects, including a substantial treatise on "Physics" – in the 4th century BC. Aristotelian physics was influential for about two millennia. His approach mixed some limited observation with logical deductive arguments, but did not rely on experimental verification of deduced statements. Aristotle's foundational work in Physics, though very imperfect, formed a framework against which later thinkers further developed the field. His approach is entirely superseded today. -He explained ideas such as motion (and gravity) with the theory of four elements. -Aristotle believed that each of the four classical elements (air, fire, water, earth) had its own natural place. Because of their differing densities, each element will revert to its own specific place in the atmosphere. So, because of their weights, fire would be at the top, air underneath fire, then water, then lastly earth. He also stated that when a small amount of one element enters the natural place of another, the less abundant element will automatically go towards its own natural place. For example, if there is a fire on the ground, the flames go up into the air in an attempt to go back into its natural place where it belongs. His laws of motion included: that heavier objects will fall faster, the speed being proportional to the weight and the speed of the object that is falling depends inversely on the density object it is falling through (e.g. density of air). He also stated that, when it comes to violent motion (motion of an object when a force is applied to it by a second object), the speed that object moves will only be as fast or strong as the measure of force applied to it. The problem of motion and its causes was studied carefully, leading to the philosophical notion of a "prime mover" as the ultimate source of all motion in the world (Book 8 of his treatise Physics). - -=== Medieval European and Islamic === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index c803e3124..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics" -chunk: 2/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:05.875333+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Western Roman Empire fell to invaders and internal decay in the fifth century, resulting in a decline in intellectual pursuits in western Europe. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (usually known as the Byzantine Empire) resisted the attacks from invaders and continued to advance various fields of learning, including physics. In the sixth century, John Philoponus challenged the dominant Aristotelian approach to science although much of his work was focused on Christian theology. -In the sixth century, Isidore of Miletus created an important compilation of Archimedes' works that are copied in the Archimedes Palimpsest. -Islamic scholarship inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further. -The most notable innovations under Islamic scholarship were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. In his Book of Optics (also known as Kitāb al-Manāẓir) Ibn al-Haytham presented the idea of light rays as an alternative to the ancient Greek idea about visual rays. Like Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham applied controlled experiments, verifying the laws of refraction and reflection with the new concept of light rays, but still lacking the concept of image formation. - -=== Scientific Revolution === - -Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. -Major developments in this period include the replacement of the geocentric model of the Solar System with the heliocentric Copernican model, the laws governing the motion of planetary bodies (determined by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619), Galileo's pioneering work on telescopes and observational astronomy in the 16th and 17th centuries, and Isaac Newton's discovery and unification of the laws of motion and universal gravitation (that would come to bear his name). Newton, and separately Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, developed calculus, the mathematical study of continuous change, and Newton applied it to solve physical problems. - -=== 19th century === - -The discovery of laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased. By the end of the 19th century, theories of thermodynamics, mechanics, and electromagnetics matched a wide variety of observations. Taken together these theories became the basis for what would later be called classical physics. -A few experimental results remained inexplicable. Classical electromagnetism presumed a medium, an luminiferous aether to support the propagation of waves, but this medium could not be detected. The intensity of light from hot glowing blackbody objects did not match the predictions of thermodynamics and electromagnetism. The character of electron emission of illuminated metals differed from predictions. These failures, seemingly insignificant in the big picture would upset the physics world in first two decades of the 20th century. - -=== 20th century === - -Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. Both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light depends on the motion of the observer, which could not be resolved with the constant speed predicted by Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism. This discrepancy was corrected by Einstein's theory of special relativity, which replaced classical mechanics for fast-moving bodies and allowed for a constant speed of light. Black-body radiation provided another problem for classical physics, which was corrected when Planck proposed that the excitation of material oscillators is possible only in discrete steps proportional to their frequency. This, along with the photoelectric effect and a complete theory predicting discrete energy levels of electron orbitals, led to the theory of quantum mechanics improving on classical physics at very small scales. -Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Dirac. From this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Following the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson at CERN in 2012, all fundamental particles predicted by the Standard Model, and no others, appear to exist; however, physics beyond the Standard Model, with theories such as supersymmetry, is an active area of research. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities and groups. - -== Core theories == - -Physics deals with a wide variety of systems, although certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories was experimentally tested numerous times and found to be an adequate approximation of nature. -These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity. - -=== Distinction between classical and modern physics === - -In the first decades of the 20th century physics was revolutionized by the discoveries of quantum mechanics and relativity. The changes were so fundamental that these new concepts became the foundation of "modern physics", with other topics becoming "classical physics". The majority of applications of physics are essentially classical. -The laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics. - -=== Classical theory === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 56ccadeb2..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics" -chunk: 3/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:05.875333+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter include such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics and pneumatics. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received. Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics, the physics of animal calls and hearing; and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics. -Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest. - -=== Modern theory === - -The discovery of relativity and of quantum mechanics in the first decades of the 20th century transformed the conceptual basis of physics without reducing the practical value of most of the physical theories developed up to that time. Consequently the topics of physics have come to be divided into "classical physics" and "modern physics", with the latter category including effects related to quantum mechanics and relativity. -Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, atomic and nuclear physics study matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified. The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsensical notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid. -The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics. Classical mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while quantum theory is concerned with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena. The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with motion in the absence of gravitational fields and the general theory of relativity with motion and its connection with gravitation. Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in many areas of modern physics. -Fundamental concepts in modern physics include: - -Action -Causality -Covariance -Particle -Physical field -Physical interaction -Quantum -Statistical ensemble -Symmetry -Wave - -== Research == - -=== Scientific method === -Physicists use the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory. By using a methodical approach to compare the implications of a theory with the conclusions drawn from its related experiments and observations, physicists are better able to test the validity of a theory in a logical, unbiased, and repeatable way. To that end, experiments are performed and observations are made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of a theory. -A scientific law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation that expresses a fundamental principle of some theory, such as Newton's law of universal gravitation. - -=== Theory and experiment === - -Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future experimental results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they strongly affect and depend upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimental results defy explanation by existing theories, prompting intense focus on applicable modeling, and when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire the development of new experiments (and often related equipment). -Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a fundamental theory. -Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way. Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues, such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories; they then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions. -Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists who are involved in basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas that have not been explored well by theorists. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index b96aacc59..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics" -chunk: 4/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:05.875333+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Scope and aims === - -Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the "fundamental science". Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together. -For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone and magnetite) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force—electromagnetism. This process of "unifying" forces continues today, and electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are now considered to be two aspects of the electroweak interaction. Physics hopes to find an ultimate reason (theory of everything) for why nature is as it is (see section Current research below for more information). - -=== Current research === - -Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts. -In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers. -In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. The Large Hadron Collider has already found the Higgs boson, but future research aims to prove or disprove the supersymmetry, which extends the Standard Model of particle physics. Research on the nature of the major mysteries of dark matter and dark energy is also currently ongoing. -Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections. -These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In the 1932 Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Horace Lamb said: - -I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic. - -== Branches and fields == - -=== Fields === -The major fields of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the following table. - -Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare. -Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into nuclear and particle physics; condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; astrophysics; and applied physics. Some physics departments also support physics education research and physics outreach. - -==== Nuclear and particle ==== - -Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them. In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high-energy accelerators, detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles. -Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model. The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces. Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons, W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively). The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson. In July 2012 CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson, an integral part of the Higgs mechanism. -Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology. - -==== Atomic, molecular, and optical ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 087411d64..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics" -chunk: 5/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:05.875333+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter—matter and light—matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view). -Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of nuclear physics. -Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm. - -==== Condensed matter ==== - -Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong. -The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the electromagnetic force between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include the superfluid and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices. -Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group—previously solid-state theory—in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics. Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering. - -==== Astrophysics ==== - -Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the Solar System, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics. -The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the Earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy. -Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang. -The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established the ΛCDM model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy, and dark matter. - -== Other aspects == - -=== Education === - -=== Careers === - -=== Philosophy === - -Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on the philosophy of science and its "scientific method" to advance knowledge of the physical world. The scientific method employs a priori and a posteriori reasoning as well as the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory. -Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism, and realism. -Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who championed causal determinism, and Erwin Schrödinger, who wrote on quantum mechanics. The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking, a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality. Hawking referred to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and took issue with Penrose's views. - -Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by Pythagoras, Plato, Galileo, and Newton. Some theorists, like Hilary Putnam and Penelope Maddy, hold that logical truths, and therefore mathematical reasoning, depend on the empirical world. This is usually combined with the claim that the laws of logic express universal regularities found in the structural features of the world, which may explain the peculiar relation between these fields. -Physics uses mathematics to organize and formulate experimental results. From those results, precise or estimated solutions are obtained, or quantitative results, from which new predictions can be made and experimentally confirmed or negated. The results from physics experiments are numerical data, with their units of measure and estimates of the errors in the measurements. Technologies based on mathematics, like computation have made computational physics an active area of research. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3fdf5700b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics" -chunk: 6/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:05.875333+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data. -The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example, mathematical physics is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical. The problems in this field start with a "mathematical model of a physical situation" (system) and a "mathematical description of a physical law" that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solving has a hard-to-find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier-to-find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for. - -=== Fundamental vs. applied physics === - -Physics is a branch of fundamental science (also called basic science). Physics is also called "the fundamental science" because all branches of natural science including chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics. Similarly, chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in linking the physical sciences. For example, chemistry studies properties, structures, and reactions of matter (chemistry's focus on the molecular and atomic scale distinguishes it from physics). Structures are formed because particles exert electrical forces on each other, properties include physical characteristics of given substances, and reactions are bound by laws of physics, like conservation of energy, mass, and charge. Fundamental physics seeks to better explain and understand phenomena in all spheres, without a specific practical application as a goal, other than the deeper insight into the phenomema themselves. - -Applied physics is a general term for physics research and development that is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem. -The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics. -Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other static structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in sound control and better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations. - -With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the Earth, a physicist can reasonably model Earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, as a function of time allowing the extrapolation forward or backward in time and so predict future or prior events. It also allows for simulations in engineering that speed up the development of a new technology. -There is also considerable interdisciplinarity, so many other important fields are influenced by physics (e.g., the fields of econophysics and sociophysics). - -== See also == - -Earth science – Fields of natural science related to Earth -Neurophysics – Study of the nervous system with physics -Psychophysics – Branch of knowledge relating physical stimuli and psychological perception -Relationship between mathematics and physics – Relationship between fields of study -Science tourism – Travel to notable science locations - -=== Lists === -List of important publications in physics -List of physicists -Lists of physics equations - -== Notes == - -== References == - -== Sources == - -== External links == - -Physics at Quanta Magazine -Usenet Physics FAQ – FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups -Website of the Nobel Prize in physics Archived 7 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine – Award for outstanding contributions to the subject -World of Physics Archived 25 June 2025 at the Wayback Machine – Online encyclopedic dictionary of physics -Nature Physics – Academic journal -Physics Archived 28 June 2025 at the Wayback Machine – Online magazine by the American Physical Society -The Vega Science Trust Archived 7 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine – Science videos, including physics -HyperPhysics website Archived 8 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine – Physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University -Physics at MIT OpenCourseWare Archived 15 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine – Online course material from Massachusetts Institute of Technology -The Feynman Lectures on Physics Archived 4 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index aeb9c4631..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics outreach" -chunk: 1/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:27.393810+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Physics outreach encompasses facets of science outreach and physics education, and a variety of activities by schools, research institutes, universities, clubs and institutions such as science museums aimed at broadening the audience for and awareness and understanding of physics, including through trust-building with non-expert audiences. While the general public may sometimes be the focus of such activities, physics outreach often centers on developing and providing resources and making presentations to students, educators in other disciplines, and in some cases researchers within different areas of physics. - -== History == -Ongoing efforts to expand the understanding of physics to a wider audience have been undertaken by individuals and institutions since the early 19th century. Historic works, such as the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, and Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei, sought to present revolutionary knowledge in astronomy, frames of reference, and kinematics in a manner that a general audience could understand with great effect. -In the mid-1800s, English physicist and chemist, Michael Faraday gave a series of nineteen lectures aimed towards young adults with the hopes of conveying scientific phenomena. His intentions were to raise awareness, inspire them and generate revenue of the Royal Institution. This series became known as the Christmas lectures, and still continues today. By the early 20th century, the public notoriety of physicists such as Albert Einstein and Marie Curie, and inventions such as radio led to a growing interest in physics. In 1921, in the United States, the establishment of Sigma Pi Sigma physics honor society at universities was instrumental in the expanding number of physics presentations, and led to the creation of physics clubs open to all students. -Museums were an important form of outreach but most early science museums were generally focused on natural history. Some specialized museums, such as the Cavendish Museum at University of Cambridge, housed many of the historically important pieces of apparatus that contributed to the major discoveries by Maxwell, Thomson, Rutherford, etc. However, such venues provided little opportunity for hands-on learning or demonstrations. -In August 1969, Frank Oppenheimer dedicated his new Exploratorium in San Francisco primarily to interactive science exhibits that demonstrated principles in physics. The Exploratorium published the details of their own exhibits in "Cookbooks" that served as an inspiration to many other museums around the world, and since then has diversified into many outreach programs. Oppenheimer had researched European science museums while on a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1965. He noted that three museums served as important influences on the Exploratorium: the Palais de la Découverte, which displayed models to teach scientific concepts and employed students as demonstrators, a practice that directly inspired the Exploratorium's much-lauded High School Explainer Program; the South Kensington Museum of Science and Art, which Oppenheimer and his wife visited frequently; and the Deutsches Museum in Munich, the world's largest science museum, which had a number of interactive displays that impressed the Oppenheimers. -In the ensuing years, physics outreach, and science outreach more generally, continued to expand and took on new popular forms, including highly successful television shows such as Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, first broadcast in 1980. -As a form of outreach within the physics education community for teachers and students, in 1997 the US National Science Foundation (NSF) and Department of Energy USDOE established QuarkNet, a professional teacher development program. In 2012, the University of Notre Dame received a $6.1M, five-year grant to support a nationwide expansion of the Quarknet program. Also in 1997, the European Particle Physics Outreach Group, led by Christopher Llewellyn Smith, FRS, and Director General of CERN, was formed to create a community of scientists, science educators, and communication specialists in science education and public outreach for particle physics. This group became the International Particle Physics Outreach Group (IPPOG) in 2011 after the start up of the LHC. - -== Innovation == -Many contemporary initiatives in physics outreach have begun to shift focus, transcending traditional field boundaries, seeking to engage students and the public by integrating elements of aesthetic design and popular culture. The goal has been not only to push physics out of a strictly science education framework but also to draw in professionals and students from other fields to bring their perspectives on physical phenomena. Such work includes artists creating sculptures using ferrofluids, and art photography using high speed and ultra high speed photography. -Other efforts, such as University of Cambridge's Physics at Work program have created annual events to demonstrate to secondary students uses of physics in everyday life and a Senior Physics Challenge. Seeing the importance these initiatives, Cambridge has established a full-time physics outreach organization, an Educational Outreach Office, and aspirations for a Center of Physics and expanded industrial partnerships that "would include a well equipped core team of outreach officers dedicated to demonstrating the real life applications of physics, showing that physics is an accessible and relevant subject". -The French research group, La Physique Autrement (Physics Reimagined), of the Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, works on research about new ways to present modern solid-state physics and to engage the general public. In 2013, Physics Today covered this group in an article entitled "Quantum Physics For Everyone" which discussed how with the help of designers and unconventional demonstrations, the project sought out and succeeded to engage people who never thought of themselves as interested in science. -The Science & Entertainment Exchange was developed by the United States National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to increase public awareness, knowledge, and understanding of science and advanced science technology through its representation in television, film, and other media. It was officially launched in 2008 as a partnership between the NAS and Hollywood. The Exchanged is Based in Los Angeles, California. - -== Museums and public venues primarily focused on physical phenomena == - -=== Canada === -Montreal Science Centre (Montreal, Quebec) displays many hands-on activities involving various physics phenomena. - -=== Finland === -Heureka (Helsinki) is an NPO science center run by the Finnish Science Centre Foundation with a broad spectrum of physics-related exhibits. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 125d4ba34..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,61 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics outreach" -chunk: 2/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:27.393810+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== France === -Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (Paris) is the largest French science museum, and contains permanent exhibits and hands-on experiments. -Palais de la Découverte (Paris) contains permanent exhibits and interactive experiments with commentaries by lecturers. It includes a Zeiss planetarium with 15-metre dome. It was created in 1937 by the French Nobel Prize physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin. -Musée des Arts et Métiers (Paris) focuses on the preservation of scientific instruments and inventions. -Other science museums that are part of the Cultural Center of Science, Technology and Industry (CCSTI) exist all across France : Espace des Sciences (Rennes), La Casemate (Grenoble), the Cité de l'espace (Toulouse). - -=== Germany === -Deutsches Museum (Munich) is the world's largest science museum. One of the most popular events is the high voltage demonstration of a Faraday cage as part of their series on electric power. - -=== Islamic Republic of Iran === -Iran Science and Technology Museum (Tehran) is the largest science museum in Iran. This museum, by holding varied scientific and educational programs, provides the required situation for creation and propagation of scientific thought in the society. One of these programs is the "Physics Show". - -=== Netherlands === -NEMO (Amsterdam) is the largest science center in the Netherlands, with hands-on science exhibitions. - -=== United States === -Exploratorium (San Francisco) is one of the foremost interactive science and art museums in the United States dedicated to exploring how the world works and consists of interactive exhibits, experiences and curious exploration. The Exploratorium was opened in 1969, and now attracts over a million visitors annually. -The American Museum of Natural History in New York City is both a museum and a research facility with a department in astrophysics. As a natural history museum, it focuses on educating the public about human cultures, the natural world, and the universe, and has many interactive programs and lectures all year round. -The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia is one of the oldest centers for science education and research in the United States. - -== Scientific institutions and societies with physics outreach programs == - -=== Canada === -Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics was founded in 1999 in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, the institute is a center for scientific research, training and educational outreach in theoretical physics. -Located in Vancouver, British Columbia, TRIUMF is Canada's national laboratory for particle and nuclear physics and accelerator-based science. In addition to its science mission, the laboratory is committed to physics outreach, offering public tours of its facilities, public talks, an artist in residence program, student fellowships, and other opportunities. -The Canadian Association of Physicists (CAP), or in French Association canadienne des physiciens et physiciennes (ACP) is a Canadian professional society that focuses on creating awareness amongst Canadians and Canadian legislators of physics issues, sponsoring physics related events, [physics outreach], and publishes Physics in Canada. - -=== France === -French Physics Society has a specific section devoted to outreach and popularization of science. -The European Physical Society (EPS) is based in France, but works to promote physics and physicists in Europe. - -=== Germany === -Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft (DPG, German Physical Society) is the world's largest organization of physicists. The DPG actively participates in communication between physics and the general public with several popular scientific publications and events such as the "Highlights of Physics" which is an annual physics festival organized jointly by the DPG and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research. This festival is the largest of its kind in Germany and attracts about 30,000 visitors every year. - -=== United Kingdom === -Institute of Physics is an international charitable institution that aims to advance physics education, research and application. - -=== United States === -American Association for the Advancement of Science -American Association of Physics Teachers -American Institute of Physics (AIP) has an outreach program focused on advocating science policy to the US Congress and the general public. -American Physical Society (APS) has a program dedicated to "Communicating the excitement and importance of physics to everyone." -Leonardo, the International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology (Leonardo/ISAST) is a nonprofit organization that serves the global network of distinguished scholars, artists, scientists, researchers and thinkers. The institution focuses on interdisciplinary work, creative output and innovation. Its journal Leonardo is published by MIT Press. - -== Media and Internet == - -=== Media === -The Big Bang Theory is an American sitcom created in 2007 and revolves around the lives of scientists at the California Institute of Technology. This show has been widely recognized for popularizing science and noted by the New York Times as "helping physics and fiction collide". In 2014, the program was the most popular sitcom and most popular non-sports program on American TV with an average of 20 million viewers. However, the show has been criticized for sometimes portraying the scientific community inaccurately. -C'est pas sorcier is a French educational television program that originally aired from November 5, 1994, to present. 20 shows dealt with astronomy and space topics and 13 about physics. -Particle Fever is a 2013 documentary film that provides an intimate and accessible view of the first experiments at the Large Hadron Collider from the perspectives of the experimental physicists at CERN who run the experiments, as well as the theoretical physicists who attempt to provide a conceptual framework for the LHC's results. Reviewers praised the film for making theoretical arguments seem comprehensible, for making scientific experiments seem thrilling, and for making particle physicists seem human. -Through the Wormhole is an American science documentary television series narrated and hosted by American actor Morgan Freeman and has featured physicists such as such as Michio Kaku and Brian Cox (physicist). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index fc2bcc904..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics outreach" -chunk: 3/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:27.393810+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Internet === -MinutePhysics is a series of educational videos created by Henry Reich and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about various physics phenomena and theories. -Physics World publication, run by the Institute of Physics, started explaining scientific concepts through its YouTube channel. -Palais de la Découverte in Paris hosts online videos that display various interviews about science, including physics. -Unisciel, a French online university, hosts educational videos through its YouTube channel. -Veritasium is a series of educational videos created by Derek Muller and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about science, including physics. -Saint Mary's Physics Demonstrations is an online repository for physics classroom demonstrations. It shows teachers the experiments they can do in class while also hosting videos of said experiments. -Periodic Videos is a portal of educational videos explaining the characteristics of each element and supporting topics such as nuclear reactions. The project is sponsored by the University of Nottingham and hosted by Prof. Sir Martyn Poliakoff. - -== Prominent individuals == - -=== Austria === -Fritjof Capra is an Austrian-born American physicist, who attended the University of Vienna, where he earned his Ph.D. in theoretical physics in 1966. He is a founding director of the Center for Ecoliteracy in Berkeley, California, and is on the faculty of Schumacher College. Capra is the author of several books, including The Tao of Physics (1975) and has also done research in Paris and London. - -=== France === -Camille Flammarion was a French astronomer author of many popular science books. -Étienne Klein is a French physicist and philosopher of science involved in outreach efforts about particle and quantum physics. -Roland Lehoucq is a French astrophysicist known for his outreach efforts especially in relationship with fiction and science fiction. -Hubert Reeves is a French Canadian astrophysicist and popularizer of science. - -=== United Kingdom === -Brian Cox is a British physicist and musician best known to the public as the presenter of a number of science programs for the BBC. -Wendy J. Sadler promotes science and engineering as part of popular culture through Science Made Simple, an educational spin-off company of Cardiff University that reaches students through live presentations. She also trains scientists and engineers to improve their communications skills to enable them to extend their research across a broader audience. Sadler was the IoP Young Professional Physicist of the Year in 2005. -Robert Matthews is a Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society, a Chartered Physicist, a Member of the Institute of Physics, and a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. Matthews is a distinguished science journalist. He is currently anchorman for the science magazine BBC Focus, and a freelance columnist for the Financial Times. In the past, he has been science correspondent for the Sunday Telegraph. - -=== United States === -Richard Feynman was a Nobel-prize-winning theoretical physicist also known as a science popularizer through his books and lectures ranging from physics topics (quantum physics, nanophysics...) to autobiographical essays. -George Gamow was a theoretical physicist and cosmologist who also wrote popular books on science, some of which are still in print more than a half-century after their original publication -Brian Greene is a theoretical physicist involved in various outreach activities (books, TV shows). He co-founded the World Science Festival in 2008. -Clifford Victor Johnson is a theoretical physicist involved in various outreach activities (blog, TV shows...). -Michio Kaku is a theoretical physicist who is a futurist and communicator and popularizer of physics. He is most well known for his three New York Times Best Sellers on physics: Physics of the Impossible (2008), Physics of the Future (2011), and The Future of the Mind (2014). -Lawrence M. Krauss is an American theoretical physicist and cosmologist who is Foundation Professor of the School of Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University and is known as an advocate of the public understanding of science, of public policy based on sound empirical data, of scientific skepticism and of science education and works to reduce the impact of superstition and religious dogma in pop culture. -Don Lincoln is a physicist at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. While his research focuses on the Large Hadron Collider, he is known for his efforts to spread public awareness of physics and cosmology. He is the face of the Fermilab YouTube channel, where he has made over 150 videos. He is also a frequent contributor to CNN, Forbes, and many other online journals. He is also author of several books, including "Understanding the Universe", published by World Scientific, and "The Large Hadron Collider: The Extraordinary Story of the Higgs Boson and Other Things That Will Blow Your Mind," published by Johns Hopkins University Press. -Jennifer Ouellette is the former director of the Science & Entertainment Exchange, an initiative of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) designed to connect entertainment industry professionals with top scientists and engineers to help the creators of television shows, films, video games, and other productions incorporate science into their work. She is currently a freelance writer contributing to a physics outreach dialogue with articles in a variety of publications such as Physics World, Discover magazine, New Scientist, Physics Today, and The Wall Street Journal. -Carl Sagan was an astrophysicist and science popularizer, one of his important contributions being the 1980 television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage -Neil deGrasse Tyson is an astrophysicist and science communicator who participated to TV and radio shows and wrote various outreach books. -Jearl Walker is a physics professor at Cleveland State University. He wrote the Amateur Scientist column in Scientific American from 1978 to 1988 and authored the popular science book The Flying Circus of Physics. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 342320ff7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Physics outreach" -chunk: 4/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:27.393810+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Funding sources == -American Physical Society awards grants up to $10,000 to help APS members develop new physics outreach activities. -Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter (ICAM) provides grants and fellowships for physics outreach. -Wellcome Trust, while mostly focused on biological sciences, the Wellcome Trust also touches on physics and encourages physics outreach. They aim to improve biology, chemistry, and physics A levels in the UK. -Institute of Physics (IoP) The IoP aims to provide positive and compelling experiences of physics for public audiences through engaging and entertaining activities and events. The public engagement grant scheme is designed to give financial support of up to £1500 to individuals and organisations running physics-based events and activities in the UK and Ireland. - -== Awards == -Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science is an award given by UNESCO for exceptional skill in presenting scientific ideas to lay people -Klopsteg Memorial Award is presented by the American Association of Physics Teachers and given in memory of the physicist Paul E. Klopsteg -Kelvin Prize is awarded by the Institute of Physics to acknowledge outstanding contributions to the public understanding of physics. -The Michael Faraday Prize for communicating science to a UK audience is awarded by the Royal Society. -Prix Jean Perrin for popularization in physics is attributed by the French Physics Society. - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_advocacy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_advocacy-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d3fe44de6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_advocacy-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Policy advocacy" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_advocacy" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:29.834531+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Policy advocacy is defined as active, covert, or inadvertent support of a particular policy or class of policies. Advocacy can include a variety of activities including, lobbying, litigation, public education, and capacity building (the forming relationships with parties of interest). Advocating for policy can take place from a local level to a state or federal government. For example, a local advocacy group in Brunswick, Georgia, Defenders of Wildlife, advocated for the passage of the H.R. 5552 Migratory Bird Protection Act during 2020 when rollbacks to the bill were introduced from the Trump Administration. At the state level, advocacy for policy can be a joint effort between advocacy groups. In the United States, advocacy groups around the nation planned joint efforts to get the Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act (UPHPA) signed into law in each of their respective states and in 2018, the bill was signed into law by Texas Governor Greg Abbott making it the tenth state to enforce this law. - - -== Scientists as policy advocates == -One controversial area of advocacy is when scientists shift out of the role of scientist and into the role of policy advocate. Scientists, engineers, and other technical experts sometimes also act as policy advocates for their personal policy or their employer's policy preferences. It is common in local, state, and federal governments to find scientists working on policy advocacy. For example, many non-profit groups with a focus on science policy and advocacy in the United States like the National Science Policy Network (NSPN) or Engineers and Scientists Acting Locally (ESAL) provide networks for all career stage professionals in STEM fields to engage in policy advocacy together. Other ways that STEM professionals engage in policy advocacy can be seen as expert witnesses and panel speakers in the United States congressional committee meetings in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, many of which oversee scientific and technological topics such as the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology or the Senate committee on Energy and Natural Resources. During these committee meetings, lawmakers will gather experts from both public and private sectors to provide insight into the issue at stake and why a policy should or should not be enacted. Policy advocates from across the political spectrum will provide policy advocates who have scientific credentials to pitch their policy preferences. -Providing technical and scientific information to inform policy deliberations in an objective and relevant way is recognized as a difficult problem in many scientific and technical professions. The challenge and conflicts have been studied for those working as stock analysts in brokerage firms, for medical experts testifying in malpractice trials, for funding officers at international development agencies, and for intelligence analysts within governmental national security agencies. The job of providing accurate, relevant, and policy neutral information is especially challenging if highly controversial policy issues (such as climate change) that have a significant scientific component. The use of normative science by scientists is a common method used to subtly advocate for preferred policy choices. Conflict may arise with the administration of a scientific journal when some scientists wish to include their policy preferences in their scientific manuscripts, while editors and other scientists assert that scientific articles ought to remain policy neutral.*Caldwell (2005). "Courting the expert: clash of culture?". British Journal of Haematology. 129 (6): 730–733. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2005.05464.x. PMID 15952998. - - -== See also == -Science policy -Advocacy -Advocacy group -Normative science -Lobbying (government relations) -Capacity building - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Béné (2005). "The good, the bad, and the ugly: discourse, policy controversies, and the role of science in the politics of shrimp farming development". Development Policy Review. 23 (5): 585–614. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2005.00304.x. SSRN 786094. -Lackey, Robert T (2007). "Science, scientists, and policy advocacy". Conservation Biology. 21 (1): 12–17. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00639.x. PMID 17298504. -Pielke (2004). "When scientists politicize science: making sense of controversy over The Skeptical Environmentalist" (PDF). Environmental Science and Policy. 7 (5): 405–417. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2004.06.004. -Rykiel (2001). "Scientific objectivity, value systems, and policymaking". BioScience. 51 (6): 433–436. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0433:SOVSAP]2.0.CO;2. -Scott; Michael, J.; Rachlow, Janet L.; Lackey, Robert T.; et al. (2008). "Policy advocacy in science: prevalence, perspectives, and implications for conservation biologists". Conservation Biology. 21 (1): 29–35. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00641.x. PMID 17298508. -Shannon (1996). Science Advocacy is Inevitable: Deal with It. Society of American Foresters. -Armstrong (2002). "Ways to make analysis relevant but not prescriptive". Studies in Intelligence. 46: 37–43. Archived from the original on April 26, 2010. -Boni (2003). "Wall Street research: will new rules change its usefulness?". Financial Analysts Journal. 59 (3): 25–29. doi:10.2469/faj.v59.n3.2528. -Caldwell (2005). "Courting the expert: clash of culture?". British Journal of Haematology. 129 (6): 730–733. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2005.05464.x. PMID 15952998. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Transhumanist_Association-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Transhumanist_Association-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ba1b4a6dc..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Transhumanist_Association-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Polish Transhumanist Association" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Transhumanist_Association" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:31.120433+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Polish Transhumanist Association (Polskie Stowarzyszenie Transhumanistyczne, PSTH) is a Warsaw-based nonprofit organization established in 2017 that promotes research and public discussion on human enhancement and the ethical, social, and technological implications of emerging technologies. Its activities include organizing interdisciplinary conferences, lectures, and workshops in collaboration with academic and cultural institutions across Poland. - - -== History == -PSTH was founded in 2017 by a group of scientists, entrepreneurs, medical professionals, programmers, and technology enthusiasts. From its inception, the association has aimed to foster critical reflection on the future of humanity by convening experts from diverse fields to debate topics such as biohacking, artificial intelligence, and cybernetic augmentation. - - -== Activities == -Academic conferences: Academic conferences: Since 2017, PSTH has organized the annual national scientific conference “Transhumanizm: Idee, Strategie, Wątpliwości.” The first edition took place on December 9, 2017, at the Institute of Philosophy, University of Warsaw, featuring 15 speakers across six thematic panels. The fourth edition was held in 2022 at the State Ethnographic Museum in Warsaw. In June 2019, PSTH also co-organized the conference “Ludzkie i nie-ludzkie oblicza transhumanizmu” (Human and Non-Human Faces of Transhumanism) at the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, alongside the Faculty of Philosophy and Sociology and the UMCS Cognition Circle. -Interdisciplinary lectures: A PSTH member delivered the lecture “Starzenie, śmierć i długowieczność. Perspektywa biomedyczna, etyczna i systemowa” (Aging, Death and Longevity: Biomedical, Ethical, and Systemic Perspectives) in December 2019, as reported by the independent IVITER portal. On 16 May, PSTH organized a public meeting in Warsaw titled “Jeśli transhumanizm, to czemu nie GMO?” (If Transhumanism, Then Why Not GMO?), which provided a forum to examine how opposition to genetically modified organisms in Europe affects the development of biotechnology. Additionally, on May 23, 2024, in cooperation with the Polish-Japanese Academy of Information Technology, PSTH organized an open lecture by Dr. Łukasz Kucharczyk entitled “Granice człowieczeństwa. Wokół Dukaja i transhumanizmu” (The Limits of Humanity: Around Dukaj and Transhumanism). -Cultural partnerships: PSTH is listed among the partners of the Copernicus Festival in Kraków, a major annual science and philosophy event organized by the Copernicus Center and Tygodnik Powszechny Foundation. In addition, in 2021, PSTH was named as one of the organizers and partners of the Futurological Congress, alongside the Polish Society for Futures Studies (PTSP) and other organizations. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8110ed242..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,93 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Positive computing" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:33.425588+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Positive computing is a technological design perspective that embraces psychological well-being and ethical practice, aiming at building a digital environment to support happier and healthier users. Positive computing develops approaches that incorporates psychology, education, neuroscience, and HCI with technological development, bridging technology with mental health. - - -== Background == -The design of a tool impacts the people who use it. Small design implications of technologies can have their effects amplified when used by many people. Technology researchers typically focus primarily on technical aspects, paying less attention to the ethical impact and ethical considerations of their products. -However, researchers from other fields such as psychology and philosophy studied these matters extensively and provided a wealth of methodologies to assess users' well-being, with thousands of quality-of-life assessment methods and validating studies. -Positive computing draws many ideas from positive psychology, a domain of psychology that focuses on societal well-being and improving quality of life. - - -=== Well-being in technology and technology research === -The recognition of the impact of technology and inventions on people's lives has moved technology professionals to rethink the technology tools we use and seek a realignment of companies' goals to the social good. Exemplary of this disposition is the famous Google's motto, "don't be evil." -Technologies can be loosely classified into four groups according to their influence on the psychological aspects: - -Technologies that are not positive computing oriented: technologies in this category do not consider the psychological well-being of the user nor their influence on society and ethical values. -Technologies that hinder well-being integration: they present compromises and obstacles to the well-being of the users; obstacles that, from a positive computing perspective, are seen as errors. These technologies should undergo a process of redesign. For example, social network platforms may need to be redesigned to reduce negative behaviors and prevent conflict. -Technologies that provide active integration with positive computing principles: technologies in this group are designed to actively support components of well-being. Examples might be a word processor redesigned to support flow or a social media website designed to promote empathy. -Technology dedicated to positive computing: purposeful, dedicated to well-being. Examples: promote empathy, and increase mindfulness. - - -== What is positive == -In Calvo's and Peter's seminal book on positive computing, they list the following as positive aspects to which we should aim when designing technologies: positive emotions, motivation, engagement, flow, self-awareness, self-compassion, mindfulness, empathy, compassion, and altruism. -An encompassing term for general human welfare and happiness is eudaimonia which is extensively studied in positive psychology and which is inquired along different dimensions such as self-discovery, the sense of purpose and meaning in life, the involvement in activities, the investment in the pursuit of excellence, the self-perception of one's own potentials. - - -=== Autonomy, competence and relatedness === -There are three basic psychological needs according to Self-determination theory (SDT): autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which can be briefly described as the feeling of psychological liberty and self-motivation, the feeling of having control and mastery, and the feeling of connection to others. - - -== Solutions == - - -=== Design to address the basic psychological needs === -The three previously mentioned basic psychological needs are measurable and well-defined characteristics that make them excellent as design targets. -To support autonomy, the design process needs to provide control over multiple options, provide meaningful rationales behind choices, enable the customization of the experience, and avoid controlling language. -Competence is also well-studied for game design, and the three main design factors supporting it are the appropriateness of the level of presented challenges, the presence of positive feedback, and the opportunities to learn and master the tasks at hand. -Relatedness-supportive environments need to be designed to provide meaningful and responsive interactions with others, respect human emotions, avoid disrupting social relationships, and provide opportunities for social connections. - - -=== Responsible design process === - -Responsible design, not to be confused with responsive design, comes from the integration of ethical analysis with well-being–supportive design into engineering practice. -In particular, it features the double diamond design process model adding a post-launch evaluation phase. -The responsible design process consists then of five stages: - -Research: in this initial step, the designer team should investigate the needs of the users and the context in which they are immersed; -Insights: this phase analyzes the data gathered in the previous one, synthesizing specific insights for the later stages; -Ideation: this stage involves the generation of creative solutions that take into consideration the elicited technical and ethical requirements; -Prototypes: in this last development stage, the team must eventually converge into practical solutions and build functioning prototypes to access the subsequent evaluation phase; -Evaluation: this final phase comes after the rollout of the developed prototypes to evaluate their impact in the real-world scenario. - - -== Positive Computing in AI == -Malo Bourgon, COO of MIRI, stated that research in artificial intelligence should consider best practices from the computer security community when testing their systems for safety and security before they are released for wide adoption. Government legislation, business practices, and stronger education of AI and its consequences to society are also proposed. These solutions implement the principles of positive computing into AI, making sure that it serves humanity in a positive way. - - -== Scientific venues == - Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) -SIGCHI -Journal of Medical Internet Research -Journal of Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking -IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing - - -== See also == - - -== References == -Notes - -Bibliography - - -== Further reading == -Sander, Tomas (2011). "Positive Computing". In Biswas-Diener, Robert (ed.). Positive Psychology as Social Change. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 309–326. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9938-9_17. ISBN 978-90-481-9938-9. -Ethically aligned design: a vision for prioritizing human well-being with autonomous and intelligent systems (Report). IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems. Retrieved 18 June 2021. - - -== External links == -Doteveryone - the responsible technology think tank -Ethics Kit | Methods & tools for ethics in the design process -IEEE Ethics In Action in Autonomous and Intelligent Systems | IEEE SA - Resources -Center for Humane Technology (CHT) -List of projects from the Wellbeing Technology Lab \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictor@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictor@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 66cda4175..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictor@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Predictor@home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictor@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:34.583275+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Predictor@home was a volunteer computing project that used BOINC software to predict protein structure from protein sequence in the context of the 6th biannual CASP, or Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction. A major goal of the project was the testing and evaluating of new algorithms to predict both known and unknown protein structures. -Predictor@home was complementary to Folding@home. Whereas the latter aims to study the dynamics of protein folding, Predictor@home aimed to specify what the final tertiary structure will be. Also, the two projects differ significantly in the infrastructure they use. The project used BOINC software, whereas Folding@home maintains its own software completely outside of BOINC. -However, for a time, Predictor@home competed with other BOINC protein structure prediction projects, such as Rosetta@home. Each uses different methods of rapidly and reliably predicting the final tertiary structure. -Predictor@home is currently inactive. - - -== History == -Predictor@home holds the distinction of being the first independent BOINC project to be launched. The project was set up and run by Michela Taufer at The Scripps Research Institute. -On September 6, 2006, Predictor@home was temporarily taken off line, with no new work units being sent out. In May, 2008, the project reverted to Alpha status while experimenting with new methods. -Over the summer of 2008, the project servers were moved to the University of Michigan and as of December 2008, the project had not sent out any work for some months. BOINC stats sites were unable to obtain updated XML data, as this had been suspended by the project team. -On June 10, 2009, the Predictor@home web site and forums were shut down. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects -Rosetta@home -SIMAP -Grid computing -Protein structure prediction - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 326563048..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,56 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "PrimeGrid" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:35.743129+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -PrimeGrid is a volunteer computing project that searches for very large (up to world-record size) prime numbers whilst also aiming to solve long-standing mathematical conjectures. It uses the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. PrimeGrid offers a number of subprojects for prime-number sieving and discovery. Some of these are available through the BOINC client, others through the PRPNet client. Some of the work is manual, i.e. it requires manually starting work units and uploading results. Different subprojects may run on different operating systems, and may have executables for CPUs, GPUs, or both; while running the Lucas–Lehmer–Riesel test, CPUs with Advanced Vector Extensions and Fused Multiply-Add instruction sets will yield the fastest results for non-GPU accelerated workloads. -PrimeGrid awards badges to users in recognition of achieving certain defined levels of credit for work done. The badges have no intrinsic value but are valued by many as a sign of achievement. The issuing of badges should also benefit PrimeGrid by evening out the participation in the less popular sub projects. The easiest of the badges can often be obtained in less than a day by a single computer, whereas the most challenging badges will require far more time and computing power. - -== History == - -PrimeGrid started in June 2005 under the name Message@home and tried to decipher text fragments hashed with MD5. Message@home was a test to port the BOINC scheduler to Perl to obtain greater portability. After a while the project attempted the RSA factoring challenge trying to factor RSA-640. After RSA-640 was factored by an outside team in November 2005, the project moved on to RSA-768. With the chance to succeed too small, it discarded the RSA challenges, was renamed to PrimeGrid, and started generating a list of the first prime numbers. At 210,000,000,000 -the primegen subproject was stopped. -In June 2006, dialog started with Riesel Sieve to bring their project to the BOINC community. PrimeGrid provided PerlBOINC support and Riesel Sieve was successful in implementing their sieve as well as a prime finding (LLR) application. With collaboration from Riesel Sieve, PrimeGrid was able to implement the LLR application in partnership with another prime finding project, Twin Prime Search (TPS). In November 2006, the TPS LLR application was officially released at PrimeGrid. Less than two months later, January 2007, the record twin was found by the original manual project. TPS has since been completed, and the search for Sophie Germain primes was suspended in 2024. -In the summer of 2007, the Cullen and Woodall prime searches were launched. In the Fall, more prime searches were added through partnerships with the Prime Sierpinski Problem and 3*2^n-1 Search projects. Additionally, two sieves were added: the Prime Sierpinski Problem combined sieve which includes supporting the Seventeen or Bust sieve and the combined Cullen/Woodall sieve. In the fall of the same year, PrimeGrid migrated its systems from PerlBOINC to standard BOINC software. -Since September 2008, PrimeGrid is also running a Proth prime sieving subproject. -In January 2010 the subproject Seventeen or Bust (for solving the Sierpinski problem) was added. -The calculations for the Riesel problem followed in March 2010. - -== Projects == -As of January 2023, PrimeGrid is working on or has worked on the following projects: - -=== 321 Prime Search === -321 Prime Search is a continuation of Paul Underwood's 321 Search which looked for primes of the form 3 · 2n − 1. PrimeGrid added the +1 form and continues the search up to n = 25M. -Primes known for 3 · 2n + 1 occur at the following n: - -1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 12, 18, 30, 36, 41, 66, 189, 201, 209, 276, 353, 408, 438, 534, 2208, 2816, 3168, 3189, 3912, 20909, 34350, 42294, 42665, 44685, 48150, 54792, 55182, 59973, 80190, 157169, 213321, 303093, 362765, 382449, 709968, 801978, 916773, 1832496, 2145353, 2291610, 2478785, 5082306, 7033641, 10829346, 16408818 (sequence A002253 in the OEIS) -Primes known for 3 · 2n − 1 occur at the following n: - -0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11, 18, 34, 38, 43, 55, 64, 76, 94, 103, 143, 206, 216, 306, 324, 391, 458, 470, 827, 1274, 3276, 4204, 5134, 7559, 12676, 14898, 18123, 18819, 25690, 26459, 41628, 51387, 71783, 80330, 85687, 88171, 97063, 123630, 155930, 164987, 234760, 414840, 584995, 702038, 727699, 992700, 1201046, 1232255, 2312734, 3136255, 4235414, 6090515, 11484018, 11731850, 11895718, 16819291, 17748034, 18196595 (sequence A002235 in the OEIS) - -=== PRPNet projects === - -== Accomplishments == - -=== AP26 === -One of PrimeGrid projects was AP26 Search which searched for a record 26 primes in arithmetic progression. The search was successful in April 2010 with the finding of the first known AP26: - -43142746595714191 + 23681770 · 23# · n is prime for n = 0, ..., 25. -23# = 2·3·5·7·11·13·17·19·23 = 223092870, or 23 primorial, is the product of all primes up to 23. - -=== AP27 === -Next target of the project was AP27 Search which searched for a record 27 primes in arithmetic progression. The search was successful in September 2019 with the finding of the first known AP27: - -224584605939537911 + 81292139 · 23# · n is prime for n = 0, ..., 26. -23# = 2·3·5·7·11·13·17·19·23 = 223092870, or 23 primorial, is the product of all primes up to 23. - -=== Cullen prime search === -PrimeGrid is also running a search for Cullen prime numbers, yielding the two largest known Cullen primes. The first one being the 14th largest known prime at the time of discovery, and the second one was PrimeGrid's largest prime found 6679881 · 26679881 + 1 at over 2 million digits. - -=== Generalized Fermat prime search === -On 24 September 2022, PrimeGrid discovered the largest known Generalized Fermat prime to date, 19637361048576 + 1. This prime is 6,598,776 digits long and is only the second Generalized Fermat prime found for n = 20. It ranks as the 13th largest known prime overall. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index ac49dc5a5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "PrimeGrid" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:35.743129+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Riesel Problem === -As of 13 December 2022, PrimeGrid has eliminated 18 values of k from the Riesel problem -and is continuing the search to eliminate the 43 remaining numbers. 3 values of k are found by independent searchers. - -=== Twin prime search === -Primegrid worked with the Twin Prime Search to search for a record-sized twin prime at approximately 58,700 digits. The new world's largest known twin prime 2003663613 × 2195000 ± 1 was eventually discovered on January 15, 2007 (sieved by Twin Prime Search and tested by PrimeGrid). The search continued for another record twin prime at just above 100,000 digits. It was completed in August 2009 when PrimeGrid found 65516468355 × 2333333 ± 1. Continued testing for twin primes in conjunction with the search for a Sophie Germain prime yielded a new record twin prime in September 2016 upon finding the number 2996863034895 × 21290000 ± 1 composed of 388,342 digits. - -=== Woodall prime search === -As of 22 April 2018, the project has discovered the four largest Woodall primes known to date. -The largest of these is 17016602 × 217016602 − 1 and was found on 21 March 2018. The search continues for an even bigger Woodall prime. -PrimeGrid also found the largest known generalized Woodall prime, -563528 × 13563528 − 1. - -== Media coverage == -PrimeGrid's author Rytis Slatkevičius has been featured as a young entrepreneur in The Economist. -PrimeGrid has also been featured in an article by Francois Grey in the CERN Courier and a talk about citizen cyberscience in TEDx Warwick conference. -In the first Citizen Cyberscience Summit, Rytis Slatkevičius gave a talk as a founder of PrimeGrid, named Finding primes: from digits to digital technology, -relating mathematics and volunteering and featuring the history of the project. - -== References == - -== External links == -Official website -PrimeGrid Discord chat server (almost daily discovery announcements) -PrimeGrid's results at The Prime Pages \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CETI-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CETI-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 34aea8e40..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CETI-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Project CETI" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CETI" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:36.938732+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Project CETI is an international initiative to understand the acoustic communication of sperm whales using advances in artificial intelligence. The project has an interdisciplinary scientific board including marine biologists, artificial intelligence researchers, roboticists, theoretical computer scientists, and linguists. Its name, Cetacean Translation Initiative, is a reference to the SETI Institute. The project has a base on the island of Dominica where recordings are being collected. -The organization has been selected as a TED Audacious Project. CETI researchers have identified 156 distinct codas and their basic components, a "sperm whale phonetic alphabet" much like phonemes. - - -== See also == -Whale sound -Human–animal communication -Animal cognition -Animal communication -Interspecies communication -Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 09f96402d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Proteins@home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:38.059251+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -proteins@home was a volunteer computing project that used the BOINC architecture. The project was run by the Department of Biology at École Polytechnique. The project began on December 28, 2006, and ended in June 2008. - - -== Purpose == -proteins@home was a large-scale non-profit protein structure prediction project utilizing volunteer computing to perform intensive computations in a small amount of time. From their website: -The amino acid sequence of a protein determines its three-dimensional structure, or 'fold'. Conversely, the three-dimensional structure is compatible with a large, but limited set of amino acid sequences. Enumerating the allowed sequences for a given fold is known as the 'inverse protein folding problem'. We are working to solve this problem for a large number of known protein folds (a representative subset: about 1500 folds). The most expensive step is to build a database of energy functions that describe all these structures. For each structure, we consider all possible sequences of amino acids. Surprisingly, this is computationally tractable, because our energy functions are sums over pairs of interactions. Once this is done, we can explore the space of amino acid sequences in a fast and efficient way, and retain the most favorable sequences. This large-scale mapping of protein sequence space will have applications for predicting protein structure and function, for understanding protein evolution, and for designing new proteins. By joining the project, you will help to build the database of energy functions and advance an important area of science with potential biomedical applications. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -proteins@home archive \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ded3aa9bb..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,44 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Public awareness of science" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:39.295548+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Public awareness of science (PAS) is a comprehensive concept encompassing all aspects of the awareness, attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and activities that comprise the relations between the general public or lay society as a whole and scientific knowledge and organization. This concept is also known as public understanding of science (PUS), or more recently, public engagement with science and technology (PEST). This approach is a recent development in the field of science communication research, which aims to explore the intricate relationships and interconnections between science, technology, and innovation on the one hand, and the general public on the other. -Initially, research in this domain concentrated on enhancing the public's understanding of scientific subjects, adhering to the principles of the information deficit model of science communication. However, this model has since been largely disregarded by researchers in the field of science communication. Instead, there is an increasing emphasis on understanding how the public chooses to use scientific knowledge and on the development of interfaces to mediate between expert and lay understandings of an issue. Newer frameworks of communicating science include the dialogue and the participation models. The dialogue model aims to create spaces for conversations between scientists and non-scientists to occur while the participation model aims to include non-scientists in the process of science. - -== Major themes == - -The area integrates a series of fields and themes such as: - -Citizen science -Consumer education -Fixed and mobile science exhibits -Media and science (medialisation of science) -Public controversies over science and technology -Public tours of research and development (R&D) parks, manufacturing companies, etc. -Science and art -Science communication in the mass media, Internet, radio, films and television programs -Science education for adults -Science fairs in schools and social groups -Science festivals -Science in popular culture -Science in text books and classrooms -Science museums, aquaria, planetaria, zoological parks, botanical gardens, etc. -Science social movements -Important lines of research are how to raise public awareness and public understanding of science and technology. Also, learning how the public feels and knows about science generally as well as individual subjects, such as genetic engineering, or bioethics. Research by Matthew Nisbet highlights several challenges in science communication, including the paradox that scientific success can create either trust or distrust in experts in different populations and that attitudes of trust are shaped by mostly socioeconomic rather than religious or ideological differences. A 2020 survey by the Pew Research Center found varying levels of trust in science by country, political leanings, and other factors. - -== Bodmer report == -The publication of the Royal Society's' report The Public Understanding of Science (or Bodmer Report) in 1985 is widely held to be the birth of the Public Understanding of Science movement in Britain. The report led to the founding of the Committee on the Public Understanding of Science and a cultural change in the attitude of scientists to outreach activities. - -== Models of engagement == - -=== Contextualist model === -In the 1990s, a new perspective emerged in the field with the classic study of Cumbrian Sheep Farmers' interaction with the Nuclear scientists in England. Brian Wynne demonstrated how the experts were ignorant or disinterested in taking into account the lay knowledge of the sheep farmers while conducting field experiments on the impact of the Chernobyl nuclear fallout on the sheep in the region. Because of this shortcoming from the side of the scientists, local farmers lost their trust in them. The experts were unaware of the local environmental conditions and the behaviour of sheep and this has eventually led to the failure of their experimental models. Following this study, scholars have studies similar micro-sociological contexts of expert-lay interaction and proposed that the context of knowledge communication is important to understand public engagement with science. Instead of large scale public opinion surveys, researchers proposed studies informed by sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK). The contextualist model focuses on the social impediments in the bidirectional flow of scientific knowledge between experts and laypersons/communities. - -=== Deliberative model === -Scholars like Sheila Jasanoff have advanced the debate around public engagement with science by leveraging the theory of deliberative democracy to analyze the public deliberation of and participation in science through various institutional forms. Proponents of greater public deliberation argue it is a basic condition for decision making in democratic societies, even on science and technology issues. There are also attempts to develop more inclusive participatory models of technological governance in the form of consensus conferences, citizen juries, extended peer reviews, and deliberative mapping. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 09e4b9423..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,55 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Public awareness of science" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:39.295548+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Civic science model === -Some scholars have identified a new era of "post-normal science" (PNS) in which many scientific discoveries carry high stakes if risks are estimated incorrectly within a broader social context that has a high degree of uncertainty. This PNS era requires a new approach to public engagement efforts and requires a reevaluation of the underlying assumptions of "public engagement", especially with emerging science and technology issues, like CRISPR gene editing, that have the potential to become "wicked problems". These "wicked" issues often require regulatory and policy decisions that have no single correct solution and often involve numerous interest groups – none of whom are clearly positioned to decide and resolve the problem. Policy and regulatory decisions around these scientific issues are inherently political and must balance trade-offs between the scientific research, perceptions of risk, societal needs, and ethical values. While scientists can provide factual answers to research questions and mathematical estimates of risk, many considerations surrounding these wicked science and technology issues have no factual answer. The unidirectional deficit model of simply educating the public on theses issues is insufficient to address these complex questions, and some scholars have proposed scientists adopt a culture of civic science: "broad public engagement with issues that arise at the many intersections between science and society." An emphasis is placed on developing an iterative engagement model that actively seeks to incorporate groups who stand to be adversely effected by a new technology and conducting this engagement away from universities so that it can be done on the public's terms with the public's terms. Other scholars have emphasized that this model of public engagement requires that the public be able to influence science, not merely be engaged by it, up to the point of being able to say "no" to research that does not align with the broader public's values. Under the civic science model, there are five key lessons for scientists committed to public engagement: - -Establish why you want to engage with the public and clearly identify your goals. -Seek out and engage with a broad, diverse range of groups and perspectives and center engagement on listening to these groups. -Work cooperatively with groups to establish common definitions to avoid the perception that researchers are being disingenuous by relying on semantic differences between expert and lay interpretations of vocabulary to ensure the public "supports" their position. -Working to tilt public debates in favor of the priorities and values of researchers will not lead to consistent "best" decisions because wicked science and technology problems will have different considerations and perspectives depending on the application and cultural context. -Meaningfully engage as early as possible; engagement must begin early enough in the research process that the public's views can shape both the research and implementation of findings - -== Public understanding of science == - -Social scientists use various metrics to measure public understanding of science, including: - -=== Factual knowledge === -The key assumptions is that the more individual pieces of information a person is able to retrieve, the more that person is considered to have learned. -Examples of measurement: - -Recognition: Answering a specific question by selecting the correct answer out a list -Cued recall: Answering a specific question without a list of choices -Free recall: After exposure to information, the study participant produces a list of as much of the information as they can remember - -=== Self-reported knowledge, perceived knowledge, or perceived familiarity === -The key assumption is that emphasizes the value of knowledge of one's knowledge. -Examples of measurement: - -Scaled survey responses to questions such as, "How well informed you would say you are about this topic?", this can be also used to assess perceived knowledge before and after events - -=== Structural knowledge === -The nature of connections among different pieces of information in memory. -The key assumption is that the use of elaboration increases the likelihood of remembering information. -Examples of measurement: - -Asking study participants to assess relationships among concepts. For example, participants free recall concepts onto the first row and column of a matrix, then indicate whether the concepts are related to each other by placing an "X" in the cell if they are not. Participants then rank the remaining open cells by their relatedness from 1 (only very weakly) to 7 (very strongly related). -Study participants answer questions designed to measure elaboration involved in a task, such as, "I tried to relate the ideas I read about to my own past experiences." - -=== Trust and credibility === -People may trust science or scientists to different degrees, or may find specific scientists or specific research to be more or less credible. These factors can be related to how science can be used to advance knowledge, and may also be related to how science is communicated, with trust formation playing a central role. -Examples of measurement: - -The 21-item Trust in Science and Scientists Inventory, which measures agreement/disagreement with statements like, "We can trust scientists to share their discoveries even if we don't like their findings." -Scientist-specific measures of agreement, such as "I would trust scientific information if I knew it came from this author." - -=== Mixed use of measures === -While some studies purport that factual and perceived knowledge can be viewed as the same construct, a 2012 study investigating public knowledge of nanotechnology supports separating their use in communications research, as they "do not reflect the same underlying knowledge structures". Correlations between them were found to be low and they were not predicted by the same factors. For example different types of science media use, television versus online, predicted different constructs. -Factual knowledge has been shown to be empirically distinct from structural knowledge. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9c34931fc..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Public awareness of science" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:39.295548+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Project example == -Government and private-led campaigns and events, such as Dana Foundation's "Brain Awareness Week", are becoming a strong focus of programmes which try to promote public awareness of science. -The UK PAWS Foundation dramatically went as far as establishing a Drama Fund with the BBC in 1994. The purpose was to encourage and support the creation of new drama for television, drawing on the world of science and technology. -The Vega Science Trust was set up in 1994 to promote science through the media of television and the internet with the aim of giving scientists a platform from which to communicate to the general public. -The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science chair at The University of Oxford was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. Mathematician Marcus du Sautoy has held the chair since Dawkins' retirement in 2008. Similar professorships have since been created at other British universities. Professorships in the field have been held by well-known academics including Richard Fortey and Kathy Sykes at the University of Bristol, Brian Cox at Manchester University, Tanya Byron at Edge Hill University, Jim Al-Khalili at the University of Surrey, and Alice Roberts at the University of Birmingham. - -== See also == - -== References == - -== Further reading == -Bensaude-vincent, Bernadette (2001). "A Genealogy of the Increasing Gap between Science and the Public". Public Understanding of Science. 10 (1) 307: 99–113. doi:10.1088/0963-6625/10/1/307. -Bijker, Wiebe E., Bal, Roland and Hendriks, Ruud. 2009. The Paradox of Scientific Authority: The Role of Scientific Advice in Democracies. Cambridge and London: The MIT Press. -Bucchi, Massimiano (1996). "When Scientists Turn to the Public: Alternative Routes in Science Communication". Public Understanding of Science. 5 (4): 375–394. doi:10.1088/0963-6625/5/4/005. S2CID 143374883. -Dash, Biswanath (2014a). "Public Understanding of Cyclone Warning in India: Can Wind be Predicted?". Public Understanding of Science. 24 (8): 970–987. doi:10.1177/0963662514553203. PMID 25313142. S2CID 22226217. -Davenport, Sally and Leitch, Shirley. 2005. "Agoras, Ancient and Modern, and a Framework for Science-Society Debate", Science and Public Policy 32(2), April, pp. 137–153. -Dryzek, John S. 2000. Deliberative Democracy and Beyond: Liberals, Critics, Contestations. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. -Felt, Ulrike; Fochler, Maximilian (2010). "Machineries for Making Publics: Inscribing and De-scribing Publics in Public Engagement". Minerva. 48 (3): 219–239. doi:10.1007/s11024-010-9155-x. S2CID 144227502. -Fischer, Frank. 2005. Citizens, Experts, and the Environment. Durham: Duke University Press. -Gregory, Jane & Miller, Steve (1998); Science in Public: Communication, Culture & Credibility (Cambridge, Massachusetts USA: Perseus Publishing) -Hess, David J (2011). "To Tell the Truth: On Scientific Counter Publics". Public Understanding of Science. 20 (5): 627–641. doi:10.1177/0963662509359988. S2CID 145627603. -Hilgartner, Stephen (1990). "The Dominant View of Popularisation: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses". Social Studies of Science. 20 (3): 519–539. doi:10.1177/030631290020003006. S2CID 144068473. -Irwin, Alan and Wynne, Brian. (eds.) 1996. Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. -Irwin, Alan. 1995. Citizen Science: A Study of People, Expertise and Sustainable Development. London and New York: Routledge. -Jasanoff, Sheila (2003c). "Technologies of Humility: Citizen Participation in Governing Science". Minerva. 41 (3): 223–244. doi:10.1023/A:1025557512320. S2CID 14370392. -Jasanoff, Sheila. 2005. Designs on Nature: Science and Democracy in Europe and the United States. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. -Leach, Melissa, Scoones, Ian and Wynne, Brian. (eds.) 2005. Science and Citizens: Globalisation and the Challenge of Engagement. London and New York: Zed Books. -Public Understanding of Science, specialist journal. -Shapin, Steven. 1990. 'Science and the Public' in R.C. Olby et al. (eds). Companion to the History of Modern Science. London and New York: Routledge. Pp. 990–1007. -The Royal Academy of Science's 2006 "Factors affecting science communication: a survey of scientists and engineers" report. -Southwell, Brian G. (2013). "Social Networks and Popular Understanding of Science and Health". Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. -Southwell, Brian G.; Torres, Alicia (2006). "Connecting interpersonal and mass communication: Science news exposure, perceived ability to understand science, and conversation". Communication Monographs. 73 (3): 334–350. doi:10.1080/03637750600889518. S2CID 143644528. -Varughese, Shiju Sam (2012). "Where are the missing masses? The Quasi-publics and Non-publics of Technoscience". Minerva. 50 (2): 239–254. doi:10.1007/s11024-012-9197-3. S2CID 144319733. -Varughese, Shiju Sam (2017). Contested Knowledge: Science, Media, and Democracy in Kerala. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199469123.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-946912-3. - -== External links == - -Science.gov -Vega Science Trust \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5ed80951b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Public science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:40.441390+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Public science is research that is conducted amongst, or includes, the public. Two traditions of public science have emerged, one based on participatory action research and another based on science outreach. - - -== Participatory action research == - -The participatory action research approach seeks to develop a critical framework for making systematic inquiry and analysis a public enterprise. It is committed to valuing knowledges that have been historically marginalized and delegitimized (i.e., youth, prisoner, immigrant, farmer) alongside traditionally recognized knowledges (i.e., scholarly). Through the formation of research collectives, it aims to share the various knowledges and resources held by its individual members so members can participate as equally as possible. The choice of appropriate research questions, design, methods and analysis as well as useful research products are decided collectively. Institutions for this form of public science include the Public Science Project. Examples of public science projects in the participatory action research tradition include the Morris Justice Project. - - -== Science outreach == - -The science outreach approach has some similarities to citizen science but typically describes projects that are conducted outdoors or in another type of public or accessible space such as a public park, metro stop, library, university campus, etc. Similar to public art, it includes aspects of collaboration, community support and involvement, and site specificity. -Public science efforts in the science outreach tradition include Science on the Buses, in which city buses in many major European Union cities were decorated with large informational science posters in November 2002. Likewise, a project in Toronto placed "advertisements" with science facts on buses in Toronto during July 2009. -Science City was a public science initiative that ran from June 1994 through May 1995. Created by staff and consultants from the New York Hall of Science, Science City was an outdoor exhibition that utilized the street, fences, buildings and other public structures in New York City to attract the "non-museum-going" public to the science in everyday life. The exhibition asked questions such as "Why is it warmer in the city?", "What pulses under the street?" and "What's under the sidewalk?" to help increase public awareness about the science and technology that runs invisibly underneath modern urban life. -Science Cafés, founded by the public science pioneer Duncan Dallas, are public science events that initiate a discussion on a science topic in pubs or cafes, usually with a local researcher in attendance to answer questions and present information. -Science festivals can also be grouped into this category of public science efforts, with modern incarnations of festivals including a range of learner-centered activities and events conducted in public spaces. -Public science initiatives often attempt to reach new audiences (particularly, non-experts who might not actively seek out science), in addition to existing science outreach audiences, by hosting events in alternative informal learning environments. By definition, such public science projects are outside the walls of the science centre or science museum, where the main focus of the particular space is not typically science outreach. -An example of a specific public science initiative in astronomy is From Earth to the Universe (FETTU), a project of the International Year of Astronomy 2009 (IYA2009). FETTU displayed large-scale images of astronomical objects with contextual information and supplementary materials and activities in non-traditional and mostly public locations such as parks, airports, art festivals, and shopping malls. By 2011, FETTU had been exhibited at about 1000 sites worldwide, with 50 sites in the United States. One result from FETTU demonstrated a trend towards more non-self-selective audiences for science communications in these public spaces. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Public Science Project -International Year of Astronomy 2009 -From Earth to the Universe -From Earth to the Solar System -Voyage to the Solar System -USA Science and Engineering Festival -World Science Festival -San Diego Science Festival \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QMC@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QMC@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5b2d11ba6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QMC@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "QMC@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QMC@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:41.565068+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -QMC@Home was a volunteer computing project for the BOINC client aimed at further developing and testing Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) for use in quantum chemistry. It is hosted by the University of Münster with participation by the Cavendish Laboratory. QMC@Home allows volunteers from around the world to donate idle computer cycles to help calculate molecular geometry using Diffusion Monte Carlo. -The project is developing a new application using density functional theory. -The project began its Beta testing on 23 May 2006. As of February 2010, QMC@Home has about 7,500 active participants from 102 countries, contributing about 5 teraFLOPS of computation power. - - -== Workunits == -In order to get results from home computers the work is split into "workunits". The time it takes to complete a workunit depends on the size of the calculated system and the speed of the user's computer. The target time is between 4 and 48 hours on a 2.4 GHz system. -This is a list of molecules recently tested: -1a Ammonia; 1 Ammonia dimer; 2a Water; 2 Water dimer; 3a Formic acid; 3 Formic acid dimer; 4a Formamide; 4 Formamide dimer; 5a Uracil; 5 Uracil dimer; 6a 2-pyridoxine; 6b 2-aminopyridine; 6 2-pyridoxine/2-aminopyridine; 7a Adenine; 7b Thymine; 7 Adenine/thymine WC; 8a Methane; 8 Methane dimer; 9a Ethene; 9 Ethene dimer; 10 Benzene/methane; 11a Benzene; 11 Benzene dimer; 12a Pyrazine; 12 Pyrazine dimer; 13 Uracil dimer; 14a Indole; 14 Indole/benzene; 15 Adenine/thymine stack; 16b Ethyne; 16 Ethene/ethyne; 17 Benzene/water; 18 Benzene/ammonia; 19b Hydrogen cyanide; 19 Benzene/hydrogen cyanide; 20 Benzene dimer; 21 Indole/benzene; 22a Phenol; 22 Phenol dimer - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -QMC screensaver video on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake-Catcher_Network-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake-Catcher_Network-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ce248cb60..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake-Catcher_Network-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Quake-Catcher Network" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake-Catcher_Network" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:42.764815+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Quake-Catcher Network was an initiative run by the University of Southern California that aimed to use computer-based accelerometers to detect earthquakes. It used the BOINC volunteer computing platform (a form of distributed computing, similar to SETI@home). -It supported mobile devices (smartphones and some tablets/laptops) that have a built-in accelerometer. It also supported three external USB devices - the codemercs.com JoyWarrior 24F8, the ONavi sensor, and the MotionNode Accel. -In 2011, project scientist Elizabeth Cochran was awarded a Presidential Early Career Award from US President Barack Obama in large part due to her founding of the Quake-Catcher Network project. -The Quake Catcher Network project started at Stanford University in 2008, then moved to Caltech, and joined the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) and the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) in 2016. The Quake-Catcher Network was discontinued on June 1st 2023 - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Interactive world map, showing recent earthquakes (day/week/month) Archived 2018-01-07 at the Wayback Machine – result of QCN \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 61f04c0c3..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Rosetta@home" -chunk: 1/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:45.236156+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Rosetta@home is a volunteer computing project researching protein structure prediction on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, run by the Baker lab. Rosetta@home aims to predict protein–protein docking and design new proteins with the help of about fifty-five thousand active volunteered computers processing at over 487,946 gigaFLOPS on average as of September 19, 2020. Foldit, a Rosetta@home videogame, aims to reach these goals with a crowdsourcing approach. Though much of the project is oriented toward basic research to improve the accuracy and robustness of proteomics methods, Rosetta@home also does applied research on malaria, Alzheimer's disease, and other pathologies. -Like all BOINC projects, Rosetta@home uses idle computer processing resources from volunteers' computers to perform calculations on individual workunits. Completed results are sent to a central project server where they are validated and assimilated into project databases. The project is cross-platform, and runs on a wide variety of hardware configurations. Users can view the progress of their individual protein structure prediction on the Rosetta@home screensaver. -In addition to disease-related research, the Rosetta@home network serves as a testing framework for new methods in structural bioinformatics. Such methods are then used in other Rosetta-based applications, like RosettaDock or the Human Proteome Folding Project and the Microbiome Immunity Project, after being sufficiently developed and proven stable on Rosetta@home's large and diverse set of volunteer computers. Two especially important tests for the new methods developed in Rosetta@home are the Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction (CASP) and Critical Assessment of Prediction of Interactions (CAPRI) experiments, biennial experiments which evaluate the state of the art in protein structure prediction and protein–protein docking prediction, respectively. Rosetta consistently ranks among the foremost docking predictors, and is one of the best tertiary structure predictors available. -With an influx of new users looking to participate in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2, Rosetta@home increased its computing power up to 1.7 PetaFlops as of March 28, 2020. On September 9, 2020, Rosetta@home researchers published a paper describing 10 potent antiviral candidates against SARS-CoV-2. Rosetta@home contributed to this research and these antiviral candidates are heading towards Phase 1 clinical trials, which may begin in early 2022. According to the Rosetta@home team, Rosetta volunteers contributed to the development of a nanoparticle vaccine. This vaccine has been licensed and is known as the IVX-411 by Icosavax, which began a Phase I/II clinical trial in June 2021, and GBP510 which is being developed by SK Bioscience and is already approved for a Phase III clinical trial in South Korea. -NL-201, a cancer drug candidate that was first created at the Institute of Protein Design (IPD) and published in a January 2019 paper, began a Phase 1 Human clinical trial in May 2021 with the support of Neoleukin Therapeutics, itself a spin-off from the IPD. Rosetta@home played a role in the development of NL-201 and contributed with "forward folding" experiments that helped validate protein designs. - -== Computing platform == - -The Rosetta@home application and the BOINC volunteer computing platform are available for the operating systems Windows, Linux, and macOS; BOINC also runs on several others, e.g., FreeBSD. Participation in Rosetta@home requires a central processing unit (CPU) with a clock speed of at least 500 MHz, 200 megabytes of free disk space, 512 megabytes of physical memory, and Internet connectivity. As of July 20, 2016, the current version of the Rosetta Mini application is 3.73. The current recommended BOINC program version is 7.6.22. Standard Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) (port 80) is used for communication between the user's BOINC client and the Rosetta@home servers at the University of Washington; HTTPS (port 443) is used during password exchange. Remote and local control of the BOINC client use port 31416 and port 1043, which might need to be specifically unblocked if they are behind a firewall. Workunits containing data on individual proteins are distributed from servers located in the Baker lab at the University of Washington to volunteers' computers, which then calculate a structure prediction for the assigned protein. To avoid duplicate structure predictions on a given protein, each workunit is initialized with a random seed number. This gives each prediction a unique trajectory of descent along the protein's energy landscape. Protein structure predictions from Rosetta@home are approximations of a global minimum in a given protein's energy landscape. That global minimum represents the most energetically favorable conformation of the protein, i.e., its native state. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0cf0f5788..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Rosetta@home" -chunk: 2/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:45.236156+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -A primary feature of the Rosetta@home graphical user interface (GUI) is a screensaver which shows a current workunit's progress during the simulated protein folding process. In the upper-left of the current screensaver, the target protein is shown adopting different shapes (conformations) in its search for the lowest energy structure. Depicted immediately to the right is the structure of the most recently accepted. On the upper right the lowest energy conformation of the current decoy is shown; below that is the true, or native, structure of the protein if it has already been determined. Three graphs are included in the screensaver. Near the middle, a graph for the accepted model's thermodynamic free energy is displayed, which fluctuates as the accepted model changes. A graph of the accepted model's root-mean-square deviation (RMSD), which measures how structurally similar the accepted model is to the native model, is shown far right. On the right of the accepted energy graph and below the RMSD graph, the results from these two functions are used to produce an energy vs. RMSD plot as the model is progressively refined. -Like all BOINC projects, Rosetta@home runs in the background of the user's computer, using idle computer power, either at or before logging into an account on the host operating system. The program frees resources from the CPU as they are needed by other applications so that normal computer use is unaffected. Many program settings can be specified via user account preferences, including: the maximum percentage of CPU resources the program can use (to control power consumption or heat production from a computer running at sustained capacity), the times of day during which the program can run, and many more. - -== Project significance == - -With the proliferation of genome sequencing projects, scientists can infer the amino acid sequence, or primary structure, of many proteins that carry out functions within the cell. To better understand a protein's function and aid in rational drug design, scientists need to know the protein's three-dimensional tertiary structure. - -Protein 3D structures are currently determined experimentally via X-ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The process is slow (it can take weeks or even months to figure out how to crystallize a protein for the first time) and costly (around US$100,000 per protein). Unfortunately, the rate at which new sequences are discovered far exceeds the rate of structure determination – out of more than 7,400,000 protein sequences available in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) nonredundant (nr) protein database, fewer than 52,000 proteins' 3D structures have been solved and deposited in the Protein Data Bank, the main repository for structural information on proteins. One of the main goals of Rosetta@home is to predict protein structures with the same accuracy as existing methods, but in a way that requires significantly less time and money. Rosetta@home also develops methods to determine the structure and docking of membrane proteins (e.g., G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs)), which are exceptionally difficult to analyze with traditional techniques like X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy, yet represent the majority of targets for modern drugs. -Progress in protein structure prediction is evaluated in the biannual Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction (CASP) experiment, in which researchers from around the world attempt to derive a protein's structure from the protein's amino acid sequence. High scoring groups in this sometimes competitive experiment are considered the de facto standard-bearers for what is the state of the art in protein structure prediction. Rosetta, the program on which Rosetta@home is based, has been used since CASP5 in 2002. In the 2004 CASP6 experiment, Rosetta made history by being the first to produce a close to atomic-level resolution, ab initio protein structure prediction in its submitted model for CASP target T0281. Ab initio modeling is considered an especially difficult category of protein structure prediction, as it does not use information from structural homology and must rely on information from sequence homology and modeling physical interactions within the protein. Rosetta@home has been used in CASP since 2006, where it was among the top predictors in every category of structure prediction in CASP7. These high quality predictions were enabled by the computing power made available by Rosetta@home volunteers. Increasing computing power allows Rosetta@home to sample more regions of conformation space (the possible shapes a protein can assume), which, according to Levinthal's paradox, is predicted to increase exponentially with protein length. -Rosetta is also used in protein–protein docking prediction, which determines the structure of multiple complexed proteins, or quaternary structure. This type of protein interaction affects many cellular functions, including antigen–antibody and enzyme–inhibitor binding and cellular import and export. Determining these interactions is critical for drug design. Rosetta is used in the Critical Assessment of Prediction of Interactions (CAPRI) experiment, which evaluates the state of the protein docking field similar to how CASP gauges progress in protein structure prediction. The computing power made available by Rosetta@home's project volunteers has been cited as a major factor in Rosetta's performance in CAPRI 2007, where its docking predictions have been among the most accurate and complete. -In early 2008, Rosetta was used to computationally design a protein with a function never before observed in nature. This was inspired in part by the retraction of a high-profile paper from 2004 which originally described the computational design of a protein with improved enzymatic activity relative to its natural form. The 2008 research paper from David Baker's group describing how the protein was made, which cited Rosetta@home for the computing resources it made available, represented an important proof of concept for this protein design method. This type of protein design could have future applications in drug discovery, green chemistry, and bioremediation. -The Rosetta computer program was cited in the 2024 Scientific Background to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3eb6e96fb..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Rosetta@home" -chunk: 3/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:45.236156+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Disease-related research == -In addition to basic research in predicting protein structure, docking and design, Rosetta@home is also used in immediate disease-related research. Numerous minor research projects are described in David Baker's Rosetta@home journal. As of February 2014, information on recent publications and a short description of the work are being updated on the forum. The forum thread is no longer used since 2016, and news on the research can be found on the general news section of the project. - -=== Alzheimer's disease === -A component of the Rosetta software suite, RosettaDesign, was used to accurately predict which regions of amyloidogenic proteins were most likely to make amyloid-like fibrils. By taking hexapeptides (six amino acid-long fragments) of a protein of interest and selecting the lowest energy match to a structure similar to that of a known fibril forming hexapeptide, RosettaDesign was able to identify peptides twice as likely to form fibrils as are random proteins. Rosetta@home was used in the same study to predict structures for amyloid beta, a fibril-forming protein that has been postulated to cause Alzheimer's disease. Preliminary but as yet unpublished results have been produced on Rosetta-designed proteins that may prevent fibrils from forming, although it is unknown whether it can prevent the disease. - -=== Anthrax === -Another component of Rosetta, RosettaDock, was used in conjunction with experimental methods to model interactions between three proteins—lethal factor (LF), edema factor (EF) and protective antigen (PA)—that make up anthrax toxin. The computer model accurately predicted docking between LF and PA, helping to establish which domains of the respective proteins are involved in the LF–PA complex. This insight was eventually used in research resulting in improved anthrax vaccines. - -=== Herpes simplex virus 1 === -RosettaDock was used to model docking between an antibody (immunoglobulin G) and a surface protein expressed by the cold sore virus, herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) which serves to degrade the antiviral antibody. The protein complex predicted by RosettaDock closely agreed with the especially difficult-to-obtain experimental models, leading researchers to conclude that the docking method has potential to address some of the problems that X-ray crystallography has with modelling protein–protein interfaces. - -=== HIV === -As part of research funded by a $19.4 million grant by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Rosetta@home has been used in designing multiple possible vaccines for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). - -=== Malaria === -In research involved with the Grand Challenges in Global Health initiative, Rosetta has been used to computationally design novel homing endonuclease proteins, which could eradicate Anopheles gambiae or otherwise render the mosquito unable to transmit malaria. Being able to model and alter protein–DNA interactions specifically, like those of homing endonucleases, gives computational protein design methods like Rosetta an important role in gene therapy (which includes possible cancer treatments). - -=== COVID-19 === -In 2020, the Rosetta molecular modelling suite was used to accurately predict the atomic-scale structure of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein weeks before it could be measured in the lab. On June 26 of 2020, the project announced it had succeeded in creating antiviral proteins that neutralize SARS-CoV-2 virions in the lab and that these experimental antiviral drugs are being optimized for animal testing trials. -In a follow-up, a paper describing 10 SARS-CoV-2 miniprotein inhibitors was published in Science on September 9. Two of these inhibitors, LCB1 and LCB3, are several times more potent than the best monoclonal antibodies being developed against SARS-CoV-2, both on a molar and mass basis. In addition, the research suggests that these inhibitors retain their activity at elevated temperatures, are 20-fold smaller than an antibody and thus, have 20-fold more potential neutralizing sites, increasing the potential efficacy of a locally administered drug. The small size and high stability of the inhibitors is expected to make them adequate to a gel formulation that can be nasally applied or as a powder to be administered directly onto the respiratory system. The researchers will work on developing these inhibitors into therapeutics and prophylactics in the months ahead. As of July 2021, these antiviral candidates were forecasted to begin clinical trials in early 2022 and had received funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for preclinical and early clinical trials. In animal testing trials, these antiviral candidates were effective against variants of concern including Alpha, Beta and Gamma. -Rosetta@home was used to help screen the over 2 million SARS-CoV-2 Spike-binding proteins that were computationally designed, and thus, contributed to this research. -Per the Rosetta@home team at the Institute of Protein Design, Rosetta@home volunteers contributed to the development of antiviral drug candidates and to a protein nanoparticle vaccine. The IVX-411 vaccine is already on a Phase 1 clinical trial run by Icosavax while the same vaccine, licensed to another manufacturer and under the name GBP510, has been approved in South Korea for a Phase III trial run by SK Bioscience. The candidate antivirals are also going towards Phase 1 clinical trials. - -=== Cancer === -Rosetta@home researchers have designed an IL-2 receptor agonist called Neoleukin-2/15 that does not interact with the alpha subunit of the receptor. Such immunity signal molecules are useful in cancer treatment. While the natural IL-2 suffers from toxicity due to an interaction with the alpha subunit, the designed protein is much safer, at least in animal models. Rosetta@home contributed in "forward folding experiments" which helped validate designs. -In a September 2020 feature in the New Yorker, David Baker stated that Neoleukin-2/15 would begin human clinical trials "later this year". Neoleukin-2/15 is being developed by Neoleukin, a spin-off company from the Baker lab. In December 2020, Neoleukin announced it would be submitting an Investigational New Drug application with the Food and Drug Administration in order to begin a Phase 1 clinical trial of NL-201, which is a further development of Neoleukin-2/15. A similar application was submitted in Australia and Neoleukin hopes to enrol up 120 participants on the Phase 1 clinical trial. The Phase 1 human clinical trial began on May 5, 2021. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index d31b1a235..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Rosetta@home" -chunk: 4/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:45.236156+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Rosetta software == - -Rosetta is the software responsible for performing structure prediction in Rosetta@home. Besides a BOINC cluster, Rosetta can run on a single local computer, or on a local supercomputer. Similar to other bioinformatic programs, there are online public servers offering to run Rosetta from a web interface. The software is freely licensed to the academic community and available to pharmaceutical companies for a fee. -Originally introduced by the Baker laboratory at the University of Washington in 1998 as an ab initio approach to structure prediction, Rosetta has since branched into several development streams and distinct services, providing features such as macromolecular docking and protein design. Many of the graduate students and other researchers involved in Rosetta's initial development have since moved to other universities and research institutions, and subsequently enhanced different parts of the Rosetta project. -The Rosetta platform derives its name from the Rosetta Stone, as it attempts to decipher the structural "meaning" of proteins' amino acid sequences. Development of the Rosetta code is done by Rosetta Commons. Rosetta participates in CASP and CAPRI. -Rosetta was rewritten in C++ to allow easier development than that allowed by its original version, which was written in Fortran. This new version is object-oriented, and was released to Rosetta@Home February 8, 2008. - -=== RosettaDesign === - -RosettaDesign, a computing approach to protein design based on Rosetta, began in 2000 with a study in redesigning the folding pathway of Protein G. In 2002 RosettaDesign was used to design Top7, a 93-amino acid long α/β protein that had an overall fold never before recorded in nature. This new conformation was predicted by Rosetta to within 1.2 Å RMSD of the structure determined by X-ray crystallography, representing an unusually accurate structure prediction. Rosetta and RosettaDesign earned widespread recognition by being the first to design and accurately predict the structure of a novel protein of such length, as reflected by the 2002 paper describing the dual approach prompting two positive letters in the journal Science, and being cited by more than 240 other scientific articles. The visible product of that research, Top7, was featured as the RCSB PDB's 'Molecule of the Month' in October 2006; a superposition of the respective cores (residues 60–79) of its predicted and X-ray crystal structures are featured in the Rosetta@home logo. -Brian Kuhlman, a former postdoctoral associate in David Baker's lab and now an associate professor at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, offers RosettaDesign as an online service. - -=== RosettaDock === -RosettaDock was added to the Rosetta software suite during the first CAPRI experiment in 2002 as the Baker laboratory's algorithm for protein–protein docking prediction. In that experiment, RosettaDock made a high-accuracy prediction for the docking between streptococcal pyogenic exotoxin A and a T cell-receptor β-chain, and a medium accuracy prediction for a complex between porcine α-amylase and a camelid antibody. While the RosettaDock method only made two acceptably accurate predictions out of seven possible, this was enough to rank it seventh out of nineteen prediction methods in the first CAPRI assessment. -Development of RosettaDock diverged into two branches for subsequent CAPRI rounds as Jeffrey Gray, who laid the groundwork for RosettaDock while at the University of Washington, continued working on the method in his new position at Johns Hopkins University. Members of the Baker laboratory further developed RosettaDock in Gray's absence. The two versions differed slightly in side-chain modeling, decoy selection and other areas. Despite these differences, both the Baker and Gray methods performed well in the second CAPRI assessment, placing fifth and seventh respectively out of 30 predictor groups. Jeffrey Gray's RosettaDock server is available as a free docking prediction service for non-commercial use. -In October 2006, RosettaDock was integrated into Rosetta@home. The method used a fast, crude docking model phase using only the protein backbone. This was followed by a slow full-atom refinement phase in which the orientation of the two interacting proteins relative to each other, and side-chain interactions at the protein–protein interface, were simultaneously optimized to find the lowest energy conformation. The vastly increased computing power afforded by the Rosetta@home network, combined with revised fold-tree representations for backbone flexibility and loop modeling, made RosettaDock sixth out of 63 prediction groups in the third CAPRI assessment. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 21b456f0c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Rosetta@home" -chunk: 5/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:45.236156+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Robetta === -The Robetta (Rosetta Beta) server is an automated protein structure prediction service offered by the Baker laboratory for non-commercial ab initio and comparative modeling. It has participated as an automated prediction server in the biannual CASP experiments since CASP5 in 2002, performing among the best in the automated server prediction category. Robetta has since competed in CASP6 and 7, where it did better than average among both automated server and human predictor groups. It also participates in the CAMEO3D continuous evaluation. Robetta tasks run on Baker lab servers, Janelia Research Campus machines, and Rosetta@home participant computers. -In modeling protein structure as of CASP6, Robetta first searches for structural homologs using BLAST, PSI-BLAST, and 3D-Jury, then parses the target sequence into its individual domains, or independently folding units of proteins, by matching the sequence to structural families in the Pfam database. Domains with structural homologs then follow a "template-based model" (i.e., homology modeling) protocol. Here, the Baker laboratory's in-house alignment program, K*sync, produces a group of sequence homologs, and each of these is modeled by the Rosetta de novo method to produce a decoy (possible structure). The final structure prediction is selected by taking the lowest energy model as determined by a low-resolution Rosetta energy function. For domains that have no detected structural homologs, a de novo protocol is followed in which the lowest energy model from a set of generated decoys is selected as the final prediction. These domain predictions are then connected together to investigate inter-domain, tertiary-level interactions within the protein. Finally, side-chain contributions are modeled using a protocol for Monte Carlo conformational search. -In CASP8, Robetta was augmented to use Rosetta's high resolution all-atom refinement method, the absence of which was cited as the main cause for Robetta being less accurate than the Rosetta@home network in CASP7. In CASP11, a way to predict the protein contact map by co-evolution of residues in related proteins called GREMLIN was added, allowing for more de novo fold successes. - -=== Other Rosetta servers === -Rosetta is available as an online service from a number of other public servers. ROSIE offers a variety of functions from RNA structure prediction and design to ligand docking and antibody modeling. - -=== Foldit === - -On May 9, 2008, after Rosetta@home users suggested an interactive version of the volunteer computing program, the Baker lab publicly released Foldit, an online protein structure prediction game based on the Rosetta platform. As of September 25, 2008, Foldit had over 59,000 registered users. The game gives users a set of controls (for example, shake, wiggle, rebuild) to manipulate the backbone and amino acid side chains of the target protein into more energetically favorable conformations. Users can work on solutions individually as soloists or collectively as evolvers, accruing points under either category as they improve their structure predictions. -Foldit can work as a GUI frontend to Rosetta under a tailored "professional mode". - -=== RoseTTAFold === -RoseTTAFold, which is inspired by AlphaFold, uses a neural network to predict the distance and orientation between residues. These predictions guide Rosetta software in producing a structure. RoseTTAFold is open source under the MIT license. - -=== Non-Baker lab branches === -The Jianyi Yang lab in China offers a modified version of Rosetta termed tr-RosettaX2 (transform-restrained Rosetta). It uses a deep learning-based contact prediction method different from RoseTTAFold to guide the usual Rosetta folding algorithm. trRosetta predates RoseTTAFold. - -== Comparison to similar volunteer computing projects == -There are several volunteer computed projects which have study areas similar to those of Rosetta@home, but differ in their research approach: - -=== Folding@home === -Of all the major volunteer computing projects involved in protein research, Folding@home is the only one not using the BOINC platform. Both Rosetta@home and Folding@home study protein misfolding diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, but Folding@home does so much more exclusively. Folding@home almost exclusively uses all-atom molecular dynamics models to understand how and why proteins fold (or potentially misfold, and subsequently aggregate to cause diseases). In other words, Folding@home's strength is modeling the process of protein folding, while Rosetta@home's strength is computing protein design and predicting protein structure and docking. -Some of Rosetta@home's results are used as the basis for some Folding@home projects. Rosetta provides the most likely structure, but it is not definite if that is the form the molecule takes or whether or not it is viable. Folding@home can then be used to verify Rosetta@home's results, and can provide added atomic-level information, and details of how the molecule changes shape. -The two projects also differ significantly in their computing power and host diversity. Averaging about 6,650 teraFLOPS from a host base of central processing units (CPUs), graphics processing units (GPUs), and (formerly) PS3s, Folding@home has nearly 108 times more computing power than Rosetta@home. - -=== World Community Grid === -Both Phase I and Phase II of the Human Proteome Folding Project (HPF), a subproject of World Community Grid, have used the Rosetta program to make structural and functional annotations of various genomes. Although he now uses it to create databases for biologists, Richard Bonneau, head scientist of the Human Proteome Folding Project, was active in the original development of Rosetta at David Baker's laboratory while obtaining his PhD. More information on the relationship between the HPF1, HPF2 and Rosetta@home can be found on Richard Bonneau's website. - -=== Predictor@home === -Like Rosetta@home, Predictor@home specialized in protein structure prediction. While Rosetta@home uses the Rosetta program for its structure prediction, Predictor@home used the dTASSER methodology. In 2009, Predictor@home shut down. -Other protein related volunteer computing projects on BOINC include QMC@home, Docking@home, POEM@home, SIMAP, and TANPAKU. RALPH@home, the Rosetta@home alpha project which tests new application versions, work units, and updates before they move on to Rosetta@home, runs on BOINC also. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8fab5bec8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Rosetta@home" -chunk: 6/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:45.236156+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Volunteer contributions == -Rosetta@home depends on computing power donated by individual project members for its research. As of March 28, 2020, about 53,000 users from 150 countries were active members of Rosetta@home, together contributing idle processor time from about 54,800 computers for a combined average performance of over 1.7 PetaFLOPS. - -Users are granted BOINC credits as a measure of their contribution. The credit granted for each workunit is the number of decoys produced for that workunit multiplied by the average claimed credit for the decoys submitted by all computer hosts for that workunit. This custom system was designed to address significant differences between credit granted to users with the standard BOINC client and an optimized BOINC client, and credit differences between users running Rosetta@home on Windows and Linux operating systems. The amount of credit granted per second of CPU work is lower for Rosetta@home than most other BOINC projects. Rosetta@home is thirteenth out of over 40 BOINC projects in terms of total credit. -Rosetta@home users who predict protein structures submitted for the CASP experiment are acknowledged in scientific publications regarding their results. Users who predict the lowest energy structure for a given workunit are featured on the Rosetta@home homepage as Predictor of the Day, along with any team of which they are a member. A User of the Day is chosen randomly each day to be on the homepage also, from among users who have made a Rosetta@home profile. - -== References == - -== External links == -Official website -Baker Lab Baker Lab website -David Baker's Rosetta@home journal -BOINC Includes platform overview, and a guide to install BOINC and attach to Rosetta@home -BOINCstats – Rosetta@home Detailed contribution statistics -RALPH@home Website for Rosetta@home alpha testing project -Rosetta@home video on YouTube Overview of Rosetta@home given by David Baker and lab members -Rosetta Commons Academic collaborative for developing the Rosetta platform -The Rosetta canon, a list of landmark papers in the development of Rosetta -Kuhlman lab webpage, home of RosettaDesign -Online Rosetta services - -Rosetta Commons list of available servers -Robetta Protein structure prediction server -ROSIE Docking, design, etc. multifunctional server-set -RosettaDesign Protein design server -RosettaBackrub Flexible backbone / protein design server \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index fc7055ed2..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "SETI@home" -chunk: 1/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:04.936235+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -SETI@home ("SETI at home") is a project of the Berkeley SETI Research Center to analyze radio signals with the aim of searching for signs of extraterrestrial intelligence. Until March 2020, it was run as an Internet-based public volunteer computing project that employed the BOINC software platform. It is hosted by the Space Sciences Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, and is one of many activities undertaken as part of the worldwide SETI effort. -SETI@home software was released to the public on May 17, 1999, making it the third large-scale use of volunteer computing over the Internet for research purposes, after Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) was launched in 1996 and distributed.net in 1997. Along with MilkyWay@home and Einstein@home, it has the investigation of phenomena in interstellar space as its primary purpose. -In March 2020, the project stopped sending out new work to SETI@home users, bringing the crowdsourced computing aspect of the project to a stop. At the time, the team intended to shift focus onto the analysis and interpretation of the 20 years' worth of accumulated data. However, the team left open the possibility of eventually resuming volunteer computing using data from other radio telescopes, such as MeerKAT and FAST. -As of November 2021, the science team has analysed the data and removed noisy signals (Radio Frequency Interference) using the Nebula tool they developed and will choose the top-scoring 100 or so multiplets to be observed using the Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope, to which they have been granted 24 hours of observation time. - -== Scientific research == -The two original goals of SETI@home were: - -to do useful scientific work by supporting an observational analysis to detect intelligent life outside Earth -to prove the viability and practicality of the "volunteer computing" concept -The second of these goals is considered to have succeeded completely. The current BOINC environment, a development of the original SETI@home, is providing support for many computationally intensive projects in a wide range of disciplines. -The first of these goals has to date yielded no conclusive results: no evidence for ETI signals has been shown via SETI@home. However, the ongoing continuation is predicated on the assumption that the observational analysis is not "ill-posed." The remainder of this article deals specifically with the original SETI@home observations/analysis. The vast majority of the sky (over 98%) has yet to be surveyed, and each point in the sky must be surveyed many times to exclude even a subset of possibilities. - -== Procedure details == -SETI@home searches for possible evidence of radio transmissions from extraterrestrial intelligence using observational data from the Arecibo radio telescope and the Green Bank Telescope. The data is taken "piggyback" or "passively" while the telescope is used for other scientific programs. The data is digitized, stored, and sent to the SETI@home facility. The data is then parsed into small chunks in frequency and time, and analyzed, using software, to search for any signals—that is, variations which cannot be ascribed to noise, and hence contain information. Using volunteer computing, SETI@home sends the millions of chunks of data to be analyzed off-site by home computers, and then have those computers report the results. Thus what appears a difficult problem in data analysis is reduced to a reasonable one by aid from a large, Internet-based community of borrowed computer resources. -The software searches for five types of signals that distinguish them from noise: - -Spikes in power spectra -Gaussian rises and falls in transmission power, possibly representing the telescope beam's main lobe passing over a radio source -Triplets – three power spikes in a row -Pulsing signals that possibly represent a narrowband digital-style transmission -Autocorrelation detects signal waveforms. -There are many variations on how an ETI signal may be affected by the interstellar medium, and by the relative motion of its origin compared to Earth. The potential "signal" is thus processed in many ways (although not testing all detection methods nor scenarios) to ensure the highest likelihood of distinguishing it from the scintillating noise already present in all directions of outer space. For instance, another planet is very likely to be moving at a speed and acceleration with respect to Earth, and that will shift the frequency, over time, of the potential "signal." Checking for this through processing is done, to an extent, in the SETI@home software. -The process is somewhat like tuning a radio to various channels, and looking at the signal strength meter. If the strength of the signal goes up, that gets attention. More technically, it involves a lot of digital signal processing, mostly discrete Fourier transforms at various chirp rates and durations. - -== Results == -To date, the project has not confirmed the detection of any ETI signals. However, it has identified several candidate targets (sky positions), where the spike in intensity is not easily explained as noise spots, for further analysis. The most significant candidate signal to date was announced on September 1, 2004, named Radio source SHGb02+14a. -While the project has not reached the stated primary goal of finding extraterrestrial intelligence, it has proved to the scientific community that volunteer computing projects using Internet-connected computers can succeed as a viable analysis tool, and even beat the largest supercomputers. However, it has not been demonstrated that the order of magnitude excess in computers used, many outside the home (the original intent was to use 50,000–100,000 "home" computers), has benefited the project scientifically. (For more on this, see § Challenges below.) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index e5b76c231..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "SETI@home" -chunk: 2/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:04.936235+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Technology == -Anybody with an at least intermittently Internet-connected computer was able to participate in SETI@home by running a free program that downloaded and analyzed radio telescope data. -Observational data were recorded on 2-terabyte SATA hard disk drives fed from the Arecibo Telescope in Puerto Rico, each holding about 2.5 days of observations, which were then sent to Berkeley. Arecibo does not have a broadband Internet connection, so data must go by postal mail to Berkeley. Once there, it is divided in both time and frequency domains work units of 107 seconds of data, or approximately 0.35 megabytes (350 kilobytes or 350,000 bytes), which overlap in time but not in frequency. These work units are then sent from the SETI@home server over the Internet to personal computers around the world to analyze. -Data was merged into a database using SETI@home computers in Berkeley. Interference was rejected, and various pattern-detection algorithms were applied to search for the most interesting signals. -The project used CUDA for GPU processing starting in 2015. -In 2016 SETI@home began processing data from the Breakthrough Listen project. - -=== Software === - -The SETI@home volunteer computing software ran either as a screensaver or continuously while a user worked, making use of processor time that would otherwise be unused. -The initial software platform, now referred to as "SETI@home Classic", ran from May 17, 1999, to December 15, 2005. This program was only capable of running SETI@home; it was replaced by Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC), which also allows users to contribute to other volunteer computing projects at the same time as running SETI@home. The BOINC platform also allowed testing for more types of signals. -The discontinuation of the SETI@home Classic platform rendered older Macintosh computers running the classic Mac OS (pre December, 2001) unsuitable for participating in the project. -SETI@home was available for the Sony PlayStation 3 console. -On May 3, 2006, new work units for a new version of SETI@home called "SETI@home Enhanced" started distribution. Since computers had the power for more computationally intensive work than when the project began, this new version was more sensitive by a factor of two concerning Gaussian signals and to some kinds of pulsed signals than the original SETI@home (BOINC) software. This new application had been optimized to the point where it would run faster on some work units than earlier versions. However, some work units (the best work units, scientifically speaking) would take significantly longer. -In addition, some distributions of the SETI@home applications were optimized for a particular type of CPU. They were referred to as "optimized executables", and had been found to run faster on systems specific for that CPU. As of 2007, most of these applications were optimized for Intel processors and their corresponding instruction sets. -The results of the data processing were normally automatically transmitted when the computer was next connected to the Internet; it could also be instructed to connect to the Internet as needed. - -== Statistics == -With over 5.2 million participants worldwide, the project was the volunteer computing project with the most participants to date. The original intent of SETI@home was to utilize 50,000–100,000 home computers. Since its launch on May 17, 1999, the project has logged over two million years of aggregate computing time. On September 26, 2001, SETI@home had performed a total of 1021 floating point operations. It was acknowledged by the 2008 edition of the Guinness World Records as the largest computation in history. With over 145,000 active computers in the system (1.4 million total) in 233 countries, as of 23 June 2013, SETI@home had the ability to compute over 668 teraFLOPS. For comparison, the Tianhe-2 computer, which as of 23 June 2013 was the world's fastest supercomputer, was able to compute 33.86 petaFLOPS (approximately 50 times greater). - -== Project future == -There were plans to get data from the Parkes Observatory in Australia to analyze the southern hemisphere. However, as of 3 June 2018, these plans were not mentioned in the project's website. Other plans include a Multi-Beam Data Recorder, a Near Time Persistency Checker and Astropulse (an application that uses coherent dedispersion to search for pulsed signals). Astropulse will team with the original SETI@home to detect other sources, such as rapidly rotating pulsars, exploding primordial black holes, or as-yet unknown astrophysical phenomena. Beta testing of the final public release version of Astropulse was completed in July 2008, and the distribution of work units to higher spec machines capable of processing the more CPU intensive work units started in mid-July 2008. -On March 31, 2020, UC Berkeley stopped sending out new data for SETI@Home clients to process, ending the effort for the time being. The program stated they were at a point of "diminishing returns" with the volunteer processing and needed to put the effort into hibernation while they processed the results. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2283520ce..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "SETI@home" -chunk: 3/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:04.936235+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Competitive aspect == -SETI@home users quickly started to compete with one another to process the maximum number of work units. Teams were formed to combine the efforts of individual users. The competition continued and grew larger with the introduction of BOINC. -As with any competition, attempts have been made to "cheat" the system and claim credit for work that has not been performed. To combat cheats, the SETI@home system sends every work unit to multiple computers, a value known as "initial replication" (currently 2). Credit is only granted for each returned work unit once a minimum number of results have been returned and the results agree, a value known as "minimum quorum" (currently 2). If, due to computation errors or cheating by submitting false data, not enough results agree, more identical work units are sent out until the minimum quorum can be reached. The final credit granted to all machines which returned the correct result is the same and is the lowest of the values claimed by each machine. -Some users have installed and run SETI@home on computers at their workplaces; an act known as "Borging", after the assimilation-driven Borg of Star Trek. In some cases, SETI@home users have misused company resources to gain work-unit results with at least two individuals getting fired for running SETI@home on an enterprise production system. There is a thread in the newsgroup alt.sci.seti which bears the title "Anyone fired for SETI screensaver" and ran starting as early as September 14, 1999. -Other users collect large quantities of equipment together at home to create "SETI farms", which typically consist of a number of computers consisting of only a motherboard, CPU, RAM and power supply that are arranged on shelves as diskless workstations running either Linux or old versions of Microsoft Windows "headless" (without a monitor). - -== Challenges == - -=== Closure of Arecibo Observatory === -Until 2020, SETI@home procured its data from the Arecibo Observatory facility that was operated by the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center and administered by SRI International. -The decreasing operating budget for the observatory has created a shortfall of funds which has not been made up from other sources such as private donors, NASA, other foreign research institutions, nor private non-profit organizations such as SETI@home. -However, in the overall long-term views held by many involved with the SETI project, any usable radio telescope could take over from Arecibo (which completely collapsed in December 2020), as all the SETI systems are portable and relocatable. - -=== More restrictive computer use policies in businesses === -In one documented case, an individual was fired for explicitly importing and using the SETI@home software on computers used for the U.S. state of Ohio. In another incident a school IT director resigned after his installation allegedly cost his school district $1 million in removal costs; however, other reasons for this firing included lack of communication with his superiors, not installing firewall software and alleged theft of computer equipment, leading a ZDNet editor to comment that "the volunteer computing nonsense was simply the best and most obvious excuse the district had to terminate his contract with cause". -As of 16 October 2005, approximately one-third of the processing for the non-BOINC version of the software was performed on work or school based machines. As many of these computers will give reduced privileges to ordinary users, it is possible that much of this has been done by network administrators. -To some extent, this may be offset by better connectivity to home machines and increasing performance of home computers, especially those with GPUs, which have also benefited other volunteer computing projects such as Folding@Home. The spread of mobile computing devices provides another large resource for volunteer computing. For example, in 2012, Piotr Luszczek (a former doctoral student of Jack Dongarra) presented results showing that an iPad 2 matched the historical performance of a Cray-2 (the fastest computer in the world in 1985) on an embedded LINPACK benchmark. - -=== Funding === -There is currently no government funding for SETI research, and private funding is always limited. Berkeley Space Science Lab has found ways of working with small budgets, and the project has received donations allowing it to go well beyond its original planned duration, but it still has to compete for limited funds with other SETI projects and other space sciences projects. -In a December 16, 2007 plea for donations, SETI@home stated its present modest state and urged donations of $476,000 needed for continuation into 2008. - -=== Unofficial clients === -A number of individuals and companies made unofficial changes to the distributed part of the software to try to produce faster results, but this compromised the integrity of all the results. As a result, the software had to be updated to make it easier to detect such changes, and discover unreliable clients. BOINC will run on unofficial clients; however, clients that return different and therefore incorrect data are not allowed, so corrupting the result database is avoided. BOINC relies on cross-checking to validate data but unreliable clients need to be identified, to avoid situations when two of these report the same invalid data and therefore corrupt the database. A very popular unofficial client (lunatic) allows users to take advantage of the special features provided by their processor(s) such as SSE, SSE2, SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4.1, and AVX to allow for faster processing. - -=== Hardware and database failures === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2eb65467c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "SETI@home" -chunk: 4/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:04.936235+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -SETI@home is a test bed for further development not only of BOINC but of other hardware and software (database) technology. Under SETI@home processing loads, these experimental technologies can be more challenging than expected, as SETI databases do not have typical accounting and business data or relational structures. The non-traditional database uses often do incur greater processing overheads and risk of database corruption and outright database failure. Hardware, software and database failures can (and do) cause dips in project participation. -The project has had to shut down several times to change over to new databases capable of handling more massive datasets. Hardware failure has proven to be a substantial source of project shutdowns, as hardware failure is often coupled with database corruption. - -== See also == - -== References == - -== Further reading == -Carrigan, Richard A. Jr. (2003). "The Ultimate Hacker: SETI Signals May Need to Be Decontaminated". Bioastronomy 2002: Life Among the Stars. 213. Astronomical Society of the Pacific: 519. Bibcode:2004IAUS..213..519C. -Sample, Ian (November 25, 2005). "Scientists be on guard..." The Guardian. London. Retrieved November 25, 2005. -Scoles, Sarah (May 23, 2017). "A Brief History of SETI@Home". The Atlantic. - -== External links == - -Official website -SETI@home screensaver video on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index be29876a7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "SETI@home beta" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:06.043668+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -SETI@home beta, is a hibernating volunteer computing project using the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, as a test environment for future SETI@home projects: - -AstroPulse is a volunteer computing project searching for primordial black holes, pulsars, and ETI. AstroPulse clients have been tested by this project for nearly 6 years. It is already running on SETI@home, testing new GPU/CPU optimized apps and performing other tasks. -SETI Southern Hemisphere Search, which is another SETI@home project that was due to join BOINC. It was expected that this project would use a slightly modified version of the SETI enhanced client, as the Parkes Observatory has a feedhorn with more beams than the Arecibo Observatory. - - -== Applications Testing == -11 Dec 2008, CUDA applications test -3 Jun 2013, SETI@home v7 test -01 Dec 2015 SETI@home v8 test - - -== External links == -Official website -SETI@home beta screensaver video on YouTube - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 51f68e2c9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,50 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "SLinCA@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:09.631391+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -SLinCA@Home (Scaling Laws in Cluster Aggregation) was a research project that uses Internet-connected computers to do research in fields such as physics and materials science. - - -== Introduction == -SLinCA@Home was based at the G. V. Kurdyumov Institute for Metal Physics (IMP) of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU) in Kyiv, Ukraine's capital city. It ran on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform, the SZTAKI Desktop Grid platform, and the Distributed Computing API (DC-API) by SZTAKI. SLinCA@Home hosts several scientific applications dedicated to research into scale-invariant dependencies in experimental data in physics and materials science. -Statistics at the BOINCstats site (as of 16 March 2011), show over 2,000 volunteers in 39 countries have participated in the project; it is the second most popular BOINC project in Ukraine (after the Magnetism@Home project, which is now inactive). About 700 active users contribute about 0.5–1.5 teraFLOPS of computational power, which would rank SLinCA@Home among the top 20 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers in June 2005. - - -== History == -The SLinCA@Home project was previously launched in January 2009 as part of the EGEE project in the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) for the funding of research and technological development in Europe. During 2009–2010 it used the power of a local IMP Desktop Grid (DG), but from December 2010 it has been using the power of volunteer computing in solving the computationally intensive problems involved in research into scale-invariant dependencies in experimentally obtained and simulated scientific data. It is now operated by a group of scientists from IMP NASU in close cooperation with partners from IDGF and the 'Ukraine' Volunteer Computing team. From June 2010 SLinCA@Home has been under the framework of the DEGISCO FP7 EU project. - - -== Scientific Applications == -The SLinCA@Home project was created to perform searches for and research into previously unknown scale-invariant dependencies using data from experiments and simulations. -An additional goal was the migration to the OurGrid platform for testing and demonstrating potential mechanisms of interoperation between worldwide communities with different DCI paradigms. The OurGrid platform is targeted at the support of peer-to-peer desktop grids; these are in nature very different from volunteer computing desktop grids such as the SZTAKI Desktop Grid. - - -== Partners == -SLinCA@Home collaborates with: - -Partners in FP7 EU projects: -DEGISCO -EDGeS -Communities participating in volunteer computing: -'Ukraine' Volunteer Computing team -Professional communities of experts in distributed computing: -International Desktop Grid Federation (IDGF). - - -== Awards == - -2009 – For the Best Poster of the Krakow Grid Workshop'09, Kraków, Poland (October 12–14, 2009) – the report on the concept and results of porting the MultiScaleIVideoP application with 4GL MATLAB-libraries to DCI on the basis of the BOINC SZTAKI Desktop Grid platform and the XtremWeb-HEP platform, in which the applicability of integrating MATLAB objects and code in a Desktop Grid for high-performance volunteer computing is demonstrated on the example of image and video processing in solid state physics and microscopy. -2010 – For the Best Poster of the Krakow Grid Workshop'10, Kraków, Poland (October 11–13, 2010) – the report on the concept and results of porting the CPDynSG application to DCI on the basis of the BOINC SZTAKI Desktop Grid platform, with comparisons of various theories' predictions with experimental observations, and typical scenarios of population dynamics and sustainable growth for different countries in Central and Eastern Europe. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 280e5276c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 1/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. -The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to the Bronze Age in Egypt and Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity and later medieval scholarship, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes; while further advances, including the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, were made during the Golden Age of India and Islamic Golden Age. -The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe during the Renaissance revived natural philosophy, which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in the acquisition of knowledge, and in the 19th century, many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape, along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science". -New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is often highly collaborative and is frequently carried out by teams in academic and research institutions, government agencies, and companies. At the same time, many major advances—particularly in fundamental science—have come from individual researchers and are widely recognised through major international awards such as the Nobel Prize. The practical results of scientific work have led to the emergence of science policies that seek to prioritise the responsible development of commercial products, health care, public infrastructure, environmental protection, and defense capabilities. - -== Etymology == -The word science has been used in English since the 14th century (Middle English) in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix -cience, which was borrowed from the Latin word scientia, meaning 'knowledge, awareness, understanding', a noun derivative of sciens meaning 'knowing', itself the present active participle of sciō 'to know'. -There are many hypotheses for science's ultimate word origin. According to Michiel de Vaan, Dutch linguist and Indo-Europeanist, sciō may have its origin in the Proto-Italic language as *skije- or *skijo- meaning 'to know', which may originate from Proto-Indo-European language as *skh1-ie, *skh1-io meaning 'to incise'. The Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben proposed sciō is a back-formation of nescīre, meaning 'to not know, be unfamiliar with', which may derive from Proto-Indo-European *sekH- in Latin secāre, or *skh2- from *sḱʰeh2(i)- meaning 'to cut'. -In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science". In 1834, William Whewell introduced the term scientist in a review of Mary Somerville's book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, crediting it to "some ingenious gentleman" (possibly himself). - -== History == - -=== Early history === - -Science has no single origin. Rather, scientific thinking emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years, taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments. Women likely played a central role in prehistoric science, as did religious rituals. Some scholars use the term "protoscience" to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features; however, this label has also been criticised as denigrating, or too suggestive of presentism, thinking about those activities only in relation to modern categories. -Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent of writing systems in the Bronze Age civilisations of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE), creating the earliest written records in the history of science. Although the words and concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. -From the 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a non-positional decimal numbering system, solved practical problems using geometry, and developed a calendar. Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural, such as prayers, incantations, and rituals. Ancient Nubians pioneered early antibiotics and established a system of geometrics which served as the basis for initial sunclocks. Nubians also exercised a trigonometric methodology comparable to their Egyptian counterparts. -The ancient Mesopotamians used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing. They studied animal physiology, anatomy, behaviour, and astrology for divinatory purposes. The Mesopotamians had an intense interest in medicine and the earliest medical prescriptions appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur. They seem to have studied scientific subjects which had practical or religious applications and had little interest in satisfying curiosity. - -=== Classical antiquity === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 50f746a63..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 2/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -In classical antiquity, there is no real ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time. Before the invention or discovery of the concept of phusis or nature by the pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention". -The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school, which was founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximenes, were the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural. The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science. The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus. Later, Epicurus would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific truth. The Greek doctor Hippocrates established the tradition of systematic medical science and is known as "The Father of Medicine". -A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinises them for consistency. Socrates criticised the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. -In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle created a systematic programme of teleological philosophy. In the 3rd century BCE, Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the centre and all the planets orbiting it. Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics, while Ptolemy's Almagest, which contains a geocentric description of the Solar System, was accepted through the early Renaissance instead. The inventor and mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse made major contributions to the beginnings of calculus. Pliny the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopaedia Natural History. -Positional notation for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient arithmetic operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide. - -=== Middle Ages === - -Due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the 5th century saw an intellectual decline, with knowledge of classical Greek conceptions of the world deteriorating in Western Europe. Latin encyclopaedists of the period such as Isidore of Seville preserved the majority of general ancient knowledge. In contrast, because the Byzantine Empire resisted attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior learning. John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 6th century, started to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus. His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later. -During late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, natural phenomena were mainly examined via the Aristotelian approach. The approach includes Aristotle's four causes: material, formal, moving, and final cause. Many Greek classical texts were preserved by the Byzantine Empire and Arabic translations were made by Christians, mainly Nestorians and Miaphysites. Under the Abbasids, these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists. By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighbouring Sasanian Empire established the medical Academy of Gondishapur, which was considered by Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians as the most important medical hub of the ancient world. -Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished in the House of Wisdom established in the Abbasid capital of Baghdad, Iraq and the flourished until the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Ibn al-Haytham, better known as Alhazen, used controlled experiments in his optical study. Avicenna's compilation of The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopaedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century. -By the 11th century most of Europe had become Christian, and in 1088, the University of Bologna emerged as the first university in Europe. As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew, a major contributor to the Renaissance of the 12th century. Renaissance scholasticism in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature. In the 13th century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by Mondino de Luzzi. - -=== Renaissance === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index a9f1ec6c6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 3/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany around 1440, the movable type printing-press had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe and had already produced more than 20 million volumes by the end of the 15th century. Printing made scholarly books more widely accessible, allowing researchers to consult ancient texts freely and to compare their own observations with those of fellow scholars. Printing ended the manuscript culture of the Middle Ages, where facts were few and far between, and replaced it with a printing culture where reliable and documented facts rapidly proliferated and became the secure foundation for scientific knowledge. -In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliostatic model of the Solar System, with the Sun positioned near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in circular motions, modified by epicycles, and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model challenged the dominant geocentric model of Ptolemy, which had placed Earth at the center of the Universe. 16th-century astronomers believed that Copernicus' elimination of the equant was his chief achievement but his model never displaced Ptolemy's, which only fell out of favor 70 years later after Galileo's telescopic observations of 1610. - -=== Scientific Revolution === - -Tycho Brahe's unprecedentedly accurate astronomical observations in the late 16th century and Galileo Galilei’s early 17th-century telescopic observations combined to turn astronomy into the first modern science. Galileo's observations ended a millenium of pre-modern astronomical orthodoxy while Johannes Kepler used Brahe's data to discover that planets have elliptical, not circular, orbits and develop the laws of planetary motion. Because of Kepler, astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws. The "New Science" that ultimately emerged by the end of the 17th century broke sharply with the natural philosophy that had preceded it, departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions, was more mechanistic in its worldview and more integrated with mathematics, and was obsessed with the acquisition and interpretation of new evidence. - -=== Age of Enlightenment === - -At the start of the Age of Enlightenment, Isaac Newton formed the foundation of classical mechanics by his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica greatly influencing future physicists. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics, now used in a new non-teleological way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes. -During this time the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's words, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]". -Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularisation of science among an increasingly literate population. Enlightenment philosophers turned to a few of their scientific predecessors – Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day. -The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine and physics; the development of biological taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline. Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed A Treatise of Human Nature, which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement. In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which is often considered the first work on modern economics. - -=== 19th century === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4fe18e000..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 4/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -During the 19th century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals. During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879. -During the mid-19th century Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics. -Early in the 19th century John Dalton suggested the modern atomic theory, based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles called atoms. The laws of conservation of energy, conservation of momentum and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same energy qualities, the ease of conversion to useful work or to another form of energy. This realisation led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics, in which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the entropy of a closed universe increases over time. -The electromagnetic theory was established in the 19th century by the works of Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz. The new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie in 1896, Marie Curie then became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes. In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron. - -=== 20th century === - -In the first half of the century the development of antibiotics and artificial fertilisers improved human living standards globally. Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean acidification, eutrophication, and climate change came to the public's attention and caused the onset of environmental studies. -During this period scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in scale and funding. The extensive technological innovation stimulated by World War I, World War II, and the Cold War led to competitions between global powers, such as the Space Race and nuclear arms race. Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts. -In the late 20th century active recruitment of women and elimination of sex discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964 led to a rejection of the steady-state model of the universe in favour of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître. -The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th century when the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme length, time and gravity. Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones. The need for mass systematisation of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific modelling. - -=== 21st century === - -The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003 by identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome. The first induced pluripotent human stem cells were made in 2006, allowing adult cells to be transformed into stem cells and turn into any cell type found in the body. With the affirmation of the Higgs boson discovery in 2013, the last particle predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics was found. In 2015, gravitational waves, predicted by general relativity a century before, were first observed. In 2019, the international collaboration Event Horizon Telescope presented the first direct image of a black hole's accretion disc. - -== Branches == - -Modern science is commonly divided into three major branches: natural science, social science, and formal science. Each of these branches comprises various specialised yet overlapping scientific disciplines that often possess their own nomenclature and expertise. Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions. - -=== Natural === -Natural science is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. These two branches may be further divided into more specialised disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science. Modern natural science is the successor to the natural philosophy that began in Ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches that were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and other biotic beings. Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences. - -=== Social === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3b9d756ce..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 5/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Social science is the study of human behaviour and the functioning of societies. It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology, economics, history, human geography, political science, psychology, and sociology. In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research programmes such as the functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists in sociology. Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the historical method, case studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes. - -=== Formal === -Formal science is an area of study that generates knowledge using formal systems. A formal system is an abstract structure used for inferring theorems from axioms according to a set of rules. It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts. The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science. Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. Calculus, for example, was initially invented to understand motion in physics. Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include mathematical physics, chemistry, biology, finance, and economics. - -=== Applied === -Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies. Science may contribute to the development of new technologies. Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by maintaining and restoring health through the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of injury or disease. - -=== Basic === -The applied sciences are often contrasted with the basic sciences, which are focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world. - -=== Blue skies === - -=== Computational === -Computational science applies computer simulations to science, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science, for example in agent-based computational economics, random forests, topic modelling and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans. - -=== Interdisciplinary === -Interdisciplinary science involves the combination of two or more disciplines into one, such as bioinformatics, a combination of biology and computer science or cognitive sciences. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek period and it became popular again in the 20th century. - -== Research == -Scientific research can be labelled as either basic or applied research. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable. - -=== Scientific method === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index ec8b7e54f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 6/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Scientific research involves using the scientific method, which seeks to objectively explain the events of nature in a reproducible way. Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by natural laws; these laws were discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Mathematics is essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting measurements. Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results. -In the scientific method an explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using parsimony principles and is expected to seek consilience – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question. This tentative explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causal relationships to avoid the correlation fallacy, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate. -When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory it is modified or discarded. If the hypothesis survives testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a validly reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behaviour of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behaviour of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus, a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a model, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation, and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation. -While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another. Eliminating the bias can be achieved through transparency, careful experimental design, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results and conclusions. After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be. Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimising the effects of subjective and confirmation bias. Intersubjective verifiability, the ability to reach a consensus and reproduce results, is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge. - -=== Literature === - -Scientific research is published in a range of literature. Scientific journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des sçavans followed by Philosophical Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500. -Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific article. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population. - -== Philosophy == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index 71cec07f8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 7/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalise observations. Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being Bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive method. -Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation. -Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation. -Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method. Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, trial and error, covering all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art. -Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasises the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes, with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be things that should be ignored. Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true. -Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a logically consistent "portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. He characterised normal science as the process of observation and "puzzle solving", which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift. Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of relativism. -Another approach often cited in debates of scientific scepticism against controversial movements like "creation science" is methodological naturalism. Naturalists maintain that a difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be restricted to natural explanations. Methodological naturalism maintains that science requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent verification. -One question for philosophy of science is how scientific evidence and theories can lead to decisions. As the is-ought problem highlights, facts alone cannot tell us what we should do. This connects to the key concept of value-ladenness: how choices made on the basis of scientific findings depend on values. - -== Community == -The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conduct scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results. - -=== Scientists === - -Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest. Scientists may exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of public health, nations, the environment, or industries; other motivations include recognition by peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists study within specific areas of science in academic institutions, often obtaining advanced degrees in the process. Many scientists pursue careers in various fields such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organisations. -Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. Women have faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they have in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work. The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as labourers within the domestic sphere. - -=== Learned societies === - -Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance. Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline, profession, or group of related disciplines. Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election. Most scientific societies are nonprofit organisations, and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some societies act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest, or the collective interest of the membership. -The professionalisation of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished academies of sciences such as the Italian Accademia dei Lincei in 1603, the British Royal Society in 1660, the French Academy of Sciences in 1666, the American National Academy of Sciences in 1863, the German Kaiser Wilhelm Society in 1911, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1949. International scientific organisations, such as the International Science Council, are devoted to international cooperation for science advancement. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-7.md deleted file mode 100644 index cc7a70f2c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-7.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 8/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Awards === -Science awards are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry. - -== Society == - -=== Funding and policies === - -Funding of science is often through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP. In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10%, respectively, by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and the humanities. In less developed nations, the government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research. -Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the National Science Foundation in the United States, the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation in Australia, National Centre for Scientific Research in France, the Max Planck Society in Germany, and National Research Council in Spain. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-orientated corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities than research driven by curiosity. -Science policy is concerned with policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including research funding, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public. Public policy can directly affect the funding of capital equipment and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organisations that fund research. - -=== Education and awareness === - -Science education for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by online pedagogical content (for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Major organisations of scientists such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) consider the sciences to be a part of the liberal arts traditions of learning, along with philosophy and history. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the scientific method, units and methods of measurement, empiricism, a basic understanding of statistics (correlations, qualitative versus quantitative observations, aggregate statistics), and a basic understanding of core scientific fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, and computation. As a student advances into higher stages of formal education, the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well. -The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate may require considerable expertise regarding the matter. Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover. -Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. The science fiction genre, primarily speculative fiction, can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public. Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal Literary Fund. - -=== Anti-science attitudes === - -While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are sceptical about science. Examples are the common notion that COVID-19 is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021) or the belief that climate change is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020). Psychologists have pointed to several factors driving rejection of scientific results: - -Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or biased. -Some marginalised social groups hold anti-science attitudes, in part because these groups have often been exploited in unethical experiments. -Messages from scientists may contradict deeply held existing beliefs or morals. -Anti-science attitudes often seem to be caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left. That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardise their social status. - -=== Politics === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-8.md deleted file mode 100644 index 391764b5b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-8.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science" -chunk: 9/9 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:31:58.810843+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and goals. Government, business and advocacy groups have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the politicisation of science such as anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests. Politicisation of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasises the uncertainty associated with the scientific evidence. Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalising on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence. Examples of issues that have involved the politicisation of science include the global warming controversy, health effects of pesticides, and health effects of tobacco. - -=== Challenges === - -The replication crisis is an ongoing systemic crisis that affects parts of science. The results of a fraction of scientific studies have been proven to be unreproducible. The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. A 2026 replication study found low replication rates in social and behavioural sciences (business, economics, education, political science, psychology and sociology). The replication crisis represents an important body of research in metascience, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research, scientific integrity while reducing waste. -The term scientific misconduct refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person. -An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science. Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult science" for cases in which researchers believe, and at a glance, look like they are doing science but lack the honesty to allow their results to be rigorously evaluated. Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones. Sometimes, research can be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. -There can also be an element of political bias or ideological bias in science. Scientists in some countries were found to have a bias in political party preferences compared to the general population. - -== See also == -List of scientific occupations -List of years in science -Scientific integrity - -== Notes == - -== References == - -== External links == - The dictionary definition of science at Wiktionary \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 47ff0610b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,64 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science Media Centre" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:50.274959+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Science Media Centre is a charitable company, first formed in 2002, two years after the United Kingdom House of Lords select committee on Science and Technology's third report on "Science and Society" in 2000. -This report stated that while science was generally reported accurately in the mass media, there was a need for the promotion of more expert information at times when science is under attack in the headlines, mentioning the public reaction to GM crops, in particular. -The Science Media Centre's purpose is to connect journalists with reliable and up-to-date sources of scientific information. It has also been criticised for bias and undeclared conflicts of interest. - - -== Functions == -In order to promote more informed science in the media, the centre's main function is as a service to journalists, providing background briefings on current scientific issues and facilitating interviews with scientists. Comments are also sourced from scientists about breaking news stories, to provide an independent expert commentary on the news, so that press releases have some peer review. Independence means from the breaking news story, and scientists commenting are asked to declare any competing interests they have with their comment. -Its director is Fiona Fox who is a former member of the Revolutionary Communist Party and a former contributor to its magazine Living Marxism. - - -== Aims == -The SMC's stated aim is to "facilitate more scientists to engage with the media, in the hope that the public will have improved access to accurate, evidence-based scientific information about the stories of the day". More baldly, the philosophy is "the media will do science better when scientists do the media better". - - -== Structure == -The setting up of the Science Media Centre was assisted by Susan Greenfield, the director of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. While the centre was initially based in a specially refurbished wing of the Royal Institution, full independence was claimed from all funders and supporters. The SMC is now hosted by the Wellcome Trust. -The Science Media Centre is funded by over 60 organisations, with individual donations capped at £12,500 per annum. The SMC receives sponsorship from a range of funders including media organisations, universities, scientific and learned societies, the UK Research Councils, government bodies, Quangos, charities, private donors and corporate bodies. For an up-to-date list of funders, see [1]. -As well as having a board of trustees, the SMC maintains an advisory board of science and media experts to consult on its strategy. - - -== Criticism == -Criticism of the SMC relates to perceptions of independence: in respect of funding sources relating to industry with an interest in some science applications; in respect of scientists promoting specific views in favour of their own research in response to news stories; and, promoting science establishment concerns particularly in respect of funding for science. A 2013 article in Nature stated about the SMC, "Perhaps the biggest criticism of Fox and the SMC is that they push science too aggressively – acting more as a PR agency than as a source of accurate science information." In 2002, the year it was founded, Ronan Bennett and Alan Rusbridger described the SMC as a lobby group. - - -=== Specific cases === -In 2023 three out of five scientists on a panel organised by the Science Media Centre which down-played the risks of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) were revealed either to have received financial support for research from UPF manufacturers or to hold key positions with organisations funded by UPF manufacturers. The Science Media Centre informed journalists of declarations of interests provided by the scientists, but this was not mentioned in news coverage. The BMJ reported this disagreement about industry-sponsored scientists further, with the SMC defending their policy of self-declaration of interests and a Times journalist saying it was "adolescent" to expect industry scientists never to comment on their findings, especially if there was generally a view that industry spending on research had economic value. -In 2024 the SMC's role in covering up the PACE trial scandal, one of the most concerning of the controversies related to ME/CFS, has led to them being accused of incompetence, bias, and complicity with government and big business interests, and consequently, amplifying the vilification of patients suffering from Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME) or Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS), some of whom died from the therapies the PACE trial culpably advocated as cures for their condition, namely, cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), and graded exercise therapy (GET). - - -== Other SMCs == -During Professor Greenfield's term as Thinker in Residence in South Australia, a new Australian Science Media Centre was set up in Adelaide, Australia in August 2005. -Science media centres exist in other countries such as Japan; except for the relation between the Science Media Centre in UK and the Australian Science Media Centre, these centres are independent of each other. -The Science Media Centre of Canada was founded in 2008. -The New Zealand Science Media Centre was launched on 30 June 2008 -The Science Media Center Germany was founded in 2015 with €1.5 million in seed money by Klaus Tschira, founder of the software company SAP SE. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Science Media Centre -Australian SMC -Science Media Centre of Canada -Science Media Centre of New Zealand -Profile at SourceWatch -George Monbiot on Science Media Centre -Robin McKie, Lobby group 'led GM thriller critics', The Guardian, 2 June 2002 -About the Science Media Centers & the Press, By Fiona Fox and Connie St. Louis 2013 - - -=== Audio clips === -Leading Edge March 2009 -Leading Edge December 2008 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 32dcff4ea..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science Media Centre of Canada" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:51.933446+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Science Media Centre of Canada (SMCC) is a non-profit organization that was formally opened on September 27, 2010. It has virtual offices. -The purpose of the Centre is to serve journalists with accurate information on scientific matters. The Centre has a Research Advisory Panel of 20 Canadian scientists who will make their expertise available in a simple and understandable manner. In order to secure objectivity, the Centre has an Editorial Advisory Committee of eight journalists. The Centre is bilingual. - - -== Goal == -The ultimate goal of SMCC is an "increased public engagement with science issues through media coverage of science that is more informed, more accurate and more incisive." - - -== Other SMCs == -Science Media Centres exist in other countries; UK, Australia, New Zealand, Germany and Japan. The Science Media Centre of Canada is independent with respect to the other centres. - - -== External links == -Science Media Centre of Canada \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3615e8cdc..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,83 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science Party (Australia)" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:56.649402+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Science Party, formerly known as Future Party, is an Australian political party that was established on 2 July 2013. The founding leader, James Jansson, was studying for his doctorate at the Kirby Institute during the party's formation, with a focus on advancing Australian society through technical and long-term solutions. On 22 March 2016, the name was changed to The Science Party after registering with the Australian Electoral Commission. The Science Party has run candidates for the 2013, 2016 and 2019 federal elections, as well as several by-elections in between. -The party was de-registered on 12 January 2022 by the Australian Electoral Commission for failing to meet the increased registration requirement of 1,500 members. It later merged with other parties to become the Fusion Party. - - -== Political philosophy == -The Science Party believes that technological development is a positive force in human affairs and values the cultural, economic and technological benefits of modernism. It believes in freedom of expression and has a positive view of the power of free markets and the benefits of high density cities. The party seeks to promote high quality science research and education. - - -=== Policies === -Science Party policies include the following: - -Opposition to unnecessary regulations of new technology -Opposition to government monitoring of data and criminalisation of journalism -Greater transparency and openness in government -Increased science research funding -New charter city including a university -Higher density residential development -High quality internet and internet freedom -Nuclear fusion and fission research -Emissions trading and renewable energy -Greater space research and industry -A higher quality education system -An Australian republic -Democratic reform to both houses of parliament -Simplified tax system -High-speed rail -Rapid approval for driverless cars - - -== Elections == - - -=== Federal elections === - - -==== 2013 federal election ==== -The Science Party first ran in the 2013 federal election as The Future Party. The party ran two candidates for the senate in NSW, and one in the New South Wales seat of Kingsford Smith and another in the Queensland seat of Moreton The party has been involved in Glenn Druery's Minor Party Alliance, though it refused to engage in any large scale preference deal. - - -==== 2016 federal election ==== -In the 2016 federal election, the Science Party fielded two candidates each for the senate in NSW and Tasmania and one in Victoria. To avoid being placed in the ungrouped column, the Victorian and NSW candidates shared the column with the candidate from the Australian Cyclists Party. Together, they received 0.22% of the vote in Australia; 0.41% in NSW, 0.33% in Victoria, and without a shared column in Tasmania, received 0.39% of the vote. -For the House of Representatives, ten candidates ran in NSW: Berowra (receiving 2.1% of votes), Cunningham (2.6%), Grayndler (1.3%), Greenway (1%), Kingsford Smith (2.2%), North Sydney(1.8%), Sydney (1.6%), Warringah (0.9%), Watson (1.9%) and Wentworth (1.2%). - - -==== 2019 federal election ==== -In 2019, four candidates ran for senate in NSW, receiving 0.4% of the total vote. In the lower house, five candidates from NSW were put forward and the results were: Berowra (1.56% of votes), Grayndler: (2.73%), Kingsford Smith (1.69%), Sydney (3.42%), Watson (2.23%), as well as one from VIC (Mallee, 0.53%) and one from WA (Perth, 1.52%). - - -=== By-elections === -2015 By-election: James Jansson ran under the title of The Future Party for North Sydney in NSW. -2017 and 2018 By-elections: The Science Party fielded Meow-Ludo Meow-Meow as a candidate in the 2017 New England by-election in response to the 2017–2018 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis. He had previously been the Science Party candidate in the Division of Grayndler at the 2016 federal election. After subsequent resignations, the party fielded candidates in by-elections for the seats of Bennelong, Perth, Longman and Wentworth. -2020 By-election: James Jansson ran in Eden-Monaro (NSW) for the 2020 By-election, receiving 1.13% of the vote. - - -== Electoral results == - - -== See also == - -Candidates of the 2013 Australian federal election -Candidates of the 2016 Australian federal election -Candidates of the 2019 Australian federal election -List of political parties in Australia - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Science Party Website -Science Party YouTube Channel -Science Party Twitter -Science Party Facebook \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3f463555d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science Theatre (Michigan State University)" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:57.877443+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science Theatre is an undergraduate student-run science outreach organization at Michigan State University's East Lansing campus, performing science theatre. Science Theatre visits schools and events throughout Michigan performing interactive science demonstrations for K-12 students on-stage or up-close. Science Theatre performers are undergraduate and graduate student volunteers and all performances are made free of charge. -The group's performances consist of arrangements from its catalog of more than seventy demonstrations in biology, chemistry, and physics. Additionally, Science Theatre performs comprehensive shows in Astronomy, Environmental science, Pressure, the Periodic Table, Quantum Mechanics, and FRIB-related science. -Science Theatre was founded in April 1991 under a grant from the National Science Foundation and received the 1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology. Science Theatre is a four-time winner of the Outreach Award from the Michigan State University Department of Physics and Astronomy. - - -== References == -MSU Science Theatre Official Webpage -1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology -2 February 2009 State News coverage -10 March 2009 Fox TV coverage -11 March 2009 Daily Press (Michigan) coverage -10 June 2009 Capital Gains Coverage \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index c3120d5d4..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science Week Ireland" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:59.098546+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science Week Ireland is an annual week-long event in Ireland each November, celebrating science in our everyday lives. Science Week is an initiative of Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) It is the largest science festival in the country, engaging tens of thousands of members of the general public in workshops, science shows, talks, laboratory demonstrations, science walks and other science-related events. Science Week is a collaboration of events involving industry, colleges, schools, libraries, teachers, researchers and students throughout Ireland. -Science Week supports Science Foundation Ireland’s mission to catalyse, inspire and guide the best in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) education and public engagement. The ultimate aim of this effort is that Ireland will have the most engaged and scientifically informed public by 2020 as outlined in Science Foundation Ireland’s strategy Agenda 2020. This also aligns to the national science innovation strategy, Innovation 2020. - -== History == -Over the years, Science Week Ireland has grown from a small pilot initiative to a large promotional and event engine to its current identity as a recognised vehicle for regional activity supported by a national promotional campaign. In 1995, a National Science week was organised by the Royal Dublin Society and a number of other organisations to inform the general public about science. The first Science Week organised by Forfás was held in 1996. If was run by Forfás on behalf of the Office of Science and Technology at the Department of Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation under the name 'Information Technology and Science Week'. The week aimed to raise general awareness of the benefits of science and information technology to people, young and old throughout society. In 1997 it was renamed Science Week. Professional bodies, voluntary groups, colleges, businesses and the public sector combined to organise 50 events countrywide. Events included conferences, lectures, interactive exhibitions, debates, and competitions for primary school students. -SFI took over Science Week from the Forfás Discover Science and Engineering programme in 2012. Science Week continued to grow and develop over the following years into what it represents today, a week-long celebration of STEM public engagement, enhancing the public’s interest in STEM and enabling them to see the relevance of STEM to their daily lives. - -=== 1996 === -In 1996, Forfás organised the first Information Technology and Science Week beginning on 25 November. - -=== 1997 === -Science week ran between 10 and 16 November, and was again organised by Forfás. It was launched by minister Noel Treacy in Galway. Events included answering scientific questions for school children and a Speakathon organised by the Irish Research Scientists' Association. - -=== 1998 === -Science Week 1998 ran from 1 to 8 November. Events included talks in public libraries and another Speakathon. Forfás sought feedback on the running of Science Week and it was also externally evaluated. - -=== 2007 === -Science Week 2007 took place between 11–18 November and the theme was "Surrounded by Science". The programme of events set out to illustrate that behind the everyday objects in our lives is a great inventor, scientist or engineer. This included a series of lectures which featured Craig Johnston, inventor of the Adidas Predator; Joe F. Edwards, Jr., former NASA astronaut; and Dr. Sheila Willis, Director of the Forensic Science Laboratory. -2007 was the eleventh year of Science Week and saw an estimated 95,000 people attend lectures, exhibitions and workshops throughout the country. - -=== 2008 === -The 2008 Science Week took place between 11–16 November. The theme was 'Science – Shaping Our World' which celebrates the International Year of Planet Earth. -The guest lecturers include Professor Aubrey Manning, distinguished zoologist and broadcaster; Gerry Johnston, director of Special Effects Ireland; Dr. Cynthia Breazeal, Associate Professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Stephen Attenborough of Virgin Galactic; and Patrick Collison, Irish Young Scientist of the Year winner 2005. These can be viewed on YouTube. - -=== 2009 === -Science Week 2009 took place between 8–15 November. The theme was 'Science – Inspiring Creativity and Innovation’, which links to the European Year of Creativity and Innovation. In the summer of 2009, DSE launched a Twitter account for the latest news on Science Week. A lecture series included speakers from the Tyndall National Institute, Cork and Sustainable Energy Ireland. These can be viewed on YouTube. - -=== 2010 === -Science Week 2010 ran from 7–14 November. Its theme was ‘Our Place in Space’, which explored the latest happenings in astronomy, Ireland’s role in the space industry, and the vital role played by science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) in helping us to make sense of our universe. - -=== 2011 === -Science Week 2011 ran from 13–20 November. The theme was 'The Chemistry of Life', demonstrating the importance of chemistry to our everyday lives – from the atoms that are the building blocks of nature to the chemistry that creates lasting bonds between people. - -=== 2012 === -Science Week 2012 ran from 11–18 November. The theme was ‘Everyday Experimenting’, highlighting how we are all involved in science every day, carrying out scientific processes and experimenting, even when not aware of it. - -=== 2013 === -Science Week 2013 ran from 10–17 November. The theme was ‘Exploring the XTRA-Ordinary’, which called on the public to go ‘behind the scenes’ of everyday life and explore the extraordinary processes taking place in front of our eyes. - -=== 2014 === -An estimated 250,000 people took part in science festivals, demonstrations, seminars and tours across the country during the 19th annual national Science Week, which took place from 9–16 November 2014. The theme was ‘Power of Science’. Over 800 events took place across Ireland, including science festivals in Sligo, Galway, Mayo, Dublin, Cork, Waterford and the Midlands, aiming to "entertain, educate and enthral young and old alike with the power of science". Jamie Heaslip acted as a Science Week ambassador. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 62b204971..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,44 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science Week Ireland" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:59.098546+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== 2015 === -2015 marked the 20th anniversary of Science Week, which took place from 8–15 November. The theme was ‘Science Week 2.0 Design Your Future’. It celebrated how science empowers ‘you’ to ‘Design Your Future’. Numerous events were held in every county, and regional festivals took place in Mayo, Sligo, Galway, Waterford, Cork, Limerick and the midlands. - -=== 2016 === -Science Week 2016 took place from 13–20 November. The theme was ‘Science Rising’ which looks at how science is key to our success – it is part of our past, an important part of our present and there is endless potential still to be realised. Science Week 2016 reached more people, all over Ireland, across a wider demographic than had been achieved before. Science Week 2016 saw 10 Regional Festivals across the country. - -=== 2017 === -Science Week 2017 ran nationwide from 12–19 November 2017. The theme was ‘Believe in Science’. More than 1180 events took place across Ireland. 12 regional science festivals took place in Cavan/Monaghan, Cork, Carlow, Festival of Farming and Food (Teagasc), Galway, Kerry, Limerick, Mayo, the Midlands, Sligo, Southeast and Tipperary. -A number of Science Foundation Ireland-funded Science Week events took place throughout the week, including events by the Ark Theatre, The British Council of Ireland, Dublinia, Dunsink Observatory, Foodoppi, Learnit Educational Solutions, the Science Gallery, ADAPT, The Rediscovery Centre and Wexford Co. Council. The Scintillating Science event with Dara O'Briain launched the beginning of Science Week in the National Concert Hall, and the Dublin Science Week Family Open Day at the Convention Centre Dublin was held at the end of the week. -During Science Week 2017, SFI launched the #StopAndAsk social media campaign which calls on people to ask questions about the world around them. Science Foundation Ireland, its partners and the science community answered a selection of these questions throughout the week. - -=== 2018 === -Science Week 2018 ran nationwide from 11–18 November 2018. The theme was a continuation of 2017 #BelieveInScience while also continuing the #StopAndAsk social media campaign. -In 2018 SFI funded 12 regional festivals in Cavan/Monaghan, Cork, Carlow, Festival of Farming and Food (Teagasc), Galway, Wexford, Limerick, Mayo, the Midlands, Sligo, Southeast and Tipperary and 15 funded events. The events varied between school visits, workshops and evening events and took place in venues across the country. -A show reel of some highlights of Science Week 2018 can be viewed on YouTube. - -=== 2019 === -Science Week 2019 will run from 10–16 November 2019. - -== How to get involved == -The SFI website outlines tips on how to get involved with Science Week in Ireland. - -== See also == -Science Week - -== References == - -== External links == -Forfás website -Science Week Ireland website -Department of Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation website -Information about Science Week on Discover-Science.ie -Science Week Ireland on X -Science.ie on X - Irish science news, events and links on Twitter \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 0e813ccb6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and Technology in the Discovery of America" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:03.668433+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science and Technology in the Discovery of America (Spanish: La ciencia y la técnica en el descubrimiento de América), is a work by the historian and mathematician Julio Rey Pastor, published in Spanish in 1945, in Buenos Aires, by the Espasa-Calpe publishing. A second, "improved and corrected" edition was published in 1945. A third and fourth edition were published in 1951 and 1970, respectively. - - -== Description == -In this book, Rey Pastor analyzes the role of science and technology in the discovery of America, with special attention to the contributions of disciplines such as geography, cartography, nautical science and cosmography, which were decisive for the realization of transoceanic expeditions, such as that of Christopher Columbus, whom Rey Pastor considers a man of science, taking into account what was understood in his time by "man of science". The work reviews the scientific situation prior to the discovery and the evolution of latitude measurement and geographical representation techniques, highlighting how these innovations allowed the navigation challenges of the time to be faced. He insists on the enormous disproportion between the magnificent results of the discoverers and the poverty of the means at their disposal. -The book highlights the leading role of Spanish science during the Golden Age, highlighting its advances in various fields, and offers a response to the black legend, with the aim of recognizing Spanish contributions to European scientific progress. With an approach that is both rigorous and informative, the book has been recognized for its impact on the study of science applied to navigation and geographical exploration. And the professor at the University of Seville Antonio de Castro Brzezicki says that it is a book "of delightful reading". -According to Rey Pastor, scientific and technological knowledge, despite being rudimentary, played a fundamental role in the success of the discovery of America. The technical thinking of the time was influenced by the legacy of figures such as Fibonacci, who introduced the Indo-Arabic numeral system to Europe, and Roger Bacon, a defender of experimentation as the basis of scientific knowledge. This knowledge made discovery possible and, at the same time, promoted the development of science, highlighting the importance of technology in this historical process. -This vision has been shared by thinkers such as Gaston Bachelard and reinforced by figures such as Alexander von Humboldt. This approach allows for a reassessment of Columbus as a curious and systematic observer of nature, as reflected in his notes. It also shows the transition from an Aristotelian qualitative science to a Renaissance science based on observation, measurement and verification, which would later be followed by scientists such as Galileo, Kepler and Newton. -The work highlights figures such as Infante Don Henry of Portugal, who contributed to the development of geography and explorations along the African coast. Also mentioned is Martin Behaim, a German cosmographer who made the first modern globe in 1492, despite errors such as not including the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Pastor, Julio Rey (2016-10-23). "La Ciencia Y La Tecnica En El Descubrimiento De América : Julio Rey Pastor : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive". Internet Archive. Retrieved 2025-05-07. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 62925a3c4..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and technology studies" -chunk: 1/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:22.802425+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science and technology studies (STS) or science, technology, and society is an interdisciplinary field that examines the creation, development, and consequences of science and technology in their historical, cultural, and social contexts. - -== History == -Like most interdisciplinary fields of study, STS emerged from the confluence of disciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s—in viewing science and technology as socially embedded enterprises. The key disciplinary components of STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the 1980s, although Ludwik Fleck's (1935) monograph Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many of STS's key themes. In the 1970s Elting E. Morison founded the STS program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which served as a model. By 2011, 111 STS research centers and academic programs were counted worldwide. - -=== Important key points === - -History of technology, that examines technology in its social and historical context. Starting in the 1960s, some historians questioned technological determinism, a doctrine that can induce public passivity to technologic and scientific "natural" development. At the same time, some historians began to develop similarly contextual approaches to the history of medicine. Notable historians of medicine who approach the field from a science and technology studies perspective include Robert N. Proctor. -History and philosophy of science (1960s). After the publication of Thomas Kuhn's well-known The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), which attributed changes in scientific theories to changes in underlying intellectual paradigms, programs were founded at the University of California, Berkeley and elsewhere that brought historians of science and philosophers together in unified programs. -Science, technology, and society. In the mid-to-late-1960s, student and faculty social movements in the U.S., UK, and European universities helped to launch a range of new interdisciplinary fields (such as women's studies) that were seen to address relevant topics that the traditional curriculum ignored. One such development was the rise of "science, technology, and society" programs, which are also—confusingly—known by the STS acronym. Drawn from a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, history, political science, and sociology, scholars in these programs created undergraduate curricula devoted to exploring the issues raised by science and technology. Feminist scholars in this and other emerging STS areas addressed themselves to the exclusion of women from science and engineering, focusing instead on critiquing gendered power dynamics in prior STS research. -Science, engineering, and public policy studies emerged in the 1970s from the same concerns that motivated the founders of the science, technology, and society movement: A sense that science and technology were developing in ways that were increasingly at odds with the public's best interests. The science, technology, and society movement tried to humanize those who would make tomorrow's science and technology, but this discipline took a different approach: It would train students with the professional skills needed to become players in science and technology policy. Some programs came to emphasize quantitative methodologies, and most of these were eventually absorbed into systems engineering. Others emphasized sociological and qualitative approaches, and found that their closest kin could be found among scholars in science, technology, and society departments. -During the 1970s and 1980s, universities in the US, UK, and Europe began drawing these various components together in new, interdisciplinary programs. For example, in the 1970s, Cornell University developed a new program that united science studies and policy-oriented scholars with historians and philosophers of science and technology. Each of these programs developed unique identities due to variations in the components that were drawn together, as well as their location within the various universities. For example, the University of Virginia's STS program united scholars drawn from a variety of fields (with particular strength in the history of technology); however, the program's teaching responsibilities—it is located within an engineering school and teaches ethics to undergraduate engineering students—means that all of its faculty share a strong interest in engineering ethics. - -=== The "turn to technology" (and beyond) === - -A decisive moment in the development of STS was the mid-1980s addition of technology studies to the range of interests reflected in science. During that decade, two works appeared en seriatim that signaled what Steve Woolgar was to call the "turn to technology". In a seminal 1984 article, Trevor Pinch and Wiebe Bijker showed how the sociology of technology could proceed along the theoretical and methodological lines established by the sociology of scientific knowledge. This was the intellectual foundation of the field they called the social construction of technology. Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman primed the pump by publishing a collection of articles attesting to the influence of society on technological design (Social Shaping of Technology, 1985). Social science research continued to interrogate STS research from this point onward as researchers moved from post-modern to post-structural frameworks of thought, Bijker and Pinch contributing to SCOT knowledge and Wajcman providing boundary work through a feminist lens. -The "turn to technology" helped to cement an already growing awareness of underlying unity among the various emerging STS programs. More recently, there has been an associated turn to ecology, nature, and materiality in general, whereby the socio-technical and natural/material co-produce each other. This is especially evident in work in STS analyses of biomedicine (such as Carl May and Annemarie Mol) and ecological interventions (such as Bruno Latour, Sheila Jasanoff, Matthias Gross, Sara B. Pritchard, and S. Lochlann Jain). Ruth Schwartz Cowan has studied how gender and technology co-produce each other. - -== Important concepts == - -=== Social construction(s) === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6c141fed5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and technology studies" -chunk: 2/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:22.802425+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Social constructions are human-created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship. -The following also alludes to the notion that not everything is set, a circumstance or result could potentially be one way or the other. According to the article "What is Social Construction?" by Ian Hacking, "Social construction work is critical of the status quo. Social constructionists about X tend to hold that: - -X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of things; it is not inevitable -Very often they go further, and urge that: - -X is quite as bad as it is. -We would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically transformed." -In the past, there have been viewpoints that were widely regarded as fact until being called to question due to the introduction of new knowledge. Such viewpoints include the past concept of a correlation between intelligence and the nature of a human's ethnicity or race (X may not be at all as it is). -An example of the evolution and interaction of various social constructions within science and technology can be found in the development of both the high-wheel bicycle, or velocipede, and then of the bicycle. The velocipede was widely used in the latter half of the 19th century. In the latter half of the 19th century, a social need was first recognized for a more efficient and rapid means of transportation. Consequently, the velocipede was first developed, which was able to reach higher translational velocities than the smaller non-geared bicycles of the day, by replacing the front wheel with a larger radius wheel. One notable trade-off was a certain decreased stability leading to a greater risk of falling. This trade-off resulted in many riders getting into accidents by losing balance while riding the bicycle or being thrown over the handlebars. -The first "social construction" or progress of the velocipede caused the need for a newer "social construction" to be recognized and developed into a safer bicycle design. Consequently, the velocipede was then developed into what is now commonly known as the "bicycle" to fit within society's newer "social construction," the newer standards of higher vehicle safety. Thus the popularity of the modern geared bicycle design came as a response to the first social construction, the original need for greater speed, which had caused the high-wheel bicycle to be designed in the first place. The popularity of the modern geared bicycle design ultimately ended the widespread use of the velocipede itself, as eventually it was found to best accomplish the social needs/social constructions of both greater speed and of greater safety. - -=== Material semiotics === - -With methodology from actor-network theory (ANT), feminist STS theorists built upon SCOT's theory of co-construction to explore the relationship between gender and technology, proposing one cannot exist separately from the other. This approach suggests the material and social are not separate, reality being produced through interactions and studied through representations of those realities. Building on Steve Woolgar's boundary work on user configuration, feminist critiques shifted the focus away from users of technology and science towards whether technology and science represent a fixed, unified reality. According to this approach, identity could no longer be treated as causal in human interactions with technology as it cannot exist prior to that interaction, feminist STS researchers proposing a "double-constructivist" approach to account for this contradiction. John Law credits feminist STS scholars for contributing material-semiotic approaches to the broader discipline of STS, stating that research not only attempts to describe reality, but enacts it through the research process. - -=== Sociotechnical imaginaries (STIs) === -Sociotechnical imaginaries are what certain communities, societies, and nations envision as achievable through the combination of scientific innovation and social changes. These visions can be based on what is possible to achieve for a certain society, and can also show what a certain state or nation desires. STIs are often bound with ideologies and ambitions of those who create and circulate them. Sociotechnical imaginaries can be created by states and policymakers, smaller groups within society, or can be a result of the interaction of both. -The term was coined in 2009 by Sheila Jasanoff and Sang-Hyun Kim who compared and contrasted sociotechnical imaginaries of nuclear energy in the USA with those of South Korea over the second half of the 20th century. Jasanoff and Kim analyzed the discourse of government representatives, national policies, and civil society organizations, looked at the technological and infrastructural developments, and social protests, and conducted interviews with experts. They concluded that in South Korea nuclear energy was imagined mostly as the means of national development, while in the US the dominant sociotechnical imaginary framed nuclear energy as risky and in need of containment. -The concept has been applied to several objects of study including biomedical research, nanotechnology development and energy systems and climate change. Within energy systems, research has focused on nuclear energy, fossil fuels, renewables as well as broader topics of energy transitions, and the development of new technologies to address climate change. - -=== Sociotechnical systems theory === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5611638a2..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and technology studies" -chunk: 3/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:22.802425+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Social technical systems are an interplay between technologies and humans, this is clearly expressed in the sociotechnical systems theory. To expound on this interplay, humans fulfill and define tasks, then humans in companies use IT and IT supports people, and finally, IT processes tasks and new IT generates new tasks. This IT redefines work practices. This is what we call the sociotechnical systems. In socio-technical systems, there are two principles to internalize, that is joint optimization and complementarity. Joint optimization puts an emphasis on developing both systems in parallel and it is only in the interaction of both systems that the success of an organization arises. The principle of complementarity means that both systems have to be optimized. If you focus on one system and have bias over the other it will likely lead to the failure of the organization or jeopardize the success of a system. Although the above socio-technical system theory is focused on an organization, it is undoubtedly imperative to correlate this theory and its principles to society today and in science and technology studies. Understanding technology in the context of national development: critical reflections discusses how governance frameworks, digital infrastructure, and institutional capacity influence the societal outcomes of technology adoption. -According to Barley and Bailey, there is a tendency for AI designers and scholars of design studies to privilege the technical over the social, focusing more on taking "humans out of the loop" paradigm than the "augmented intelligence" paradigm. -Recent work on artificial intelligence considers large sociotechnical systems, such as social networks and online marketplaces, as agents whose behavior can be purposeful and adaptive. The behavior of recommender systems can therefore be analyzed in the language and framework of sociotechnical systems, leading also to a new perspective for their legal regulation. - -=== Technoscience === - -Technoscience is a subset of Science, Technology, and Society studies that focuses on the inseparable connection between science and technology. It states that fields are linked and grow together, and scientific knowledge requires an infrastructure of technology in order to remain stationary or move forward. Both technological development and scientific discovery drive one another towards more advancement. Technoscience excels at shaping human thoughts and behavior by opening up new possibilities that gradually or quickly come to be perceived as necessities. - -=== Technosocial === -"Technological action is a social process." Social factors and technology are intertwined so that they are dependent upon each other. This includes the aspect that social, political, and economic factors are inherent in technology and that social structure influences what technologies are pursued. In other words, "technoscientific phenomena combined inextricably with social/political/economic/psychological phenomena, so 'technology' includes a spectrum of artifacts, techniques, organizations, and systems." Winner expands on this idea by saying "in the late twentieth-century technology and society, technology and culture, technology and politics are by no means separate." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index a516e1ab4..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and technology studies" -chunk: 4/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:22.802425+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -==== Examples ==== -Ford Pinto – Ford Motor Company sold and produced the Pinto during the 1970s. A flaw in the automobile design of the rear gas tank caused a fiery explosion upon impact. The exploding fuel tank killed and injured hundreds of people. Internal documents of test results proved Ford CEO Lee Iacocca and engineers were aware of the flaw. The company decided to ignore improving its technology because of profit-driven motives, strict internal control, and competition from foreign competitors such as Volkswagen. Ford Motor Company conducted a cost-benefit analysis to determine if altering the Ford Pinto model was feasible. An analysis conducted by Ford employees argued against a new design because of increased cost. Employees were also under tight control by the CEO who rushed the Pinto through production lines to increase profits. Ford finally changed after public scrutiny. Safety organizations later influenced this technology by requiring stricter safety standards for motor vehicles. -DDT/toxins – DDT was a common and highly effective insecticide used during the 1940s until its ban in the early 1970s. It was utilized during World War 2 to combat insect-borne human diseases that plagued military members and civilian populations. People and companies soon realized other benefits of DDT for agricultural purposes. Rachel Carson became worried about widespread use on public health and the environment. Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring left an imprint on the industry by claiming the linkage of DDT to many serious illnesses such as cancer. Carson's book drew criticism from chemical companies who felt their reputation and business threatened by such claims. DDT was eventually banned by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) after a long and arduous process of research on the chemical substance. The main cause for the removal of DDT was the public deciding that any benefits were outweighed by the potential health risk. -Autopilots/computer-aided tasks (CATs) – From a security point of view the effects of making a task more computer-driven is in the favor of technological advance because there is less reaction time required and computational error than a human pilot. Due to reduced error and reaction times flights on average, using autopilot, have been shown to be safer. Thus technology has a direct impact on people by increasing their safety, and society affects technology because people want to be safer so they are constantly trying to improve the autopilot systems. -Cell phones – Cell phone technology emerged in the early 1920s after advancements were made in radio technology. Engineers at Bell Laboratories, the research, and development division of AT&T discovered that cell towers can transmit and receive signals to and from many directions. The discovery by Bell Labs revolutionized the capabilities and outcomes of cellular technology. Technology only improved once mobile phone users could communicate outside of a designated area. First-generation mobile phones were first created and sold by Motorola. Their phone was only intended for use in cars. Second-generation mobile phone capabilities continued to improve because of the switch to digital. Phones were faster which enhanced the communication capabilities of customers. They were also sleeker and weighed less than bulky first-generation technology. Technological advances boosted customer satisfaction and broadened cell phone companies' customer base. Third-generation technology changed the way people interact with others. Now customers had access to Wi-Fi, texting and other applications. Mobile phones are now entering into the fourth generation. Cellular and mobile phones revolutionized the way people socialize and communicate in order to establish a modern social structure. People have affected the development of this technology by demanding features such as larger screens, touch capabilities, and internet accessibility. -Internet – The internet arose because of extensive research on ARPANET between various universities, corporations, and ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency), an agency of the Department of Defense. Scientists theorized a network of computers connected to each other. Computing capabilities contributed to developments and the creation of the modern-day computer or laptop. The internet has become a normal part of life and business, to such a degree that the United Nations views it as a basic human right. The internet is becoming larger, one way is that more things are being moved into the digital world due to demand, for example, online banking. It has drastically changed the way most people go about daily habits. - -=== Deliberative democracy === -Deliberative democracy is a reform of representative or direct democracies which mandates discussion and debate of popular topics which affect society. Deliberative democracy is a tool for making decisions. Deliberative democracy can be traced back all the way to Aristotle's writings. More recently, the term was coined by Joseph Bessette in his 1980 work Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government, where he uses the idea in opposition to the elitist interpretations of the United States Constitution with emphasis on public discussion. -Deliberative democracy can lead to more legitimate, credible, and trustworthy outcomes. Deliberative democracy allows for "a wider range of public knowledge", and it has been argued that this can lead to "more socially intelligent and robust" science. One major shortcoming of deliberative democracy is that many models insufficiently ensure critical interaction. -According to Ryfe, there are five mechanisms that stand out as critical to the successful design of deliberative democracy: - -Rules of equality, civility, and inclusivity may prompt deliberation even when our first impulse is to avoid it. -Stories anchor reality by organizing experience and instilling a normative commitment to civic identities and values, and function as a medium for framing discussions. -Leadership provides important cues to individuals in deliberative settings and can keep groups on a deliberative track when their members slip into routine and habit. -Individuals are more likely to sustain deliberative reasoning when they have a stake in the outcomes. -Apprenticeship teaches citizens to deliberate well. We might do well to imagine education as a form of apprenticeship learning, in which individuals learn to deliberate by doing it in concert with others more skilled in the activity. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 25d697875..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and technology studies" -chunk: 5/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:22.802425+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -==== Importance ==== -Recently, there has been a movement towards greater transparency in the fields of policy and technology. Jasanoff comes to the conclusion that there is no longer a question of if there needs to be increased public participation in making decisions about science and technology, but now there need to be ways to make a more meaningful conversation between the public and those developing the technology. - -==== In practice ==== -Bruce Ackerman and James S. Fishkin offered an example of a reform in their paper "Deliberation Day." The deliberation is to enhance public understanding of popular, complex and controversial issues through devices such as Fishkin's deliberative polling, though implementation of these reforms is unlikely in a large government such as that of the United States. However, things similar to this have been implemented in small, local governments like New England towns and villages. New England town hall meetings are a good example of deliberative democracy in a realistic setting. -An ideal deliberative democracy balances the voice and influence of all participants. While the main aim is to reach consensus, deliberative democracy should encourage the voices of those with opposing viewpoints, concerns due to uncertainties, and questions about assumptions made by other participants. It should take its time and ensure that those participating understand the topics on which they debate. Independent managers of debates should also have a substantial grasp of the concepts discussed, but must "[remain] independent and impartial as to the outcomes of the process." - -=== Tragedy of the commons === - -In 1968, Garrett Hardin popularised the phrase "tragedy of the commons." It is an economic theory where rational people act against the best interest of the group by consuming a common resource. Since then, the tragedy of the commons has been used to symbolize the degradation of the environment whenever many individuals use a common resource. Although Garrett Hardin was not an STS scholar, the concept of the tragedy of the commons still applies to science, technology, and society. -In a contemporary setting, the Internet acts as an example of the tragedy of the commons through the exploitation of digital resources and private information. Data and internet passwords can be stolen much more easily than physical documents. Virtual spying is almost free compared to the costs of physical spying. Additionally, net neutrality can be seen as an example of tragedy of the commons in an STS context. The movement for net neutrality argues that the Internet should not be a resource that is dominated by one particular group, specifically those with more money to spend on Internet access. -A counterexample to the tragedy of the commons is offered by Andrew Kahrl. Privatization can be a way to deal with the tragedy of the commons. However, Kahrl suggests that the privatization of beaches on Long Island, in an attempt to combat the overuse of Long Island beaches, made the residents of Long Island more susceptible to flood damage from Hurricane Sandy. The privatization of these beaches took away from the protection offered by the natural landscape. Tidal lands that offer natural protection were drained and developed. This attempt to combat the tragedy of the commons by privatization was counter-productive. Privatization actually destroyed the public good of natural protection from the landscape. - -=== Alternative modernity === -Alternative modernity is a conceptual tool conventionally used to represent the state of present western society. Modernity represents the political and social structures of society, the sum of interpersonal discourse, and ultimately a snapshot of society's direction at a point in time. Unfortunately, conventional modernity is incapable of modeling alternative directions for further growth within our society. Also, this concept is ineffective at analyzing similar but unique modern societies such as those found in the diverse cultures of the developing world. Problems can be summarized into two elements: inward failure to analyze the growth potentials of a given society, and outward failure to model different cultures and social structures and predict their growth potentials. -Previously, modernity carried a connotation of the current state of being modern, and its evolution through European colonialism. The process of becoming "modern" is believed to occur in a linear, pre-determined way, and is seen by Philip Brey as a way to interpret and evaluate social and cultural formations. This thought ties in with modernization theory, the thought that societies progress from "pre-modern" to "modern" societies. -Within the field of science and technology, there are two main lenses with which to view modernity. The first is as a way for society to quantify what it wants to move towards. In effect, we can discuss the notion of "alternative modernity" (as described by Andrew Feenberg) and which of these we would like to move towards. Alternatively, modernity can be used to analyze the differences in interactions between cultures and individuals. From this perspective, alternative modernities exist simultaneously, based on differing cultural and societal expectations of how a society (or an individual within society) should function. Because of different types of interactions across different cultures, each culture will have a different modernity. - -=== Pace of innovation === - -The pace of innovation is the speed at which technological innovation or advancement is occurring, with the most apparent instances being too slow or too rapid. Both these rates of innovation are extreme and therefore have effects on the people that get to use this technology. - -=== No innovation without representation === - -"No innovation without representation" is a democratic ideal of ensuring that everyone involved gets a chance to be represented fairly in technological developments. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index e04e68133..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and technology studies" -chunk: 6/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:22.802425+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Langdon Winner states that groups and social interests likely to be affected by a particular kind of technological change ought to be represented at an early stage in defining exactly what that technology will be. It is the idea that relevant parties have a say in technological developments and are not left in the dark. -Spoken about by Massimiano Bucchi -This ideal does not require the public to become experts on the topics of science and engineering, it only asks that the opinions and ideas be heard before making drastic decisions, as talked about by Steven L. Goldman. - -=== Legacy thinking === -Legacy thinking is defined as an inherited method of thinking imposed from an external source without objection by the individual because it is already widely accepted by society. -Legacy thinking can impair the ability to drive technology for the betterment of society by blinding people to innovations that do not fit into their accepted model of how society works. By accepting ideas without questioning them, people often see all solutions that contradict these accepted ideas as impossible or impractical. Legacy thinking tends to advantage the wealthy, who have the means to project their ideas on the public. It may be used by the wealthy as a vehicle to drive technology in their favor rather than for the greater good. -Examining the role of citizen participation and representation in politics provides an excellent example of legacy thinking in society. The belief that one can spend money freely to gain influence has been popularized, leading to public acceptance of corporate lobbying. As a result, a self-established role in politics has been cemented where the public does not exercise the power ensured to them by the Constitution to the fullest extent. This can become a barrier to political progress as corporations who have the capital to spend have the potential to wield great influence over policy. Legacy thinking, however, keeps the population from acting to change this, despite polls from Harris Interactive that report over 80% of Americans to feel that big business holds too much power in government. Therefore, Americans are beginning to try to steer away from this line of thought, rejecting legacy thinking, and demanding less corporate, and more public, participation in political decision-making. -Additionally, an examination of net neutrality functions as a separate example of legacy thinking. Starting with dial-up, the internet has always been viewed as a private luxury good. Internet today is a vital part of modern-day society members. They use it in and out of life every day. Corporations are able to mislabel and greatly overcharge for their internet resources. Since the American public is so dependent upon the internet there is little for them to do. Legacy thinking has kept this pattern on track despite growing movements arguing that the internet should be considered a utility. Legacy thinking prevents progress because it was widely accepted by others before us through advertising that the internet is a luxury and not a utility. Due to pressure from grassroots movements the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has redefined the requirements for broadband and internet in general as a utility. Now AT&T and other major internet providers are lobbying against this action and are in large able to delay the onset of this movement due to legacy thinking's grip on American culture and politics. -For example, those who cannot overcome the barrier of legacy thinking may not consider the privatization of clean drinking water as an issue. This is partial because access to water has become such a given fact of the matter to them. For a person living in such circumstances, it may be widely accepted to not concern themselves with drinking water because they have not needed to be concerned with it in the past. Additionally, a person living within an area that does not need to worry about their water supply or the sanitation of their water supply is less likely to be concerned with the privatization of water. -This notion can be examined through the thought experiment of "veil of ignorance". Legacy thinking causes people to be particularly ignorant about the implications behind the "you get what you pay for" mentality applied to a life necessity. By utilizing the "veil of ignorance", one can overcome the barrier of legacy thinking as it requires a person to imagine that they are unaware of their own circumstances, allowing them to free themselves from externally imposed thoughts or widely accepted ideas. - -==== Related concepts ==== -Technoscience – The perception that science and technology are intertwined and depend on each other. -Technosociety – An industrially developed society with a reliance on technology. -Technological utopianism – A positive outlook on the effect technology has on social welfare. Includes the perception that technology will one day enable society to reach a utopian state. -Technosocial systems – people and technologies that combine to work as heterogeneous but functional wholes. -Critical Technical Practice – the practice of technological creation while simultaneously critiquing and maintaining awareness of the inherent biases and value systems which become embedded in those technologies. - -==== Classifications ==== -Technological optimism – The opinion that technology has positive effects on society and should be used in order to improve the welfare of people. -Technological pessimism – The opinion that technology has negative effects on society and should be discouraged from use. -Technological neutrality – "maintains that a given technology has no systematic effects on society: individuals are perceived as ultimately responsible, for better or worse, because technologies are merely tools people use for their own ends." -Technological determinism – "maintains that technologies are understood as simply and directly causing particular societal outcomes." -Scientism – The belief in the total separation of facts and values. -Technological progressivism – technology is a means to an end itself and an inherently positive pursuit. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index 55af93305..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and technology studies" -chunk: 7/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:22.802425+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Academic programs == -STS is taught in several countries. According to the STS wiki, STS programs can be found in twenty countries, including 45 programs in the United States, three programs in India, and eleven programs in the UK. STS programs can be found in Canada, Germany, Israel, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Some examples of institutions offering STS programs are Stanford University, University College London, Harvard University, the University of Oxford, Mines ParisTech, Bar-Ilan University, and York University. In Europe the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) offers an MA degree in STS through study programs and student exchanges with over a dozen specializations. - -== Professional associations == -The field has professional associations in regions and countries around the world. - -=== In Europe === -In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST) was founded in 1981 to "improve scholarly communication and exchange in the field", "increase the visibility of the subject to policy-makers and to the general public", and "stimulate and support teaching on the subject at all levels". Similarly, the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) researches and studies science and technology in society, in both historical and contemporary perspectives. -In European nation states and language communities, a range of STS associations exist, including in the UK, Spain, Germany, Austria, Turkey. In some states, several formal associations exist. -For instance, in 2015, the UK-based Association for Studies in Innovation, Science and Technology (AsSIST-UK) was established, chaired by Andrew Webster (York) and Robin Williams (Edinburgh) principally to foster stronger integration between the innovation studies and STS fields. In 2021 it had a membership of 380. It holds annual conferences and has built strong links to policy practitioners in Westminster. -In Italy, STS Italia – The Italian Society for Social Studies of Science and Technology was founded in 2005. Its mission is "to build up an Italian network of researchers oriented to study Science and Technology starting from the social dynamics which characterize and interweave science and technology themselves". -In Sweden, the Swedish Network for Science and Technology Studies was founded in 2006, at the first national Swedish Conference for STS, STS Dagarna. -In Germany several STS associations exist, including the Gesellschaft für Wissenschafts- und Technikforschung, founded in 1987 or the stsing network, labelled "Doing Science and Technology Studies in and through Germany", founded 2020, an early career research network called INSIST and various STS-related sub-groups of the larger disciplinary associations (like sociology). - -=== In Asia === -The Asia Pacific Science Technology & Society Network (APSTSN) primarily had members from Australasia, Southeast and East Asia and Oceania. APSTSN is not currently active. -In Japan, the Japanese Society for Science and Technology Studies (JSSTS) was founded in 2001. -The Australasian Science and Technology Studies Network (AusSTS) was founded in 2017 based at Deakin University. AusSTS now has several nodes in Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand and holds an annual workshop. -In India, the Science and Technology Studies-India Network (STS-IN) was formed in December 2023. The Inaugural workshop was held on December 14 and 15, 2023, at Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad. - -=== In Latin America === -Estudios Sociales de la Ciencia y la Tecnología (ESOCITE) is the biggest association of Science and Technology studies. The study of STS (CyT in Spanish, CTS in Portuguese) here was shaped by authors like Amílcar Herrera and Jorge Sabato and Oscar Varsavsky in Argentina, José Leite Lopes in Brazil, Miguel Wionczek in Mexico, Francisco Sagasti in Peru, Máximo Halty Carrere in Uruguay and Marcel Roche in Venezuela. - -=== In North America === -Founded in 1975, the Society for Social Studies of Science initially provided scholarly communication facilities, including a journal (Science, Technology, and Human Values) and annual meetings that were mainly attended by science studies scholars. The society has since grown into the most important professional association of science and technology studies scholars worldwide. The Society for Social Studies of Science members also include government and industry officials concerned with research and development as well as science and technology policy; scientists and engineers who wish to better understand the social embeddedness of their professional practice; and citizens concerned about the impact of science and technology in their lives. -Founded in 1958, the Society for the History of Technology initially attracted members from the history profession who had interests in the contextual history of technology. After the "turn to technology" in the mid-1980s, the society's well-regarded journal (Technology and Culture) and its annual meetings began to attract considerable interest from non-historians with technology studies interests. -Less identified with STS, but also of importance to many STS scholars, are the History of Science Society, the Philosophy of Science Association, and the American Association for the History of Medicine. -Additionally, within the US there are significant STS-oriented special interest groups within major disciplinary associations, including the American Anthropological Association, the American Political Science Association, the National Women's Studies Association, and the American Sociological Association. - -== Journals == -Notable peer-reviewed journals in STS include: - -Student journals in STS include: - -== Notable scholars == - -== See also == - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md deleted file mode 100644 index 259e82a47..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science and technology studies" -chunk: 8/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:22.802425+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Further reading == -Bauchspies, Wenda; Croissant, Jennifer; Restivo, Sal (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23210-0. -Bijker, Wiebe; Hughes, Thomas; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1987). The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02262-0. -Felt, Ulrike; Fouché, Rayvon; Miller, Clark A.; Smith-Doerr, Laruel, eds. (2017). The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03568-2. -Fuller, Steve (1993). Philosophy, Rhetoric, and the End of Knowledge: The Coming of Science and Technology Studies. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (2nd edition, with James H. Collier, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004) -Hess, David J. (1997). Science Studies: An Advanced Introduction. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3564-0. -Jasanoff, Sheila; Markle, Gerald; Petersen, James; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1994). Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 978-0-8039-4021-5. -Kuhn, Thomas (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. -Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. -Restivo, Sal, ed. (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514193-1. -Guglielmo Rinzivillo (2020), Raccontare la tecnoscienza. Storia di macchine, strumenti e idee per fare funzionare il mondo, Roma, Edizioni Nuova Cultura; ISBN 978-88-3365-349-5; ISSN 2284-0567). - -== External links == -Argentinean Network for Science and Technology Studies -Instituto de Estudios sobre la Ciencia y la Tecnología - Universidad Nacional de Quilmes -Science and Technology Studies Department - University College London - -=== Journals === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8a12ba2e7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science by press conference" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:46.429064+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science by press conference or science by press release is the practice by which scientists put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the news media via press conferences or press releases. The term is usually used disparagingly, to suggest that the seekers of publicity are promoting claims of questionable scientific merit, using the media for attention as they are unlikely to win the approval of the scientific community. -Premature publicity violates a cultural value of most of the scientific community, which is that findings should be subjected to independent review with a "thorough examination by the scientific community" before they are widely publicized. The standard practice is to publish a paper in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. This idea has many merits, including that the scientific community has a responsibility to conduct itself in a deliberative, non-attention seeking way; and that its members should be oriented more towards the pursuit of insight than fame. Science by press conference in its most egregious forms can be undertaken on behalf of an individual researcher seeking fame, a corporation seeking to sway public opinion or investor perception, or a political or ideological movement. - -== Etymology == -The phrase was coined by Spyros Andreopoulos, a public affairs officer at Stanford University Medical School, in a 1980 letter which appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine. Andreopoulos was commenting specifically on the publicity practices of biotechnology startups, including Biogen and Genentech. The journal in which it appeared had implemented a long-standing policy under editor Franz J. Ingelfinger which prohibited seeking publicity for research prior to its submission or publication, informally called the Ingelfinger Rule. - -== Notable examples == -In 1989, chemists Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann held a press conference to claim they had successfully achieved cold fusion. (Highlighting the complexity of defining the term, Pons and Fleischman technically had an accepted paper in press at a peer-reviewed journal at the time of their press conference, though that was not widely acknowledged at the time, and the quality of the paper and its review were later criticized.) -In 1998, Andrew Wakefield held a press conference to claim that the MMR vaccine caused autism. In January 2011, an article by Brian Deer and its accompanying editorial in BMJ identified Wakefield's work as an "elaborate fraud". -In 2002, a group called Clonaid held a press conference to announce they had successfully achieved human cloning. -In 2005, the European Ramazzini Foundation of Oncology and Environmental Sciences (ERF) reported their findings from testing aspartame on rats. Their studies were widely criticized and later discounted. -In September 2012, Gilles-Éric Séralini held a press conference to claim that genetically modified food caused terrible cancers in rats, on the eve of the publication of a scientific paper, a book publication, and a movie release, and in the runup to the vote on California Proposition 37, a GM food-labeling initiative. As the Séralini affair unfolded, it was revealed that Séralini required journalists to sign confidentiality agreements in order to receive pre-prints of the paper, to prevent them from discussing the paper with independent scientists. The scientific paper was retracted in 2013. -These cases became notorious examples of "science by press conference" precisely because they were widely reported in the press, but were later rebuffed, debunked, or found to be outright fraud. - -== Motivations == -Competition for publicity, between scientific institutions or just individual researchers, is considered a driving force behind premature press conferences. Pressure to announce research findings quickly enough to "avoid losing credit" for any scientific advances may be enhanced by limited or highly competitive funding. -Science by press conference does not have to involve a groundbreaking announcement. A manufacturer may desire to publicize results of research that suggest their product is safe. Science by press conference does not necessarily have to be directed at the general public. In some cases, it may be directed at a target market such as opinion leaders, a specific industry, potential investors, or a specific group of consumers. Biotechnology companies, for example, have financial incentives to utilize premature press conferences to gain favorable media coverage. -In recent years, sociologists of science have recast discussion about "science by press conference". They point to the increasing presence of media conversation across all aspects of culture, and argue that science is subject to many of the same social forces as other aspects of culture. They have described the increased "medialization" of science, and suggest that both science and society are changed by this process. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index d741bc8ce..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science by press conference" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:46.429064+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Responsibility == -While the phrase tends to criticize scientists involved in creating the publicity, it has also been used to assert that the media bear responsibility in many instances. Even well-intentioned scientists can sometimes unintentionally create truth-distorting media firestorms because of journalists' difficulty in remaining critical and balanced, the media's interest in controversy, and the general tendency of science reporting to focus on apparent "groundbreaking findings" rather than on the larger context of a research field. Further, when results are released with great fanfare and limited peer review, basic journalism skills require skepticism and further investigation, the frequent lack of which can be seen as a problem with the media as much as with scientists who seek to exploit their power. -Common examples of science by press conference are media reports that a certain product or activity affects health or safety. For instance, the media frequently report findings that a certain food causes or prevents a disease. These reports sometimes contradict earlier reports. In some cases, it is later learned that a group interested in influencing opinion had a hand in publicizing a specific report. -The phrase also condemns different behavior in different fields. For instance, scientists working in fields that put an emphasis on the value of fast dissemination of research, such as HIV treatment research, often first and most visibly disseminate research results via conferences or talks rather than through printed publication. In these areas of science, printed publication occurs later in the process of dissemination of results than in some other fields. In the case of HIV, this is partly the result of AIDS activism in which people with AIDS and their allies criticized the slow pace of research. In particular, they characterized researchers who kept quiet before publication as being more interested in their careers than in the well-being of people with AIDS. On the other hand, over-hyped early findings can inspire activists' ire and even their direct and critical use of the phrase "science by press conference". AIDS denialist groups have claimed that press conferences announcing findings in HIV and AIDS research, particularly Robert Gallo's April 23, 1984, announcement of the discovery of the probable AIDS virus, inhibited research into non-HIV etiologies of AIDS. -Similarly, clinical trials and other kinds of important medical research may release preliminary results to the media before a journal article is printed. In this case, the justification can be that clinicians and patients will benefit from the information even knowing that the data are preliminary and require further review. For instance, researchers did not wait to publish journal articles about the SARS outbreak before notifying the media about many of their findings, for obvious reasons. -Another example might be the termination of a clinical trial because it has yielded early benefit. Publicizing this kind of result has obvious value; a delay of a few months might have terrible consequences when the results concern life-threatening conditions. On the other hand, the latter practice is especially vulnerable to abuse for self-serving ends and thus has drawn criticism similar to that implied by the phrase "science by press conference". -These examples illustrate that the derision in the term "science by press conference" does not necessarily reflect an absolute rule to publish before publicizing. Rather, it illustrates the value that publicity should be a byproduct of science rather than its objective. - -== See also == -Fringe science -Hype in science -Medical journalism -Science journalism -Predatory publishing - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(radio_programme)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(radio_programme)-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index a212fb486..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(radio_programme)-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science in Action (radio programme)" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(radio_programme)" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:47.877339+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science in Action was a long-running weekly radio programme produced by the BBC World Service and hosted by British journalists Roland Pease, Marnie Chesterton, and scientist and broadcaster Professor Adam Hart. It was broadcast on Thursdays at 18.32 GMT and repeated twice the following day, at 01.32 and 08.32. -A programme with the title Science in Action is believed to have begun life in 1964, when it replaced an earlier series, dating from the 1950s, called Science and Industry. From September 1965 a short-lived series called Science in Action ran on the Home Service; it was broadcast at 19.30 on Thursdays, later 21.30. In December 1965 it was moved to 14.30 on Fridays. The present weekly World Service series, also called Science in Action, began on Saturday 7 July 1979. -The last broadcast was on 30 October 2025, as part of a cut of £6 million from the World Service and loss of 130 jobs. The programme was replaced with BBC Radio 4's programme, Inside Science, which took over the former slots of Science in Action. - - -== See also == -Inside Science, radio programme on BBC Radio Four - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Science in Action at BBC Online \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 43df39036..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science in newly industrialized countries" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:49.057220+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Scientific research is concentrated in the developed world, with only a marginal contribution from the rest of the world. Many newly industrialized countries have been trying to establish scientific institutions, but with limited success. There is an insufficient dedicated, inspired and motivated labor pool for science and insufficient investment in science education. - -== The limited success of Newly Industrialized Countries == -The reason that there have been so few scientists, who have made their mark globally, from most NIC's (Newly Industrialized Countries) is partly historical and partly social A true scientist is nurtured from the school upwards to scientific establishments. Only if there are inspired and dedicated school science teachers in abundance, there will be a sufficient number of inspired students who would like to take science as a career option and who may one day become a successful scientist. - -== The common thread == -A common thread can indeed be discerned in the state of science in many NICs. Thus although, most of the science establishments in the major NICs can be said to be doing fairly well, none of them have been as successful as the developed countries. -After the Second World War, a small technical elite arose in developing countries such as India, Pakistan, Brazil, and Iraq who had been educated as scientists in the industrialized world. They spearheaded the development of science in these countries, presuming that by pushing for Manhattan Project-type enterprises in nuclear power, electronics, pharmaceuticals, or space exploration they could leapfrog the dismally low level of development of science establishments in their countries. India, for example, started a nuclear energy program that mobilized thousands of technicians and cost hundreds of millions of dollars but had limited success. Though China, North Korea, India and Pakistan have been successful in deploying nuclear weapons and some of them e.g. China and India have launched fairly successful space programs, (for example, Chandrayaan I (Sanskrit चंद्रयान-1), which literally means "Moon Craft," is an unmanned lunar mission by the Indian Space Research Organisation that hoped to land a motorised rover on the Moon in 2010 or 2011 as a part of its second Chandrayaan mission; Chang'e I, China's Moon probing project is proceeding in a well-organized way), the fact remains that most of the scientists responsible for these deeds had received their terminal education from some institution or university in US or Europe. In addition there have been hardly any Nobel laureates in science who have conducted the path-breaking research in a native science establishment. - -== Science in Brazil == - -Brazilian science effectively began in the 19th century. Until then, Brazil was a poor colony, without universities, printing presses, libraries, museums, etc. This was perhaps a deliberate policy of the Portuguese colonial power, because they feared that the appearance of educated Brazilian classes would boost nationalism and aspirations toward political independence. -The first attempts of having a Brazilian science establishment were made around 1783, with the expedition of Portuguese naturalist Alexandre Rodrigues, who was sent by Portugal's prime minister, the Marquis of Pombal, to explore and identify Brazilian fauna, flora and geology. His collections, however, were lost to the French, when Napoleon invaded, and were transported to Paris by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In 1772, the first learned society, the Sociedade Scientifica, was founded in Rio de Janeiro, but lasted only until 1794. Also, in 1797, the first botanic institute was founded in Salvador, Bahia. In the second and third decades of the twentieth century, the main universities in Brazil were organised from a set of existing medical, engineering and law schools. The University of Brazil dates from 1927, the University of São Paulo - today the largest in the Country - dates from 1934. -Today, Brazil has a well-developed organization of science and technology. Basic research in science is largely carried out in public universities and research centers and institutes, and some in private institutions, particularly in non-profit non-governmental organizations. More than 90% of funding for basic research comes from governmental sources. -Applied research, technology and engineering is also largely carried out in the university and research centers system, contrary-wise to more developed countries such as the United States, South Korea, Germany, Japan, etc. A significant trend is emerging lately. Companies such as Motorola, Samsung, Nokia and IBM have established large R&D&I centers in Brazil. One of the incentive factors for this, besides the relatively lower cost and high sophistication and skills of Brazilian technical manpower, has been the so-called Informatics Law, which exempts from certain taxes up to 5% of the gross revenue of high technology manufacturing companies in the fields of telecommunications, computers, digital electronics, etc. The Law has attracted annually more than 1,5 billion dollars of investment in Brazilian R&D&I. Multinational companies have also discovered that some products and technologies designed and developed by Brazilians are significantly competitive and are appreciated by other countries, such as automobiles, aircraft, software, fiber optics, electric appliances, and so on. -The challenges Brazilian science faces today are: to expand the system with quality, supporting the installed competence; transfer knowledge from the research sector to industry; embark on government action in strategic areas; enhance the assessment of existing programmes and commence innovative projects in areas of relevance for the Country. Furthermore, scientific dissemination plays a fundamental role in transforming the perception of the public at large of the importance of science in modern life. The government has undertaken to meet these challenges using institutional base and the operation of existing qualified scientists. - -== Science in China == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1a2d8983d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science in newly industrialized countries" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:49.057220+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -China was a world leader in science and technology until the early years of the Ming dynasty. Chinese discoveries and Chinese innovations such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions) contributed to the economic development in East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. A question that has been intriguing many historians studying China is the fact that China did not develop a scientific revolution and Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic. has argued that China indeed had a scientific revolution in the 17th century and that we are still far from understanding the scientific revolutions of the West and China in all their political, economic and social ramifications. Some like John K. Fairbank are of the opinion that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. -Needham argued, and most scholars agreed, that cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature. More recent historians have questioned political and cultural explanations and have focused more on economic causes. Mark Elvin's high level equilibrium trap is one well-known example of this line of thought, as well as Kenneth Pomeranz' argument that resources from the New World made the crucial difference between European and Chinese development. -Thus, it was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The Taoists, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naive for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it. Similar grounds have been found for questioning much of the philosophy behind traditional Chinese medicine, which, derived mainly from Taoist philosophy, reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. Because its theory predates use of the scientific method, it has received various criticisms based on scientific thinking. Even though there are physically verifiable anatomical or histological bases for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians, for instance skin conductance measurements show increases at the predicted points. -Today, science and technology establishment in the People's Republic of China is growing rapidly. Even as many Chinese scientists debate what institutional arrangements will be best for Chinese science, reforms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences continue. The average age of researchers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences has dropped by nearly ten years between 1991 and 2003. However, many of them are educated in the United States and other foreign countries. -Chinese university undergraduate and graduate enrollments more than doubled from 1995 to 2005. The universities now have more cited PRC papers than CAS in the Science Citation Index. Some Chinese scientists say CAS is still ahead on overall quality of scientific work but that lead will only last five to ten years. -Several Chinese immigrants to the United States have also been awarded the Nobel Prize, including:, Samuel C. C. Ting, Chen Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee, Daniel C. Tsui, and Gao Xingjian. Other overseas ethnic Chinese that have achieved success in sciences include Fields Medal recipient Shing-Tung Yau and Terence Tao, and Turing Award recipient Andrew Yao. Tsien Hsue-shen was a prominent scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, while Chien-Shiung Wu contributed to the Manhattan Project (some argue she never received the Nobel Prize unlike her colleagues Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang due to sexism by the selection committee). Others include Charles K. Kao, a pioneer in fiber optics technology, and Dr. David Ho, one of the first scientists to propose that AIDS was caused by a virus, thus subsequently developing combination antiretroviral therapy to combat it. Dr. Ho was named TIME magazine's 1996 Man of the Year. In 2015, Tu Youyou, a pharmaceutical chemist, became the first native Chinese scientist, born and educated and carried out research exclusively in the People's Republic of China, to receive the Nobel Prize in natural sciences. - -== Science in India == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index f63290c76..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science in newly industrialized countries" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:49.057220+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The earliest applications of science in India took place in the context of medicine, metallurgy, construction technology (such as ship building, manufacture of cement and paints) and in textile production and dyeing. But in the process of understanding chemical processes, led to some theories about physical processes and the forces of nature that are today studied as specific topics within the fields of chemistry and physics. -Many mathematical concepts today were contributed by Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata. -There was really no place for scientists in the Indian caste system. Thus while there were/are castes for the learned brahmins, the warriors kshatriyas, the traders vaishyas and the menial workers shudras, maybe even the bureaucrats (the kayasths) there was/is hardly any formal place in the social hierarchy for a people who discover new knowledge or invent new devices based on the recently discovered knowledge, even though scientific temper has always been in India, in the form of logic, reasoning and method of acquiring knowledge. Its therefore no wonder that some Indians quickly learned to value science, especially those belonging to the privileged Brahmin caste during the British colonial rule that lasted over two centuries. Some Indians did succeed to achieve notable success and fame, examples include Satyendra Nath Bose, Meghnad Saha, Jagdish Chandra Bose and C. V. Raman even though they belonged to different castes. The science communication had begun with publication of a scientific journal, Asiatick Researches in 1788. Thereafter, the science communication in India has evolved in many facets. Following this, there has been a continuing development in the formation of scientific institutions and publication of scientific literature. Subsequently, scientific publications also started appearing in Indian languages by the end of eighteenth century. The publication of ancient scientific literature and textbooks at mass scale started in the beginning of nineteenth century. The scientific and technical terms, however, had been a great difficulty for a long time for popular science writing. - -== See also == -Science and technology in Iran -Science and technology in Pakistan -Science and technology in the Philippines -Science and technology in Turkey - -== References == - -== External links == -Raising the Level of Science in Developing Countries -Improving Science Literacy and Conservation in Developing Countries at the Wayback Machine (archived 2007-07-02) -Science in Indian subcontinent at the Wayback Machine (archived 2007-09-07) -Role of Education, Science and Technology in Developing Countries Archived 2008-05-15 at the Wayback Machine -India science report at the Library of Congress Web Archives (archived 2005-10-07) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 149512058..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science on Tap" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:54.331854+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science on Tap is the social-cultural initiative of Yivsam Azgad, head of the Media Department and art curator of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. -The project began in 2010, under the title "Beer, Science, and Fun", as a gesture to the city of Rehovot on its 120th anniversary. In this framework, some 35 scientists and graduate students went to bars and pubs in Rehovot to talk with the patrons about open questions in science and the newest advances on the forefront of global science. On the same night, research students went to the city center and led a “science comics” session for children in which they created their own science comics, inspired by the Nano Comics series put out by the Weizmann Institute of Science and edited by Yivsam Azgad. -This initiative was highly successful and was covered by the media in Israel and the world. The scientists, artists, and politicians posed a challenge to the organizers: To reproduce this success in Tel Aviv. -In response to the challenge, Azgad decided, with the support of the Weizmann Institute of Science president, Prof. Daniel Zajfman, to organize the event in Tel Aviv under a new name: Science on Tap. This event, preceded by a creative ad campaign, included the participation of 70 scientists from the Weizmann Institute of Science speaking in different bars, all at the same time, with free entrance for all. The wild success of this venture led to a significant change in the entertainment culture in Tel Aviv in particular and in Israel in general. Dozens of similar projects, all with the “on Tap” format, (Doctors on Tap, Law on Tap, Knesset Members on Tap, Stock Market on Tap, etc.) were introduced. Similar events have also been put on in London, Boston, Panama City and other places around the world. -Science on Tap is an annual event in Tel Aviv and is conducted jointly by the Weizmann Institute of Science, Time Out Tel Aviv magazine, and often the Tel Aviv municipality. It remains the largest event of its kind. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 47f90e74d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,77 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Science outreach" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:55.545199+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Science outreach, also called education and public outreach (EPO or E/PO) or simply public outreach, is an umbrella term for a variety of activities by research institutes, universities, and institutions such as science museums, aimed at promoting public awareness (and understanding) of science, including trust-building, and making informal contributions to science education. - - -== Scope and history == -While there have always been individual scientists interested in educating the public, science outreach has recently become more organized. For example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) now requires all of its projects to organize suitable outreach activities. Also working to inform the public are organizations such as Communicating Astronomy to the Public and the Washington Declaration on Communicating Astronomy to the Public that organize conferences for the public on science issues and make efforts to put outreach on a more general institutional footing. -Recently, an increasing number of projects have hired designated outreach scientists (part-time or full-time) that handle public relations for their project. There are also specialized outreach providers such as the Education branch of the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado and the Education and Public Outreach Group at Sonoma State University which offer to organize a project's outreach activities on a contractual basis. -In addition to outreach by research institutions, an important part of informal science education are outreach programs such as science museums and science festivals. - - -== Activities == -Science outreach can take on a variety of forms. - - -=== Public talks, lectures, and discussions === - -Lectures are probably the oldest form of science outreach, dating back to the 1820s when Michael Faraday organized the first of the Royal Institution's Christmas Lectures. -Public talks can be part of a lecture series, given at a science festival or in cooperation with a special interest group such as a local astronomy club. Public presentations can have a variety of formats, including straightforward lecture formats with or without experimental demonstrations, guided live interviews, and discussions with several participants and a moderator. There are also less formal initiatives such as Café Scientifique, in which a café or bar is the venue for regular meetings involving guest scientists that come to talk about their work or take part in discussions with members of the public, and collaborations with museums - - -=== Visiting primary and secondary schools === -School students and teachers are an important target group for science outreach. Outreach activities can include scientists visiting schools, giving talks at assemblies, discussions with students, or participation in events such as career fairs and science and technology camps. One organization that focuses on this kind of science outreach is Robogals. Many universities also have science outreach programs that are dedicated to building relationships between high school students, university scientists, and K–12 teachers. A few of the most prominent university science outreach programs include Carolina Science Outreach, the Vanderbilt Student Volunteers for Science, the Rockefeller University Science Outreach Program, the Present Your Ph.D. thesis to a 12-Year Old Outreach Project at University of Texas at Austin in Austin, Texas, the Present Your PhD graduate organization at Baylor University in Waco, Texas, the Discover STEM Polymer Day and Energy and U at the University of Minnesota, and the Stanford University Office of Science Outreach. Using Canada as an example, it has been estimated that with sufficient organization, every classroom from kindergarten through graduation could in practice receive a visit from one or more scientists annually with participation from only 10-15% of the scientific enterprise. Some examples of science outreach programs in Canada include: Let's Talk Science, Actua, The Chemical Institute of Canada, and Science Rendezvous. - - -=== Workshops and schools for teachers or students === - -Inviting groups of school students to a research institution for a workshop is another popular form of outreach. Formats range from a one-day visit to more involved week-long events such as Perimeter Institute's International Summer School for Young Physicists, a two-week-long program for a total of a hundred Canadian and international students from grade 11. -Another method of science outreach invites school teachers to participate in workshops where they are able to learn effective strategies to engage students in science. This approach was especially embraced by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) which held an annual "Space Educators" conference up until 2012 to provides teachers with access to resources to educate their students in space-related science. - - -=== Supporting science fairs and similar events === - -Besides organizing independent events, many outreach organizations sponsor existing events that promote sciences awareness. A notable examples are science fairs, public science events in which working scientists can participate both as judges and as sponsors of student projects. - - -=== Online aggregation of science activities, resources, and programs === -The internet is a rich source of science activities, resources, and programs. For example, research laboratories often maintain educational outreach projects aimed at translating their science into something meaningful for the general public, often K–12 students, as an effort to increase research broader impacts required by funding agencies such as the National Science Foundation (NSF). These may include activities using fast-growing plants that exhibit distinctive mutants with unique phenotypes useful to teach K–12 students about both Mendelian and molecular genetics. Some institutions and organizations maintain large or small aggregations of their activity resources, outreach programs, upcoming events calendars, and partnering programs. - - -== Awards == -A number of awards honor commitment to science outreach. Examples include: - -Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology, American Association for the Advancement of Science -Descartes Prize for Excellence in Science Communication, European Commission -Michael Faraday Prize for communicating science to a UK audience (Royal Society) -Communicator award, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft -Synapse Mentorship Awards, often given for exceptional contributions to science outreach, Canadian Institutes of Health Research -Nicholson Medal for Human Outreach, American Physical Society -Charles A. Black Award, for exemplary contributions to public understanding of food and agricultural science -Kalinga Prize for popularisation of science is an award given by UNESCO since 1952 for exceptional skill in presenting scientific ideas to lay people - - -== See also == -List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe -Science Communication Observatory -Science festival -Science museum -Scientific literacy -Physics Outreach -Popular science -Public science - - -== References == - - -== External links == -NASA Science \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index fb6b8f213..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scienticide" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:07.042813+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Scienticide is a concept used to refer to various multifaceted processes or phenomena that lead to the harassment, reduction, or outright destruction of scientific and technological systems in some countries of the world, as well as the exile or abandonment of researchers from their places of training. These can occur for various reasons, such as wars, political repression, lack of opportunities, climate crises, foreign interventions, economic policies, or ideological persecution. - - -== Etymology == -The term metaphorically refers to the "murder of science," as it combines the word *science* with the Latin suffix - *cidium*, which comes from the root *caedĕre* ("to kill"). A comparative use of the term has been proposed alongside "femicide", as part of policies aimed at eliminating the scientific and technological systems of a country. - - -== History == -The first references to this concept using the English word "scienticide" date back to the 1990s when it was used to refer to the destruction of the network of educational, scientific, and research institutions created by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia between 1942 and 1945. The educational system established was systematically attacked by the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland, commonly known as *Chetniks*, a nationalist, conservative, and Serbian monarchist guerrilla organization. This harassment was referred to as a true scienticide. The term was also used to describe the persecution, murder, or imprisonment in concentration camps of many genetic scientists—such as Nikolai Vavilov— by the former Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s. -Years later, this term was used in Portuguese in 2014 to criticize government policies in Portugal related to cuts of 82 million euros from science, driven by then Minister of Education and Science, which was labeled "scienticide" by the opposition. -In Spanish, the concept gained relevance when it began to be formulated and extensively used within Argentine academic circles to refer to and oppose budget cuts and their negative effects on the scientific-technological system that occurred starting in 2016 during Mauricio Macri's government. Thus, during these years, several publications emerged; the first within a free chair at a national university, in newspapers, academic books, and scientific publications. During this period, the concept and word were used as a slogan by those affected by these policies. Subsequently, its use expanded to encompass both loss of sovereignty and neoliberal policies in Latin America, as well as what is commonly referred to as "infocognitive extractivism" of highly qualified scientific personnel by first-world scientific centers, linking it to what is commonly known as "brain drain". A similar process occurred in Brazil during these years when it was described as "scienticides". -At an international level, the term was not significantly used until the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, which significantly affected science in that country. This greater dissemination occurred following an article in *Nature*, which echoed accusations made by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine against Russia for the deliberate destruction of science in Ukraine. This process was described with the concept of "scienticide". In this latter case, in addition to the intentional destruction of a large amount of scientific infrastructure, by March 2024 at least 124 scientists had been counted as dead during the war; 12% of scientists from Ukraine had emigrated to other countries; while 1,443 scientific buildings had been damaged. -At the same time, in 2024 the concept was forcefully used again in Argentina due to disinvestment policies affecting the scientific-technological system and verbal attacks against the scientific community by President Javier Milei on different occasions. This was described in multiple national and international media outlets. At the same time, there has been an increase in persecution against scientists and researchers for ideological reasons. Important international science and technology journals such as Nature and Science have referred to this issue. The latter journal placed Argentina alongside other countries experiencing brain drain for various reasons such as Syria, Turkey, Ethiopia, Iran, Afghanistan, and Ukraine. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4d2c30e0b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,165 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific Integrity in Policymaking" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:01.426721+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -"Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science" is the title of a report published by the Union of Concerned Scientists in February, 2004. The report was the culmination of an investigation of the Bush administration's objectivity in science, and ultimately a criticism thereof. - - -== "Suppression and distortion of research findings" == - -A central thesis of the report, according to the Executive Summary (on page 2 of the text), was that the Bush administration had behaved in ways considered to be consistent with the following three situations. - -Epidemic altering and concealing of scientific information by senior officials in various federal agencies -Active censorship of scientific information that the administration considered threatening to its own philosophies -Restriction of the ability of government-supported scientists to freely communicate scientific ideas related to "sensitive" issues - - -== "An unprecedented pattern of behavior" == -In "Part III", the text of the report posits that the aforementioned activities are unprecedented in the history of the United States. The report lists the following persons and organization who had supposedly acted or made statements to support this claim. -This list is sorted first by category, then by the order in which the persons or organizations are mentioned in the report. - -Organization -REP America -Persons -Ruckelshaus, William -Train, Russell -Panofsky, Dr. Wolfgang H. K. -Goldberger, Dr. Marvin -Scarlett, Dr. Margaret -Kennedy, Donald -Bromley, Dr. D. Allan -Branscomb, Professor Lewis M. -Goldman, Dr. Lynn - - -== Recommendations by the Union == -Page 29 of the report states: "This behavior by the administration violates the central premise of the scientific method, and is therefore of particularly grave concern to the scientific community." It then goes on, in a short section titled "Conclusions and Recommendations: What's at Stake" at the end of the report, to provide recommendations for "restoring scientific integrity to federal policymaking" (page 30). These recommendations (on pages 30–31) include a suggestion for the President of the United States to issue executive orders, and other actions, that would prevent further "abuse"; for the United States Congress to hold appropriate hearings, consider the consequences of statutory law under its influence, increase the amount of publicly available scientific information, and establish an organization to guide Congress in its deliberations in technical matters; for scientists to raise awareness of the aforementioned issues and provide public policy recommendations; for the public to exercise its political influence in a constructive manner. - - -== Response == -On April 2, 2004, the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy issued a statement by Dr. John Marburger, the director of OSTP, that claims the descriptions of the incidents in the UCS report are all "false," "wrong," or "a distortion." He said he was disappointed with the report and dismissed it as "biased."[1]. - - -== The report's table of contents == -The following is a duplication of the report's table of contents. - -Executive summary -Part I: Suppression and distortion of research findings at federal agencies -Distorting and suppressing climate change research -Censoring information on air quality -Mercury emissions from power plants -Addressing multiple air pollutants -Distorting scientific knowledge on reproductive health issues -Abstinence-only education -HIV/AIDS -Breast cancer -Suppressing analysis on airborne bacteria -Misrepresenting evidence on Iraq's aluminum tubes -Manipulation of science regarding the endangered species act -Missouri River -Manipulating the scientific process on forest management -OMB rulemaking on "peer review" -Part II: Undermining the quality and integrity of the appointment process -Industry influence on lead poisoning prevention panel -Political litmus tests on workplace safety panel -Non-scientist in senior advisory role to the President -Underqualified candidates in health advisory roles -The FDA's Reproductive Health Advisory Committee -Presidential Advisory Council on HIV/AIDS -Litmus tests for scientific appointees -National Institute on Drug Abuse -Army Science Board -Dismissal of nuclear weapons and arms control panels -National Nuclear Security Administration panel -Arms control panel -Part III: An unprecedented pattern of behavior -Disseminating research from federal agencies -Irregularities in appointments to scientific advisory panels -Conclusions and recommendations: What's at stake -Restoring scientific integrity to federal policy making -Appendices -EPA memo on climate section of the Report on the Environment -USDA "sensitive issue" list - - -== Associated Statement "Restoring Scientific Integrity in Policymaking" == -At the time of issue of this report, the UCS released a statement supporting the criticisms detailed in the above report. This statement was originally signed by the 62 prominent scientists listed below. Since that time it has gathered support from more than 12,000 scientists. -Signatories of the original statement include: - -Philip W. Anderson -David Baltimore -Paul Berg -Rosina Bierbaum -Nicolaas Bloembergen -Lewis M. Branscomb -Eric Chivian -Joel E. Cohen -James Cronin -Margaret Davis -Paul M. Doty -Paul Ehrlich -Thomas Eisner -Christopher Field -Gerald D. Fischbach -Val L. Fitch -Jerry Franklin -Jerome Friedman -Richard L. Garwin -John H. Gibbons -Marvin L. Goldberger -Lynn R. Goldman -Kurt Gottfried -David Grimes -Roger Guillemin -John P. Holdren -Eric R. Kandel -Anne Kapuscinski -Walter Kohn -Lawrence Krauss -Neal F. Lane -Leon M. Lederman -William Lipscomb -Jane Lubchenco -Michael MacCracken -James J. McCarthy -Jerry M. Melillo -Matthew S. Meselson -David Michaels -Mario Molina -Michael Oppenheimer -Gordon Orians -W.K.H. Panofsky -Stuart Pimm -Ron Pulliam -Norman F. Ramsey -Anthony Robbins -Allan Rosenfield -F. Sherwood Rowland -Edwin E. Salpeter -William Schlesinger -J. Robert Schrieffer -Richard Smalley -Felicia Stewart -Kevin Trenberth -Harold E. Varmus -Steven Weinberg -E.O. Wilson -Edward Witten -George Woodwell -Donald Wuebbles -Herbert F. York - - -== External links == -Restoring Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: The Bush Administration’s Misuse of Science, February 2004 -Scientific Integrity in Policy Making: Further Investigation of the Bush Administration’s Misuse of Science, July 2004 -2004 Scientist Statement on Restoring Scientific Integrity to Federal Policy Making - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index af7be8057..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific celebrity" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:00.240675+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -A scientific celebrity, also known as a celebrity scientist or public scientist, is a scientist who has gained significant public attention, usually through the media. For the general public, scientific celebrities serve to represent science or a field of science. In some instances this can be self-serving in nature or can be at the behest of governmental or corporate interests or to promote the science involved. -With new scientific discoveries scientists come to be publicly known for their contributions. Although this type of recognition has become more common in recent times (coincidental with the rise of celebrity culture), the phenomenon is centuries old. Media attention to science became more pervasive beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s as the variety of media outlets increased and they gave greater attention to scientific progress. Scientific celebrities have had a significant role in the popularization of science. - -== Historical examples == - -In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Isaac Newton became widely known in the United Kingdom and much of the western world after he published his theories of motion. Others, including Voltaire, promoted Newton's reputation; although Newton did not actively promote himself. -Charles Darwin pursued popularity among the general public following his 1859 publication of his book On the Origin of Species which explained his theory of evolution. This included distribution of mass-produced photographs of himself and his projects. He carefully selected interviews and public appearances. He responded to his mail with pre-printed responses. Darwin made available low cost editions of his book for reading by the general public. Statuettes of a chimpanzee contemplating a human skull became widely available following the rise of Darwin's fame. - -== Modern examples == -By 1919, shortly after Albert Einstein published his seminal work on the General Theory of Relativity, he became well known among the general public around the world. By then, experimental data appeared to support Einstein's theories, and this revolutionary new way of thinking of the physical world commanded significant public attention. Science historian Abraham Pais wrote, “Einstein, creator of some of the best science of all time, is himself a creation of the media in so far as he is and remains a public figure.” Einstein's rise to celebrity status is traceable to November 1919 as major news outlets such as The Times (of London) and The New York Times reported on the scientific breakthroughs. Einstein was at times uncomfortable with his celebrity status, as it compromised his privacy. However, he used his fame to advance social causes for which he had strong conviction, such as Zionism, nuclear disarmament, civil rights, and pacifism. -Astronomer Fred Hoyle rose to prominence by 1950, especially in the United Kingdom. He hosted a series of radio broadcasts by the BBC entitled, "The Nature of the Universe". Hoyle was for a time among the most popular broadcasters in the United Kingdom, and the book version of his radio broadcast was a bestseller. -In the latter part of the 20th century and early 21st century, cosmologist Stephen Hawking achieved celebrity status. This was initially through his research publications on black holes and other aspects of cosmology. In 1988, he published A Brief History of Time, which was a book that provided insight into cosmology for the general public. Hawking's celebrity status grew rapidly, and his involvement in popular culture was perpetuated through television and radio appearances, biographical books, and being the subject of a movie, The Theory of Everything. At times, Hawking suffered from public scrutiny of his private life. -Brian Cox, British physicist and science presenter, can be considered a living example of a scientific celebrity, as he has presented multiple scientific programs and appeared on different talk shows, such as The Late Show With Stephen Colbert and others. -Lists of notable English language popularizers of science and of science communicators are available. - -== The Sagan Effect == - -Carl Sagan was an accomplished researcher in the field of planetary science by the time he published his 1977 book The Dragons of Eden, on the evolution of human intelligence, targeted for general, non-scientific audiences. With this book, Sagan earned the Pulitzer Prize and became famous. In 1980, Sagan hosted the television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, which cemented his status as a scientific celebrity. Time Magazine called Sagan "America's most effective salesman of science." -Sagan was a university professor at the time that he first achieved celebrity status. Influential academic peers perceived Sagan as a popularizer of science and not a serious scholar. He was denied academic tenure at Harvard University, despite his significant achievements as an independent researcher. (He later became a full professor at Cornell University.) Science historian Michael Shermer termed this the "Sagan Effect." This form of academic snobbery has applied to some other scientific celebrities, including Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. A 2016 discussion of the Sagan Effect indicated that the effect was continuing to persist at that time, even though it may be in decline as academic institutions have become more engaged in public outreach. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index e7797cc28..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific celebrity" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:00.240675+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Role of the media == -The means of media reporting on science and the amount of science reporting have evolved significantly since science reporting first began, just as it has with journalism on most subjects. Early on, scientists gained the publicity necessary for celebrity status through traditional print media, including newspapers, magazines, pamphlets and mailings. The lecture circuit was another means, especially for self-promotion. By the middle of the 20th century, broadcast media such as television and radio and eventually cable television became important outlets. The rise of digital media enabled scientist to directly address the general public. Many other people have become known to the public as a result of media promotion. Heads of state, heads of governmental units and religious leaders have long received this type of media attention in representing interests other than their own. Scientific celebrity is similar, and C. Everett Koop is an example of a scientific celebrity who gain celebrity status through his work for a governmental agency, as Surgeon General of the United States. -A further form of scientific outreach in the digital age is TED Talks. Science is one of the basic themes of Ted Talks, and examples of scientific celebrities who have presented TED Talks include E.O. Wilson, Barry Schwartz, Richard Dawkins, Steven Pinker, Brian Greene, and Laura Boykin, among others. -A survey indicates that public acceptance of scientific concepts, particularly evolution, depends on the celebrity scientists who advocate it and on the other concepts that the celebrity advocates. Amy Unsworth and David Voas found that acceptance of evolution could decrease among some religious groups if it is advocated by a celebrity scientist who is perceived as having negative views of the religion, such as Richard Dawkins. - -== Science by press release == -At times, some scientists have inappropriately or prematurely publicized their research findings in the media, by press release or press conference. This has typically occurred when the findings have questionable scientific merit, and the scientists appeal directly to the general public. At times the host institution is complicit. This type of science by press release is seen as an example of pathological science. Cold fusion is an example of this behavior. - -== Media celebrities == -Some television presenters such as Richard Attenborough, Patrick Moore and David Attenborough have scientific qualifications, and some like Bill Nye have engineering qualifications, but these presenters are primarily known for their own presentations of scientific topics rather than their contributions to the advance of scientific knowledge. Some media outlets have science editors or science reporters who are specifically tasked with reporting on scientific developments. These people often do not have scientific training but rather are professional journalists, a notable example being Jules Bergman of ABC-TV in the United States. -Actor Alan Alda has taken up the cause of aiding scientists in communicating with the general public. His efforts are not limited to scientific celebrities and include scientists that are not well known. Alda's method emphasizes improvisational techniques. -Some celebrities are known for their roles in the media but not for their work in science, such as Mayim Bialik, one of the stars of the television show The Big Bang Theory, who has a PhD in neuroscience. Another example is actress Danica McKellar who has published original research in the field of mathematics. Another is comedian and science writer Kasha Patel. - -== See also == -Celebrity doctor -Science communication -Science communicators -Notable science journalists -Public awareness of science -Science by press conference -List of celebrities with advanced academic degrees -Sociology of scientific knowledge - -== References == - -== Further reading == -La Follette, Marcel Chotkowski. Science on American Television: A History. University of Chicago Press (December 21, 2012). ISBN 978-0226921990. -Fahy, Declan. The New Celebrity Scientists: Out of the Lab and into the Limelight. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers (March 6, 2015). ISBN 978-1442233423. -Kennedy, David; Overholser, Geneva. Science and the Media. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. The Media in Society Project. January 2010. -Martinez-Conde, Susana; Macknik, Stephen L.; Powell, Devin. "The Plight of the Celebrity Scientist". Scientific American, October 2016, pp. 64 – 67. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index be2a1d652..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific lacuna" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:08.160106+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Scientific lacuna describes an area of science that has not been studied but has the potential to be studied scientifically. Often, this may be the case because it falls between different areas of sciences, such that it doesn't fall into a single specific discipline of science. However, it also may be the case that the right situation for study has not yet occurred, or the conditions for study have been too ephemeral. Scientific lacunae often have the potential to be studied in the future when more areas of sciences are explicitly defined or the right conditions do occur, yet this can be made difficult if the area of science is commonly not considered a proper area for scientific study. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9c57ee435..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific law" -chunk: 1/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:14.250608+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Scientific laws or laws of science are statements, based on repeated experiments or observations, that describe or predict a range of natural phenomena. The term law has diverse usage in many cases (approximate, accurate, broad, or narrow) across all fields of natural science (physics, chemistry, astronomy, geoscience, biology). Laws are developed from data and can be further developed through mathematics; in all cases they are directly or indirectly based on empirical evidence. It is generally understood that they implicitly reflect, though they do not explicitly assert, causal relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered rather than invented. -Scientific laws summarize the results of experiments or observations, usually within a certain range of application. In general, the accuracy of a law does not change when a new theory of the relevant phenomenon is worked out, but rather the scope of the law's application, since the mathematics or statement representing the law does not change. As with other kinds of scientific knowledge, scientific laws do not express absolute certainty, as mathematical laws do. A scientific law may be contradicted, restricted, or extended by future observations. -A law can often be formulated as one or several statements or equations, so that it can predict the outcome of an experiment. Laws differ from hypotheses and postulates, which are proposed during the scientific process before and during validation by experiment and observation. Hypotheses and postulates are not laws, since they have not been verified to the same degree, although they may lead to the formulation of laws. Laws are narrower in scope than scientific theories, which may entail one or several laws. Science distinguishes a law or theory from facts. Calling a law a fact is ambiguous, an overstatement, or an equivocation. The nature of scientific laws has been much discussed in philosophy, but scientific laws are empirical conclusions reached by the scientific method; they are intended to be neither laden with ontological commitments nor statements of logical absolutes. -Social sciences such as economics have also attempted to formulate scientific laws, though these generally have much less predictive power. - -== Overview == -A scientific law always applies to a physical system under repeated conditions, and it implies that there is a causal relationship involving the elements of the system. Factual and well-confirmed statements like "Mercury is liquid at standard temperature and pressure" are considered too specific to qualify as scientific laws. A central problem in the philosophy of science, going back to David Hume, is that of distinguishing causal relationships (such as those implied by laws) from principles that arise due to constant conjunction. -Laws differ from scientific theories in that they do not posit a mechanism or explanation of phenomena: they are merely distillations of the results of repeated observation. As such, the applicability of a law is limited to circumstances resembling those already observed, and the law may be found to be false when extrapolated. Ohm's law only applies to linear networks; Newton's law of universal gravitation only applies in weak gravitational fields; the early laws of aerodynamics, such as Bernoulli's principle, do not apply in the case of compressible flow such as occurs in transonic and supersonic flight; Hooke's law only applies to strain below the elastic limit; Boyle's law applies with perfect accuracy only to the ideal gas, etc. These laws remain useful, but only under the specified conditions where they apply. -Many laws take mathematical forms, and thus can be stated as an equation; for example, the law of conservation of energy can be written as ΔE = 0, where E is the total amount of energy in the universe. Similarly, the first law of thermodynamics can be written as dU = δQ − δW, and Newton's second law can be written as F = dp/dt. While these scientific laws explain what our senses perceive, they are still empirical (acquired by observation or scientific experiment) and so are not like mathematical theorems which can be proved purely by mathematics. -Like theories and hypotheses, laws make predictions; specifically, they predict that new observations will conform to the given law. Laws can be falsified if they are found in contradiction with new data. -Some laws are only approximations of other more general laws, and are good approximations with a restricted domain of applicability. For example, Newtonian dynamics (which is based on Galilean transformations) is the low-speed limit of special relativity (since the Galilean transformation is the low-speed approximation to the Lorentz transformation). Similarly, the Newtonian gravitation law is a low-mass approximation of general relativity, and Coulomb's law is an approximation to quantum electrodynamics at large distances (compared to the range of weak interactions). In such cases it is common to use the simpler, approximate versions of the laws, instead of the more accurate general laws. -Laws are constantly being tested experimentally to increasing degrees of precision, which is one of the main goals of science. The fact that laws have never been observed to be violated does not preclude testing them at increased accuracy or in new kinds of conditions to confirm whether they continue to hold, or whether they break, and what can be discovered in the process. It is always possible for laws to be invalidated or proven to have limitations, by repeatable experimental evidence, should any be observed. Well-established laws have indeed been invalidated in some special cases, but the new formulations created to explain the discrepancies generalize upon, rather than overthrow, the originals. That is, the invalidated laws have been found to be only close approximations, to which other terms or factors must be added to cover previously unaccounted-for conditions, e.g. very large or very small scales of time or space, enormous speeds or masses, etc. This, rather than unchanging knowledge, physical laws are better viewed as a series of improving and more precise generalizations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1cb7ba38d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,76 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific law" -chunk: 2/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:14.250608+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Properties == -Scientific laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments and observations over many years and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. A scientific law is "inferred from particular facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions be present". The production of a summary description of our environment in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science. -Several general properties of scientific laws, particularly when referring to laws in physics, have been identified. Scientific laws are: - -True, at least within their regime of validity. By definition, there have never been repeatable contradicting observations. -Universal. They appear to apply everywhere in the universe. -Simple. They are typically expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation. -Absolute. Nothing in the universe appears to affect them. -Stable. Unchanged since first discovered (although they may have been shown to be approximations of more accurate laws), -All-encompassing. Everything in the universe apparently must comply with them (according to observations). -Generally conservative of quantity. -Often expressions of existing homogeneities (symmetries) of space and time. -Typically theoretically reversible in time (if non-quantum), although time itself is irreversible. -Broad. In physics, laws exclusively refer to the broad domain of matter, motion, energy, and force itself, rather than more specific systems in the universe, such as living systems, e.g. the mechanics of the human body. -The term "scientific law" is traditionally associated with the natural sciences, though the social sciences also contain laws. For example, Zipf's law is a law in the social sciences which is based on mathematical statistics. In these cases, laws may describe general trends or expected behaviors rather than being absolutes. -In natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined. -Some examples of widely accepted impossibilities in physics are perpetual motion machines, which violate the law of conservation of energy, exceeding the speed of light, which violates the implications of special relativity, the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, which asserts the impossibility of simultaneously knowing both the position and the momentum of a particle, and Bell's theorem: no physical theory of local hidden variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics. - -== Laws as consequences of mathematical symmetries == - -Some laws reflect mathematical symmetries found in nature (e.g. the Pauli exclusion principle reflects identity of electrons, conservation laws reflect homogeneity of space, time, and Lorentz transformations reflect rotational symmetry of spacetime). Many fundamental physical laws are mathematical consequences of various symmetries of space, time, or other aspects of nature. Specifically, Noether's theorem connects some conservation laws to certain symmetries. For example, conservation of energy is a consequence of the shift symmetry of time (no moment of time is different from any other), while conservation of momentum is a consequence of the symmetry (homogeneity) of space (no place in space is special, or different from any other). The indistinguishability of all particles of each fundamental type (say, electrons, or photons) results in the Dirac and Bose quantum statistics which in turn result in the Pauli exclusion principle for fermions and in Bose–Einstein condensation for bosons. Special relativity uses rapidity to express motion according to the symmetries of hyperbolic rotation, a transformation mixing space and time. Symmetry between inertial and gravitational mass results in general relativity. -The inverse square law of interactions mediated by massless bosons is the mathematical consequence of the 3-dimensionality of space. -One strategy in the search for the most fundamental laws of nature is to search for the most general mathematical symmetry group that can be applied to the fundamental interactions. - -== Laws of physics == - -=== Conservation laws === - -==== Conservation and symmetry ==== - -Conservation laws are fundamental laws that follow from the homogeneity of space, time and phase, in other words symmetry. - -Noether's theorem: Any quantity with a continuously differentiable symmetry in the action has an associated conservation law. -Conservation of mass was the first law to be understood since most macroscopic physical processes involving masses, for example, collisions of massive particles or fluid flow, provide the apparent belief that mass is conserved. Mass conservation was observed to be true for all chemical reactions. In general, this is only approximative because with the advent of relativity and experiments in nuclear and particle physics: mass can be transformed into energy and vice versa, so mass is not always conserved but part of the more general conservation of mass–energy. -Conservation of energy, momentum and angular momentum for isolated systems can be found to be symmetries in time, translation, and rotation. -Conservation of charge was also realized since charge has never been observed to be created or destroyed and only found to move from place to place. - -==== Continuity and transfer ==== -Conservation laws can be expressed using the general continuity equation (for a conserved quantity) can be written in differential form as: - - - - - - - - ∂ - ρ - - - ∂ - t - - - - = - − - ∇ - ⋅ - - J - - - - {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}=-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} } - \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 32ce87052..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,290 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific law" -chunk: 3/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:14.250608+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -where ρ is some quantity per unit volume, J is the flux of that quantity (change in quantity per unit time per unit area). Intuitively, the divergence (denoted ∇⋅) of a vector field is a measure of flux diverging radially outwards from a point, so the negative is the amount piling up at a point; hence the rate of change of density in a region of space must be the amount of flux leaving or collecting in some region (see the main article for details). In the table below, the fluxes flows for various physical quantities in transport, and their associated continuity equations, are collected for comparison. - -More general equations are the convection–diffusion equation and Boltzmann transport equation, which have their roots in the continuity equation. - -=== Laws of classical mechanics === - -==== Principle of least action ==== - -Classical mechanics, including Newton's laws, Lagrange's equations, Hamilton's equations, etc., can be derived from the following principle: - - - - - δ - - - S - - - = - δ - - ∫ - - - t - - 1 - - - - - - t - - 2 - - - - - L - ( - - q - - , - - - - q - ˙ - - - - , - t - ) - - d - t - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \delta {\mathcal {S}}=\delta \int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}L(\mathbf {q} ,\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)\,dt=0} - - -where - - - - - - S - - - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}} - - is the action; the integral of the Lagrangian - - - - - L - ( - - q - - , - - - - q - ˙ - - - - , - t - ) - = - T - ( - - - - q - ˙ - - - - , - t - ) - − - V - ( - - q - - , - - - - q - ˙ - - - - , - t - ) - - - {\displaystyle L(\mathbf {q} ,\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)=T(\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)-V(\mathbf {q} ,\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)} - - -of the physical system between two times t1 and t2. The kinetic energy of the system is T (a function of the rate of change of the configuration of the system), and potential energy is V (a function of the configuration and its rate of change). The configuration of a system which has N degrees of freedom is defined by generalized coordinates q = (q1, q2, ... qN). -There are generalized momenta conjugate to these coordinates, p = (p1, p2, ..., pN), where: - - - - - - p - - i - - - = - - - - ∂ - L - - - ∂ - - - - - q - ˙ - - - - - i - - - - - - - - {\displaystyle p_{i}={\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {q}}_{i}}}} - - -The action and Lagrangian both contain the dynamics of the system for all times. The term "path" simply refers to a curve traced out by the system in terms of the generalized coordinates in the configuration space, i.e. the curve q(t), parameterized by time (see also Parametric equation). -The action is a functional rather than a function, since it depends on the Lagrangian, and the Lagrangian depends on the path q(t), so the action depends on the entire "shape" of the path for all times (in the time interval from t1 to t2). Between two instants of time, there are infinitely many paths, but one for which the action is stationary (to the first order) is the true path. The stationary value for the entire continuum of Lagrangian values corresponding to some path, not just one value of the Lagrangian, is required (in other words it is not as simple as "differentiating a function and setting it to zero, then solving the equations to find the points of maxima and minima etc.", rather this idea is applied to the entire "shape" of the function, see calculus of variations for more details on this procedure). -Notice L is not the total energy E of the system due to the difference, rather than the sum: - - - - - E - = - T - + - V - - - {\displaystyle E=T+V} - - -The following general approaches to classical mechanics are summarized below in the order of establishment. They are equivalent formulations. Newton's is commonly used due to simplicity, but Hamilton's and Lagrange's equations are more general, and their range can extend into other branches of physics with suitable modifications. - -From the above, any equation of motion in classical mechanics can be derived. -Corollaries in mechanics: - -Euler's laws of motion -Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics) -Corollaries in fluid mechanics: -Equations describing fluid flow in various situations can be derived, using the above classical equations of motion and often conservation of mass, energy and momentum. Some elementary examples follow. - -Archimedes' principle -Bernoulli's principle -Poiseuille's law -Stokes' law -Navier–Stokes equations -Faxén's law - -=== Laws of gravitation and relativity === -Some of the more famous laws of nature are found in Isaac Newton's theories of (now) classical mechanics, presented in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, and in Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. - -==== Modern laws ==== -Special relativity: -The two postulates of special relativity are not "laws" in themselves, but assumptions of their nature in terms of relative motion. -They can be stated as "the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames" and "the speed of light is constant and has the same value in all inertial frames". -The said postulates lead to the Lorentz transformations – the transformation law between two frame of references moving relative to each other. For any 4-vector - - - - - - A - ′ - - = - Λ - A - - - {\displaystyle A'=\Lambda A} - - -this replaces the Galilean transformation law from classical mechanics. The Lorentz transformations reduce to the Galilean transformations for low velocities much less than the speed of light c. -The magnitudes of 4-vectors are invariants – not "conserved", but the same for all inertial frames (i.e. every observer in an inertial frame will agree on the same value), in particular if A is the four-momentum, the magnitude can derive the famous invariant equation for mass–energy and momentum conservation (see invariant mass): - - - - - - E - - 2 - - - = - ( - p - c - - ) - - 2 - - - + - ( - m - - c - - 2 - - - - ) - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle E^{2}=(pc)^{2}+(mc^{2})^{2}} - \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 250c7351e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,93 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific law" -chunk: 4/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:14.250608+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -in which the (more famous) mass–energy equivalence E = mc2 is a special case. -General relativity: -General relativity is governed by the Einstein field equations, which describe the curvature of space-time due to mass-energy equivalent to the gravitational field. Solving the equation for the geometry of space warped due to the mass distribution gives the metric tensor. Using the geodesic equation, the motion of masses falling along the geodesics can be calculated. -Gravitoelectromagnetism: -In a relatively flat spacetime due to weak gravitational fields, gravitational analogues of Maxwell's equations can be found; the GEM equations, to describe an analogous gravitomagnetic field. They are well established by the theory, and experimental tests form ongoing research. - -==== Classical laws ==== - -Kepler's laws, though originally discovered from planetary observations (also due to Tycho Brahe), are true for any central forces. - -=== Thermodynamics === - -Newton's law of cooling -Fourier's law -Ideal gas law, combines a number of separately developed gas laws; -Boyle's law -Charles's law -Gay-Lussac's law -Avogadro's law, into one -now improved by other equations of state -Dalton's law (of partial pressures) -Boltzmann equation -Carnot's theorem -Kopp's law - -=== Electromagnetism === -Maxwell's equations give the time-evolution of the electric and magnetic fields due to electric charge and current distributions. Given the fields, the Lorentz force law is the equation of motion for charges in the fields. - -These equations can be modified to include magnetic monopoles, and are consistent with our observations of monopoles either existing or not existing; if they do not exist, the generalized equations reduce to the ones above, if they do, the equations become fully symmetric in electric and magnetic charges and currents. Indeed, there is a duality transformation where electric and magnetic charges can be "rotated into one another", and still satisfy Maxwell's equations. -Pre-Maxwell laws: -These laws were found before the formulation of Maxwell's equations. They are not fundamental, since they can be derived from Maxwell's equations. Coulomb's law can be found from Gauss's law (electrostatic form) and the Biot–Savart law can be deduced from Ampere's law (magnetostatic form). Lenz's law and Faraday's law can be incorporated into the Maxwell–Faraday equation. Nonetheless, they are still very effective for simple calculations. - -Lenz's law -Coulomb's law -Biot–Savart law -Other laws: - -Ohm's law -Kirchhoff's laws -Joule's law - -=== Photonics === -Classically, optics is based on a variational principle: light travels from one point in space to another in the shortest time. - -Fermat's principle -In geometric optics laws are based on approximations in Euclidean geometry (such as the paraxial approximation). - -Law of reflection -Law of refraction, Snell's law -In physical optics, laws are based on physical properties of materials. - -Brewster's angle -Malus's law -Beer–Lambert law -In actuality, optical properties of matter are significantly more complex and require quantum mechanics. - -=== Laws of quantum mechanics === -Quantum mechanics has its roots in postulates. This leads to results which are not usually called "laws", but hold the same status, in that all of quantum mechanics follows from them. These postulates can be summarized as follows: - -The state of a physical system, be it a particle or a system of many particles, is described by a wavefunction. -Every physical quantity is described by an operator acting on the system; the measured quantity has a probabilistic nature. -The wavefunction obeys the Schrödinger equation. Solving this wave equation predicts the time-evolution of the system's behavior, analogous to solving Newton's laws in classical mechanics. -Two identical particles, such as two electrons, cannot be distinguished from one another by any means. Physical systems are classified by their symmetry properties. -These postulates in turn imply many other phenomena, e.g., uncertainty principles and the Pauli exclusion principle. - -=== Radiation laws === -Applying electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and quantum mechanics, to atoms and molecules, some laws of electromagnetic radiation and light are as follows. - -Stefan–Boltzmann law -Planck's law of black-body radiation -Wien's displacement law -Radioactive decay law - -== Laws of chemistry == - -Chemical laws are those laws of nature relevant to chemistry. Historically, observations led to many empirical laws, though now it is known that chemistry has its foundations in quantum mechanics. -Quantitative analysis: -The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the law of conservation of mass, which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary chemical reaction. Modern physics shows that it is actually energy that is conserved, and that energy and mass are related; a concept which becomes important in nuclear chemistry. Conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics. -Additional laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass. Joseph Proust's law of definite composition says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important. -Dalton's law of multiple proportions says that these chemicals will present themselves in proportions that are small whole numbers; although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. -The law of definite composition and the law of multiple proportions are the first two of the three laws of stoichiometry, the proportions by which the chemical elements combine to form chemical compounds. The third law of stoichiometry is the law of reciprocal proportions, which provides the basis for establishing equivalent weights for each chemical element. Elemental equivalent weights can then be used to derive atomic weights for each element. -More modern laws of chemistry define the relationship between energy and its transformations. -Reaction kinetics and equilibria: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 22f96702e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,68 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific law" -chunk: 5/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:14.250608+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -In equilibrium, molecules exist in mixture defined by the transformations possible on the timescale of the equilibrium, and are in a ratio defined by the intrinsic energy of the molecules—the lower the intrinsic energy, the more abundant the molecule. Le Chatelier's principle states that the system opposes changes in conditions from equilibrium states, i.e. there is an opposition to change the state of an equilibrium reaction. -Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs. -There is a hypothetical intermediate, or transition structure, that corresponds to the structure at the top of the energy barrier. The Hammond–Leffler postulate states that this structure looks most similar to the product or starting material which has intrinsic energy closest to that of the energy barrier. Stabilizing this hypothetical intermediate through chemical interaction is one way to achieve catalysis. -All chemical processes are reversible (law of microscopic reversibility) although some processes have such an energy bias, they are essentially irreversible. -The reaction rate has the mathematical parameter known as the rate constant. The Arrhenius equation gives the temperature and activation energy dependence of the rate constant, an empirical law. -Thermochemistry: - -Dulong–Petit law -Gibbs–Helmholtz equation -Hess's law -Gas laws: - -Raoult's law -Henry's law -Chemical transport: - -Fick's laws of diffusion -Graham's law -Lamm equation - -== Laws of biology == - -=== Ecology === -Competitive exclusion principle or Gause's law - -=== Genetics === -Mendelian laws (Dominance and Uniformity, segregation of genes, and Independent Assortment) -Hardy–Weinberg principle - -=== Natural selection === -Whether or not Natural Selection is a "law of nature" is controversial among biologists. Henry Byerly, an American philosopher known for his work on evolutionary theory, discussed the problem of interpreting a principle of natural selection as a law. He suggested a formulation of natural selection as a framework principle that can contribute to a better understanding of evolutionary theory. His approach was to express relative fitness, the propensity of a genotype to increase in proportionate representation in a competitive environment, as a function of adaptedness (adaptive design) of the organism. - -== Laws of Earth sciences == - -=== Geography === -Arbia's law of geography -Tobler's first law of geography -Tobler's second law of geography - -=== Geology === -Archie's law -Buys Ballot's law -Birch's law -Byerlee's law -Principle of original horizontality -Law of superposition -Principle of lateral continuity -Principle of cross-cutting relationships -Principle of faunal succession -Principle of inclusions and components -Walther's law - -== Other fields == -Some mathematical theorems and axioms are referred to as laws because they provide logical foundation to empirical laws. -Examples of other observed phenomena sometimes described as laws include the Titius–Bode law of planetary positions, Zipf's law of linguistics, and Moore's law of technological growth. Many of these laws fall within the scope of uncomfortable science. Other laws are pragmatic and observational, such as the law of unintended consequences. By analogy, principles in other fields of study are sometimes loosely referred to as "laws". These include Occam's razor as a principle of philosophy and the Pareto principle of economics. - -== History == -The observation and detection of underlying regularities in nature date from prehistoric times – the recognition of cause-and-effect relationships implicitly recognises the existence of laws of nature. The recognition of such regularities as independent scientific laws per se, though, was limited by their entanglement in animism, and by the attribution of many effects that do not have readily obvious causes—such as physical phenomena—to the actions of gods, spirits, supernatural beings, etc. Observation and speculation about nature were intimately bound up with metaphysics and morality. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 589d6460a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific law" -chunk: 6/6 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:14.250608+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -In Europe, systematic theorizing about nature (physis) began with the early Greek philosophers and scientists and continued into the Hellenistic and Roman imperial periods, during which times the intellectual influence of Roman law increasingly became paramount.The formula "law of nature" first appears as "a live metaphor" favored by Latin poets Lucretius, Virgil, Ovid, Manilius, in time gaining a firm theoretical presence in the prose treatises of Seneca and Pliny. Why this Roman origin? According to [historian and classicist Daryn] Lehoux's persuasive narrative, the idea was made possible by the pivotal role of codified law and forensic argument in Roman life and culture. -For the Romans ... the place par excellence where ethics, law, nature, religion and politics overlap is the law court. When we read Seneca's Natural Questions, and watch again and again just how he applies standards of evidence, witness evaluation, argument and proof, we can recognize that we are reading one of the great Roman rhetoricians of the age, thoroughly immersed in forensic method. And not Seneca alone. Legal models of scientific judgment turn up all over the place, and for example prove equally integral to Ptolemy's approach to verification, where the mind is assigned the role of magistrate, the senses that of disclosure of evidence, and dialectical reason that of the law itself. -The precise formulation of what are now recognized as modern and valid statements of the laws of nature dates from the 17th century in Europe, with the beginning of accurate experimentation and the development of advanced forms of mathematics. During this period, natural philosophers such as Isaac Newton (1642–1727) were influenced by a religious view – stemming from medieval concepts of divine law – which held that God had instituted absolute, universal and immutable physical laws. In chapter 7 of The World, René Descartes (1596–1650) described "nature" as matter itself, unchanging as created by God, thus changes in parts "are to be attributed to nature. The rules according to which these changes take place I call the 'laws of nature'." The modern scientific method which took shape at this time (with Francis Bacon (1561–1626) and Galileo (1564–1642)) contributed to a trend of separating science from theology, with minimal speculation about metaphysics and ethics. (Natural law in the political sense, conceived as universal (i.e., divorced from sectarian religion and accidents of place), was also elaborated in this period by scholars such as Grotius (1583–1645), Spinoza (1632–1677), and Hobbes (1588–1679).) -The distinction between natural law in the political-legal sense and law of nature or physical law in the scientific sense is a modern one, both concepts being equally derived from physis, the Greek word (translated into Latin as natura) for nature. - -== See also == - -== References == - -== Further reading == - -== External links == - -Physics Formulary, a useful book in different formats containing many or the physical laws and formulae. -Eformulae.com Archived 2011-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, website containing most of the formulae in different disciplines. -Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Laws of Nature" by John W. Carroll. -Baaquie, Belal E. "Laws of Physics : A Primer" Archived 2006-04-08 at the Wayback Machine. Core Curriculum, National University of Singapore. -Francis, Erik Max. "The laws list".. Physics. Alcyone Systems -Pazameta, Zoran. "The laws of nature". Archived 2014-02-26 at the Wayback Machine Committee for the scientific investigation of Claims of the Paranormal. -The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Laws of Nature" – By Norman Swartz -Mark Buchanan; Frank Close; Nancy Cartwright; Melvyn Bragg (host) (Oct 19, 2000). "Laws of Nature". In Our Time. BBC Radio 4. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index b386e319a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific terminology" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:55.090421+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Scientific terminology refers to the specialized vocabulary used by scientists and engineers in their professional fields. It encompasses words and expressions created to name newly discovered or invented concepts, materials, methods, and phenomena. -In the early modern period, scientific terminology was predominantly Latin, resulting in naming practices that have persisted into the present. -In science, "naming a particle [or concept] is not just convenient; it marks a leap forward in our understanding of the world". Thus, new technical terms, neologisms, often arise whenever science advances. For example, the term nanotechnology was coined in 1974 to describe precise engineering at the atomic scale. More generally, neologisms have long been driven by technology and science: "technological advances are among the main drivers of word creation… In many cases, neologisms come about as names for new objects". Likewise, language scholars observe that "science is an especially productive field for new coinages," and scientific terms often spread immediately across languages through research publications. Over time, many such technical terms (e.g. laser, radar, DNA) enter common usage, though at first, they denote concepts known mainly within the field. - -== New concepts == -Scientists frequently introduce new names for novel concepts or discoveries. Every time a new phenomenon, particle, material, or device is identified, researchers coin a term to describe it. For instance, in physics new fundamental particles have been named quark, gluon, lepton, graviton, neutrino, Higgs boson, mendelevium (a chemical element), etc. – typically chosen by their discoverers, often honoring a scientist or using classical roots. (Many particle names, like muon or tau, derive from Greek letters; others like electron come from Greek words for amber.) One physics review notes that assigning a name to a newly discovered particle "marks a leap forward" in science. Similarly, interdisciplinary fields often receive portmanteau names by combining existing words. For example, biotechnology, nanotechnology, and astrophysics were coined by joining roots or terms to form a new word. These composite terms help label entire new fields of research and are usually understandable to non-experts. - -=== New materials === -Modern science continually searches for materials with novel properties, and naming them is part of that process. For example, carbon-based nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes and graphene were given new names as they were discovered. One source explains that science's focus on advanced materials leads to "an extensive search for new materials having unusual or superior properties" whose names fall into categories like new substances (e.g. nanotubes) or registered trademarks (e.g. Teflon). Such names range from systematic descriptors (glass, steel types, composites) to brand names or acronyms for proprietary materials. Over time, some material names (like transistor or laser) become so widespread that they lose their "technical" feel and enter everyday language. - -=== New techniques and devices === -New experimental methods and instruments also generate terms. Scientists name each new technique (e.g. polymerase chain reaction, X-ray crystallography) and each new instrument (e.g. scanning tunneling microscope, SQUID detector) to reflect their function. For instance, the scanning tunneling microscope (invented 1981) is usually referred to by its full name. Other devices, like transistor, magnetron, laser, were named at their invention and have since become common words. In general, the names of modern devices and methods are coined to describe how they work, often using existing roots or honorifics (e.g. PET scan, MRI for magnetic resonance imaging, PCR as an acronym for polymerase chain reaction). - -=== Alternative meaning of common words === -SIESTA, SQUID and SHRIMP are acronyms distinguished from siesta, squid and shrimp by capitalization. However, there are pairs of scientific terminology and common words, which can only be distinguished by context. Representative examples come from particle physics where certain properties of particles are called flavor, color, but have no relation to conventional flavor and color. Another famous example is frustration used to describe ground state properties in condensed matter physics, and especially in magnetic systems. - -=== Composite words === -Recent scientific activity often creates interdisciplinary fields, for which new names, classified into portmanteau words or syllabic abbreviations, are often created by combining two or more words, sometimes with extra prefixes and suffixes. Examples of those – biotechnology, nanotechnology, etc. – are well known and understood, at least superficially, by most non-scientists. - -=== Elementary particles, quasiparticles and chemical elements === -Progress of particle physics, nuclear physics and atomic physics has resulted in discoveries of new elementary particles and atoms. Their names – quark, gluon, lepton, graviton, neutrino, Higgs boson, mendelevium, etc. – are traditionally given by those people who first discovered them and often include surnames of classical scientists. -Fundamental particles are particles that are not made up by any other particles, such as a quark. -Another group of physics terminology terms, exciton, magnon, phonon, plasmon, phason, polaron, roton etc., refers to quasiparticles – quanta of corresponding excitations (spin, heat, plasma, polarization waves), which do not exist separately and were imagined by theoretists to consistently describe properties of solids and liquids. -Most relevant terminology can be found in the following Wikipedia articles and their links: - -Discoveries of the chemical elements -Elementary particle -Quasiparticle -List of quasiparticles -Subatomic particle -(The word plasmon was well-known around the 1900s for a proprietary dried milk manufactured by the International Plasmon Company, which was added to a number of products to make Plasmon Oats, Plasmon Cocoa, and Plasmon Biscuits. Plasmon Biscuits were a popular snack used by Ernest Shackleton in his Antarctic Expedition of 1902.) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8a505f203..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific terminology" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:55.090421+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Classical and non-vernacular terms and expressions == -In modern science and its applied fields such as technology and medicine, a knowledge of classical languages is not as rigid a prerequisite as it used to be. However, traces of their influence remain. Firstly, languages such as Greek, Latin and Arabic – either directly or via more recently derived languages such as French – have provided not only most of the technical terms used in Western science, but also a de facto vocabulary of roots, prefixes and suffixes for the construction of new terms as required. Echoes of the consequences sound in remarks such as "Television? The word is half Latin and half Greek. No good can come of it." (referring to it being a hybrid word). -A special class of terminology that overwhelmingly is derived from classical sources, is biological classification, in which binomial nomenclature still is most often based on classical origins. The derivations are arbitrary however and can be mixed variously with modernisms, late Latin, and even fictional roots, errors and whims. However, in spite of the chaotic nature of the field, it still is helpful to the biologist to have a good vocabulary of classical roots. -Branches of science that are based on ancient fields of study, or that were established by scientists familiar with Greek and Latin, often use terminology that is fairly correct descriptive Latin, or occasionally Greek. Descriptive human anatomy or works on biological morphology often use such terms, for example, musculus gluteus maximus simply means the "largest rump muscle", where musculus was the Latin for "little mouse" and the name applied to muscles. During the last two centuries there has been an increasing tendency to modernise the terminology. In other descriptive anatomical terms, whether in vertebrates or invertebrates, a frenum (a structure for keeping something in place) is simply the Latin for a bridle; and a foramen (a passage or perforation) also is the actual Latin word. - -=== Latin, its current relevance or convenience === -There is no definite limit to how sophisticated a level of Latin may be brought to bear in conventional scientific terminology; such convention dates back to the days when nearly all standard communications in such subjects were written in Latin as an international scientific lingua franca. That was not so long ago; from the latter days of the Roman empire, Classical Latin had become the dominant language in learned, civil, diplomatic, legal, and religious communication in many states in Europe. Even after Latin had lost its status as a vernacular, Medieval or Late Latin increasingly became the de facto lingua franca in educated circles during the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire. The peak of the dominance of Latin in such contexts probably was during the Renaissance, but the language only began to lose favour for such purposes in the eighteenth century, and gradually at that. The presence of Latin terms in modern writing is largely the residue of the terminology of old documents. -The expression of fine distinctions in academically correct Latin technical terminology may well help in conveying intended meanings more flexibly and concisely, but the significance of the language need not always be taken seriously. An inspection of any collection of references will produce a range of very variable and dubious usages, and often a great deal of obsessive dispute. In contrast, the authoritative glossary attached to the textbook on Biological Nomenclature produced by the Systematics Association displays a very dismissive attitude to the question; for example, the only relevant entries it presents on the subject of the term sensu are: - -sens. str.: see s.s. -sens. lat.: see s.l. -sensu amplo: see s.l. -s.l., sens. lat., sensu lato : Latin, in the broad sense; i.e. of a taxon, including all its subordinate taxa and/or other taxa sometimes considered as distinct. -s.s., sens. str., sensu stricto : Latin, in the strict sense, in the narrow sense, i.e. of a taxon, in the sense of the type of its name; or in the sense of its circumscription by its original describer; or in the sense of its nominate subordinate taxon (in the case of a taxon with 2 or more subordinate taxa); or with the exclusion of similar taxa sometimes united with it. -Such entries suggest that the Systematics Association is not concerned with hair-splitting in the use of the Latin terms. -In informal or non-technical English, to say "strictly speaking" for sensu stricto and "broadly speaking" and so on is valid. Even in formal writing, there is no formal requirement to use the Latin terms rather than the vernacular. -Valid reasons for using these Latin or partly Latin expressions are not points of pretentiousness; they include: - -Tradition: Where the terms and their abbreviations have been used formally for generations and appear repeatedly in records and textbooks in fixed contexts, it can be cumbersome and confusing to change unexpectedly to more familiar English or other vernacular. -Precision: Vernacular expressions that most nearly correspond to these terms in meaning, might also be understood in subtly or even crashingly misleading senses, whereas the Latin terms are used according to strict conventions that are not easy to mistake in professional circles familiar with the usages. -Efficiency: Not only are these terms compact (even in comparison to say, broadly speaking and strictly speaking) but in the proper contexts they lend themselves to understandable abbreviation as s.s. and s.l., better than the most compact vernacular expressions. In much the same way, think of etc or &c; practically everyone knows what those mean, and uses them unthinkingly, even people who do not know that they are abbreviations for et cetera or even et caetera, or that those mean "and the rest" in Latin. Even monoglot laymen would not usually trouble to write "and so on" instead of etc. - -== Acronyms == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 29a3cf61e..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientific terminology" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:55.090421+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -A good example is the word laser, an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", and therefore all its letters should be capitalized. However, because of frequent use, this acronym became a neologism, i.e., it has integrated into English and most other languages. Consequently, laser is commonly written in small letters. It has even produced secondary acronyms such as LASIK (Laser-ASsisted in Situ Keratomileusis). A related acronym and neologism maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is much less known. Nevertheless, it is commonly written in small letters. On the contrary, acronym SPASER (Surface Plasmon Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is capitalized. -Many scientific acronyms or abbreviations reflect the artistic sense of their creators, e.g., - -AMANDA – Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array, a neutrino telescope -BLAST – Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope -COMICS – COoled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer -FROG - Frequency-resolved optical gating -MARVEL – Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets -METATOY – METAmaTerial fOr raYs – a material that changes the direction of transmitted light rays -PLANET – Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork, a program to search for microlensing events -SCREAM – Single Crystal Reactive Etch And Metallization, a process used in making some microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) -SHRIMP – Sensitive High-Resolution Ion MicroProbe -SIESTA – Spanish Initiative for Electronic Simulations with Thousands of Atoms (siesta = afternoon nap in Spanish) -SPIDER – Spectral Phase Interferometry for Direct Electric-field Reconstruction -SQUID – Superconducting Quantum Interference Device, -etc. (see also List of astronomy acronyms). - -== See also == - -== References == - -== External links == -Science Terminology – Acronyms & Abbreviations [link appears broken (2017-04-23)] -List of Common Acronyms and Abbreviations Encountered in the CERN Environment -Abbreviations.com – a human edited database of acronyms and abbreviations -Acronym Finder – a human edited database of acronyms and abbreviations (over 550,000 entries) -All Acronyms – collection of acronyms and abbreviations (more than 600,000 definitions) -Acronym Database – a human edited database of user submitted acronyms and abbreviations -WDISF – What Does It Stand For is a human edited database of acronyms \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 60b15c2b6..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientism" -chunk: 1/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:09.496712+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Scientism is the belief that science and the scientific method are the best or only way to render truth about the world and reality. -While the term was defined originally to mean "methods and attitudes typical of or attributed to natural scientists", some scholars, as well as political and religious leaders, have also adopted it as a pejorative term with the meaning "an exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the methods of natural science applied to all areas of investigation (as in philosophy, the social sciences, and the humanities)". - -== Overview == -Francis Bacon has been viewed by some scholars as an early proponent of scientism, but this is a modern assertion as Bacon was a devout Anglican, writing in his Essays, "a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion." -With respect to the philosophy of science, the term scientism frequently implies a critique of the more extreme expressions of logical positivism and has been used by social scientists such as Friedrich Hayek, philosophers of science such as Karl Popper, and philosophers such as Mary Midgley, the later Hilary Putnam, and Tzvetan Todorov to describe (for example) the dogmatic endorsement of scientific methods and the reduction of all knowledge to only that which is measured or confirmatory. -More generally, scientism is often interpreted as science applied "in excess". This use of the term scientism has two senses: - -The improper use of science or scientific claims. This usage applies equally in contexts where science might not apply, such as when the topic is perceived as beyond the scope of scientific inquiry, and in contexts where there is insufficient empirical evidence to justify a scientific conclusion. It includes an excessive deference to the claims of scientists or an uncritical eagerness to accept any result described as scientific. This can be a counterargument to appeals to scientific authority. It can also address attempts to apply natural science methods and claims of certainty to the social sciences, which Friedrich Hayek described in The Counter-Revolution of Science (1952) as being impossible, because those methods attempt to eliminate the "human factor", while social sciences (including his own topic of economics) mainly concern the study of human action. -"The belief that the methods of natural science, or the categories and things recognized in natural science, form the only proper elements in any philosophical or other inquiry", or that "science, and only science, describes the world as it is in itself, independent of perspective" with a concomitant "elimination of the psychological [and spiritual] dimensions of experience". Tom Sorell provides this definition: "Scientism is a matter of putting too high a value on natural science in comparison with other branches of learning or culture." Philosophers such as Alexander Rosenberg have also adopted "scientism" as a name for the opinion that science is the only reliable source of knowledge. -It is also sometimes used to describe the universal applicability of the scientific method, and the opinion that empirical science constitutes the most authoritative worldview or the most valuable part of human learning, sometimes to the complete exclusion of other opinions, such as historical, philosophical, economic or cultural opinions. It has been defined as "the view that the characteristic inductive methods of the natural sciences are the only source of genuine factual knowledge and, in particular, that they alone can yield true knowledge about man and society". The term scientism is also used by historians, philosophers, and cultural critics to highlight the possible dangers of lapses towards excessive reductionism with respect to all topics of human knowledge. -For social theorists practising the tradition of Max Weber, such as Jürgen Habermas and Max Horkheimer, the concept of scientism relates significantly to the philosophy of positivism, but also to the cultural rationalization for modern Western civilization. Ernesto Sabato, physicist and essayist, wrote in his 1951 essay Hombres y engranajes ("Man and mechanism") of the "superstition of science" as the most contradictory of all superstitions, since this would be the "superstition that one should not be superstitious". He wrote: "science had become a new magic and the man in the street believed in it the more the less he understood it". - -== Definitions == -Reviewing the references to scientism in the works of contemporary scholars in 2003, Gregory R. Peterson detected two main general themes: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index c64129aa0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientism" -chunk: 2/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:09.496712+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -It is used to criticize a totalizing opinion of science as if it were capable of describing all reality and knowledge, or as if it were the only true method to acquire knowledge about reality and the nature of things; -It is used, often pejoratively, to denote violations by which the theories and methods of one (scientific) discipline are applied inappropriately to another (scientific or non-scientific) discipline and its domain. An example of this second usage is to term as scientism any attempt to claim science as the only or primary source of human values (a traditional domain of ethics) or as the source of meaning and purpose (a traditional domain of religion and related worldviews). -The term scientism was popularized by F. A. Hayek, who defined it in 1942 as the "slavish imitation of the method and language of Science". -Mathematician Alexander Grothendieck, in his 1971 essay "The New Universal Church", characterized scientism as a religion-like ideology that advocates scientific reductionism, scientific authoritarianism, political technocracy and technological salvation, while denying the epistemological validity of feelings and experiences such as love, emotion, beauty and fulfillment. He predicted that "in coming years, the chief political dividing line will fall less and less among the traditional division between 'right' and 'left', but increasingly between the adherents of scientism, who advocate 'technological progress at any price', and their opponents, i.e., roughly speaking, those who regard the enhancement of life, in all its richness and variety, as being the supreme value". -E. F. Schumacher, in his A Guide for the Perplexed (1977), criticized scientism as an impoverished world view confined solely to what can be counted, measured and weighed. "The architects of the modern worldview, notably Galileo and Descartes, assumed that those things that could be weighed, measured, and counted were more true than those that could not be quantified. If it couldn't be counted, in other words, it didn't count." -In 1979, Karl Popper defined scientism as "the aping of what is widely mistaken for the method of science". -In 2003, Mikael Stenmark proposed the expression scientific expansionism as a synonym of scientism. In the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, he wrote that, while the doctrines that are described as scientism have many possible forms and varying degrees of ambition, they share the idea that the boundaries of science (that is, typically the natural sciences) could and should be expanded so that something that has not been previously considered as a subject pertinent to science can now be understood as part of science (usually with science becoming the sole or the main arbiter regarding this area or dimension). According to Stenmark, the strongest form of scientism states that science does not have any boundaries and that all human problems and all aspects of human endeavor, with due time, will be dealt with and solved by science alone. This idea has also been termed the myth of progress. -Intellectual historian T. J. Jackson Lears argued in 2013 that there has been a recent reemergence of "nineteenth-century positivist faith that a reified 'science' has discovered (or is about to discover) all the important truths about human life. Precise measurement and rigorous calculation, in this view, are the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies." Lears specifically identified Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker's work as falling in this category. Philosophers John N. Gray and Thomas Nagel have made similar criticisms against popular works by moral psychologist Jonathan Haidt, atheist author Sam Harris, and writer Malcolm Gladwell. - -=== Strong and weak scientism === -There are various ways of classifying kinds of scientism. Some authors distinguish between strong and weak scientism, as follows: - -Strong scientism: "of all the knowledge we have, scientific knowledge is the only 'real knowledge'" (Moti Mizrahi), or, "the view that some proposition or theory is true and/or rational to believe if and only if it is a scientific proposition or theory" (J. P. Moreland), or, "only science yields epistemically credible data" (Michael W. Austin) -Weak scientism: "of all the knowledge we have, scientific knowledge is the best knowledge" (Moti Mizrahi), or, "science is the most valuable, most serious, and most authoritative sector of human learning" (J. P. Moreland), or, "scientific knowledge claims are the most credible knowledge claims" (Michael W. Austin) -A 2023 research article by Rik Peels in the journal Interdisciplinary Science Reviews explores the concept of scientism, defining it as the belief that science is the only means of obtaining knowledge and truth. Peels distinguishes between weak scientism, which limits the validity of science to specific areas, and strong scientism, which extends this validity to all fields of knowledge. The author argues that strong scientism is untenable and self-confuting because science itself is based on common sense assumptions and non-scientific principles. He proposes that scientism can be considered a form of fundamentalism, characterized by a Manichean narrative that is reactive against other sources of knowledge. The article suggests that science can learn from mainstream religion when it comes to scientific fundamentalism, by promoting a more open and tolerant approach to other forms of knowledge. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 909f1bcf8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientism" -chunk: 3/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:09.496712+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Relevance to debates about science and religion == -Both religious and non-religious scholars have applied the term scientism to individuals associated with New Atheism. Theologian John Haught argued that philosopher Daniel Dennett and other New Atheists subscribe to a belief system of scientific naturalism, which includes the dogma that "only nature, including humans and our creations, is real: that God does not exist; and that science alone can give us complete and reliable knowledge of reality." Haught argued that this belief system is self-refuting since it requires its adherents to assent to beliefs that violate its own stated requirements for knowledge. Christian philosopher Peter Williams argued in 2013 that it is only by conflating science with scientism that New Atheists feel qualified to "pontificate on metaphysical issues". Daniel Dennett responded to religious criticism of his 2006 book Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon by saying that accusations of scientism "[are] an all-purpose, wild-card smear ... When someone puts forward a scientific theory that [religious critics] really don't like, they just try to discredit it as 'scientism'. But when it comes to facts, and explanations of facts, science is the only game in town". -Non-religious scholars have also associated New Atheist thought with scientism and/or with positivism. Atheist philosopher Thomas Nagel argued that philosopher Sam Harris conflated all empirical knowledge with scientific knowledge. Marxist literary critic Terry Eagleton argued that Christopher Hitchens possessed an "old-fashioned scientistic notion of what counts as evidence" that reduces knowledge to what can and cannot be proven by scientific procedure. Agnostic philosopher Anthony Kenny has also criticized New Atheist philosopher Alexander Rosenberg's The Atheist's Guide to Reality for resurrecting a self-refuting epistemology of logical positivism and reducing all knowledge of the universe to the discipline of physics. -Michael Shermer, founder of The Skeptics Society, discussed resemblances between scientism and traditional religions, indicating the cult of personality that develops for some scientists. He defined scientism as a worldview that encompasses natural explanations, eschews supernatural and paranormal speculations, and embraces empiricism and reason. -The Iranian scholar Seyyed Hossein Nasr has stated that in the Western world, many will accept the ideology of modern science, not as "simple ordinary science", but as a replacement for religion. -Gregory R. Peterson wrote that "for many theologians and philosophers, scientism is among the greatest of intellectual sins". Genetic biologist Austin L. Hughes wrote in the conservative journal The New Atlantis that scientism has much in common with superstition: "the stubborn insistence that something ... has powers which no evidence supports." -Repeating common criticisms of logical positivism and verificationism, philosopher of religion Keith Ward has said that scientism is philosophically inconsistent or even self-refuting, as the truth of the two statements "no statements are true unless they can be proven scientifically (or logically)" and "no statements are true unless they can be shown empirically to be true" cannot themselves be proven scientifically, logically, or empirically. - -== Philosophy of science == - -=== Anti-scientism === -Philosopher Paul Feyerabend, who was an enthusiastic proponent of scientism during his youth, later came to characterize science as "an essentially anarchic enterprise" and argued emphatically that science merits no exclusive monopoly of "dealing in knowledge" and that scientists have never operated within a distinct and narrowly self-defined tradition. In his essay Against Method he depicted the process of contemporary scientific education as a mild form of indoctrination, intended for "making the history of science duller, simpler, more uniform, more 'objective' and more easily accessible to treatment by strict and unchanging rules". - -[S]cience can stand on its own feet and does not need any help from rationalists, secular humanists, Marxists and similar religious movements; and ... non-scientific cultures, procedures and assumptions can also stand on their own feet and should be allowed to do so ... Science must be protected from ideologies; and societies, especially democratic societies, must be protected from science ... In a democracy scientific institutions, research programmes, and suggestions must therefore be subjected to public control, there must be a separation of state and science just as there is a separation between state and religious institutions, and science should be taught as one view among many and not as the one and only road to truth and reality. - -=== Pro-scientism === -Physicist and philosopher Mario Bunge used the term scientism with a favorable rather than pejorative sense in numerous books published during several decades, and in articles with titles such as "In Defense of Realism and Scientism" and "In Defense of Scientism". Bunge said that scientism should not be equated with inappropriate reductionism, and he dismissed critics of science such as Hayek and Habermas as dogmatists and obscurantists: - -To innovate in the young sciences it is necessary to adopt scientism. This is the methodological thesis that the best way of exploring reality is to adopt the scientific method, which may be boiled down to the rule "Check your guesses." Scientism has been explicitly opposed by dogmatists and obscurantists of all stripes, such as the neoliberal ideologist Friedrich von Hayek and the "critical theorist" Jürgen Habermas, a ponderous writer who managed to amalgamate Hegel, Marx, and Freud, and decreed that "science is the ideology of late capitalism." -In 2018, philosophers Maarten Boudry and Massimo Pigliucci co-edited a book titled Science Unlimited? The Challenges of Scientism in which a number of chapters by philosophers and scientists defended scientism. In his chapter "Two Cheers for Scientism", Taner Edis wrote: - -It is defensible to claim that scientific, philosophical, and humanistic forms of knowledge are continuous, and that a broadly naturalistic description of our world centered on natural science is correct ... At the very least, such views are legitimate—they may be mistaken, but not because of an elementary error, a confusion of science with ideology, or an offhand dismissal of the humanities. Those of us who argue for such a view are entitled to have two cheers for an ambitious conception of science; and if that is scientism, so be it. - -== Rhetoric of science == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 8737c7121..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,41 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientism" -chunk: 4/4 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:09.496712+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Thomas M. Lessl argued that religious themes persist in what he terms scientism, the public rhetoric of science. There are two methods of describing this idea of scientism: the epistemological method (the assumption that the scientific method trumps other ways of knowing) and the ontological method (that the rational mind represents the world and both operate in knowable ways). According to Lessl, the ontological method is an attempt to "resolve the conflict between rationalism and skepticism". Lessl also argued that without scientism, there would not be a scientific culture. - -== Rationalization and modernity == - -In the introduction to his collected works on the sociology of religion, Max Weber asked why "the scientific, the artistic, the political, or the economic development [elsewhere] ... did not enter upon that path of rationalization which is peculiar to the Occident?" According to the German social theorist Jürgen Habermas, "For Weber, the intrinsic (that is, not merely contingent) relationship between modernity and what he called 'Occidental rationalism' was still self-evident." Weber described a process of rationalisation, disenchantment and the "disintegration of religious world views" that resulted in modern secular societies and capitalism. - -"Modernization" was introduced as a technical term only in the 1950s. It is the mark of a theoretical approach that takes up Weber's problem but elaborates it with the tools of social-scientific functionalism ... The theory of modernization performs two abstractions on Weber's concept of "modernity". It dissociates "modernity" from its modern European origins and stylizes it into a spatio-temporally neutral model for processes of social development in general. Furthermore, it breaks the internal connections between modernity and the historical context of Western rationalism, so that processes of modernization ... [are] no longer burdened with the idea of a completion of modernity, that is to say, of a goal state after which "postmodern" developments would have to set in. ... Indeed it is precisely modernization research that has contributed to the currency of the expression "postmodern" even among social scientists. -Habermas is critical of pure instrumental rationality, arguing that the "Social Life–World" of subjective experiencing is better suited to literary expression. Where the sciences select experiences that can be expressed in formal language using general definitions, the literary arts select private, unrepeatable experiences where definitions are generated through "intersubjectivity of mutual understanding in each concrete case". Habermas quoted writer Aldous Huxley in order to juxtapose the "social life-world" and the "worldless universe of facts" underscoring the duality of literature and science: - -The world with which literature deals is the world in which human beings are born and live and finally die; the world in which they love and hate, in which they experience triumph and humiliation, hope and despair; the world of sufferings and enjoyments, of madness and common sense, of silliness, cunning and wisdom; the world of social pressures and individual impulses, of reason against passion, of instincts and conventions, of shared language and unsharable feelings and sensations. -[...] - -[The scientist] is the inhabitant of a radically different universe--not the universe of given appearances, but the world of inferred fine structures, not the experienced world of unique events and diverse qualities, but the world of quantified regularities. - -== See also == - -== References == - -== Bibliography == -Feyerabend, Paul (1993) [First published 1975], Against Method (3rd ed.), Verso, ISBN 978-0-86091-646-8. -Haack, Susan (2012). "Six Signs of Scientism". Logos & Episteme. 3 (1): 75–95. doi:10.5840/logos-episteme20123151. We need to avoid both under-estimating the value of science, and over-estimating it. ... One side too hastily dismisses science; the other too hastily defers to it. My present concern, of course, is with the latter failing. It is worth noting that the English word 'scientism' wasn't always, as it is now, pejorative. -Mizrahi, Moti (July 2017). "What's So Bad About Scientism?". Social Epistemology. 31 (4): 351–367. doi:10.1080/02691728.2017.1297505. S2CID 151762259. I have argued that scientism should be understood as the thesis that scientific knowledge is the best knowledge we have, i.e., weak scientism. I have shown that scientific knowledge can be said to be better than non-scientific knowledge both quantitatively and qualitatively. -Peterson, Gregory R (2003), "Demarcation and the Scientistic Fallacy", Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science, 38 (4): 751–61, doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2003.00536.x, the best way to understand the charge of scientism is as a kind of logical fallacy involving improper usage of science or scientific claims. -Ridder, Jeroen de; Peels, Rik; Woudenberg, René van, eds. (2018). Scientism: Prospects and Problems. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190462758.001.0001. ISBN 978-0190462758. OCLC 949911467. This collection is one of the first to develop and assess scientism as a serious philosophical position. - -== External links == - -CS Lewis: Science and Scientism, Lewis society, 9 April 2018. -Burnett, "What is Scientism?", Community dialogue, American Association for the Advancement of Science, archived from the original on 2012-07-02. -"Science and Scientism", Monopolizing knowledge (World Wide Web log), The Biologos Foundation, archived from the original on 2015-04-27, retrieved 2012-07-29. -Martin, Eric C. "Science and Ideology § Science as Ideology: Scientism". In Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley (eds.). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002. OCLC 37741658. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index cbaf8694d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientist" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:20.103007+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -A scientist is an expert who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in science. -In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural philosophy. Though Thales (c. 624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods, it was not until the 19th century that the term scientist came into regular use: it was coined by the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science Wang Zhenyi and William Whewell to describe Mary Somerville. - -== History == - -The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential. -Some historians point to the Scientific Revolution that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession. - -=== Classical antiquity === -Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity was pursued by many kinds of scholars. Greek contributions to science—including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by philosophers and physicians, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the Roman Empire and, with the spread of Christianity, became closely linked to religious institutions in most European countries. Astrology and astronomy became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious patronage. By the time of the medieval university system, knowledge was divided into the trivium—philosophy, including natural philosophy—and the quadrivium—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians. - -=== Middle Ages === -Science in medieval Islam developed new approaches to acquiring natural knowledge, although these developments remained within existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists of the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, partly because there were no clearly defined scientific disciplines as understood today. -Several of these early polymaths were also religious scholars. For example, Alhazen and al-Biruni were associated with mutakallimiin; the physician Avicenna was a hafiz; the physician Ibn al-Nafis was a hafiz, muhaddith, and ulema; the botanist Otto Brunfels was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; and the astronomer and physician Nicolaus Copernicus was a cleric. -During the Italian Renaissance, figures such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Galileo Galilei, and Gerolamo Cardano are often regarded as notable polymaths. - -=== Renaissance === -During the Renaissance, Italian scholars made significant contributions to science. Leonardo da Vinci made notable observations in paleontology and anatomy. Galileo Galilei, sometimes referred to as the father of modern science, improved the thermometer and telescope, enabling more detailed observations of the Solar System. -Descartes pioneered analytic geometry, formulated a theory of mechanics, and proposed ideas concerning animal movement and perception. -Research into vision engaged physicists such as Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz, who also studied optics, hearing, and music. Isaac Newton expanded upon earlier mathematical developments by co-inventing calculus (independently of Leibniz). He formulated the principles of classical mechanics and conducted extensive investigations into light and optics. -Joseph Fourier developed the theory of infinite periodic series, studied heat transfer and infrared radiation, and described what later became known as the greenhouse effect. Mathematicians including Girolamo Cardano, Blaise Pascal, Pierre de Fermat, John von Neumann, Alan Turing, Aleksandr Khinchin, Andrey Markov, and Norbert Wiener made major contributions to mathematics and probability theory, including foundational work relevant to computer science, statistical mechanics, and quantum mechanics. Several mathematically inclined scientists, including Galileo, were also accomplished musicians. -Developments in medicine and biology included advances in understanding the circulation of blood, from Galen to Harvey. Some scholars and historians have argued that Christianity contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution. - -=== Age of Enlightenment === -During the Age of Enlightenment, Luigi Galvani, a pioneer of bioelectromagnetics, investigated what he termed "animal electricity." He observed that applying an electrical charge to the spinal cord of a frog could produce muscular spasms throughout its body. Even detached frog legs were seen to twitch when exposed to electrical stimulation. In one experiment, Galvani noted that a steel scalpel touching a brass hook holding a frog’s leg caused the leg to contract. -Further experiments reinforced these observations, leading Galvani to conclude that he was witnessing a form of intrinsic electrical force within animal tissue. At the University of Pavia, his colleague Alessandro Volta replicated the results but questioned Galvani's interpretation. -Lazzaro Spallanzani was a prominent figure in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations had a lasting influence on medical science, particularly in the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction. -Francesco Redi demonstrated that microorganisms could cause disease. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index e24563d41..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientist" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:20.103007+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== 19th century === -Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were commonly referred to as "natural philosophers" or "men of science". -English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833. It first appeared in print in his anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, published in the Quarterly Review. -In the review, Whewell discussed what he described as an increasing tendency toward specialization within the sciences. As highly specific terms such as chemist, mathematician, and naturalist became common, the broader term philosopher no longer adequately described those engaged in scientific study. Whewell contrasted this trend with Somerville's aim of demonstrating how distinct branches of science had historically been unified through general principles. -Whewell reported that members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science had expressed concern over the absence of a suitable collective term for "students of the knowledge of the material world." Referring indirectly to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman" had proposed the word scientist by analogy with artist, arguing that similar formations such as economist and atheist were already in use. The suggestion, however, was not immediately well received. -Whewell later proposed the term again, more explicitly, in his 1840 work The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. - -The terminations ize (rather than ise), ism, and ist, are applied to words of all origins: thus we have to pulverize, to colonize, Witticism, Heathenism, Journalist, Tobacconist. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot use physician for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a Physicist. We need very much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to call him a Scientist. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter, or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist. - -He also proposed the term physicist as a counterpart to the French physicien. Neither term gained widespread acceptance immediately. Scientist became common in the late 19th century in the United States and around the turn of the 20th century in Great Britain. -By the twentieth century, the modern concept of science as a distinct body of knowledge, practiced by a specialized community and pursued through recognized methods, had become firmly established. - -=== 20th century === -Marie Curie became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols. - -== Profession == -As a profession, the scientist of today is widely recognized. However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist. Anyone can be a scientist in some sense. Some professions have legal requirements for their practice (e.g. licensure) and some scientists are independent scientists meaning that they practice science on their own, but to practice science there are no known licensure requirements. - -=== Education === -In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting (e.g., universities and research institutes), mostly at the level of graduate schools. Upon completion, they would normally attain an academic degree, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). Although graduate education for scientists varies among institutions and countries, some common training requirements include specializing in an area of interest, publishing research findings in peer-reviewed scientific journals and presenting them at scientific conferences, giving lectures or teaching, and defending a thesis (or dissertation) during an oral examination. To aid them in this endeavor, graduate students often work under the guidance of a mentor, usually a senior scientist, which may continue after the completion of their doctorates whereby they work as postdoctoral researchers. - -=== Career === -After the completion of their training, many scientists pursue careers in a variety of work settings and conditions. In 2017, the British scientific journal Nature published the results of a large-scale survey of more than 5,700 doctoral students worldwide, asking them which sectors of the economy they would like to work in. A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments. -Other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry. -Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and industrial scientist). Scientists tend to be less motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with many other professions which require a similar amount of training and qualification. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 77336cbac..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,92 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Scientist" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:20.103007+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -==== Research interests ==== -Scientists include experimentalists who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and theoreticians who mainly develop models to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between the two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks. -Those considering science as a career often look to the frontiers. These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of matter at the scale of elementary particles as described by high-energy physics, and materials science, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study brain function and neurotransmitters, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier". There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the mind and human thought, much of which still remains unknown. - -=== By specialization === - -==== Natural science ==== - -===== Physical science ===== - -===== Life science ===== - -==== Social science ==== - -==== Formal science ==== - -==== Applied ==== - -==== Interdisciplinary ==== - -=== By employer === -Academic -Independent scientist -Industrial/applied scientist -Citizen scientist -Government scientist - -== Demography == - -=== By country === -The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country. For instance, there are only four full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India, while this number is 79 for the United Kingdom, and 85 for the United States. - -==== United States ==== -According to the National Science Foundation, 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the United States in 2015, across all disciplines and employment sectors. The figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, and men held 53% of those positions. 5% of scientists worked for the federal government, and about 3.5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men. 59% of scientists in the United States were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions. - -=== By gender === - -Scientist and engineering statistics are usually intertwined, but they indicate that women enter the field far less than men, though this gap is narrowing. The number of science and engineering doctorates awarded to women rose from a mere 7 percent in 1970 to 34 percent in 1985 and in engineering alone the numbers of bachelor's degrees awarded to women rose from only 385 in 1975 to more than 11000 in 1985. - -== See also == -Engineers -Inventor -Researcher -Fields Medal -Hippocratic Oath for Scientists -History of science -Intellectual -Independent scientist -Licensure -Mad scientist -Natural science -Nobel Prize -Protoscience -Normative science -Pseudoscience -Scholar -Science -Social science -Related lists -List of engineers -List of mathematicians -List of Nobel laureates in Physics -List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry -List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine -List of Russian scientists -List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists - -== References == - -== External articles == -Further reading -Alison Gopnik, "Finding Our Inner Scientist" Archived 2016-04-12 at the Wayback Machine, Daedalus, Winter 2004. -Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia. Science and the Church. The Encyclopedia press, 1913. v.13. Page 598. -Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962. -Arthur Jack Meadows. The Victorian Scientist: The Growth of a Profession, 2004. ISBN 0-7123-0894-6. -Science, The Relation of Pure Science to Industrial Research. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Page 511 onwards. -Websites -For best results, add a little inspiration – The Telegraph about What Inspired You?, a survey of key thinkers in science, technology and medicine -Peer Review Journal Science on amateur scientists -The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) – Complete Text -Audio-Visual -"The Scientist", BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Gribbin, Patricia Fara and Hugh Pennington (In Our Time, Oct. 24, 2002) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index ba069b66a..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Seasonal Attribution Project" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:02.610724+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Seasonal Attribution Project is a climate'prediction.net sub-project, with support from the WWF. It runs a high resolution model in order to try to determine the extent to which extreme weather events are attributable to human-induced global warming. -The project did cease giving out more work, however there has been a project extension to try a fourth sea surface temperature pattern. Current work will still be accepted and used for collaborations and possibly revisions of papers during the review process. -A further extension will start soon. - - -== The experiments == -United Kingdom floods of Autumn 2000 – Current project. -Mountain snowpack decline in western North America Developed in collaboration with the Climate Impacts Group at the University of Washington. -Heatwave occurrence in South Africa and India -The latter two will use the same models. Information has been uploaded but analysis of information generated has not yet started. - - -== See also == -Effects of global warming - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Seasonal Attribution Website Archived 2011-02-20 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index bb051f2af..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,70 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Sense about Science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:03.802624+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Sense about Science is a United Kingdom charitable organization that promotes the public understanding of science. Sense about Science was founded in 2002 by Lord Taverne, Bridget Ogilvie and others to promote respect for scientific evidence and good science. It was established as a charitable trust in 2003, with 14 trustees, an advisory council and a small office staff. Tracey Brown has been the director since 2002. -The organisation works with scientists and journalists to put scientific evidence in public discussions about science, and to correct unscientific misinformation. They encourage and assist scientists to engage in public debates about their area of expertise, to respond to scientifically inaccurate claims in the media, to help people contact scientists with appropriate expertise, and to prepare briefings about the scientific background to issues of public concern. - - -== Projects == -Sense about Science publishes guides to different areas of science in partnership with experts. These include: Responsible Handover Framework, Data Science: A Guide for Society, Making Sense of Nuclear, Making Sense of Uncertainty, Making Sense of Allergies, Making Sense of Drug Safety Science, Making Sense of Testing, Making Sense of Crime, Making Sense of Statistics, Making Sense of Screening and Making Sense of GM. -Sense about Science runs the Voice of Young Science programme to help early career scientists engage in public debates. -Since its founding, Sense about Science has contributed to UK public debates about such subjects as alternative medicine, "detoxification" products and detox diets, genetically modified food, avian influenza, chemicals and health, "electrosmog", vaccination, weather and climate, nuclear power, and the use and utility of peer review. Sense about Science encourages scientists to explain to the public the value of peer review in determining which reports should be taken seriously. Director Tracey Brown describes such critical thinking as crucial to preventing public health scares based on unpublished information. - - -== Causes == - - -=== AllTrials === - -The AllTrials campaign calls for all past and present clinical trials to be registered and their full methods and summary results reported. -AllTrials is an international initiative of Bad Science, BMJ, Centre for Evidence-based Medicine, Cochrane Collaboration, James Lind Initiative, PLOS and Sense About Science and is being led in the US by Sense About Science USA, Dartmouth's Geisel School of Medicine and the Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy & Clinical Practice. -As of January 2018, the AllTrials petition has been signed by 91,989 people and 737 organisations. - - -=== Ask for Evidence === -Ask for Evidence was launched by Sense About Science in 2011. It is a campaign that helps people request for themselves the evidence behind news stories, marketing claims and policies. When challenged in this way, organisations may withdraw their claims or send evidence to support them. The campaign is supported by more than 6000 volunteer scientists who are available to review the evidence provided and determine whether it supports the original claim or story. The campaign has received funding from The Wellcome Trust and is endorsed by figures such as Dara Ó Briain and Derren Brown. - - -=== Keep Libel Laws Out of Science === -Sense About Science launched the Keep Libel Laws out of Science campaign in June 2009 in defence of a member of its board of trustees, author and journalist Simon Singh, who has been sued for libel by the British Chiropractic Association. They issued a statement entitled "The law has no place in scientific disputes", which was signed by many people representing science, medicine, journalism, publishing, arts, humanities, entertainment, sceptics, campaign groups and law. In April 2010, the BCA lost this case with the court accepting that criticism of the BCA concerning its promotion of bogus treatments was fair comment. -In December 2009, Sense About Science, Index on Censorship and English PEN launched the Libel Reform Campaign. The Defamation Act 2013 received Royal Assent on 25 April 2013 and came into force on 1 January 2014. -The Trust actively campaigns in support of various causes. It has issued a statement signed by over 35 scientists asking the WHO to condemn homeopathy for diseases such as HIV. - - -== Reception == -Sense about Science and their publications have been cited a number of times in the popular press, -most notably for encouraging celebrities and the public to think critically about scientific claims, -criticizing marketing unsupported by research, -decrying the unsubstantiated claims of homeopathy, -supporting genetically modified crops, -criticising "do-it-yourself" health testing, -denouncing detox products, -warning against "miracle cures", -and promoting public understanding of peer review. -They have received positive coverage in publications from the Royal Society -and the U.S. National Science Foundation, -and in the writings of scientists such as Ben Goldacre and Steven Novella. -Lord Taverne, chairman of Sense About Science, has criticised campaigns to ban plastic bags as counter-productive and being based on "bad science". -Anti-genetic-modification campaigners and academics have criticised Sense About Science for what they view as a failure to disclose industry connections of some advisers, -and Private Eye reported that it had seen a draft of the Making Sense of GM guide that included Monsanto Company's former director of scientific affairs as an author. -Tracey Brown, managing director of Sense About Science, rebutted these claims on the Science about Science website. -Homeopath Peter Fisher criticised Sense About Science, who have been working closely with NHS primary care trusts on the issue of funding for homeopathy, for being funded by the pharmaceutical industry; Sense About Science responded in a statement to Channel 4 News that "Peter Fisher's desperate comments show about as much grasp of reality as the homeopathic medicine he sells." -A 2016 piece in The Intercept was critical of Sense About Science's data on and support for flame retardant chemicals. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official website -Interviews with Tracey Brown on Little Atoms, the official podcast of The Skeptic magazine, on Resonance FM -Alan Sokal giving the 2008 Sense About Science lecture -"Sense About Science", The Guardian, 5 January 2010 -Tracey Brown, What would a ‘super-majority’ government mean for parliamentary scrutiny?[1] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1412c0a8c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Similarity Matrix of Proteins" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:07.277770+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Similarity Matrix of Proteins (SIMAP) is a database of protein similarities created using volunteer computing. It is freely accessible for scientific purposes. SIMAP uses the FASTA algorithm to precalculate protein similarity, while another application uses hidden Markov models to search for protein domains. SIMAP is a joint project of the Technical University of Munich, the Helmholtz Zentrum München, and the University of Vienna. - - -== Project == -The project usually got new work units at the beginning of each month. More recently, (2010), inclusion of environmental sequences into the database has required longer periods of activity, several months of continuous work for example. Typically, these updates occurred twice each year. -In the fourth quarter of 2010, the project relocated to the University of Vienna due to the failing electrical infrastructure at the Technical University of Munich. Part of this exercise involved the creation of a project specific URL requiring existing volunteers and users to detach/reattach to the project. -On May 30, 2014, it was announced by project administrators that after a 10-year history, SIMAP would be leaving BOINC by the end of 2014. SIMAP research, however, will go forward with the use of local hardware consisting of "ordinary multi-core CPUs (some hundreds), crunching a SSE-optimized version of the Smith-Waterman algorithm." - - -== Computing platform == -SIMAP used the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) distributed computing platform. - - -=== Application performance notes === -Work unit CPU times varied widely, ranging between 15 minutes and 3 hours. Work units varied in size from 1.5 to 2.2 MB each, averaging around 2 MB. SIMAP provided client software optimized for SSE enabled processors and x86-64 processors. For older processors non SSE applications are provided but require manual installation steps to be taken. Operating Systems supported by SIMAP are Linux, Windows, Mac OS, Android, and other UNIX platforms. Since the database had sometimes been completed with all publicly known protein sequences and metagenomes having been precalculated by the project, the work available consisted of newly published protein sequences and metagenomes that needed to be precomputed for SIMAP. - - -== See also == -Volunteer computing -Rosetta@home -Predictor@home -Folding@home - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index e2e395894..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Simonyi Professor for the Public Understanding of Science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:08.449155+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science is a chair at the University of Oxford. The chair was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. The aim of the Professorship is 'to communicate science to the public without, in doing so, losing those elements of scholarship which constitute the essence of true understanding'. It is a position that had been endowed by Charles Simonyi with the express intention that the holder "be expected to make important contributions to the public understanding of some scientific field", and that its first holder should be Richard Dawkins. - - -== History == - -Richard Dawkins explained the history of the creation of the chair in a chapter of his memoirs, Brief Candle in the Dark: My Life in Science. In 2008, Dawkins retired and the Oxford mathematician Marcus du Sautoy was elected to the chair. - - -== List of Simonyi Professors == -1995–2008: Richard Dawkins, biological science -Since 2008: Marcus du Sautoy, mathematical science - - -== List of Simonyi Lectures == -Richard Dawkins established an annual "Charles Simonyi Lecture" at the University of Oxford. He invited the following speakers: - -Marcus du Sautoy, second Simonyi Professor, invited: - - -== Notes and references == - - -== Bibliography == -Richard Dawkins, Brief Candle in the Dark: My Life in Science, Bantam Press, 2015 (ISBN 978-0-59307-256-1). Chapter "Simonyi Professor", pages 271-307. - - -== External links == -Official website -Charles Simonyi's manifesto \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index fe4862e30..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Slow science" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:10.785341+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Slow science is part of the broader slow movement. It is based on the belief that science should be a slow, steady, methodical process, and that scientists should not be expected to provide "quick fixes" to society's problems. Slow science supports curiosity-driven scientific research and opposes performance targets. Slow science is a continually developing school of thought in the scientific community. Followers of slow science practices are generally opposed to the current model of research which is seen as constrained by the need for continued funding. The slow science perspective attributes the overinflation of scientific publishing, and rise in fraudulent publishing with the requirement for researchers and institutions to create a justification for continued funding. The term slow science was first popularised in “Another Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science” by researcher Isabelle Stengers in 2018. The idea of “publish or perish”, which too links limitations in the quality of research to financial constraints, has been around since the early 20th century. The slow science philosophy has been described as both a way to approach scientific research, and a science led movement which acts as a critique of science's function in neoliberal society. -Slow science has developed its key principles through the contribution of many scholars and organisations. Key principles include calls to shift from scientific research which places its value in output of research, research funding reform, and ridding scientific research from coerced political agendas. For especially well known scientists, some have had the freedom to apply slow science principles. Slow Science development has especially gained prevalence in western European scientific communities, in progressive research universities. Slow science as a whole has gradually gained support through individuals and organisational advocacy. Criticism, due to the movement's relatively small impact, has been limited. - -== Development == - -The development of slow science is traced back to “publish or perish”, first noted by Clarence Marsh Case in 1923. Slow science, differently from publish or perish, acts as a critique of the concept. Slow science contributions have narrowed down the publish or perish culture into the scientific field. Slow science attributes many of its key principles to publish or perish, and is considered to be the way in which scientists can support a movement for change. Since the rise in prevalence of the term slow science in the 21st century, the two terms have been used as opposites by academics and journalists alike. -Early contributions to the development of slow science came from research universities across western Europe. Before the development of slow science, was the popularisation in university spheres of the term fast science. This was most notable by Dr Joel Candau in 2010, in his open letter to the University of Nice, in which he stated “Fast science, like fast food, favours quantity over quality,”. In 2010 Ruth Muller had coined the term slow science, whilst in her position at the AIIA, helping develop a slow science international network. Most significant in its early development, was the publication of the article “the Slow Science Manifesto” in 2011 by a group of German scholars known as the slow science academy. This manifesto was the first time the slow science had reached a non academic audience. -Most notably however, was the popularisation of the term slow science in 2018. The publication “Another Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science” by Isabelle Stengers, is the first book published on the topic of slow science. During this period, there was an increase in media activity surrounding slow science, which helped grow collaboration with other slow movements, such as slow fashion. Isabelle Stengers' contribution was significant as a scholar who could attract media beyond academic spheres. Notability increased as a result of globally recognised psychologist Uta Frith's journal article on slow science. Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, publications on slow science have been limited. - -== Key principles == -The key principles of slow science are based on the premise that the most accurate and thorough scientific research is results from absence of financial constraint, absence of an immediate deadline, and no directive from market based influences. The key principles of slow science are a critique of modern scientific funding, and advocate for public knowledge, and changed practices in scientific research. - -=== Slow scientific practice === -At the core of the slow science agenda is the desire to shift from scientific research which places its value in output of research, to research which is for the benefit of the public. Slow science advocates for the adoption of slow scientific practices. An example of this is the support of increased cumulative scientific research, which as a collaboration of thorough scientific research, will be more effective in addressing great global issues. In adopting these values into scientific practice, slow science aims to reduce the stress on research by removing funding-linked performance outcomes. Slow scientific practices involve a methodical approach, published with a rigorous peer review system, that slow science researchers believe will be able to reduce fraudulent results and increase research which leads to innovation. -Slow scientific practice aims for quality of work over quantity of output. Therefore, there is a distinct opposition to the overinflating quality of academic research. Amongst the slow science community, phrases such as the “least publishable unit” and “publons”, have been used to satirise the rise in peer-reviewed publications with minimal amounts of depth in its research. A theme within so slow science is a positive outlook on the prospects of scientific advancement, however a necessity to advocate for the publishing of high quality, peer-reviewed study. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6c631d038..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Slow science" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:10.785341+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Research funding reform === -Slow Science proposes a change to the current structure of research funding, especially directed towards the increase in funding sourced from corporate donorship in academic institutions, as well as the rise in private independent research institutes. The slow science movement has called for all government funded research to be for the benefit of broader society, and has also called for an overall system of funding reform. Slow science groups, such as Slow Science Belgium, have called for increased government funding to be a necessity, and for key performance indicator linked targets for results to be removed from grant conditions. Key contributor to the slow science Uta Frith has expressed the idea that as government funding increases, so will risk taking in research, and therefore lead to the potential of greater scientific innovation. - -=== Apolitical driven research === -Apolitical research, from a slow science perspective, opposes research which aims to show alternatives to scientific precedent for political benefits. As well as this, the slow science movement extends this to what is described as an inherently political shift in the privatisation of knowledge, that is, scientific research which has moved from publications to private research and development of products. Slow Science believes in ending prolonged research for the benefit of governments, on issues such as resource depletion, global warming and urban overdevelopment, as to doubt scientific consensus for policy benefits. The slow science movement perceives financial pressures from governments or corporations as forms of suppression of broad research, and believes in an inherent link between funding and scientific agenda. Hence, slow scientific practice is inherently a political struggle, to remove political and ideological constraints in research. - -== In scientific research == - -=== Environmental research === -Subscribers to slow science principles consider environmental research to be a field of research which has become continually scrutinised by policy makers who search for cost effective and convenient solutions to climate change. Slow science aims to protect climate research through what is considered the separation of scientific judgement from the judgement of social and political issues. Slow scientists advocate for the removal of climatology from the influence of the speculative economy, and the undermining of research by policy makers who control scientific funding. The slow science approach to environmental research is one which is inherently a critique of capitalism, and one which considers current constraints in funding leading to scientists promoting “best possible” outcomes in reporting of climate. - -=== Clinical research === -The application of slow science principles are especially dedicated to changes in clinical research as a whole. German psychologist Uta Frith describes her breakthrough 1980's research into the link between dyslexia and phonological processing as one which had the freedom to make errors, and run numerous trials. Uta Firth in her criticism of “Fast Science”, identifies the possible future of clinical research does not allow for numerous and large trials to identify potential errors in trials. For slow science, the rise in “convenience sampling” by academic institutions who provide researchers with pools of students is a cost cutting method which skews the results of data by not producing a diverse sample. Clinical research, from a slow science perspective, should be removed from significant financial constraints which potentially lead to unreliable or fraudulent data. - -=== Interdisciplinary Study === -In collaborative study, slow scientists aim for longer periods spent in interdisciplinary studies. Key to this are learning cycles, which aim to provide an understanding of how other fields create rationale for results gained. As well as this, some slow scientists have attributed collaborative success to ethical models, such as ethics of care. These can include general guides to considerate collaboration, or direct models such as Trontos's ethical framework. Slow scientists believe financial constraints rush scientific research, and this creates an overspecialization of researchers. By taking on long term collaborative projects, slow scientists believe greater global issues can be tackled. - -== Reception == -Slow science has been met with some support from the scientific community, through both individuals and community groups. Two of the most notable slow science activists are researcher Isabelle Stengers, and world recognised developmental psychologist Uta Frith. Both have contributed through publications, with the key work of the Slow Science movement; with publications “Another Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science” and “Fast Lane to Slow Science”, being introductory perspectives into the slow science movement. -In 2010, anthropologist Dr. Joël Candau wrote an appeal to the University of Nice against fast science principles, and received 4000 signatories by scientists. The unexpected support from this open letter indicated a rise in the popularity of the term “fast science”, and the beginning of an evident support base. -Whilst individual publications have been credited towards providing research methods used through a slow science lens, Slow Scientific organisations have developed to act as a union of scientists who advocate for funding reform in scientific research. The German “Slow Science Academy”, and “Slow Science Belgium”, are organisations of scientists which advocate and practise slow science principles in their research. -The slow science movement, due to its only recent notability, has limited direct criticism from university administrators. However, arguments developed by especially university administrations have promoted financial and time constraints as a way to increase positive pressure on academic research. Research institutions also expect researchers to accept certain terms of constraint as to promote professionalism, and drive focused innovation. The most prevalent disagreement between slow science advocates and university administration is on the basis of tenure. University administrations have opposed criticism to advocates for tenureship, as a broader scope of casual academics who can produce a higher amount of “deliverables” for the same amount of funding. - -== See also == - -"Publish or perish" - -== References == - -== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index eeb6b7428..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social effects of evolutionary theory" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:12.070229+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The social effects of evolutionary thought have been considerable. As the scientific explanation of life's diversity has developed, it has often displaced alternative, sometimes very widely held, explanations. Because the theory of evolution includes an explanation of humanity's origins, it has had a profound impact on human societies. Some have vigorously denied acceptance of the scientific explanation due to its perceived religious implications (e.g. its implied rejection of the special creation of humans presumably described in the Bible). This has led to a vigorous conflict between creation and evolution in public education, primarily in the United States. - -== Evolution and ethics == -The theory of evolution by natural selection has also been adopted as a foundation for various ethical and social systems, such as social Darwinism, an idea that preceded the publication of The Origin of Species, popular in the 19th century, which holds that "the survival of the fittest" (a phrase coined in 1851 by Herbert Spencer, 8 years before Darwin published his theory of evolution) explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people. A similar interpretation was one created by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, known as eugenics, which claimed that human civilization was subverting natural selection by allowing the less bright and less healthy to survive and out-breed the smarter and more healthy. -Later advocates of this theory suggested radical and often coercive social measures in an attempt to "correct" this imbalance. Thomas Huxley spent much time demonstrating through a series of thought experiments that it would not only be immoral, but impossible. Stephen Jay Gould and others have argued that social Darwinism is based on misconceptions of evolutionary theory, and many ethicists regard it as a case of the is-ought problem. After the atrocities of the Holocaust became linked with eugenics, it greatly fell out of favor with public and scientific opinion, though it was never universally accepted by either, and at no point in Nazi literature is Charles Darwin or the scientific theory of evolution mentioned. -In his book The End of Faith, Sam Harris argues that Nazism was largely a continuation of Christian anti-Semitism. Jim Walker compiled a list of 129 quotes from Mein Kampf in which Hitler described himself as a Christian, or mentioned God, Jesus or a biblical passage. Some argue that six million of the people killed during the Holocaust were killed because of their religion (Judaism) not their race, "strength," or any reason with an obvious link to the mechanism of Darwinian evolution. Hitler often used Christian beliefs like, "Jews killed Jesus," to justify his anti-Semitism. -The notion that humans share ancestors with other animals has also affected how some people view the relationship between humans and other species. Many proponents of animal rights hold that if animals and humans are of the same nature, then rights cannot be distinct to humans. -Charles Darwin, in fact, considered "sympathy" to be one of the most important moral virtues — and that it was, indeed, a product of natural selection and a trait beneficial to social animals (including humans). Darwin further argued that the most "sympathetic" societies would consequently be the most "successful." He also stated that our sympathy should be extended to "all sentient beings": - -As man advances in civilization, and small tribes are united into larger communities, the simplest reason would tell each individual that he ought to extend his social instincts and sympathies to all the members of the same nation, though personally unknown to him. This point being once reached, there is only an artificial barrier to prevent his sympathies extending to the men of all nations and races. If, indeed, such men are separated from him by great differences in appearance or habits, experience unfortunately shows us how long it is, before we look at them as our fellow-creatures. ... This virtue, one of the noblest with which man is endowed, seems to arise incidentally from our sympathies becoming more tender and more widely diffused, until they are extended to all sentient beings. As soon as this virtue is honored and practiced by some few men, it spreads through instruction and example to the young, and eventually becomes incorporated in public opinion. - -== Evolution and religion == - -Before Darwin's argument and presentation of the evidence for evolution, Western religions generally discounted or condemned any claims that diversity of life is the result of an evolutionary process, as did most scientists in the English scientific establishment. However, evolution was accepted by some religious groups such as the Unitarian church and the liberal Anglican theologians who went on to publish Essays and Reviews, as well as by many scientists in France and Scotland and some in England, notably Robert Edmund Grant. Literal or authoritative interpretations of Scripture hold that a supreme being directly created humans and other animals as separate Created kinds, which to some means species. This view is commonly referred to as creationism. From the 1920s to the present in the US, there has been a strong religious backlash to the teaching of evolution theory, particularly by conservative evangelicals. They have expressed concerns about the effects of the teaching of evolution on society and their faith (see Creation–evolution controversy). -In response to the wide scientific acceptance of the theory of evolution, many religions have formally or informally synthesized the scientific and religious viewpoints. Several important 20th century scientists (Fisher, Dobzhansky) whose work confirmed Darwin's theory, were also Christians who saw no incompatibility between their experimental and theoretical confirmations of evolution and their faith. Some religions have adopted a theistic evolution viewpoint, where God provides a divine spark that ignited the process of evolution and (or) where God has guided evolution in one way or another. - -=== Evolution and the Roman Catholic Church === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2bee52b6c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,38 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social effects of evolutionary theory" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:12.070229+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Roman Catholic Church, beginning in 1950 with Pope Pius XII's encyclical Humani Generis, took up a neutral position with regard to evolution. "The Church does not forbid that...research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter." -In an October 22, 1996, address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Pope John Paul II updated the Church's position, recognizing that Evolution is "more than a hypothesis" - "In his encyclical Humani Generis, my predecessor Pius XII has already affirmed that there is no conflict between evolution and the doctrine of the faith regarding man and his vocation... Today, more than a half-century after the appearance of that encyclical, some new findings lead us toward the recognition of evolution as more than an hypothesis. In fact it is remarkable that this theory has had progressively greater influence on the spirit of researchers, following a series of discoveries in different scholarly disciplines." - -=== Islamic views on evolution === - -=== Jewish views on evolution === - -== Evolutionary theory and the political left == - -In 1861 Karl Marx wrote to his friend Ferdinand Lassalle, "Darwin’s work is most important and suits my purpose in that it provides a basis in natural science for the historical class struggle. ... Despite all shortcomings, it is here that, for the first time, 'teleology' in natural science is not only dealt a mortal blow but its rational meaning is empirically explained." -Most later Marxists agreed with this view, but some – particularly those in the early Soviet Union – believed that evolutionary theory conflicted with their economic and social ideals. As a result, they came to support Lamarckism instead – the idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its offspring. This led to the practice of Lysenkoism, which caused agricultural problems. -In his book, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin argued that co-operation and mutual aid are as important in the evolution of the species as competition and mutual strife, if not more so. -On the contemporary moderate left, some authors such as Peter Singer (in his book, A Darwinian Left) support Darwinism but reach different political and economic lessons than more conservative observers. Richard Dawkins' book, The Selfish Gene, has a chapter, "Nice guys finish first," that attempts to explain the role of altruism and cooperation in evolution and how social animals not only cannot survive without such traits, but how evolution will create them. Dawkins explains that when an animal sacrifices itself or uses its resources for the survival of other members of the same species, its genes, present in the other animals, survive. For example, if a mother dies to save three of its pups, one and a half copies (on average) of its genes will survive, because there is a 50% chance of a particular gene being present in its offspring. Dawkins also made a documentary of the same name. According to the documentary, Dawkins added that chapter as a way of overcoming modern day misinterpretations of the concept of survival of the fittest. -Left-wing transhumanists see technology as a means to overcome inequalities that stem from biology. New left feminist Shulamith Firestone saw technological control over reproduction as essential for gender equality. More recently the Laboria Cuboniks collective has articulated an antinaturalist politics that seeks to overcome essentialist categories through technological empowerment. - -== Evolution in relation to Social Darwinism and Imperialism == -"Social Darwinism" is a derogatory term associated with the 19th century Malthusian theory developed by Whig philosopher Herbert Spencer. It is associated with evolutionary theory but now widely regarded as unwarranted. Social Darwinism was later expanded by others into ideas about "survival of the fittest" in commerce and human societies as a whole, and led to claims that social inequality, sexism, racism and imperialism were justified. However, these ideas contradict Darwin's own views, and contemporary scientists and philosophers consider these ideas to be neither mandated by evolutionary theory nor supported by data. -Social Darwinism is further linked with nationalism and imperialism. During the age of New Imperialism, the concepts of evolution justified the exploitation of "lesser breeds without the law" by "superior races." To elitists, strong nations were composed of white people who were successful at expanding their empires, and as such, these strong nations would survive in the struggle for dominance. With this attitude, Europeans, except for Christian missionaries, seldom adopted the customs and languages of local people under their empires. Christian missionaries, on the other hand, were the very first individuals to meet new peoples and develop writing systems for local inhabitants' languages that lacked one. Being critics of Social Darwinism, they ardently opposed slavery and provided an education and religious instruction to the new peoples they interacted with since they felt that this was their duty as Christians. - -== See also == -Sociocultural evolution – Evolution of societies -Neo-creationism – Pseudoscientific creationist movement -Hypergamy – Practice of a person marrying a spouse of higher social status -Natural philosophy – Philosophical study of nature -Freethought – Position that beliefs should be formed only on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism -Age of the Earth – Scientific dating of the EarthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2130f4809..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social science" -chunk: 1/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:17.122000+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Social science (or the social sciences) is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among members within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 18th century. It now encompasses a wide array of additional academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, linguistics, management, communication studies, psychology, sociology, culturology, and political science. -The majority of positivist social scientists use methods resembling those used in the natural sciences as tools for understanding societies, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Speculative social scientists, otherwise known as interpretivist scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (combining both quantitative and qualitative research). To gain a deeper understanding of complex human behavior in digital environments, social science disciplines have increasingly integrated interdisciplinary approaches, big data, and computational tools. The term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share similar goals and methods. - -== History == - -The history of the social sciences began in the Age of Enlightenment after 1651, which saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was scientific. Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a group of interacting entities. -The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The term "social science" was coined in French by Mirabeau in 1767, before becoming a distinct conceptual field in the nineteenth century. Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative; metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier; Comte also referred to the field as social physics. According to Comte, the social physics field was similar to that of natural sciences. -Following this period, five paths of development sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte in other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research. Large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying "social facts", and Vilfredo Pareto, opening metatheoretical ideas and individual theories. A third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood; this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science. The last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values; the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory (description) and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject. -The foundation of social sciences in the West implies conditioned relationships between progressive and traditional spheres of knowledge. In some contexts, such as the Italian one, sociology slowly affirms itself and experiences the difficulty of affirming a strategic knowledge beyond philosophy and theology. -Around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. After the use of classical theories since the end of the scientific revolution, various fields substituted mathematics studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology. The interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behaviour, social and environmental factors affecting it, made many of the natural sciences interested in some aspects of social science methodology. Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing discipline of applied mathematics. Statistical methods were used confidently. -In the contemporary period, Karl Popper and Talcott Parsons influenced the furtherance of the social sciences. Researchers continue to search for a unified consensus on what methodology might have the power and refinement to connect a proposed "grand theory" with the various midrange theories that, with considerable success, continue to provide usable frameworks for massive, growing data banks; for more, see consilience. The social sciences will for the foreseeable future be composed of different zones in the research of, and sometimes distinct in approach toward, the field. -The term "social science" may refer either to the specific sciences of society established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more generally to all disciplines outside of "noble science" and arts. By the late 19th century, the academic social sciences were constituted of five fields: jurisprudence and amendment of the law, education, health, economy and trade, and art. -Around the start of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. -A distinction is usually drawn between the social sciences and the humanities. Classicist Allan Bloom writes in The Closing of the American Mind (1987): \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 94aac1fde..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social science" -chunk: 2/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:17.122000+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Social science and humanities have a mutual contempt for one another, the former looking down on the latter as unscientific, the latter regarding the former as philistine. [...] The difference comes down to the fact that social science really wants to be predictive, meaning that man is predictable, while the humanities say that he is not. - -== Branches == - -The social science disciplines are branches of knowledge taught and researched at the college or university level. Social science disciplines are defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned social science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. The following are widely-considered to be social sciences: - -=== Anthropology === - -Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences, humanities, and human biology. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. Firstly, the natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. Secondly, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Finally, the social sciences have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences. -The anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains. Within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields: archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, anthropological linguistics, and cultural anthropology. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions. The word anthropos (ἄνθρωπος) in Ancient Greek means "human being" or "person". Eric Wolf described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences". -The goal of anthropology is to provide a holistic account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior". Today, anthropologists use terms such as "less complex" societies or refer to specific modes of subsistence or production, such as "pastoralist" or "forager" or "horticulturalist" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk (ethnos) remaining of great interest within anthropology. -The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs. In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological. - -=== Communication studies === - -Communication studies deals with processes of human communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning. The discipline encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation to mass media outlets such as television broadcasting. Communication studies also examine how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic, and social dimensions of their contexts. Communication is institutionalized under many different names at different universities, including communication, communication studies, speech communication, rhetorical studies, communication science, media studies, communication arts, mass communication, media ecology, and communication and media science. -Communication studies integrate aspects of both social sciences and the humanities. As a social science, the discipline often overlaps with sociology, psychology, anthropology, biology, political science, economics, and public policy, among others. From a humanities perspective, communication is concerned with rhetoric and persuasion (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of Ancient Greece). The field applies to outside disciplines as well, including engineering, architecture, mathematics, and information science. - -=== Economics === - -Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. The word "economics" is from the Ancient Greek οἶκος (oikos, "family, household, estate") and νόμος (nomos, "custom, law"), and hence means "household management" or "management of the state". An economist is a person using economic concepts and data in the course of employment, or someone who has earned a degree in the subject. The classic brief definition of economics, set out by Lionel Robbins in 1932, is "the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses". Without scarcity and alternative uses, there is no economic problem. Briefer yet is "the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behavior". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4b8f59bda..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,33 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social science" -chunk: 3/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:17.122000+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics, where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household or firm, and macroeconomics, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes positive economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from normative economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve subjective value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the physiocratic school. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as politics, law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family life, and other social interactions. -The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. - -=== Education === - -Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization). To educate means 'to draw out', from the Latin educare, or to facilitate the realization of an individual's potential and talents. It is an application of pedagogy, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, sociology and anthropology. - -=== Geography === - -Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. This may involve cultural geography, transportation, health, military operations, and cities. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation and life, soil, oceans, water and landforms are produced and interact (is also commonly regarded as an Earth Science). Physical geography examines phenomena related to the measurement of earth. As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is environmental geography. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans. Other branches of geography include social geography, regional geography, and geomatics. -Geographers attempt to understand the Earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of mapmaking and finding ways to precisely project the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. Historical geography is often taught in a college in a unified Department of Geography. -Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline, closely related to Geographic Information Science, that seeks to understand humanity and its natural environment. The fields of urban planning, regional science, and planetology are closely related to geography. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as Geographic Information Systems, remote sensing, aerial photography, statistics, and global positioning systems. - -=== History === - -History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research into past human events as interpreted through historiographical paradigms or theories. When used as the name of a field of study, history refers to the study and interpretation of the record of humans, societies, institutions, and any topic that has changed over time. -Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of the humanities. In modern academia, whether or not history remains a humanities-based subject is contested. In the United States the National Endowment for the Humanities includes history in its definition of humanities (as it does for applied linguistics). However, the National Research Council classifies history as a social science. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. The Social Science History Association, formed in 1976, brings together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in social history. - -=== Law === - -The social science of law, jurisprudence, in common parlance, means a rule that (unlike a rule of ethics) is capable of enforcement through institutions. However, many laws are based on norms accepted by a community and thus have an ethical foundation. The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a "system of rules", as an "interpretive concept" to achieve justice, as an "authority" to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction". However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social science and the humanities. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about contract, tort, property law, labour law, company law and many more can have long-lasting effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun law derives from the Old English lagu, meaning something laid down or fixed and the adjective legal comes from the Latin word lex. - -=== Linguistics === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5a2263cb8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social science" -chunk: 4/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:17.122000+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study of the structure of words), phonetics (the study of speech sounds) and phonology (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions. -The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of Noam Chomsky—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. While certain areas of linguistics can thus be understood as clearly falling within the social sciences, other areas, like acoustic phonetics and neurolinguistics, draw on the natural sciences. Linguistics draws only secondarily on the humanities, which played a rather greater role in linguistic inquiry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Ferdinand Saussure was one of the founders of 20th century linguistics. - -=== Political science === - -Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behaviour. Fields and subfields of political science include political economy, political theory and philosophy, civics and comparative politics, theory of direct democracy, apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, international relations, foreign policy, international law, politics, public administration, administrative behaviour, public law, judicial behaviour, and public policy. Political science also studies power in international relations and the theory of great powers and superpowers. -Political science is methodologically diverse, although recent years have witnessed an upsurge in the use of the scientific method, that is, the proliferation of formal-deductive model building and quantitative hypothesis testing. Approaches to the discipline include rational choice, classical political philosophy, interpretivism, structuralism, and behaviouralism, realism, pluralism, and institutionalism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents, interviews, and official records, as well as secondary sources such as scholarly articles, are used in building and testing theories. Empirical methods include survey research, statistical analysis or econometrics, case studies, experiments, and model building. - -=== Psychology === - -Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour and mental processes. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. The word psychology comes from the Ancient Greek ψυχή (psyche, "soul" or "mind") and the suffix logy ("study"). -Psychology differs from anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the mental function and overt behaviour of individuals, while the other disciplines focus on creating descriptive generalizations about the functioning of social groups or situation-specific human behaviour. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from biology and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behaviour, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of neuropsychology combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced. -Many people associate psychology with clinical psychology, which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology. In reality, psychology has myriad specialties including social psychology, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, educational psychology, industrial-organizational psychology, mathematical psychology, neuropsychology, and quantitative analysis of behaviour. -Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tackled as a whole, major block. Although some subfields encompass a natural science base and a social science application, others can be clearly distinguished as having little to do with the social sciences or having a lot to do with the social sciences. For example, biological psychology is considered a natural science with a social scientific application (as is clinical medicine), social and occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science that lacks application out of the scientific tradition entirely. -In British universities, emphasis on what tenet of psychology a student has studied and/or concentrated is communicated through the degree conferred: BPsy indicates a balance between natural and social sciences, BSc indicates a strong (or entire) scientific concentration, whereas a BA underlines a majority of social science credits. This is not always necessarily the case however, and in many UK institutions students studying the BPsy, BSc, and BA follow the same curriculum as outlined by The British Psychological Society and have the same options of specialism open to them regardless of whether they choose a balance, a heavy science basis, or heavy social science basis to their degree. If they applied to read the BA. for example, but specialized in heavily science-based modules, then they will still generally be awarded the BA. - -=== Sociology === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 93d46e00d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social science" -chunk: 5/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:17.122000+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Sociology is the systematic study of society, individuals' relationship to their societies, the consequences of difference, and other aspects of human social action. The meaning of the word comes from the suffix -logy, which means "study of", derived from Ancient Greek, and the stem soci-, which is from the Latin word socius, meaning "companion", or society in general. -Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term sociology to describe a way to apply natural science principles and techniques to the social world in 1838. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842] and A General View of Positivism (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année sociologique. Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide rates among Catholic and Protestant populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy. -Karl Marx rejected Comte's positivism but nevertheless aimed to establish a science of society based on historical materialism, becoming recognized as a founding figure of sociology posthumously as the term gained broader meaning. Around the start of the 20th century, the first wave of German sociologists, including Max Weber and Georg Simmel, developed sociological antipositivism. The field may be broadly recognized as an amalgam of three modes of social thought in particular: Durkheimian positivism and structural functionalism; Marxist historical materialism and conflict theory; and Weberian antipositivism and verstehen analysis. American sociology broadly arose on a separate trajectory, with little Marxist influence, an emphasis on rigorous experimental methodology, and a closer association with pragmatism and social psychology. In the 1920s, the Chicago school developed symbolic interactionism. Meanwhile, in the 1930s, the Frankfurt School pioneered the idea of critical theory, an interdisciplinary form of Marxist sociology drawing upon thinkers as diverse as Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Nietzsche. Critical theory would take on something of a life of its own after World War II, influencing literary criticism and the Birmingham School establishment of cultural studies. -Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of modernity, such as industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and a perceived process of enveloping rationalization. The field generally concerns the social rules and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, communities and institutions, and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes. In the terms of sociologists Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, social scientists seek an understanding of the Social Construction of Reality. Most sociologists work in one or more subfields. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in population size or type; criminology examines criminal behaviour and deviance; and political sociology studies the interaction between society and state. -Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, methods, and frames of enquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged. Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, draw upon empirical techniques, and engage critical theory. Common modern methods include case studies, historical research, interviewing, participant observation, social network analysis, survey research, statistical analysis, and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for purposes beyond the academy. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such as evaluation research, methodological assessment, and public sociology. -In the early 1970s, women sociologists began to question sociological paradigms and the invisibility of women in sociological studies, analysis, and courses. In 1969, feminist sociologists challenged the discipline's androcentrism at the American Sociological Association's annual conference. This led to the founding of the organization Sociologists for Women in Society, and, eventually, a new sociology journal, Gender & Society. Today, the sociology of gender is considered to be one of the most prominent sub-fields in the discipline. -New sociological sub-fields continue to appear — such as community studies, computational sociology, environmental sociology, network analysis, actor-network theory, gender studies, and a growing list, many of which are cross-disciplinary in nature. - -== Additional fields of study == - -Additional applied or interdisciplinary fields related to the social sciences or are applied social sciences include: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2bd65b6f7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social science" -chunk: 6/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:17.122000+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Archaeology, a science that is focused on the study of human cultures by means of the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, and landscapes. -Area studies, interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions. -Behavioural science, which encompasses disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world. -Computational social science, an umbrella field encompassing computational approaches within the social sciences. -Demography, the statistical study of human populations. -Development studies, a branch of social science that addresses issues of concern to developing countries. -Environmental social science, the broad study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment. -Environmental studies, which integrates social, humanistic, and natural science perspectives on the relation between humans and the natural environment. -Gender studies, which is focused on the study of gender identity, masculinity, femininity, transgender issues, and sexuality. -Information science, an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. -International studies, which covers both international relations (the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system) and international education. -Legal management, a social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in the study of state and legal elements. -Library science, a field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; and the collection, organization, preservation and dissemination of information resources. -Management, which consists of various levels of leadership and administration of an organization in all business and human organizations. It is the effective execution of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives through adequate planning, executing and controlling activities. -Marketing, the identification of human needs and wants, defines and measures their magnitude for demand and understanding the process of consumer buying behaviour to formulate products and services, pricing, promotion and distribution to satisfy these needs and wants through exchange processes and building long-term relationships. -Political economy, the study of production, buying and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government. -Public administration, the development, implementation and study of branches of government policy. Though public administration has been historically referred to as government management, it increasingly encompasses non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that also operate with a similar, primary dedication to the betterment of humanity. -Religious studies and Western esoteric studies, which incorporate social-scientific research on phenomena deemed religious. - -== Methodology == - -=== Social research === - -The origin of the survey can be traced back at least as early as the Domesday Book in 1086, while some scholars pinpoint the origin of demography to 1663 with the publication of John Graunt's Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality. Social research began most intentionally, however, with the positivist philosophy of science in the 19th century. -In contemporary usage, "social research" is a relatively autonomous term, encompassing the work of practitioners from various disciplines that share in its aims and methods. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from census survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The methods originally rooted in classical sociology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, and marketing and market research. -Social research methods may be divided into two broad schools: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index 2a644cde5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social science" -chunk: 7/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:17.122000+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims. -Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality. -Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or statistical hypothesis testing. A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). A mathematical model is "a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) that presents knowledge of that system in usable form". Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. -These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. The system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. The concept of an integrated whole can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships that are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. A dynamical system modeled as a mathematical formalization has a fixed "rule" that describes the time dependence of a point's position in its ambient space. Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The evolution rule of the dynamical system is a fixed rule that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is deterministic: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state. -Social scientists often conduct program evaluation, which is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know whether the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving or objecting to are producing the intended effect. While program evaluation first focuses around this definition, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful. -Some social science research areas were found to have political academic bias. - -=== Theory === - -Some social theorists emphasize the subjective nature of research. These writers espouse social theory perspectives that include various types of the following: - -Critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across social sciences and humanities disciplines. -Dialectical materialism is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the materialism of Feuerbach. -Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse; it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. -Marxist theories, such as revolutionary theory, scientific socialism, and class theory, cover work in philosophy that is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or is written by Marxists. -Phronetic social science is a theory and methodology for doing social science focusing on ethics and political power, based on a contemporary interpretation of Aristotelian phronesis. -Post-colonial theory is a reaction to the cultural legacy of colonialism. -Postmodernism refers to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century. -Rational choice theory is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behaviour. -Social constructionism considers how social phenomena develop in social contexts. -Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts. -Structural functionalism is a sociological paradigm that addresses what social functions various elements of the social system perform in regard to the entire system. -Other fringe social theorists delve into the alternative nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following: - -Anti-intellectualism describes a sentiment of critique towards, or evaluation of, intellectuals and intellectual pursuits. -Antiscience is a position critical of science and the scientific method. - -== Education and degrees == -Most universities offer degrees in social science fields. The Bachelor of Social Science is a degree targeted at the social sciences in particular, it is often more flexible and in-depth than other degrees that include social science subjects. -In the United States, a university may offer a student who studies a social sciences field a Bachelor of Arts degree, particularly if the field is within one of the traditional liberal arts such as history, or a BSc: Bachelor of Science degree such as those given by the London School of Economics, as the social sciences constitute one of the two main branches of science (the other being the natural sciences). In addition, some institutions have degrees for a particular social science, such as the Bachelor of Economics degree, though such specialized degrees are relatively rare in the United States. -Graduate students may receive a master's degree (Master of Arts, Master of Science or a field-specific degree such as Master of Public Administration) or a doctoral degree (e.g. PhD). - -== People associated with the social sciences == - -== See also == - -== Notes == - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-7.md deleted file mode 100644 index f3a3a9f22..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-7.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,80 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Social science" -chunk: 8/8 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:17.122000+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Bibliography == -Michie, Jonathan, ed. Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences (2 vol. 2001) 1970 pages annotating the major topics in the late 20th century in all the social sciences. - -=== 20th and 21st centuries sources === -Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (2001). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Amsterdam: Elsevier. -Byrne, D.S. (1998). Complexity theory and the social sciences: an introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16296-8 -Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). The Social Science Encyclopedia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (ed., a limited preview of the 1996 version is available) -Lave, C.A., and March, J.G. (1993). An introduction to models in the social sciences. Lanham, Md: University Press of America. -Perry, John and Erna Perry. Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science (12th Edition, 2008), college textbook -Potter, D. (1988). Society and the social sciences: An introduction. London: Routledge [u.a.]. -David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton (1968). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. -Seligman, Edwin R.A. and Alvin Johnson (1934). Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. (13 vol.) -Ward, L.F. (1924). Dynamic sociology, or applied social science: As based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences. New York: D. Appleton. -Leavitt, F.M., and Brown, E. (1920). Elementary social science. New York: Macmillan. -Bogardus, E.S. (1913). Introduction to the social sciences: A textbook outline. Los Angeles: Ralston Press. -Small, A.W. (1910). The meaning of social science. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. - -=== 19th century sources === -Andrews, S.P. (1888). The science of society. Boston, Mass: Sarah E. Holmes. -Denslow, V.B. (1882). Modern thinkers principally upon social science: What they think, and why. Chicago: Belford, Clarke & Co. -Harris, William Torrey (1879). Method of Study in Social Science: A Lecture Delivered Before the St. Louis Social Science Association, March 4, 1879. St. Louis: G.I. Jones and Co, 1879. -Hamilton, R.S. (1873). Present status of social science. A review, historical and critical, of the progress of thought in social philosophy. New York: H.L. Hinton. -Carey, H.C. (1867). Principles of social science. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co. [etc.]. Volume I, Volume II, Volume III. -Calvert, G.H. (1856). Introduction to social science: A discourse in three parts. New York: Redfield. - -=== General sources === -Backhouse, Roger E., and Philippe Fontaine, eds. A historiography of the modern social sciences (Cambridge University Press, 2014). -Backhouse, Roger E.; Fontaine, Philippe, eds. (2010). The History of the Social Sciences Since 1945. Cambridge University Press.; covers the conceptual, institutional, and wider histories of economics, political science, sociology, social anthropology, psychology, and human geography. -Delanty, G. (1997). Social science: Beyond constructivism and realism. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press. -Hargittai, E. (2009). Research Confidential: Solutions to Problems Most Social Scientists Pretend They Never Have. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472026531. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved December 14, 2009. -Heim, K. M. (1987). Social Scientific Information Needs for Numeric Data: The Evolution of the International Data Archive Infrastructure. Collection Management, 9(1), 1–53. -Hunt, E.F.; Colander, D.C. (2008). Social science: An introduction to the study of society. Boston: Peason/Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 978-0-205-52406-8. -Carey, H.C.; McKean, K. (1883). Manual of social science; Being a condensation of the Principles of social science. Philadelphia: Baird. -Galavotti, M.C. (2003). Observation and experiment in the natural and social sciences. Boston studies in the philosophy of science. Vol. 232. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. ISBN 978-1-4020-1251-8. -Gorton, W.A. (2006). Karl Popper and the social sciences. SUNY series in the philosophy of the social sciences. Albany: State University of New York Press. -Harris, F.R. (1973). Social science and national policy. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books. ISBN 978-1-4128-3445-2. distributed by Dutton -Krimerman, L.I. (1969). The nature and scope of social science: A critical anthology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. ISBN 978-0-390-52678-6. -Rule, J.B. (1997). Theory and progress in social science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57365-8. -Shionoya, Y. (1997). Schumpeter and the idea of social science: A metatheoretical study. Historical perspectives on modern economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. -Singleton, Royce A.; Straits, Bruce C. (1988). Approaches to Social Research. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514794-0. Archived from the original on March 3, 2007. -Thomas, D. (1979). Naturalism and Social Science: A Post-Empiricist Philosophy of Social Science. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-29660-1. -Trigg, R. (2001). Understanding social science: A philosophical introduction to the social sciences. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers. -Weber, M. (1906) [1904]. The Relations of the Rural Community to Other Branches of Social Science, Congress of Arts and Science: Universal Exposition. St. Louis: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. -Creswell, John W. Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. ISBN 978-1-299-95719-0. OCLC 859836343. - -=== Academic resources === -The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, ISSN 1552-3349 (electronic) ISSN 0002-7162 (paper), Sage Publications -Efferson, Charles; Richerson, Peter J. (March 16, 2007). "A prolegomenon to nonlinear empiricism in the human behavioral sciences". Biology & Philosophy. 22 (1): 1–33. doi:10.1007/s10539-005-9013-7. - -=== Opponents and critics === -George H. Smith (2014). Intellectuals and Libertarianism: Thomas Sowell and Robert Nisbet -Phil Hutchinson, Rupert Read and Wes Sharrock (2008). There's No Such Thing as a Social Science. ISBN 978-0-7546-4776-8 -Sabia, D.R., and Wallulis, J. (1983). Changing social science: Critical theory and other critical perspectives. Albany: State University of New York Press. - -== External links == - -Institute for Comparative Research in Human and Social Sciences (ICR) (JAPAN) -Centre for Social Work Research -International Conference on Social Sciences -International Social Science Council -Introduction to Hutchinson et al., There's No Such Thing as a Social Science -Intute: Social Sciences (UK) -Social Science Research Society Archived July 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine -Social Science Virtual Library -Social Science Virtual Library: Canaktanweb (Turkish) -Social Sciences And Humanities -UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory -The Dialectic of Social Science Archived November 25, 2010, at the Wayback Machine by Paul A. Baran -American Academy Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences Archived May 4, 2017, at the Wayback Machine -The Social Sciences Library \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3703943c2..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Sonnet to Science" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:04.924418+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -"Sonnet to Science" (originally "Sonnet — To Science") is an 1829 poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. - - -== Summary == -Poe asks why science preys on the poet. Science is peering, destructive and interested only in cold realities. It will not allow the poet to soar in fantasy or even to sit peacefully dreaming beneath a tree. - - -== Publication history == -In mid-November 1829, Poe agreed with the Baltimore firm Hatch and Dunning to publish his second volume of poetry, entitled Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. This volume was the first instance in which Poe published his verse under his own name as opposed to his first publication, Tamerlane and Other Poems, which was only attributed to “a Bostonian”. -A later published version of this poem includes the following note, “Private reasons—some of which have reference to the sin of plagiarism, and other to the date of Tennyson’s first poems—have induced me, after some hesitation, to re-publish these, the crude compositions of my earliest boyhood. They are printed verbatim—without alteration from the original edition—the date of which is too remote to be judiciously acknowledged.” - - -== References == - - -== External links == - -An omnibus collection of Poe's poetry at Standard Ebooks - Sonnet — to Science public domain audiobook at LibriVox \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 485c66b7f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Spinhenge@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:13.203961+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Spinhenge@home was a volunteer computing project on the BOINC platform, which performs extensive numerical simulations concerning the physical characteristics of magnetic molecules. It is a project of the Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, in cooperation with the University of Osnabrück and Ames Laboratory. -The project began beta testing on September 1, 2006, and used the Metropolis Monte Carlo algorithm to calculate and simulate spin dynamics in nanoscale molecular magnets. -On September 28, 2011, a hiatus was announced while the project team reviewed results and upgraded hardware. As of July 10, 2022 the hiatus continues and it is likely that the project has been closed down permanently. - - -== See also == -Spintronics -BOINC -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Project Website -Spinhenge@home screensaver video on YouTube -More Information about Spinhenge@Home -Project Statistics at BOINCStats \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 3726204e9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,45 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Standing on the shoulders of giants" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:50.912353+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is a metaphor which means "using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress". -It is a metaphor of a person who wants to reach higher, standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nani gigantum humeris insidentes) and expresses the meaning of "discovering truth by building on previous discoveries". This concept has been dated to the 12th century and, according to John of Salisbury, is attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Its most familiar and popular expression occurs in a 1675 letter by Isaac Newton: "if I have seen further [than others], it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." - -== Early references == - -=== Middle Ages === -The earliest documented attestation of this aphorism appears in 1123 in William of Conches's Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae. Where Priscian says quanto juniores, tanto perspicaciores (young men simply can see more sharply), William comments: The ancients had only the books which they themselves wrote, but we have all their books and moreover all those which have been written from the beginning until our time.… Hence we are like a dwarf perched on the shoulders of a giant. The former sees further than the giant, not because of his own stature, but because of the stature of his bearer. Similarly, we [moderns] see more than the ancients, because our writings, modest as they are, are added to their great works. - -The same aphorism was attributed to Bernard of Chartres by John of Salisbury, who in 1159 wrote: - -Bernard of Chartres used to compare us to dwarfs perched on the shoulders of giants. He pointed out that we see more and farther than our predecessors, not because we have keener vision or greater height, but because we are lifted up and borne aloft on their gigantic stature. -According to medieval historian Richard William Southern, Bernard was comparing contemporary 12th century scholars to the ancient scholars of Greece and Rome. A similar conceit also appears in a contemporary work on church history by Ordericus Vitalis. - -[The phrase] sums up the quality of the cathedral schools in the history of learning, and indeed characterizes the age which opened with Gerbert (950–1003) and Fulbert (960–1028) and closed in the first quarter of the 12th century with Peter Abelard. [The phrase] is not a great claim; neither, however, is it an example of abasement before the shrine of antiquity. It is a very shrewd and just remark, and the important and original point was the dwarf could see a little further than the giant. That this was possible was above all due to the cathedral schools with their lack of a well-rooted tradition and their freedom from a clearly defined routine of study. - -== Religious texts == - The visual image (from Bernard of Chartres) appears in the stained glass of the south transept of Chartres Cathedral. The tall windows under the rose window show the four major prophets of the Hebrew Bible (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel) as gigantic figures, and the four New Testament evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) as ordinary-size people sitting on their shoulders. The evangelists, though smaller, "see more" than the huge prophets (since they saw the Messiah about whom the prophets spoke). -The phrase also appears in the works of the Jewish tosaphist Isaiah di Trani (c. 1180 – c. 1250): - -Should Joshua the son of Nun endorse a mistaken position, I would reject it out of hand, I do not hesitate to express my opinion, regarding such matters in accordance with the modicum of intelligence allotted to me. I was never arrogant claiming "My Wisdom served me well". Instead I applied to myself the parable of the philosophers. For I heard the following from the philosophers, The wisest of the philosophers was asked: "We admit that our predecessors were wiser than we. At the same time we criticize their comments, often rejecting them and claiming that the truth rests with us. How is this possible?" The wise philosopher responded: "Who sees further a dwarf or a giant? Surely a giant for his eyes are situated at a higher level than those of the dwarf. But if the dwarf is placed on the shoulders of the giant who sees further? ... So too we are dwarfs astride the shoulders of giants. We master their wisdom and move beyond it. Due to their wisdom we grow wise and are able to say all that we say, but not because we are greater than they. - -== Early modern and modern references == - -=== Isaac Newton === - -Isaac Newton remarked in a letter to his rival Robert Hooke written in 5 February 1675 and published in 1855: - -What Des-Cartes [sic] did was a good step. You have added much several ways, & especially in taking the colours of thin plates into philosophical consideration. If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants. - -This has recently been interpreted by a few writers as a sarcastic remark directed at Hooke's appearance. Although Hooke was not of particularly short stature, he was of slight build and had been afflicted from his youth with a severe kyphosis. - -=== Others === -Juan Luis Vives quotes the phrase "on shoulders of giants" in his De causis corruptarum artium (1531) with disapproval: - -For it is a false and fond similitude, which some writers adopt, though they think it witty and suitable, that we are, compared with the ancients, as dwarfs upon the shoulders of giants. It is not so. Neither are we dwarfs, nor they giants, but we are all of one stature, save that we are lifted up somewhat higher by their means, provided that there be found in us the same studiousness, watchfulness and love of truth, as was in them. If these conditions be lacking, then we are not dwarfs, nor set on the shoulders of giants, but men of a competent stature, grovelling on the earth. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 08fef981c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,50 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Standing on the shoulders of giants" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:50.912353+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Diego de Estella took up the quotation in his 1578 commentary on Gospel of Luke and by the 17th century it had become commonplace. Robert Burton, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy (1624), quotes Stella thus: - -I say with Didacus Stella, a dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than a giant himself. -Later editors of Burton misattributed the quotation to Lucan; in their hands Burton's attribution Didacus Stella, in luc 10, tom. ii "Didacus on the Gospel of Luke, chapter 10; volume 2" became a reference to Lucan's Pharsalia 2.10. No reference or allusion to the quotation is found there. - -In 1634, Marin Mersenne quoted the expression in his Questions harmoniques: ... comme l'on dit, il est bien facile, & mesme necessaire de voir plus loin que nos devanciers, lors que nous sommes montez sur leur espaules ...Blaise Pascal, in the "Preface to the Treatise on the Vacuum" expresses the same idea, without talking about shoulders, but rather about the knowledge handed down to us by the ancients as steps that allow us to climb higher and see farther than they could:C'est de cette façon que l'on peut aujourd'hui prendre d'autres sentiments et de nouvelles opinions sans mépris et sans ingratitude, puisque les premières connaissances qu'ils nous ont données ont servi de degrés aux nôtres, et que dans ces avantages nous leur sommes redevables de l'ascendant que nous avons sur eux; parce que s'étant élevés jusqu'à un certain degré où ils nous ont portés, le moindre effort nous fait monter plus haut, et avec moins de peine et moins de gloire nous nous trouvons au-dessus d'eux. C'est de là que nous pouvons découvrir des choses qu'il leur était impossible d'apercevoir. Notre vue a plus d'étendue; et, quoiqu'ils connussent aussi bien que nous tout ce qu'ils pouvaient remarquer de la nature, ils n'en connaissaient pas tant néanmoins, et nous voyons plus qu'eux.Later in the 17th century, George Herbert, in his Jacula Prudentum (1651), wrote "A dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two." -Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in The Friend (1828), wrote: - -The dwarf sees farther than the giant, when he has the giant's shoulder to mount on. -Against this notion, Friedrich Nietzsche argues that a dwarf (the academic scholar) brings even the most sublime heights down to his level of understanding. In the section of Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1882) entitled "On the Vision and the Riddle", Zarathustra climbs to great heights with a dwarf on his shoulders to show him his greatest thought. Once there however, the dwarf fails to understand the profundity of the vision and Zarathustra reproaches him for "making things too easy on [him]self." If there is to be anything resembling "progress" in the history of philosophy, Nietzsche in "Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks" (1873) writes, it can only come from those rare giants among men, "each giant calling to his brother through the desolate intervals of time", an idea he got from Schopenhauer's work in Der handschriftliche Nachlass. - -== Contemporary references == -Robert King Merton, one of the 'founding fathers' of sociology, titled a book On the Shoulders of Giants: A Shandean Postscript. In it, he traces the history of Newton's famous comment "If I have seen farther, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants" back to centuries earlier, in the rambling style of Laurence Sterne's The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman. -NASA's official film of the Apollo 17 lunar landing mission was titled On the Shoulders of Giants. -R.E.M. references the phrase in the chorus of their song King Of Birds: "Standing on the shoulders of giants leaves me cold" -Umberto Eco writes in his 1980 novel The Name of the Rose, that Nicholas of Morimondo laments, "We no longer have the learning of the ancients, the age of giants is past!" To which the protagonist, William of Baskerville, replies: "We are dwarfs, but dwarfs who stand on the shoulders of those giants, and small though we are, we sometimes manage to see farther on the horizon than they." -The British two pound coin bears the inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS on its edge. -Standing on the Shoulder of Giants is the title of the fourth studio album by English rock band Oasis. The title was actually a misquote by Noel Gallagher after seeing the quote on the British two pound coin while in a pub. -Stephen Hawking stated: "Each generation stands on the shoulders of those who have gone before them, just as I did as a young PhD student in Cambridge, inspired by the work of Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell and Albert Einstein." Additionally, Hawking wrote a book called On the Shoulders of Giants, which explores the major works of physics and astronomy that inspired him. -Google Scholar, a search engine for academic literature, displays the phrase "Stand on the shoulders of giants" below the search field. - -== See also == -Collective intelligence -Derivative work -Distributed cognition -Great Conversation -School of Chartres -Stigler's law of eponymy -William of Ockham's Razor - -== References == - -== Further reading == -Jeauneau, Édouard (1973). Lectio philosophorum: recherches sur l'Ecole de Chartres. Hakkert. -Jeauneau, Édouard (2009). Rethinking the School of Chartres. University of Toronto Press. -Merton, Robert King; Eco, Umberto; Donoghue, Denis (1993). On the shoulders of giants: a Shandean postscript. University of Chicago press. - -== External links == - -Overview of history of the expression \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6d3392eaa..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,67 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "TheSkyNet" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:15.452050+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -theSkyNet was a research project that used volunteer Internet-connected computers to carry out research in astronomy. It was an initiative of the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR), a joint venture of Curtin University and the University of Western Australia. theSkyNet had two projects, Sourcefinder and POGS. Both projects have been completed. theSkyNet Sourcefinder aimed to test and refine automatic radio sourcefinding algorithms in preparation for radio galaxy surveys using the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder and the Square Kilometre Array. theSkyNet POGS used Spectral Energy Distribution fitting to calculate characteristics of many galaxies using images taken by the Pan-STARRS PS1 optical telescope in Hawaii. - - -== History == -theSkyNet Sourcefinder project was introduced publicly on 13 September 2011, operating on a Java-based user platform, processing data using new distributed computing software called Nereus. -One year later, theSkyNet celebrated its first birthday and at the same time theSkyNet POGS project became the first public Australian based project to participate in the well established volunteer computing platform BOINC. The acronym POGS is a reference to a game played with discs that originated on Maui, Hawaii, in the 1920s, and the fact that the Pan-STARRS PS1 telescope, is situated on Mount Haleakala, Maui. However, the project recast "POGS" as the backronym for "Pan-STARRS Optical Galaxy Survey". - - -== Scientific objectives == -The aim of theSkyNet POGS project is to: - -Combine the spectral coverage of GALEX, Pan-STARRS1, and WISE to generate a multi-wavelength (ultra-violet, optical and near infra-red) galaxy atlas for the nearby Universe. -Calculate the physical parameters of each galaxy, including: star formation rate, stellar mass of the galaxy, dust attenuation, and the total dust mass on a pixel-by-pixel basis using spectral energy distribution fitting techniques. - -The aim of theSkyNet Sourcefinder project is to: - -Refine the use of the Duchamp Sourcefinding algorithm for very large datasets in preparation for next generation radio telescope surveys using Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder and the Square Kilometre Array. - - -== Software == -theSkyNet POGS volunteer computing software runs continuously in the background on a computer while a user works, making use of any processor time that would otherwise be unused. It is one of many projects which utilise the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) Project Management software platform, which allows users to contribute to a range of volunteer computing projects at the same time. -After a volunteer downloads the BOINC Manager software and elects to join theSkyNet POGS project, work units are requested automatically by the BOINC Manager. These are downloaded and processed automatically on the user's computer, using a percentage of the computer's idle time, according to the parameters set by the volunteer. -On completion of a work unit, the results of the data processing are automatically transmitted back to theSkyNet via the Internet, the user is credited with the work done; and further work is requested. -theSkyNet Sourcefinder, before its closure in early 2014 to undergo redevelopment, used a Java-based custom software either via a browser or installed software. theSkyNet Sourcefinder was redeveloped to use BOINC and VirtualBox. - - -== Hardware == -The software runs on Windows, Unix/Linux, Macintosh and Android systems. Some discrepancies have been noted between the results created by Androids and those created by other devices. -theSkyNet POGS project utilised CPUs but did not utilise the power of graphics processing units (GPUs). - - -== Participation == -The project is operated by ICRAR in Perth, Western Australia, under the team leadership of Associate Professor Kevin Vinsen. -On 13 October 2014, the project's server status page claimed 13,770 unpaid volunteer users worldwide with credit (5,268 with recent credit); and 40,847 computers with credit (16,508 with recent credit). - - -== Scientific results == - -On 7 June 2013 a paper entitled "A BOINC based, citizen-science project for pixel Spectral Energy Distribution fitting of resolved galaxies in multi-wavelength surveys" was submitted for publication. It was last revised on 3 October 2013. -On 23 September 2014, the project Team Leader announced that the project was about to process its 50,000th galaxy. - - -== Future projects == -theSkyNet has stated that it may expand to include other projects processing data from new sources, such as the Murchison Widefield Array telescope in Western Australia and perhaps even the Square Kilometre Array. - - -== See also == -List of volunteer computing projects - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Official website -BOINC_MAGPHYS -BOINC website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lattice_Project-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lattice_Project-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 99eb9b1c9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lattice_Project-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "The Lattice Project" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lattice_Project" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:09.311255+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Lattice Project was a volunteer computing project that combined computing resources, Grid middleware, specialized scientific application software and web services into a comprehensive Grid computing system for scientific analysis. It ran the Genetic Algorithm for Rapid Likelihood Inference (GARLI) software to determine the relationships between different genetic samples. -A major aspect of the project makes use of the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. The Lattice Project maintained a separate BOINC web site, but the site is dead as of this writing, causing this project to shut down because BOINC depends on this website to get setup information to set this project up on its clients. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -The Lattice Project website archive \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d676fd8f5..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "The Science Network" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:33:53.148467+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Science Network (TSN) was a non-profit virtual forum dedicated to science and its impact on society. It was initially conceived in 2003 by Roger Bingham and Terry Sejnowski as a cable science TV network modeled on C-SPAN. TSN later became a global digital platform hosting videos of lectures from scientific meetings and long form one-on-one conversations with prominent scientists and communicators of science, including Neil deGrasse Tyson, V.S. Ramachandran, Helen S. Mayberg, and Barbara Landau. TSN has also sponsored and co-sponsored scientific forums, such as Stem cells: science, ethics and politics at the crossroads, held at the Salk Institute in 2004 and the Beyond Belief conference series. - - -== Beyond Belief conference series == -TSN's signature series Beyond Belief was conceived to bring together a community of scientists, philosophers, scholars from the humanities, and social commentators. Speakers at these meetings have included Steven Weinberg, Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, Harry Kroto, Neil deGrasse Tyson, and Stuart Kauffman. So far, the following three Beyond Belief conferences were organized: - - -=== 2006: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival === -Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival, the first of The Science Network's annual Beyond Belief symposia, held from November 5 to November 7, 2006, was described by The New York Times, as "a free-for-all on science and religion," which seemed at times like "the founding convention for a political party built on a single plank: in a world dangerously charged with ideology, science needs to take on an evangelical role, vying with religion as teller of the greatest story ever told." According to participant Melvin Konner, however, the event came to resemble a "den of vipers” debating the issue, "Should we bash religion with a crowbar or only with a baseball bat?” -New Scientist summed up the topics to be discussed as a list of three questions: - -Can science help us create a new rational narrative as poetic and powerful as those that have traditionally sustained societies? -Can we treat religion as a natural phenomenon? -Can we be good without God? And if not God, then what? -Speakers included physicists Steven Weinberg, Lawrence Krauss, Philosopher/author Sam Harris, biologist Joan Roughgarden, Michael Shermer of Skeptic Magazine, anthropologist Scott Atran and astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson. - - -=== 2007: Enlightenment 2.0 === -Beyond Belief: Enlightenment 2.0 was the second annual symposium and was held from 31 October to 2 November 2007 at the Frederic de Hoffmann Auditorium of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. -The conference was released on a five-disc DVD series in 2007. - - -=== 2008: Candles in the Dark === -Beyond Belief: Candles in the Dark was the third annual Beyond Belief symposium. This event was organized by The Science Network and held from 3 October to 6 October 2008 in San Diego, CA. - - -== References == - - -== External links == - -Official website -Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival DVD Release on Internet Archive \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 81ceefe52..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,31 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Theories of technology" -chunk: 1/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:25.612036+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -Theories of technological change and innovation attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture. Some of the most contemporary theories of technological change reject two of the previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and other, the technological determinism. To challenge the linear model, some of today's theories of technological change and innovation point to the history of technology, where they find evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in creating and shaping technological artifacts. To challenge the so-called "technological determinism", today's theories of technological change emphasize the scope of the need of technical choice, which they find to be greater than most laypeople can realize; as scientists in philosophy of science, and further science and technology often like to say about this "It could have been different." For this reason, theorists who take these positions often argue that a greater public involvement in technological decision-making is desired. - -== Sociological theories == - -Sociological theories and researches of the Society and the Social focus on how human and technology actually interact and may even affect each other. Some theories are about how political decisions are made for both humans and technology, with here humans and technology are seen as an equal field in the political decision, where humans also make, use, and even move ahead with innovations the technology. The interactions that are used in the majority of the theories on this topic look at the individual human interactions with technological equipment, but there is also a sub-group for the group of people interacting with technology. The theories described are, according to some critiques, purposefully made vague and ambiguous, as the circumstances for the theories change with human culture and technological change and innovation. - -=== Descriptive approaches === -Social constructivism and technology argues that technology may not determine the human action, but human action may shape technological use. Key concepts here include: - -interpretive flexibility: "Technological artifacts are culturally constructed and interpreted ... By this, we mean not only is there flexibility in how people think of or interpret artifacts but also there is flexibility in how artifacts are designed." And so the technological artifacts may determine and shape what that specific technology tool will symbolize and represent in society or in a culture. This is in relation to the Social constructivism and technology theory because it shows how humans symbolize technology, by shaping it. -Relevant social group shares a particular set of meanings about a given artifact -Economical stabilization is often about when the relevant social group has reached a consensus, according to technological change and innovation criticism -Wider context: "the sociocultural and political situation of a social group shapes its norms and values, which in turn influence the meaning given to an artifact" -Key authors here include MacKenzie and Wajcman (1985). - -Actor-network theory (ANT) is about a heterogeneous network of humans and even non-humans as equal interrelated actors. It strives for impartiality in the description of human actors and nonhuman technological gadgets, and the reintegration of the natural world and the society. For example, Latour (1992) argues that instead of worrying whether we are making anthropomorphological the technology, and we should embrace it as inherently anthropomorphic as technology is after all made by humans, and substitutes for the actions of humans, and therefore shapes the human action. -What is important is the gradients and the connectivity of actors' actions and their technological competencies, and also the degree to which we choose to have "figurative" representations. Key concepts here include the inscription of beliefs, practices, relations into technology, which is then said to embody them. Key authors include Bruno Latour (1997) and Callon (1999). - -Structuration theory attempts to define the structures also as resources and their rules that are organized with relevant technological system properties at the social level. The theory employs one recursive notion of actions, constrained and enabled by structures which are produced and reproduced by the action. Consequently, in this theory technology can not be rendered as an artifact, so instead examines people and their interacion with technology at their work practices, that enacts structures which shape their emerging and also situated use of that technology. Here, key authors include DeSanctis and Poole (1990), and Orlikowski (1992). -Systems theory considers the historical development of technology and media with an emphasis on inertia and heterogeneity, stressing the connections between the artifact being built and the social, economic, political and cultural factors surrounding it. Key concepts include reverse salients when elements of a system lag in development with respect to others, differentiation, operational closure, and autopoietic autonomy. Key authors include Thomas P. Hughes (1992) and Luhmann (2000). -Activity theory is considering that entire work and also activity system (including included members, teams, organizations, etc.) beyond one user or actor. It also may account for the environment, personal history and supposed culture, "the role of the artifacts", emerged motivations, and sought views on complexity of activities in real-life. One of the strengths of AT is that it bridges the gap between the individual subject and the social reality—it studies both through the mediating activity. The unit of analysis in AT is the concept of object-oriented, collective and culturally mediated human activity, or activity system. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 214f67f2c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Theories of technology" -chunk: 2/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:25.612036+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Approaches of the critical theory === -Critical theory attempts, according to some, to go beyond the descriptiveness of one account that may show of how things are, the exam and question of why they have come to be that way and how they might otherwise be. Critical theory asks whose interests are being served by the questioned status quo and assesses the potentials of a future, that alternates and propose "to better" both the technological service, and even social justice. Here Geuss's definition is given, where "a critical theory, then, is a reflective theory which gives agents a kind of knowledge inherently productive of enlightenment and emancipation" (1964). Thus Marcuse argued that while technology matters and design are often presented as neutral technical choices, in fact, they manifest political or moral values. Critical theory is seen as a "form of archaeology" that attempt to get beneath common-sense understandings in order to reveal the power relationships and interests determining particular technological configuration and use. -Perhaps the most developed contemporary critical theory of technology is contained in the works of Andrew Feenberg included in his book 'Transforming Technology' (2002). - -Values in Design asks how do we ensure a place for values (alongside technical standards such as speed, efficiency, and reliability) as criteria by which we judge the quality and acceptability of information systems and new media. How do values such as privacy, autonomy, democracy, and social justice become integral to conception, design, and development, not merely retrofitted after completion? Key thinkers include Helen Nissenbaum (2001). - -=== Social Group Theories === - -There are also a number of technologically related science and society theories that also address even on how media affects group developments or otherwise processes. Broadly speaking, these technological theories are said to be concerned with the social effects of communication media (e.g., media richness) are concerned with questions of media choice (when to use what medium effectively). Other theories (social presence and "media naturalness") are concerned with the consequences of those media choices (i.e., what are the social effects of using particular communication media). - -Social presence theory (Short, et al., 1976) is a "seminal theory" of the viewed social effects of communications technology. And its main concern is, naturally, with telephony and telephone, but also even conferencing (and the research here was found among the sponsored by the General Post Office, now British Telecom). It argues that the social impact of a communication medium depend on the social presence it allows communicators to have. Social presence is defined as a property of the medium itself: the degree of acoustic, visual, and physical contact that it allows. The theory assumes that more contact will increase the key components of "presence": greater intimacy, immediacy, warmth and inter-personal rapport. As a consequence of social presence, social influence is expected to increase. In the case of communication technology, the assumption is that more text-based forms of interaction (e-mail, instant messaging) are less social, and therefore less conducive to social influence. -Media richness theory (Daft & Lengel, 1986) shares some characteristics with social presence theory. It posits that the amount of information communicated differs with respect to a medium's richness. The theory assumes that resolving ambiguity and reducing uncertainty are the main goals of communication. Because communication media differ in the rate of understanding they can achieve in a specific time (with "rich" media carrying more information), they are not all capable of resolving uncertainty and ambiguity well. The more restricted the medium's capacity, the less uncertainty and equivocality it is able to manage. It follows that the richness of the media should be matched to the task so as to prevent over simplification or complication. -Media naturalness theory (Kock, 2001; 2004) builds on human evolution ideas and has been proposed as an alternative to media richness theory. Media naturalness theory argues that since our Stone Age hominid ancestors have communicated primarily face-to-face, evolutionary pressures have led to the development of a brain that is consequently designed for that form of communication. Other forms of communication are too recent and unlikely to have posed evolutionary pressures that could have shaped our brain in their direction. Using communication media that suppress key elements found in face-to-face communication, as many electronic communication media do, thus ends up posing cognitive obstacles to communication. This is particularly the case in the context of complex tasks (e.g., business process redesign, new product development, online learning), because such tasks seem to require more intense communication over extended periods of time than simple tasks. - -Media synchronicity theory (MST, Dennis & Valacich, 1999) redirects richness theory towards the synchronicity of the communication. -The social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) (Postmes, Spears and Lea 1999; Reicher, Spears and Postmes, 1995; Spears & Lea, 1994 ) was developed as a response to the idea that anonymity and reduced presence made communication technology socially impoverished (or "deindividuated"). It provided an alternative explanation for these "deindividuation effects" based on theories of social identity (e.g., Turner et al., 1987). The SIDE model distinguishes cognitive and strategic effects of a communication technology. Cognitive effects occur when communication technologies make "salient" particular aspects of personal or social identity. For example, certain technologies such as email may disguise characteristics of the sender that individually differentiate them (i.e., that convey aspects of their personal identity) and as a result more attention may be given to their social identity. The strategic effects are due to the possibilities, afforded by communication technology, to selectively communicate or enact particular aspects of identity, and disguise others. SIDE therefore sees the social and the technological as mutually determining, and the behavior associated with particular communication forms as the product or interaction of the two. -Time, interaction, and performance (TIP; McGrath, 1991) theory describes work groups as time-based, multi-modal, and multi-functional social systems. Groups interact in one of the modes of inception, problem solving, conflict resolution, and execution. The three functions of a group are production (towards a goal), support (affective) and well-being (norms and roles). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index bd84e7188..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Theories of technology" -chunk: 3/3 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:25.612036+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== Other Stances === -Additionally, many authors have posed technology so as to critique and or emphasize aspects of technology as addressed by the mainline theories. For example, Steve Woolgar (1991) considers technology as text in order to critique the sociology of scientific knowledge as applied to technology and to distinguish between three responses to that notion: the instrumental response (interpretive flexibility), the interpretivist response (environmental/organizational influences), the reflexive response (a double hermeneutic). Pfaffenberger (1992) treats technology as drama to argue that a recursive structuring of technological artifacts and their social structure discursively regulate the technological construction of political power. A technological drama is a discourse of technological "statements" and "counterstatements" within the processes of technological regularization, adjustment, and reconstitution. -An important philosophical approach to technology has been taken by Bernard Stiegler, whose work has been influenced by other philosophers and historians of technology including Gilbert Simondon and André Leroi-Gourhan. -In the Schumpeterian and Neo-Schumpeterian theories technologies are critical factors of economic growth (Carlota Perez). - -== Analytical theories == -There are theories of technological change and innovation which are not defined or claimed by a proponent, but are used by authors in describing existing literature, in contrast to their own or as a review of the field. -For example, Markus and Robey (1988) propose a general technology theory consisting of the causal structures of agency (technological, organizational, imperative, emergent), its structure (variance, process), and the level (micro, macro) of analysis. -Orlikowski (1992) notes that previous conceptualizations of technology typically differ over scope (is technology more than hardware?) and role (is it an external objective force, the interpreted human action, or an impact moderated by humans?) and identifies three models: - -The technological imperative: focuses on organizational characteristics which can be measured and permits some level of contingency -Strategic choices: focuses on how technology is influenced by the context and strategies of decision-makers and users -Technology as maker of structural changes:: views technology as a social object -DeSanctis and Poole (1994) similarly write of three views of technology's effects: - -Decision-making: the view of engineers associated with positivist, rational, systems rationalization, and deterministic approaches -Institutional school: technology is an opportunity for change, focuses on social evolution, social construction of meaning, interaction and historical processes, interpretive flexibility, and an interplay between technology and power -An integrated perspective (social technology): soft-line determinism, with joint social and technological optimization, structural symbolic interaction theory -Bimber (1998) addresses the determinacy of technology effects by distinguishing between the: - -Normative: an autonomous approach where technology is an important influence on history only where societies attached cultural and political meaning to it (e.g., the industrialization of society) -Nomological: a naturalistic approach wherein an inevitable technological order arises based on laws of nature (e.g., steam mill had to follow the hand mill) -Unintended consequences: a fuzzy approach that is demonstrative that technology is contingent (e.g., a car is faster than a horse, but unbeknownst to its original creators become a significant source of pollution) - -== References == - -== Bibliography == -Bentley, Raymond (2019). Technological Change In The German Democratic Republic, Routledge -Denis, A. and Valacich, J. (1999). Rethinking media richness: towards a theory of media synchronicity. Proceedings of the 32nd Hawaii International Conference on Systems Science. -Desanctis, G. and Poole, M. S. (1990). Understanding the use of group decision support systems: the theory of adaptive structuration. In J. Fulk, C. S., editor, Organizations and Communication Technology, pages 173–193. Sage, Newbury Park, CA. -MacKensie, D. and Wajcman, J (1985) The Social Shaping of Technology, Milton Keynes, Open University Press. -Pinch, T. and Bijker, W. (1992). The social construction of facts and artifacts: or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other. In Bijker, W. and Law, J., editors, Shaping Technology/Building Society, pages 17–50. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7379009ac..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,44 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries" -chunk: 1/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:41.243779+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, arguments based on elegance/simplicity, and numerically/experimentally verified conjectures qualify (as otherwise no scientific discovery before the late 19th century would count). The timeline begins at the Bronze Age, as it is difficult to give even estimates for the timing of events prior to this, such as of the discovery of counting, natural numbers and arithmetic. -To avoid overlap with timeline of historic inventions, the timeline does not list examples of documentation for manufactured substances and devices unless they reveal a more fundamental leap in the theoretical ideas in a field. - -== Bronze Age == -Many early innovations of the Bronze Age were prompted by the increase in trade, and this also applies to the scientific advances of this period. For context, the major civilizations of this period are Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley, with Greece rising in importance towards the end of the third millennium BC. The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and there are very little surviving fragments of its writing, thus any inference about scientific discoveries in that region must be made based only on archaeological digs. The following dates are approximations. - -3000 BC: Units of measurement are developed in the Americas as well as the major Bronze Age civilizations: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Elam and the Indus Valley. -3000 BC: The first deciphered numeral system is that of the Egyptian numerals, a sign-value system (as opposed to a place-value system). -2650 BC: The oldest extant record of a unit of length, the cubit-rod ruler, is from Nippur. -2600 BC: The oldest attested evidence for the existence of units of weight, and weighing scales date to the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, with Deben (unit) balance weights, excavated from the reign of Sneferu, though earlier usage has been proposed. -2100 BC: The concept of area is first recognized in Babylonian clay tablets, and 3-dimensional volume is discussed in an Egyptian papyrus. This begins the study of geometry. -2100 BC: Quadratic equations, in the form of problems relating the areas and sides of rectangles, are solved by Babylonians. -2000 BC: Pythagorean triples are first discussed in Babylon and Egypt, and appear on later manuscripts such as the Berlin Papyrus 6619. -2000 BC: Multiplication tables in a base-60, rather than base-10 (decimal), system from Babylon. -2000 BC: Primitive positional notation for numerals is seen in the Babylonian cuneiform numerals. However, the lack of clarity around the notion of zero made their system highly ambiguous (e.g. 13200 would be written the same as 132). -Early 2nd millennium BC: Similar triangles and side-ratios are studied in Egypt for the construction of pyramids, paving the way for the field of trigonometry. -Early 2nd millennium BC: Ancient Egyptians study anatomy, as recorded in the Edwin Smith Papyrus. They identified the heart and its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus, and bladder, and correctly identified that blood vessels emanated from the heart (however, they also believed that tears, urine, and semen, but not saliva and sweat, originated in the heart, see Cardiocentric hypothesis). -1800 BC: The Middle Kingdom of Egypt develops Egyptian fraction notation. -1800 BC – 1600 BC: A numerical approximation for the square root of two, accurate to 6 decimal places, is recorded on YBC 7289, a Babylonian clay tablet believed to belong to a student. -1800 BC – 1600 BC: A Babylonian tablet uses 25⁄8 = 3.125 as an approximation for π, which has an error of 0.5%. -1550 BC: The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (a copy of an older Middle Kingdom text) contains the first documented instance of inscribing a polygon (in this case, an octagon) into a circle to estimate the value of π. - -== Iron Age == -The following dates are approximations. - -700 BC: Pythagoras's theorem is discovered by Baudhayana in the Hindu Shulba Sutras in Upanishadic India. However, Indian mathematics, especially North Indian mathematics, generally did not have a tradition of communicating proofs, and it is not fully certain that Baudhayana or Apastamba knew of a proof. -700 BC: Pell's equations are first studied by Baudhayana in India, the first diophantine equations known to be studied. -700 BC: Grammar is first studied in India (note that Sanskrit Vyākaraṇa predates Pāṇini). -600 BC: Thales of Miletus is credited with proving Thales's theorem. -600 BC: Maharshi Kanada gives the ideal of the smallest units of matter. According to him, matter consisted of indestructible minutes particles called paramanus, which are now called as atoms. -600 BC – 200 BC: The Sushruta Samhita shows an understanding of musculoskeletal structure (including joints, ligaments and muscles and their functions) (3.V). It refers to the cardiovascular system as a closed circuit. In (3.IX) it identifies the existence of nerves. - -== 500 BC – 1 BC == -The following dates are approximations. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7791c20db..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,132 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries" -chunk: 2/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:41.243779+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -500 BC: Hippasus, a Pythagorean, discovers irrational numbers. -500 BC: Anaxagoras identifies moonlight as reflected sunlight. -5th century BC: The Greeks start experimenting with straightedge-and-compass constructions. -5th century BC: The earliest documented mention of a spherical Earth comes from the Greeks in the 5th century BC. It is known that the Indians modeled the Earth as spherical by 300 BC -460 BC: Empedocles describes thermal expansion. -Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit. -4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation. -4th century BC: The first true formal system is constructed by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar. -4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property. -4th century BC: Thaetetus shows that square roots are either integer or irrational. -4th century BC: Thaetetus enumerates the Platonic solids, an early work in graph theory. -4th century BC: Menaechmus discovers conic sections. -4th century BC: Menaechmus develops co-ordinate geometry. -4th century BC: Mozi in China gives a description of the camera obscura phenomenon. -4th century BC: Around the time of Aristotle, a more empirically founded system of anatomy is established, based on animal dissection. In particular, Praxagoras makes the distinction between arteries and veins. -4th century BC: Aristotle differentiates between near-sighted and far-sightedness. Graeco-Roman physician Galen would later use the term "myopia" for near-sightedness. -4th century BC: Pāṇini develops a full-fledged formal grammar (for Sanskrit). -Late 4th century BC: Chanakya (also known as Kautilya) establishes the field of economics with the Arthashastra (literally "Science of wealth"), a prescriptive treatise on economics and statecraft for Mauryan India. -4th – 3rd century BC: In Mauryan India, The Jain mathematical text Surya Prajnapati draws a distinction between countable and uncountable infinities. -350 BC – 50 BC: Clay tablets from (possibly Hellenistic-era) Babylon describe the mean speed theorem. -300 BC: Finite geometric progressions are studied by Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt. -300 BC: Euclid proves the infinitude of primes. -300 BC: Euclid proves the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. -300 BC: Euclid discovers the Euclidean algorithm. -300 BC: Euclid publishes the Elements, a compendium on classical Euclidean geometry, including: elementary theorems on circles, definitions of the centers of a triangle, the tangent-secant theorem, the law of sines and the law of cosines. -300 BC: Euclid's Optics introduces the field of geometric optics, making basic considerations on the sizes of images. -3rd century BC: Archimedes relates problems in geometric series to those in arithmetic series, foreshadowing the logarithm. -3rd century BC: Pingala in Mauryan India studies binary numbers, making him the first to study the radix (numerical base) in history. -3rd century BC: Pingala in Mauryan India describes the Fibonacci sequence. -3rd century BC: Pingala in Mauryan India discovers the binomial coefficients in a combinatorial context and the additive formula for generating them - - - - - - - - ( - - - n - r - - - ) - - - - - = - - - - - ( - - - - n - − - 1 - - r - - - ) - - - - - + - - - - - ( - - - - n - − - 1 - - - r - − - 1 - - - - ) - - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\tbinom {n}{r}}={\tbinom {n-1}{r}}+{\tbinom {n-1}{r-1}}} - -, i.e. a prose description of Pascal's triangle, and derived formulae relating to the sums and alternating sums of binomial coefficients. It has been suggested that he may have also discovered the binomial theorem in this context. -3rd century BC: Eratosthenes discovers the Sieve of Eratosthenes. -3rd century BC: Archimedes derives a formula for the volume of a sphere in The Method of Mechanical Theorems. -3rd century BC: Archimedes calculates areas and volumes relating to conic sections, such as the area bounded between a parabola and a chord, and various volumes of revolution. -3rd century BC: Archimedes discovers the sum/difference identity for trigonometric functions in the form of the "Theorem of Broken Chords". -3rd century BC: Archimedes makes use of infinitesimals. -3rd century BC: Archimedes further develops the method of exhaustion into an early description of integration. -3rd century BC: Archimedes calculates tangents to non-trigonometric curves. -3rd century BC: Archimedes uses the method of exhaustion to construct a strict inequality bounding the value of π within an interval of 0.002. -3rd century BC: Archimedes develops the field of statics, introducing notions such as the center of gravity, mechanical equilibrium, the study of levers, and hydrostatics. -3rd century BC: Eratosthenes measures the circumference of the Earth. -260 BC: Aristarchus of Samos proposes a basic heliocentric model of the universe. -200 BC: Apollonius of Perga discovers Apollonius's theorem. -200 BC: Apollonius of Perga assigns equations to curves. -200 BC: Apollonius of Perga develops epicycles. While an incorrect model, it was a precursor to the development of Fourier series. -2nd century BC: Hipparchos discovers the apsidal precession of the Moon's orbit. -2nd century BC: Hipparchos discovers Axial precession. -2nd century BC: Hipparchos measures the sizes of and distances to the Moon and Sun. -190 BC: Magic squares appear in China. The theory of magic squares can be considered the first example of a vector space. -165 BC – 142 BC: Zhang Cang in Northern China is credited with the development of Gaussian elimination. - -== 1 AD – 500 AD == -Mathematics and astronomy flourish during the Golden Age of India (4th to 6th centuries AD) under the Gupta Empire. Meanwhile, Greece and its colonies have entered the Roman period in the last few decades of the preceding millennium, and Greek science is negatively impacted by the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and the economic decline that follows. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index 55b76d3dd..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries" -chunk: 3/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:41.243779+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -1st to 4th century: A precursor to long division, known as "galley division" is developed at some point. Its discovery is generally believed to have originated in India around the 4th century AD, although Singaporean mathematician Lam Lay Yong claims that the method is found in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, from the 1st century AD. -60 AD: Heron's formula is discovered by Hero of Alexandria. -2nd century: Ptolemy formalises the epicycles of Apollonius. -2nd century: Ptolemy publishes his Optics, discussing colour, reflection, and refraction of light, and including the first known table of refractive angles. -2nd century: Galen studies the anatomy of pigs. -100: Menelaus of Alexandria describes spherical triangles, a precursor to non-Euclidean geometry. -150: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number. However, it was usually used in the fractional part of a numeral, and was not regarded as a true arithmetical number itself. -150: Ptolemy's Almagest contains practical formulae to calculate latitudes and day lengths. -3rd century: Diophantus discusses linear diophantine equations. -3rd century: Diophantus uses a primitive form of algebraic symbolism, which is quickly forgotten. -210: Negative numbers are accepted as numeric by the late Han-era Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. Later, Liu Hui of Cao Wei (during the Three Kingdoms period) writes down laws regarding the arithmetic of negative numbers. -By the 4th century: A square root finding algorithm with quartic convergence, known as the Bakhshali method (after the Bakhshali manuscript which records it), is discovered in India. -By the 4th century: The present Hindu–Arabic numeral system with place-value numerals develops in Gupta-era India, and is attested in the Bakhshali Manuscript of Gandhara. The superiority of the system over existing place-value and sign-value systems arises from its treatment of zero as an ordinary numeral. -4th to 5th centuries: The modern fundamental trigonometric functions, sine and cosine, are described in the Siddhantas of India. This formulation of trigonometry is an improvement over the earlier Greek functions, in that it lends itself more seamlessly to polar co-ordinates and the later complex interpretation of the trigonometric functions. -By the 5th century: The decimal separator is developed in India, as recorded in al-Uqlidisi's later commentary on Indian mathematics. -By the 5th century: The elliptical orbits of planets are discovered in India by at least the time of Aryabhata, and are used for the calculations of orbital periods and eclipse timings. -By 499: Aryabhata's work shows the use of the modern fraction notation, known as bhinnarasi. -499: Aryabhata gives a new symbol for zero and uses it for the decimal system. -499: Aryabhata discovers the formula for the square-pyramidal numbers (the sums of consecutive square numbers). -499: Aryabhata discovers the formula for the simplicial numbers (the sums of consecutive cube numbers). -499: Aryabhata discovers Bezout's identity, a foundational result to the theory of principal ideal domains. -499: Aryabhata develops Kuṭṭaka, an algorithm very similar to the Extended Euclidean algorithm. -499: Aryabhata describes a numerical algorithm for finding cube roots. -499: Aryabhata develops an algorithm to solve the Chinese remainder theorem. -499: Historians speculate that Aryabhata may have used an underlying heliocentric model for his astronomical calculations, which would make it the first computational heliocentric model in history (as opposed to Aristarchus's model in form). This claim is based on his description of the planetary period about the Sun (śīghrocca), but has been met with criticism. -499: Aryabhata creates a particularly accurate eclipse chart. As an example of its accuracy, 18th century scientist Guillaume Le Gentil, during a visit to Pondicherry, India, found the Indian computations (based on Aryabhata's computational paradigm) of the duration of the lunar eclipse of 30 August 1765 to be short by 41 seconds, whereas his charts (by Tobias Mayer, 1752) were long by 68 seconds. - -== 500 AD – 1000 AD == - -The Golden Age of Indian mathematics and astronomy continues after the end of the Gupta empire, especially in Southern India during the era of the Rashtrakuta, Western Chalukya and Vijayanagara empires of Karnataka, which variously patronised Hindu and Jain mathematicians. In addition, the Middle East enters the Islamic Golden Age through contact with other civilisations, and China enters a golden period during the Tang and Song dynasties. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 65a1ae6c0..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,104 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries" -chunk: 4/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:41.243779+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -6th century: Varahamira in the Gupta empire is the first to describe comets as astronomical phenomena, and as periodic in nature. -525: John Philoponus in Byzantine Egypt describes the notion of inertia, and states that the motion of a falling object does not depend on its weight. His radical rejection of Aristotlean orthodoxy lead him to be ignored in his time -628: Brahmagupta states the arithmetic rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero, as well as the multiplication of negative numbers, extending the basic rules for the latter found in the earlier The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. -628: Brahmagupta writes down Brahmagupta's identity, an important lemma in the theory of Pell's equation. -628: Brahmagupta produces an infinite (but not exhaustive) number of solutions to Pell's equation. -628: Brahmagupta provides an explicit solution to the quadratic equation. -628: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta's formula, a generalization of Heron's formula to cyclic quadrilaterals. -628: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta's interpolation formula. -628: Brahmagupta invents a symbolic mathematical notation, which is then adopted by mathematicians through India and the Near East, and eventually Europe. -629: Bhāskara I produces the first approximation of a transcendental function with a rational function, in the sine approximation formula that bears his name. -9th century: Jain mathematician Mahāvīra writes down a factorisation for the difference of cubes. -9th century: Algorisms (arithmetical algorithms on numbers written in place-value system) are described by al-Khwarizmi in his kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī (Book of Indian computation) and kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī (Addition and subtraction in Indian arithmetic). -9th century: Mahāvīra discovers the first algorithm for writing fractions as Egyptian fractions, which is in fact a slightly more general form of the Greedy algorithm for Egyptian fractions. -816: Jain mathematician Virasena describes the integer logarithm. -850: Mahāvīra derives the expression for the binomial coefficient in terms of factorials, - - - - - - - - ( - - - n - r - - - ) - - - - - = - - - - - n - ! - - - r - ! - ( - n - − - r - ) - ! - - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\tbinom {n}{r}}={\tfrac {n!}{r!(n-r)!}}} - -. -10th century AD: Manjula in India discovers the derivative, deducing that the derivative of the sine function is the cosine. -10th century AD: Kashmiri astronomer Bhaṭṭotpala lists names and estimates periods of certain comets. -975: Halayudha organizes the binomial coefficients into a triangle, i.e. Pascal's triangle. -984: Ibn Sahl discovers Snell's law. - -== 1000 AD – 1500 AD == -11th century: Alhazen discovers the formula for the simplicial numbers defined as the sums of consecutive quartic powers. -11th century: Alhazen systematically studies optics and refraction, which would later be important in making the connection between geometric (ray) optics and wave theory. -11th century: Shen Kuo discovers atmospheric refraction and provides the correct explanation of rainbow phenomenon -11th century: Shen Kuo discovers the concepts of true north and magnetic declination. -11th century: Shen Kuo develops the field of geomorphology and natural climate change. -1000: Al-Karaji uses mathematical induction. -1058: al-Zarqālī in Islamic Spain discovers the apsidal precession of the Sun. -12th century: Bhāskara II develops the Chakravala method, solving Pell's equation. -12th century: Al-Tusi develops a numerical algorithm to solve cubic equations. -12th century: Jewish polymath Baruch ben Malka in Iraq formulates a qualitative form of Newton's second law for constant forces. -1220s: Robert Grosseteste writes on optics, and the production of lenses, while asserting models should be developed from observations, and predictions of those models verified through observation, in a precursor to the scientific method. -1267: Roger Bacon publishes his Opus Majus, compiling translated Classical Greek, and Arabic works on mathematics, optics, and alchemy into a volume, and details his methods for evaluating the theories, particularly those of Ptolemy's 2nd century Optics, and his findings on the production of lenses, asserting “theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instruments, and corroborated by trustworthy witnesses", in a precursor to the peer reviewed scientific method. -1290: Eyeglasses are invented in Northern Italy, possibly Pisa, demonstrating knowledge of human biology and optics, to offer bespoke works that compensate for an individual human disability. -1295: Scottish priest Duns Scotus writes about the mutual beneficence of trade. -14th century: French priest Jean Buridan provides a basic explanation of the price system. -1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama develops the Taylor series, and derives the Taylor series representation for the sine, cosine and arctangent functions, and uses it to produce the Leibniz series for π. -1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama discusses error terms in infinite series in the context of his infinite series for π. -1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama discovers continued fractions and uses them to solve transcendental equations. -1380: The Kerala school develops convergence tests for infinite series. -1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama solves transcendental equations by iteration. -1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama discovers the most precise estimate of π in the medieval world through his infinite series, a strict inequality with uncertainty 3e-13. -15th century: Parameshvara discovers a formula for the circumradius of a quadrilateral. -1480: Madhava of Sangamagrama found pi and that it was infinite. -1500: Nilakantha Somayaji discovers an infinite series for π. -1500: Nilakantha Somayaji develops a model similar to the Tychonic system. His model has been described as mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system due to correctly considering the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. - -== 16th century == -The Scientific Revolution occurs in Europe around this period, greatly accelerating the progress of science and contributing to the rationalization of the natural sciences. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 292974fcf..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,112 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries" -chunk: 5/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:41.243779+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -16th century: Gerolamo Cardano solves the general cubic equation (by reducing them to the case with zero quadratic term). -16th century: Lodovico Ferrari solves the general quartic equation (by reducing it to the case with zero quartic term). -16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta's formulas. -16th century: François Viète discovers Viète's formula for π.1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation - - - - - x - - 3 - - - = - p - x - + - q - - - {\displaystyle x^{3}=px+q} - -. -Late 16th century: Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena. -1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham's law: ("Bad money drowns out good"). -1543: Nicolaus Copernicus develops a heliocentric model, rejecting Aristotle's Earth-centric view, would be the first quantitative heliocentric model in history. -1543: Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy. -1545: Gerolamo Cardano discovers complex numbers. -1556: Niccolò Tartaglia introduces parenthesis. -1557: Robert Recorde introduces the equal sign. -1564: Gerolamo Cardano is the first to produce a systematic treatment of probability. -1572: Rafael Bombelli provides rules for complex arithmetic. -1591: François Viète's New algebra shows the modern notational algebraic manipulation. - -== 17th century == -1600: William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field. -1608: Earliest record of an optical telescope. -1609: Johannes Kepler: first two laws of planetary motion. -1610: Galileo Galilei: Sidereus Nuncius: telescopic observations. -1614: John Napier: use of logarithms for calculation. -1619: Johannes Kepler: third law of planetary motion. -1620: Appearance of the first compound microscopes in Europe. -1628: Willebrord Snellius: the law of refraction also known as Snell's law. -1628: William Harvey: blood circulation. -1638: Galileo Galilei: laws of falling bodies. -1643: Evangelista Torricelli invents the mercury barometer. -1662: Robert Boyle: Boyle's law of ideal gases. -1665: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: first peer reviewed scientific journal published. -1665: Robert Hooke: discovers the cell. -1668: Francesco Redi: disproved idea of spontaneous generation. -1669: Nicholas Steno: proposes that fossils are organic remains embedded in layers of sediment, basis of stratigraphy. -1669: Jan Swammerdam: epigenesis in insects. -1672: Sir Isaac Newton: discovers that white light is a mixture of distinct coloured rays (the spectrum). -1673: Christiaan Huygens: first study of oscillating system and design of pendulum clocks -1675: Leibniz, Newton: infinitesimal calculus. -1675: Anton van Leeuwenhoek: observes microorganisms using a refined simple microscope. -1676: Ole Rømer: first measurement of the speed of light. -1687: Sir Isaac Newton: classical mathematical description of the fundamental force of universal gravitation and the three physical laws of motion. - -== 18th century == -1735: Carl Linnaeus described a new system for classifying plants in Systema Naturae. -1745: Ewald Georg von Kleist first capacitor, the Leyden jar. -1749 – 1789: Buffon wrote Histoire naturelle. -1750: Joseph Black: describes latent heat. -1751: Benjamin Franklin: lightning is electrical. -1755: Immanuel Kant: Gaseous Hypothesis in Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven. -1761: Mikhail Lomonosov: discovery of the atmosphere of Venus. -1763: Thomas Bayes: publishes the first version of Bayes' theorem, paving the way for Bayesian probability. -1771: Charles Messier: publishes catalogue of astronomical objects (Messier Objects) now known to include galaxies, star clusters, and nebulae. -1778: Antoine Lavoisier (and Joseph Priestley): discovery of oxygen leading to end of Phlogiston theory. -1781: William Herschel announces discovery of Uranus, expanding the known boundaries of the Solar System for the first time in modern history. -1785: William Withering: publishes the first definitive account of the use of foxglove (digitalis) for treating dropsy. -1787: Jacques Charles: Charles's law of ideal gases. -1789: Antoine Lavoisier: law of conservation of mass, basis for chemistry, and the beginning of modern chemistry. -1796: Georges Cuvier: Establishes extinction as a fact. -1796: Edward Jenner: smallpox historical accounting. -1796: Hanaoka Seishū: develops general anaesthesia. -1800: Alessandro Volta: discovers electrochemical series and invents the battery. - -== 1800–1849 == -1802: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: teleological evolution. -1805: John Dalton: Atomic Theory in (chemistry). -1820: Hans Christian Ørsted discovers that a current passed through a wire will deflect the needle of a compass, establishing the deep relationship between electricity and magnetism (electromagnetism). -1820: Michael Faraday and James Stoddart discover alloying iron with chromium produces a stainless steel resistant to oxidising elements (rust). -1821: Thomas Johann Seebeck is the first to observe a property of semiconductors. -1824: Carnot: described the Carnot cycle, the idealized heat engine. -1824: Joseph Aspdin develops Portland cement (concrete), by heating ground limestone, clay and gypsum, in a kiln. -1827: Évariste Galois development of group theory. -1827: Georg Ohm: Ohm's law (Electricity). -1827: Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's law (Gas law). -1828: Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea, refuting vitalism. -1830: Nikolai Lobachevsky created Non-Euclidean geometry. -1831: Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction. -1833: Anselme Payen isolates first enzyme, diastase. -1837: Charles Babbage proposes a design for the construction of a Turing complete, general purpose Computer, to be called the Analytical Engine. -1838: Matthias Schleiden: all plants are made of cells. -1838: Friedrich Bessel: first successful measure of stellar parallax (to star 61 Cygni). -1842: Christian Doppler: Doppler effect. -1843: James Prescott Joule: Law of Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics), also 1847 – Helmholtz, Conservation of energy. -1846: Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d'Arrest: discovery of Neptune. -1847: George Boole: publishes The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, defining Boolean algebra; refined in his 1854 The Laws of Thought. -1848: Lord Kelvin: absolute zero. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1429ef9d7..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,88 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries" -chunk: 6/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:41.243779+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== 1850–1899 == -1856: Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, through the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel. -1858: Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells. -1859: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection. -1861: Louis Pasteur: Germ theory. -1861: John Tyndall: Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse effect. -1864: James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism. -1865: Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics. -1865: Rudolf Clausius: Definition of entropy. -1868: Robert Forester Mushet discovers that alloying steel with tungsten produces a harder, more durable alloy. -1869: Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table. -1871: Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue. -1873: Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force. -1873: Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission. -1873: Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity. -1875: William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays. -1876: Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule. -1877: Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy. -1880s: John Hopkinson develops three-phase electrical supplies, mathematically proves how multiple AC dynamos can be connected in parallel, improves permanent magnets, and dynamo efficiency, by the addition of tungsten, and describes how temperature effects magnetism (Hopkinson effect). -1880: Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie: Piezoelectricity. -1884: Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff: discovered the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions (in his work "Études de dynamique chimique"). -1887: Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley: Michelson–Morley experiment which showed a lack of evidence for the aether. -1888: Friedrich Reinitzer discovers liquid crystals. -1892: Dmitri Ivanovsky discovers viruses. -1895: Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers x-rays. -1896: Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity -1896: Svante Arrhenius derives the basic principles of the greenhouse effect -1897: J.J. Thomson discovers the electron in cathode rays -1898: Martinus Beijerinck: concluded that a virus is infectious—replicating in the host—and thus not a mere toxin, and gave it the name "virus" -1898: J.J. Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of an atom -1898: Marie Curie discovered radium and polonium -1898: J. J. O'Donnell discovers and documents the order-of-sequence for the sound of an approaching tornado - -== 1900–1949 == -1900: Max Planck: explains the emission spectrum of a black body -1905: Albert Einstein: theory of special relativity, explanation of Brownian motion, and photoelectric effect -1906: Walther Nernst: Third law of thermodynamics -1907: Alfred Bertheim: Arsphenamine, the first modern chemotherapeutic agent -1909: Fritz Haber: Haber Process for industrial production of ammonia -1909: Robert Andrews Millikan: conducts the oil drop experiment and determines the charge on an electron -1910: Williamina Fleming: the first white dwarf, 40 Eridani B -1911: Ernest Rutherford: Atomic nucleus -1911: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes: Superconductivity -1912: Alfred Wegener: Continental drift -1912: Max von Laue: x-ray diffraction -1912: Vesto Slipher: galactic redshifts -1912: Henrietta Swan Leavitt: Cepheid variable period-luminosity relation -1913: Henry Moseley: defined atomic number -1913: Niels Bohr: Model of the atom -1915: Albert Einstein: theory of general relativity – also David Hilbert -1915: Karl Schwarzschild: discovery of the Schwarzschild radius leading to the identification of black holes -1918: Emmy Noether: Noether's theorem – conditions under which the conservation laws are valid -1920: Arthur Eddington: Stellar nucleosynthesis -1922: Frederick Banting, Charles Best, James Collip, John Macleod: isolation and production of insulin to control diabetes -1924: Wolfgang Pauli: quantum Pauli exclusion principle -1924: Edwin Hubble: the discovery that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies -1925: Erwin Schrödinger: Schrödinger equation (quantum mechanics) -1925: Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin: Discovery of the composition of the Sun and that hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe -1927: Werner Heisenberg: Uncertainty principle (quantum mechanics) -1927: Georges Lemaître: Theory of the Big Bang -1928: Paul Dirac: Dirac equation (quantum mechanics) -1929: Edwin Hubble: Hubble's law of the expanding universe -1929: Alexander Fleming: Penicillin, the first beta-lactam antibiotic -1929: Lars Onsager's reciprocal relations, a potential fourth law of thermodynamics -1930: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovers his eponymous limit of the maximum mass of a white dwarf star -1931: Kurt Gödel: incompleteness theorems prove formal axiomatic systems are incomplete -1932: James Chadwick: Discovery of the neutron -1932: Karl Guthe Jansky discovers the first astronomical radio source, Sagittarius A -1932: Ernest Walton and John Cockcroft: Nuclear fission by proton bombardment -1934: Enrico Fermi: Nuclear fission by neutron irradiation -1934: Clive McCay: Calorie restriction extends the maximum lifespan of another species -1938: Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann: Nuclear fission of heavy nuclei -1938: Isidor Rabi: Nuclear magnetic resonance -1943: Oswald Avery proves that DNA is the genetic material of the chromosome -1945: Howard Florey Mass production of penicillin -1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invent the first transistor -1948: Claude Elwood Shannon: 'A mathematical theory of communication' a seminal paper in Information theory. -1948: Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Freeman Dyson: Quantum electrodynamics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index ca2874d5f..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,69 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries" -chunk: 7/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:41.243779+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== 1950–1999 == -1951: George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa -1952: Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine -1952: Stanley Miller: demonstrated that the building blocks of life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early Earth (Miller-Urey experiment) -1952: Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids -1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology -1957: Chien Shiung Wu: demonstrated that parity, and thus charge conjugation and time-reversals, are violated for weak interactions -1962: Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1 -1963: Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis). -1964: Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks, leading to the Standard Model -1964: Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang -1965: Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit -1967: Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar -1967: Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst -1970: James H. Ellis proposed the possibility of "non-secret encryption", more commonly termed public-key cryptography, a concept that would be implemented by his GCHQ colleague Clifford Cocks in 1973, in what would become known as the RSA algorithm, with key exchange added by a third colleague Malcolm J. Williamson, in 1975. -1971: Place cells in the brain are discovered by John O'Keefe -1974: Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover indirect evidence for gravitational wave radiation in the Hulse–Taylor binary -1977: Frederick Sanger sequences the first DNA genome of an organism using Sanger sequencing -1980: Klaus von Klitzing discovered the quantum Hall effect -1982: Donald C. Backer et al. discover the first millisecond pulsar -1983: Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction, a key discovery in molecular biology -1986: Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz: Discovery of High-temperature superconductivity -1988: Bart van Wees and colleagues at TU Delft and Philips Research discovered the quantized conductance in a two-dimensional electron gas. -1990: Mary-Claire King discovers the link between heritable breast cancers and a gene found on chromosome 17q21. -1992: Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail observe the first pulsar planets (this was the first confirmed discovery of planets outside the Solar System) -1994: Andrew Wiles proves Fermat's Last Theorem -1995: Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz definitively observe the first extrasolar planet around a main sequence star -1995: Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle attained the first Bose-Einstein Condensate with atomic gases, so called fifth state of matter at an extremely low temperature. -1996: Roslin Institute: Dolly the sheep was cloned. -1997: CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab: Top quark. -1998: Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team: discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe and dark energy -2000: The Tau neutrino is discovered by the DONUT collaboration - -== 21st century == - -2001: The first draft of the Human Genome Project is published. -2003: Grigori Perelman presents proof of the Poincaré Conjecture. -2003: The Human Genome Project sequences the human genome with a 92% accuracy. -2004: Ben Green and Terence Tao announce their proof on arithmetic progressions in prime numbers known as the Green–Tao Theorem. -2004: Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov isolated graphene, a monolayer of carbon atoms, and studied its quantum electrical properties. -2005: Grid cells in the brain are discovered by Edvard Moser and May-Britt Moser. -2010: The first self-replicating, synthetic bacterial cells are constructed. -2010: The Neanderthal Genome Project presented preliminary genetic evidence that interbreeding likely occurred and that a small but significant portion of Neanderthal admixture is present in modern non-African populations. -2012: Higgs boson is discovered at CERN (confirmed to 99.999% certainty) -2012: Photonic molecules are discovered at MIT -2014: Exotic hadrons are discovered at the LHCb -2014: Photonic metamaterials are discovered to make passive daytime radiative cooling possible by Raman et al. -2016: The LIGO team detects gravitational waves from a black hole merger -2017: Gravitational wave signal GW170817 is observed by the LIGO/Virgo collaboration. This is the first instance of a gravitational wave event observed to have a simultaneous electromagnetic signal when space telescopes like Hubble observed lights coming from the event, thereby marking a significant breakthrough for multi-messenger astronomy. -2019: The first image of a black hole is captured, using eight different telescopes taking simultaneous pictures, timed with extremely precise atomic clocks. [1] -2020: NASA and SOFIA (Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy) discover about 350 mL of surface water in one of the Moon's largest visible craters. -2022: The standard reference gene, GRCh38.p14, of the human genome, is fully sequenced and contains 3.1 billion base pairs. - -== References == - -Boyer, Carl Benjamin (1991). A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8. - -== External links == -Science Timeline \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index d49108f42..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Tyranny of numbers" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:52.289904+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The tyranny of numbers was a problem faced in the 1960s by computer engineers. Engineers were unable to increase the performance of their designs due to the huge number of components involved. In theory, every component needed to be wired to every other component (or at least many other components) and were typically strung and soldered by hand. In order to improve performance, more components would be needed, and it seemed that future designs would consist almost entirely of wiring. - - -== History == - -The first known recorded use of the term in this context was made by the Vice President of Bell Labs in an article celebrating the 10th anniversary of the invention of the transistor, for the "Proceedings of the IRE" (Institute of Radio Engineers), June 1958 [1]. Referring to the problems many designers were having, he wrote: - -For some time now, electronic man has known how 'in principle' to extend greatly his visual, tactile, and mental abilities through the digital transmission and processing of all kinds of information. However, all these functions suffer from what has been called 'the tyranny of numbers.' Such systems, because of their complex digital nature, require hundreds, thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands of electron devices. -At the time, computers were typically built up from a series of "modules", each module containing the electronics needed to perform a single function. A complex circuit like an adder would generally require several modules working in concert. The modules were typically built on printed circuit boards of a standardized size, with a connector on one edge that allowed them to be plugged into the power and signaling lines of the machine, and were then wired to other modules using twisted pair or coaxial cable. -Since each module was relatively custom, modules were assembled and soldered by hand or with limited automation. As a result, they suffered major reliability problems. Even a single bad component or solder joint could render the entire module inoperative. Even with properly working modules, the mass of wiring connecting them together was another source of construction and reliability problems. As computers grew in complexity, and the number of modules increased, the complexity of making a machine actually work grew more and more difficult. This was the "tyranny of numbers". - - -=== Motivation for the integrated circuit === -It was precisely this problem that Jack Kilby was thinking about while working at Texas Instruments. Theorizing that germanium could be used to make all common electronic components (transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.), he set about building a single-slab component that combined the functionality of an entire module. Although successful in this goal, it was Robert Noyce's silicon version and the associated fabrication techniques that make the integrated circuit (IC) truly practical. -Unlike modules, ICs were built using photoetching techniques on an assembly line, greatly reducing their cost. Although any given IC might have the same chance of working or not working as a module, they cost so little that if they didn't work you simply threw it away and tried another. In fact, early IC assembly lines had failure rates around 90% or greater, which kept their prices high. The U.S. Air Force and NASA were major purchasers of early ICs, where their small size and light weight overcame any cost issues. They demanded high reliability, and the industry's response not only provided the desired reliability but meant that the increased yield had the effect of driving down prices. -ICs from the early 1960s were not complex enough for general computer use, but as the complexity increased through the 1960s, practically all computers switched to IC-based designs. The result was what are today referred to as the third-generation computers, which became commonplace during the early 1970s. The progeny of the integrated circuit, the microprocessor, eventually superseded the use of individual ICs as well, placing the entire collection of modules onto one chip. -Seymour Cray was particularly well known for making complex designs work in spite of the tyranny of numbers. His attention to detail and ability to fund several attempts at a working design meant that pure engineering effort could overcome the problems they faced. Yet even Cray eventually succumbed to the problem during the CDC 8600 project, which eventually led to him leaving Control Data. - - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5168ac550..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,32 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "UFluids@Home" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:21.577366+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -μFluids@Home is a computer simulation of two-phase flow behavior in microgravity and microfluidics problems at Purdue University, using the Surface Evolver program. - - -== About == -The project's purpose is to develop better methods for the management of liquid rocket propellants in microgravity, and to investigate two-phase flow in microelectromechanical systems, taking into account factors like surface tension. Systems using electrowetting, channel geometry, and hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings to allow the smooth passage of fluids can then be designed. Such systems include compact medical devices, biosensors, and fuel cells. - - -== Computing platform == -μFluids@Home uses the BOINC volunteer computing platform. -Application notes - -There is no screensaver. -Work unit CPU times are generally less than 20 hours. -Work units average in size around 500 kB. -You must run many work units to get levels of credit comparable to SETI@home or climateprediction.net BOINC projects. - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Website archive \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5aebb2639..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "UNESCO Science Report" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:06.011399+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities. Each edition is typically released on 10 November, which is World Science Day for Peace and Development. The most recent edition was released on 11 June 2021. - -== History == -In 1987, the General Conference of UNESCO approved the launch of the Organization's first world reports, the World Communication Report, which first appeared two years later. In 1989, the General Conference approved the launch of the World Education Report, which appeared in 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998 and 2000. -The launch of these two reports created a momentum to generalize the world reports to all of UNESCO's fields of competence. The World Science Report (as the UNESCO Science Report was originally known) was the next title to appear, in 1993. The first World Information Report followed in 1997 then the World Social Science Report in 1999, as well as two World Culture Reports in 1998 and 2000. Two existing reports were merged to produce the World Communication and Information Report 1999−2000. -The World Science Report was first officially evoked in 1992 in the Preliminary Proposals by the Director-General concerning the Programme and Budget for 1994-1995. This document was submitted to UNESCO's Executive Board, which has 58 rotating member states and meets twice a year to monitor the implementation of UNESCO's programme. The document states that, 'on the basis of the lessons drawn from drafting and publishing the first UNESCO World Science Report, measures will be taken to refine and improve this undertaking'. -The World Science Report was initially an output of UNESCO's Science, Technology and Society programme. The World Science Report replaced the UNESCO journal Impact of Science on Society, which dated from the 1950s. Jacques Richardson, Head of UNESCO's Science and Society Section from 1972 to 1985 and former editor of Impact of Science on Society, observed in Sixty Years of Science at UNESCO (2006) that 'the publication of Impact continued until the early 1990s, when it was converted into the biennial World Science Report'. The editor of the first three World Science Reports (1993, 1996 and 1998) was Howard Moore, who had succeeded Jacques Richardson as editor of Impact of Science on Society. The first edition of the report reflects this influence, since the World Science Report 1993 included a section popularizing contemporary issues in basic sciences. -In 2000, the production of world reports was suspended pending the outcome of an external evaluation of UNESCO's policy with regard to world reports. The evaluation recommended to the Executive Board of UNESCO that, 'in the future, there should be one single UNESCO world report to be published every two years on a specific issue to be chosen by the organs [sic] of the Organization in an interactive way and presented to the General Conference for further debate, while the existing world reports should continue as analytical reports on the state of the art in education, the sciences, culture, and communication and information in four- to six-year intervals.' -Several of the existing reports were consequently revived, including the World Science Report, World Social Science Report (in 2010) and the World Education Report. The latter was renamed the Education for All Global Monitoring Report. -In order to avoid confusion with UNESCO's new series of thematic world reports, UNESCO's analytical report on the state of the global support system for science was renamed the UNESCO Science Report. Susan Schneegans was Coordinator and Editor in Chief of the series from 2003 to 2021. -In line with the recommendations of the external evaluation of UNESCO's policy with regard to world reports, the periodicity of the UNESCO Science Report was changed to five years in 2005 and the series adopted a stronger focus on monitoring global trends and developments not only in science and technology policy but also in innovation policy. The focus has been on demonstrating that science, technology and innovation policy and science governance do not evolve in a vacuum but, rather, are influenced by political, socio-economic and environmental factors and, in turn, influence these. -The five-year interval between reports reflects the fact that 'a quinquennial report has the advantage of being able to focus on longer-term trends, rather than becoming entrenched in descriptions of short-term annual fluctuations which, with respect to policy and science and technology indicators, rarely add much value'. -By 2024, four editions of the UNESCO Science Report had been published, in 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2021. The release of the latter edition was delayed to June 2021 to enable the report to analyse the initial impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the world's science systems. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5489791ea..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "UNESCO Science Report" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:35:06.011399+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Geographical coverage == -Each edition has added geographic detail. The 2021 edition of the UNESCO Science Report provided data for 193 countries, with contributions from more than 70 authors from 52 countries. Published in June 2021, the seventh report in the series arrived at a crucial juncture, as countries were one-third of the way to the 2030 deadline for achieving their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report revealed that countries of all income levels shared a common agenda at this time for transitioning to digital and 'green' economies. -Themes covered in 2021 included our relationship with advanced technologies and the resources and energy they require, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the effect of Brexit on science and technology and the status of women in science and Industry 4.0. For the first time, an analysis of scientific output broke down the broad field of cross-cutting strategic technologies into its sub-fields, such as artificial intelligence and robotics, energy and nanotechnology. The report found that the COVID-19 pandemic had energized knowledge production systems. This dynamic built on the trend towards greater international scientific collaboration, which bodes well for tackling this and other global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. However, sustainability science was not yet mainstream in academic publishing by 2021, according to the report's assessment of output on 56 topics of priority for reaching the Sustainable Development Goals, even though countries were investing more than before in green technologies. -The 2021 edition concluded that countries would need to invest more in research and innovation, if they were to succeed in their dual digital and green transition. More than 30 countries had already raised their research spending between 2014 and 2018, in line with their commitment to the Sustainable Development Goals. Despite this progress, eight out of ten countries still devoted less than 1% of GDP to research in 2018, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, perpetuating their dependence on foreign technologies. -The 2015 edition of the UNESCO Science Report had provided data on 189 countries and profiles of varying length of 140 countries. It contained three global chapters, 13 regional chapters and 11 chapters on individual countries, namely on: Brazil, Canada, China, India, Iran, Israel, Malaysia, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Russian Federation and United States of America. -Themes covered in 2015 include the recent reform of higher education in Afghanistan, West Africa's first Policy on Science and Technology (ECOPOST), science and technology in individual countries, including Brazil, Botswana, Kazakhstan, Malawi, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Zimbabwe and the Pacific Islands, biomedical research in the United States, challenges facing innovation in Malaysia, the anticipated effect of Brexit on science and technology, the status of female participation in scientific research and the development of South-South cooperation in science. -The UNESCO Science Report has evolved over the years and the report's geographical coverage has expanded. The 2015 edition of the UNESCO Science Report observed that, 'although most research and development is taking place in high-income countries, innovation is pervasive and is occurring in countries across the full spectrum of income levels'. -All the reports in the series are open access. They may be downloaded and purchased in various languages. - -== External links == -UNESCO Science Report official website - -== Sources == - This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: Towards 2030​, UNESCO. - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Medical_Association-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Medical_Association-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index b8f61e413..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Medical_Association-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,58 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "Uganda Medical Association" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Medical_Association" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:32:10.662815+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The Uganda Medical Association (UMA), is a registered non-governmental, professional organization that brings together all the qualified and duly registered medical doctors in Uganda. - - -== Location == -The association maintains its headquarters at Chrisams Designs Building, Kafeeero Road, Old Mulago. Kampala | P.O. Box 2243, Kampala, Uganda, in the central business district of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda. The geographical coordinates of the headquarters of UMA are:Latitude: 0.344796; Longitude: 32.573614). - - -== Objectives == -The Association focuses on advocating for doctors' welfare, continuous medical education and training, upholding medical ethics and patient safety, and strengthening public health systems through partnerships with government and NGOs -As an association for medical practitioners, this association also focuses on the following. - -To contribute to universal access to health and health care. -To promote professional ethical standards among medical doctors in Uganda. -To promote the welfare of medical doctors in Uganda. -To mobilize doctors to join and encourage them to actively participate in the Association's activities. -To strengthen the financial base of the Association. - - -== Overview == -According to the Association's website, UMA has five focus areas: (1) to "contribute to universal access to health and health care" (2) to "promote professional ethical standards among medical doctors in Uganda" (3) to "promote the welfare of medical doctors in Uganda" (4) to mobilize doctors to join and encourage them to actively participate in the Association’s activities and (5) to strengthen the financial base of the Association. - - -== History == -The Uganda Medical Association was founded in 1964 and functioned, in the beginning, as a branch of the British Medical Association. - - -== Governance == -The policies of the Association are set by the National Governing Council (NGC), a 55-member group, representing all medical and surgical sub-specialties and doctor groups, including medical and surgical interns, senior house officers and retired doctors. - - -== Management == -The Association is managed by a nine-member Executive Committee (EC), elected for two-year terms. The 2021-2023 EC was led by the President of the Association, Samuel Oledo, deputized by Dr. Edith Nakku . -Dr. Herbert Luswata has been elected as the new president of the Uganda Medical Association (UMA), with Prof. Frank Asiimwe chosen as the vice president. The election, which took place on November 11, saw Dr. Luswata secure 57% of the votes, while his opponent, Dr. Othiniel Musana, received 47%, according to UMA records. -Dr. Oledo faced impeachment following allegations that he made a political statement by orchestrating a demonstration where individuals in clinical attire knelt before President Museveni, endorsing him for the 2026 presidential candidacy. Before this incident, Dr. Oledo had led doctors in strikes advocating for improved welfare and salaries for health workers. Under his leadership, the government took steps to enhance salaries for scientists and health workers. - - -== See also == -Uganda Dental Association -Uganda Medical and Dental Practitioners Council -World Medical Association - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Website of Uganda Medical Association -Parliament does not fix who becomes a doctor in Uganda As of 28 November 2017. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 29edc01e4..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,54 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "University of Ibadan" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:09.627848+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -The University of Ibadan (UI) is a federal university located in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Initially founded as the University College Ibadan in 1948, it maintained its affiliation with the University of London. In 1962, it became an independent institution, making it the oldest degree-awarding institution in Nigeria. The University of Ibadan has significantly contributed to Nigeria's political, industrial, economic, and cultural development through its extensive network of graduates. -UI enrolls about 33,000 students, is internationally recognized, and has a number of accomplished alumni. - -== History == - -The university was established in 1948 as University College Ibadan, a branch of the University of London, which supervised its academic programs and awarded degrees until 1967. The establishment came as a result of a recommendation from the Asquith and the Elliot Commissions on Higher Education in the then-British colonies, that two Universities stemming from the University of London should be set up in Ghana and Nigeria. Before 1948, Yaba College had been founded in 1932 in Yaba, Lagos, as the first tertiary educational institute in Nigeria, focused primarily on providing post-secondary vocational education and teacher training to Africans. -However, the limited aims of Yaba College and clamor by Nigerian nationalists for self-improvement and uninhibited education led to the establishment of University College Ibadan as the first degree-awarding institution in Nigeria in 1948. Staff and students from Yaba Higher College were transferred to Ibadan to form the new University College Ibadan. -Modelled after the British university system, Kenneth Mellanby was appointed in 1947 as its first principal, and he inaugurated the university college on 18 January 1948. The sod of its permanent site was cut on 17 November 1948, a date now known as its Founders' Day. The university's first buildings were designed by eminent modernist architects Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew. Following the tropical modernist style, the 1950s construction comprised administrative blocks, residential colleges and academic facilities. -Following Nigeria's independence in 1960 and the subsequent drive to domesticate several institutions, UCI became an established full-fledged independent university in early 1962 and thus, the name changed to University of Ibadan. -In late 1963, on the university playing fields, with a celebration marked by talking drums, the Rt. Hon. Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, the first Prime Minister of independent Nigeria, became the first Chancellor of this independent university. The first Nigerian vice-chancellor of the university was Kenneth Dike, after whom the university library is named. - -== Rankings and reputation == - -The university consistently ranks as one of the best in Nigeria. In September 2016, it became the first Nigerian university to make the top 1,000 in Times Higher Education rankings. Prior to that, it had always made the top 10 African Universities in Webometrics Rankings. UI is currently ranked No. 1 in Nigeria and 1,177 in the world according to Webometrics. The US News and World Report rank the University as the 350th in Best Global Universities. - -== Administration == -The current principal members of the university administration are: - -The university is made up of 92 academic departments organized into 17 faculties, namely: Arts, Science, Basic Medical Sciences, Clinical Sciences, Agriculture, the Social Sciences, Education, Veterinary Medicine, Pharmacy, Technology, Law, Public Health, Dentistry, Economics and Management Sciences, all Renewable Natural Resources, Environmental Design and Management, and Multidisciplinary Studies. The Faculties of the Basic Medical Sciences, Clinical Sciences, Public Health and Dentistry are organized as a College of Medicine. The university has other academic units, among which are: Institute of Child Health, Institute of Education, Institute of African Studies, Centre for Child Adolescent and Mental Health, Centre for Entrepreneurship and Innovation (CEI), Institute for Advanced Medical Research and Training (IAMRAT), Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases, Centre for Drug Discovery, Development & Production (CDDDP) and Centre for Control & Prevention of Zoonosis (CCPZ). The recently established Infectious Diseases Institute (IDI), School of Business (UISB) and National Institute for Maternal, Child & Neonatal Health (NIMCNH) have commenced operation. -The University of Ibadan has 15 halls of residence that provide accommodation for about 30% of the population of students in the regular studies mode. Some of its popular halls include Lord Tedder Hall, Kenneth Mellanby Hall, Sultan Bello Hall, Nnamdi Azikiwe Hall, Independence Hall, Tafawa Balewa Hall, Kuti Hall, Queen Idia Hall, Queen Elizabeth Hall and the Obafemi Awolowo Hall – which is the largest female hall in West Africa. The university has a total staff strength of 5,339 with 1,212 housing units for both senior and junior staff. The university has residential and sports facilities for staff and students on campus, as well as separate botanical and zoological gardens. - -== Institutes == -Institutes of African Studies -IFRA-Nigeria (Institut français de recherche en Afrique) – an institute funded by the French government to promote research in the social sciences and the humanities and improve collaborative work between academics in France and West Africa. -Institute of Child Health -Institute of Education -Advanced Medical Research and Training -Institute for Peace and Strategic Studies -LES Institute of PAU -School of Economics -School of Business - -=== Academic Centres === -Centre for General Studies -Centre for Educational media resource studies -Centre for Entrepreneurship and Innovation -Centre for Petroleum, Energy Economics and Law Multidisciplinary Central Research Laboratory (MCRL) -Yoruba Language Centre - -=== Centres of Excellence === -Centre for Excellence in Teaching & Learning -Centre for Child & Adolescent Mental Health -Centre for Control & Prevention of Zoonoses -Center for Drug Discovery, Development and Production (CDDDP) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 4f1fc77d3..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,108 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "University of Ibadan" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:36:09.627848+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Library == -Among the notable structures in the university is the central Kenneth Dike Library (popularly called "KDL" by the students), located just beside the Faculty of Arts. The library, which has a large capacity for students, contains books relating to virtually all fields of knowledge both in and outside the university community. -The library is named after Professor Kenneth Dike, who was the first indigenous Principal and former Vice-Chancellor of the university. It was established out of the desires of the founding fathers and matriarch of the institution to cut a niche for research and sound teaching. -The library contains 700,000 volumes of information and more than 1,250 seats for readers. It is open to all senior staff, students of the institution, senior staff of the University College Hospital, (UCH) Ibadan as well as alumni of the university. - -== Notable alumni == -The university has educated many notable alumni, including a Nobel Laureate in Literature, eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, business icons, philosophers, writers, monarchs, countless technocrats, recipients of the Nigerian National Order of Merit and fellows of the various learned academies. -Abdulganiyu Abdulrasaq, lawyer, former President of the Nigerian Stock Exchange -Mufutau Oloyede Abdul-Rahmon, Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies. -John Omoniyi Abiri, Nigerian academic -Sadique Abubakar, former Nigeria Chief of Air Staff -Chinua Achebe, novelist, author of Things Fall Apart -J. K. Acquaye, Professor of Haematology, president of the West African College of Physicians (2003–2004) -Dapo Lam Adesina, Member of House of Representative for Ibadan North East/South Federal Constituency -Zulu Adigwe, Nollywood actor -Adiele Afigbo, historian -Babajide Agunbiade, offshore engineer -Ayandiji Daniel Aina, former Vice-Chancellor of Caleb University -J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian -Lola Akande, author and academic -Wahab Adekola Akande, diplomat -Claude Ake, Professor of Political Economy, international scholar and social crusader -Stephen Adebanji Akintoye -Grace Alele-Williams -Elechi Amadi -Seth Amoama, Ghanaian Chief of the Defence Staff -Alexander Animalu, emeritus Professor, former Director National Mathematical Centre, Abuja -Emeka Anyaoku, former Commonwealth Secretary-General -Kayode Are, former National Security Adviser and former Director General of the State Security Service -Ladipo Ayodeji Banjo, former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Ibadan -Mosun Belo-Olusoga, financial expert -Senator Robert Ajayi Boroffice -Vivian E. Browne, visual artist -J. P. Clark -Sola David-Borha, Chief Executive (Africa Region) of Standard Bank -Adebayo Faleti (late), journalist, poet, actor and writer -Kayode Fayemi, former Governor of Ekiti State, former Min of Solid Minerals -Ronke Giwa-Onafuwa, radio presenter and broadcaster -Chukwuemeka Ike, writer -Amadi Ikwechegh -Abiola Irele -Funmi Iyanda, talk show host, broadcaster, journalist -Lola Kola, medical sociologist -William Kumuyi, founder and General Superintendent of Deeper Christian Life Ministry -Yahaya Kuta, author -Eyitayo Lambo, Nigerian former Federal Minister of Health -Mary Lazarus, Nigerian actress. -Eddie Mbadiwe, Member of the House of Representative -James Meredith, Civil Rights Movement figure -Epaphras Denga Ndaitwah -Jerome Nriagu, Environmental chemist, academic and researcher -Aniebiet Inyang Ntui, EU Ambassador, University Librarian of University of Calabar and Professor of Library and Information Science. -Mark Nwagwu, academic and poet -James Chike Nwankwo, disc jockey and singer -Adaobi Tricia Nwaubani -Christopher Okigbo -Ifeanyi Okowa, Governor of Delta State -Isidore Okpewho -Tunji Olaopa, founder and Executive Vice-chairman, ISGPP -Olufunmilayo Olopade -Sophie Oluwole, philosopher -Miriam Olusanya, first female managing director of GTB -Akinyinka Omigbodun -Michael Omolewa, former President of UNESCO General Conference and Ambassador of Nigeria to UNESCO -Kole Omotosho -Gamaliel Onosode -Zakariyau Oseni -Femi Osofisan, lecturer and playwright known for Women of Owu -Niyi Osundare -Nduka Otiono, journalist and author -Jude Rabo, Vice-Chancellor of Federal University, Wukari -Ken Saro-Wiwa -Kashim Shettima, Vice President-elect of Nigeria -Fisayo Soyombo, investigative journalist -Wole Soyinka, winner of the 1986 Nobel Prize in Literature -Martin I. Uhomoibhi -Farida Waziri -Folashade Yemi-Esan, head of the civil service of the federation - -== In popular culture == -Ebrohimie Road, a street in the University of Ibadan, was the subject of a documentary film, Ebrohimie Road: A Museum of Memory, released in July 2024, written by Nigerian writer and linguist Kola Tubosun. The street features a campus bungalow where Nigerian writer and Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka lived with his family from around 1967 to around 1972, and which has played a significant role in the history of the country, the university, and the writer himself. - -== See also == -Diamond FM (Ibadan) -List of universities in Nigeria - -== References == - -== Sources == -van den Berghe, Pierre L. (1973). Power and privilege at an African university. With the assistance of Paul Alabi [and others]. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0710075855. -Teferra, Damtew; Altbach, Philip G., eds. (2003). African higher education: An international reference handbook. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34186-0. - -== Further reading == -Tamuno, Tekena N., ed. (1981). Ibadan Voices: Ibadan University in Transition. Ibadan University Press. ISBN 978-978-121-109-6. - -== External links == - -Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index a79b8db5d..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,28 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "University technology transfer offices" -chunk: 1/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:16.596194+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -University technology transfer offices (TTOs), or technology licensing offices (TLOs), are responsible for technology transfer and other aspects of the commercialization of research that takes place in a university. TTOs engage in a variety of commercial activities that are meant to facilitate the process of bringing research developments to market, often acting as a channel between academia and industry. Most major research universities have established TTOs in the past decades in an effort to increase the impact of university research and provide opportunities for financial gain. While TTOs are commonplace, many studies have questioned their financial benefit to the university. - -== History == -The history of technology transfer is intimately linked with the history of the science policy of the United States. The foundation for modern American science policy laid way out in Vannevar Bush's letter in response to President Roosevelt's query about whether the US should maintain the high level of research funding it had been pouring into the Office of Scientific Research and Development, which had coordinated large private-public partnership research projects as part of the war effort, including the Manhattan Project. Bush's answer was Science - the Endless Frontier. In that letter, Bush advocated that the US should continue to fund basic research at high levels, arguing that while the US no longer had a geographic frontier, extending the boundaries of science would allow the creation of new technologies, which in turn would spur new industries, create jobs, generate wealth, and maintain US power. As the US worked out its approach to funding science in the 1950s, Congress decided that the federal government should maintain ownership of patents on inventions funded by the federal government. -Federal research funding drove the growth of the research university. Many universities in the early 20th century did not engage in patenting and licensing, since the government owned most inventions, and out of fear of interfering with their missions of supporting the growth of knowledge and objective inquiry. Prior to the postwar period, universities relied mostly on external patent management organizations such as the Research Corporation, while few set up their own research foundations that were independent from but affiliated to the university. Some universities, such as Stanford University and the University of Wisconsin, had active licensing programs of their own. There was a shift in universities' approaches to technology transfer between 1970 and 1980. During this period, universities began taking commercialization efforts into their own hands and setting up TTOs. -The Bayh–Dole Act of 1980 led many US universities to set up tech transfer offices. The Act was created to try to spur the stagnant US economy of the 1970s, harking back to Vannevar Bush's vision of the role of federal research funding in the US economy. The Act decentralized ownership of inventions funded with federal grants, allowing universities that received federal grant funding to maintain ownership of such inventions, obligating them to try to patent and license the inventions to US companies, and requiring universities to share license income with inventors. - -== Functions == -While the broad goal of TTOs is to commercialize university research, they engage in numerous activities that not only bring these developments to market but also encourage and support faculty and students in the entire technology transfer process. Such encouragement may increase the chances of faculty and students creating research developments that can be commercialized. Some of the major functions of TTOs include: - -=== Industry partnerships === -An important task of many TTOs is to create and maintain industry partnerships that may be crucial for collaboration and bringing technologies to market. Some universities such as MIT and Northwestern have separate offices for industry and corporate relations which typically work in conjunction with the TTO of the institution. In this case, TTOs often exploit the relationships developed by the corporate relations office, focusing more specifically on the technology transfer process itself. TTOs often employ two methods when engaging with industry partners: 1) the "pull" method, in which TTOs receive interest from industry partners in bringing specific technologies at the university to market, and 2) the "push" method, in which TTOs actively seek industry partners for this purpose. - -=== Intellectual property === -The Bayh-Dole Act obligated universities to seek patent protection, when appropriate, for inventions to which they elect title; after passage of the Bayh-Dole Act many US universities created intellectual property policies that obligated faculty to assign inventions to the university. Universities typically license the patent to a company that will invest money in developing the invention into a product, which it will then be able to sell at a premium, recouping its investment and making profit before the patent expires. - -=== Counseling and incubation for startups === -TTOs at many universities often provide general business and legal counseling to foster entrepreneurship among faculty and students. By providing resources, funding, and connections to university spin-off companies, TTOs attempt to increase the chances of startup success, which may result in financial gain if the university owns the intellectual property of the invention or has an equity stake in the company. Hence, many TTOs establish business incubators and programs for faculty and students in an attempt to enhance the entrepreneurial atmosphere among researchers at the university. Some examples of such incubators and programs include the Blavatnik Biomedical Accelerator as well as the Physical Sciences and Engineering Accelerator at Harvard University, and Fab Lab MSI, affiliated with the University of Chicago. Research has suggested that incubators at TTOs have not had a high incidence of technology transfer, despite this being one of the reasons they were established, and may even negatively impact the success of TTOs and technology transfer at the university. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6d467062c..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "University technology transfer offices" -chunk: 2/2 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:16.596194+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Structure and organization == -The structure and organization of TTOs can affect its overall performance and can vary among universities. Since TTOs deal with both academic research and industry, they consist of a diverse set of individuals, including scientists, lawyers, analysts, licensing experts, and business managers. By having individuals (particularly different scientists, engineers, and analysts) with varying sets of expertise in research, TTOs attempt to more effectively assess, protect, and profit from the research developments taking place in multiple disciplines throughout the university. -TTOs can by classified into three different types: - -internal: existing as an integrated part of the university and controlled by university administration -external: existing as an independent company that does not operate under the control of university administration -mixed: having components of both internal and external TTOs -As of 2012 the "internal" type was most common in the US. -TTOs of different universities can also collaborate between them to grow, thus originating new organizational structures. Such structures are: - -Network structure: the existing organizational forms of each TTO are maintained and the single organizations operate together in a virtual manner creating a subset of links between the existing TTOs involved in the consortium -Strong Hub structure: a new central TTO is created and it works for each university involved in the consortium -Light Hub structure: a new central TTO with the functions of a hub is created, but each university involved in the consortium maintains internally some technology transfer activities in a dedicated internal office. - -== Strategies == -TTOs attempt to capitalize on the research developments made at the university by employing strategies focused on providing the university with opportunities for financial gain and increased research impact. A common strategy that TTOs engage in is licensing their inventions, either to an industry partner or back to the university inventor if the inventor started a company (i.e. a university spin-off). Through this approach, TTOs can bring university technologies to market without having to engage in production and distribution themselves. TTOs can also take an equity stake in the spin-off company rather than licensing the technology. Some research has suggested that equity in spin-off companies may provide higher returns than licensing, but this strategy seems to be more common with TTOs that are financially independent from the parent university (i.e. external TTO structure). While these strategies vary greatly among TTOs at different universities, a majority of them employ some combination of licensing and equity stakes, with licensing being a more standard practice. - -== International diffusion and TTOs outside the US == -As many major research universities across the US began to adopt TTOs, institutions outside the US became attracted to the idea of taking control of their commercialization activities as well. Prior to the 2000s, many German-speaking and Scandinavian countries had a policy of "professor's privilege", in which faculty retain the right to control the intellectual property of their inventions. In addition, in recent years many OECD and EU nations have created legislation that emulates Bayh-Dole, in an attempt to increase the commercialization activities and impact of their respective research universities. Denmark was among the first to abolish professor's privilege, followed by Germany, Austria, Norway and Finland between 2000 and 2007. Countries such as France and the UK, which already had policies in place that grant intellectual property rights to universities during this period, began heavily encouraging and enforcing these institutional ownership rights. As of 2011, most European countries grant universities the rights to the intellectual property of inventions developed by faculty researchers, yet a few countries such as Italy and Sweden still employ professor's privilege. Hence, there has been a marked increase in the commercialization activities of universities and creation of TTOs in Europe. -Several Asian countries such as Japan, China, and India have also shifted towards a Bayh-Dole type legislation, although some countries such as Malaysia have a shared ownership model. Moreover, there has been a general shift towards increased commercialization and the establishment of TTOs across higher education institutions in Asian countries. - -== Criticisms == -Although universities created TTOs with hopes of financial gain, many TTOs have retained losses in their commercialization activities and have not generated significant local economic development. It has been argued that protecting intellectual property and patenting is a costly process, and of all the patents and licenses a university issues, there may be a limited number of inventions that actually yield enough revenue to cover or surpass these costs. Research has shown that larger, more established TTOs are sufficiently profitable, whereas many smaller, more recent TTOs are not, and that an estimated half of TTOs retain losses in their commercialization activities (of those that do not have losses, a majority do no better than to cover their costs). Even the most profitable TTOs only produce revenue that amounts to 1-3% of the total research expenditures at the university. Moreover, less than 1% of licensed technologies actually yield over $1M in revenue. Another criticism of TTOs is its role in the research atmosphere of the university, with many scholars arguing that its presence and purpose of engaging in commercialization activities conflicts with a university's mission of furthering knowledge and objective academic inquiry. -Rebecca Eisenberg and Michael Heller have argued that the Bayh-Dole Act spurred university tech transfer offices to become too aggressive in patenting, creating patent thickets and a tragedy of the anticommons especially in the field of biomedical research. As of 2012, evidence for such an anticommons effect in the practice of biomedical science was lacking. - -== See also == -Intellectual property policy - -== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 7addd30c9..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "VA (Public & Science)" -chunk: 1/1 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:18.056593+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -VA (Public & Science) (Swedish: "Vetenskap & Allmänhet") is a Sweden-based non-profit association focusing on citizen science, responsible research and innovation, and science communication to the Swedish and European public. Its projects include: web games, books, and festivals for public engagement; studies and surveys to measure public scientific knowledge and engagement; and national and international research policy advocacy. - - -== Projects == -VA is currently a partner in three EU-funded Horizon 2020 projects SciShops: ORION, Open Responsible research and Innovation to further Outstanding Knowledge, is aimed at fostering RRI and open science in research performing and research funding organisations. SciShops will expand the ecosystem of Science Shops in Europe and BLOOM is aimed at raising public awareness and interest in the bioeconomy through dialogue and co-creation activities. - - -== Membership == -VA's members consist of some 100 organizations, authorities, universities, companies and associations. In addition, it has a number of individual members. The organization is funded through membership fees, project grants and a grant from the Swedish Ministry of Education and Research. -VA is a member of EUSEA (European Science Events Association), ECSA (European Citizen Science Association) and the Living Knowledge network. - - -== Board of Representatives == -VA's board consists of representatives from the association's members; each representative serves a term of two years. The following are the representatives as of 2021. - -Board President - Ann Fust -Young Researchers Representative - Anna Hedlund -Foundation for Strategic Research Representative - Lars Hultman -IKEM Innovations and the chemical industry Representative - Magnus Huss -KTH - Kungl. Institute of Technology Representative - Sigbritt Karlsson -Engineers of Sweden Representative - Ulrika Lindstrand -Chairman of the RIFO Society members of parliament and researchers - Betty Malmberg -The Swedish Museum of Natural History - Lisa Månsson -Student Unions Representative - David Samuelsson -The Swedish Research Council - Sven Stafström -IVA - Kungl. Academy of Engineering Sciences - Tuula Teeri -Consultant - Urban Wass -Freelance Journalist - Jack Werner - - -== References == - - -== External links == -Vetenskap & Allmänhet website Archived 2021-08-29 at the Wayback Machine -Researchers' Night in Sweden -Researchers' Grand Prix \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-0.md deleted file mode 100644 index 19ec9e8ff..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-0.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "World Community Grid" -chunk: 1/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:20.451805+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -World Community Grid (WCG) is an effort to create the world's largest volunteer computing platform to perform scientific research that benefits humanity. Launched on November 16, 2004, with proprietary Grid MP client from United Devices and adding support for Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) in 2005, World Community Grid eventually discontinued the Grid MP client and consolidated on the BOINC platform in 2008. In September 2021, it was announced that IBM transferred ownership to the Krembil Research Institute of University Health Network in Toronto, Ontario. -World Community Grid uses unused processing power of consumer devices (PCs, Laptops, Android Smartphones, etc.) to analyse data created by the research groups that participate in the grid. WCG projects have analysed data related to the human genome, the human microbiome, HIV, dengue, muscular dystrophy, cancer, influenza, Ebola, Zika virus, virtual screening, rice crop yields, clean energy, water purification and COVID-19, among other research areas. -There are currently four active projects and 28 completed projects. Several of these projects have published peer-reviewed papers based on the analysis of the data generated by WCG. These include an OpenZika project paper on the discovery of a compound (FAM 3) that inhibits the NS3 Helicase protein of the Zika virus, thus reducing viral replication by up to 86%; a FightAIDS@home paper on the discovery of new vulnerabilities on the HIV-1 Capsid protein which may allow for a new drug target; and a FightAIDS@home paper on new computational drug discovery techniques for more refined and accurate results. - -== History == -In 2003, IBM and other research participants sponsored the Smallpox Research Grid Project to accelerate the discovery of a cure for smallpox. The smallpox study used a massive distributed computing grid to analyse compounds' effectiveness against smallpox. The project allowed scientists to screen 35 million potential drug molecules against several smallpox proteins to identify good candidates for developing into smallpox treatments. In the first 72 hours, 100,000 results were returned. By the end of the project, 44 strong treatment candidates had been identified. Based on the success of the Smallpox study, IBM announced the creation of World Community Grid on November 16, 2004, with the goal of creating a technical environment where other humanitarian research could be processed. -World Community Grid initially only supported Windows, using the proprietary Grid MP software from United Devices which powered the grid.org distributed computing projects. Demand for Linux support led to the addition in November 2005 of open source Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software which powers projects such as SETI@home and Climateprediction. Mac OS and Linux support was added since the introduction of BOINC. In 2007, the World Community Grid migrated from Grid MP to BOINC for all of its supported platforms. -In September 2021, IBM announced that it had transferred ownership of the World Community Grid to the Krembil Research Institute. - -=== Scale of the project === -As of January 8, 2023, World Community Grid had over 23,000 active user accounts, with over 57,000 active devices. Over the course of the project, more than 2,000,000 cumulative years of computing time have been donated, and over 6,000,000,000 work units have been completed. - -== Operation == - -The World Community Grid software uses the unused computing time of Internet-connected devices to perform research calculations. Users install WCG client software onto their devices. This software works in the background, using spare system resources to process work for WCG. When a piece of work or workunit is completed, the client software sends it back to WCG over the Internet and downloads a new workunit. To ensure accuracy, the WCG servers send out multiple copies of each workunit. Then, when the results are received, they are collected and validated against each other. -World Community Grid offers multiple humanitarian projects under a single umbrella. -Users are included in a subset of projects by default, but may opt out of projects as they choose. -Even though WCG makes use of open source client software, the actual applications that perform the scientific calculations may not be. However, several of the science applications are available under a free license, although the source is not available directly from WCG. - -=== Potential problems === - -The World Community Grid software increases CPU usage by consuming unused processing time; in the late 1990s and early 2000s, such calculations were meant to reduce "wasted" CPU cycles. With modern CPUs, where dynamic frequency scaling is prevalent, increased usage makes the processor run at higher frequency, increasing power usage and heating counter to power management. Additionally, because of an increasing focus on power performance, or performance per watt, connecting old/inefficient computers to the grid will increase the total/average power required to complete the same calculations. -The BOINC client avoids slowing the computer by using a variety of limits that suspend computation when there are insufficient free resources. Unlike other BOINC projects, World Community Grid set the BOINC defaults conservatively, making the chances of computer damage extremely small. The default CPU throttle is 60%. The throttle is coarse-grained; for example, if usage is set to 60% it will work at 100% for 3 seconds, then at 0% for 2 seconds, resulting in an average decrease of processor use. -An add-on program for Windows computers – TThrottle – can solve the problem of overheating by directly limiting the BOINC project's use of the host computer. It does this by measuring the CPU and/or the GPU temperature and adjusts the run time accordingly. It also uses a shorter switching time of less than one second, resulting in less temperature change during switching. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-1.md deleted file mode 100644 index 1a159ed82..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-1.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "World Community Grid" -chunk: 2/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:20.451805+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -== Statistics and competition == -The contributions of each user are recorded and user contribution statistics are publicly available. Due to the fact that the processing time of each workunit varies from computer to computer, depending on the difficulty of the workunit, the speed of the computer, and the amount of idle resources available, contributions are usually measured in terms of points. Points are awarded for each workunit depending on the effort required to process it. -Upon completing a workunit, the BOINC client will request the number of points it thinks it deserves based on software benchmarks (see BOINC Credit System#Cobblestones). Since multiple computers process the same workunit to ensure accuracy, the World Community Grid servers can look at the points claimed by each of those computers. The WCG servers disregard statistical outliers, average the remaining values and award the resulting number of points to each computer. -Within the grid, users may join teams that have been created by organizations, groups, or individuals. Teams allow for a heightened sense of community identity and can also inspire competition. As teams compete against each other, more work is done for the grid overall. - -== Outreach == -World Community Grid recognizes companies and organizations as partners if they promote WCG within their company or organization. As of April 2021, WCG had 452 partners. -Also, as part of its commitment to improving human health and welfare, the results of all computations completed on World Community Grid are released into the public domain and made available to the scientific community. - -== Scientific results == - -Since its launch, more than thirty projects have run in the World Community Grid. Some of the results include: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-2.md deleted file mode 100644 index b74fee0fd..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-2.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "World Community Grid" -chunk: 3/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:20.451805+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -In February 2014, the Help Fight Childhood Cancer project scientists announced the discovery of 7 compounds that destroy neuroblastoma cancer cells without any apparent side effects. This discovery, made with the support of the WCG volunteers, is a positive step towards a new treatment. The project has announced that it is seeking a collaboration with a pharmaceutical company in order to develop the compounds into treatments. Given the success of the project, the scientists have stated that they are already planning a follow-up project which will focus on other pediatric cancers, possibly in collaboration with a newly formed Pan-Asian oncology group, of which they are a founding member. -As of July 2012, the Human Proteome Folding Project has published several papers using data from WCG. These include a paper on validation methods and a new database of protein structure and function predictions; a paper on the identification of proteins that regulate human processes; a paper on the analysis of the genomes from five plant families and their proteomes, for which WCG was used in the creation of over 29,000 protein structures; a paper on the proteome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. -The GO Fight Against Malaria project reported the discovery of several molecules that are effective against Malaria and Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (including TDR-TB, for which there is no treatment available). The project also tested for new molecules against MRSA, Filariasis and Bubonic Plague. Laboratory testing continues in order to turn those molecules into possible treatments. GFAM was also the first project ever to perform a billion different docking calculations. A paper was published in January 2015, with two more pending submission. In June 2015, the project reported that of the two "hits" discovered against a drug-resistant tuberculosis strain, several "analogs" have been synthesized, the best one of which inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is relatively non-toxic to mammalian cells. Lack of funding prevented further research into the data. -The Discovering Dengue Drugs - Together project scientists reported the discovery of several new Dengue protease inhibitors, most of which also inhibit the West Nile virus protease. A handful of these have already entered "crucial pre-clinical pharmacokinetic and efficacy studies". In November 2014, an update reported that the scientists have a drug lead that disables a key enzyme that allows the Dengue virus to replicate. It has also shown the same behaviour in other flaviviruses, such as the West Nile virus. No negative side effects such as toxicity, carcinogenicity or mutagenicity have been observed, making this drug lead a very strong antiviral drug candidate for these viruses. The scientists are now working to synthesize variants of the molecule to improve its activity and enter planned pre-clinical and clinical trials. However, in an October 2018 update, the research team reported that none of their current designs had produced a highly potent dengue protease inhibitor that could be tested in vivo. -In June 2013, the Clean Energy Project published a database of over 2.3 million organic molecules which have had their properties characterized. Of these, 35,000 molecules have shown the potential to double the efficiency over organic solar cells currently being produced. Before this initiative, scientists knew of just a handful of carbon-based materials that were able to convert sunlight into electricity efficiently. -In February 2010, the FightAIDS@Home project scientists announced that they have found two compounds which make a potentially new class of AIDS-fighting drugs possible. The compounds attach to the virus at newly discovered binding sites, and thus can be used to "enhance existing therapies, treat drug-resistant strains of the disease, and slow the evolution of drug resistance in the virus." -In July 2015, the Drug Search for Leishmaniasis project announced it had tested the top 10 compounds with highest predicted efficiency out of over 100 identified via WCG workunits. Of those 10, 4 showed "positive results" in in vitro testing, with one showing "an exceptionally promising result". In August 2017, in vivo testing of the 4 compounds on hamsters showed favourable results, with one compound inducing "an almost complete curing of the lesions in two out of five hamsters." However, in a March 2018 update, the research team announced none of the 10 tested compounds had sufficient anti-leishmaniasis activity. -In July 2015, the Computing for Clean Water project announced that a paper had been published in the Nature Nanotechnology journal describing a new type of water filter efficiently utilising nanotubes. "[The] nanotubes are made of single-atom-thick sheets of carbon atoms, called graphene, rolled up into tiny tubes, with diameters of just a few nanometers - one ten-thousandth the diameter of a human hair. The size of the tubes allows water molecules to pass through, but blocks larger pathogens and contaminants, purifying the water." By running simulations on WCG, the scientists discovered that certain kinds of natural vibrations called phonons, under specific conditions, can lead to more than 300% increased flow of water through the nanotubes, compared to previous theoretical predictions. -In April 2015, the Say No To Schistosoma project scientists reported that subsequent analysis had been performed, and the three most promising candidate substances had been identified for in vitro testing. -In March 2019, FightAIDS@Home researchers published a paper describing a "Novel Intersubunit Interaction Critical for HIV-1 Core Assembly" that "defines a Potentially Targetable Inhibitor Binding Pocket". Using World Community Grid, more than 1.6 million compounds were used to target 20 conformations of this pocket. Preliminary results suggest it to be a plausible binding site for antiviral compounds. Further analysis of these compounds are the subject of an independent study. - -== Active subprojects == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-3.md deleted file mode 100644 index 6398b671b..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-3.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,47 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "World Community Grid" -chunk: 4/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:20.451805+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== OpenPandemics - COVID-19 === -On April 1, 2020, IBM announced OpenPandemics - COVID-19. The project aims to identify possible treatments for the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. WCG will partner with Scripps Research, with whom it has partnered in the past, notably in FightAIDS@Home projects. The project runs on CPUs and GPUs and will also serve to create a "fast-response, open source tool that will help all scientists quickly search for treatments for future pandemics." -The project launched on May 14, 2020. - -=== Mapping Cancer Markers === -Mapping Cancer Markers (launched November 8, 2013). The project aims to identify the markers associated with various types of cancer, and is analyzing millions of data points collected from thousands of healthy and cancerous patient tissue samples. These include tissues with lung, ovarian, prostate, pancreatic and breast cancers. By comparing these different data points, researchers aim to identify patterns of markers for different cancers and correlate them with different outcomes, including responsiveness to various treatment options. The project is focusing on 4 types of cancer, with the first focus being on lung cancer, and will move on to ovarian cancer, prostate cancer and sarcoma. - -=== Africa Rainfall Project === -The Africa Rainfall Project (launched October 2019) will use the computing power of World Community Grid, data from The Weather Company, and other data to improve rainfall modelling, which can help farmers in sub-Saharan Africa successfully raise their crops. -The amount of RAM that can be involved in calculations is from 1 to 16 gigabytes. - -== Completed subprojects == - -=== Human Proteome Folding – Phase 1 === - -The first project launched on World Community Grid was the Human Proteome Folding Project, or HPF1, which aims to predict the structure of human proteins. The project was launched on November 16, 2004, and completed on July 18, 2006. This project was unique in that computation was done in tandem with the grid.org distributed computing project. Devised by Richard Bonneau at the Institute for Systems Biology, the project used grid computing to produce the likely structures for each of the proteins using a Rosetta Score. From these predictions, researchers hope to predict the function of the myriad proteins. This increased understanding of the human proteins could prove vital in the search for cures to human diseases. Computing for this project was officially completed on July 18, 2006. Research results for the yeast portion of HPF1 have been published. - -=== Human Proteome Folding – Phase 2 === - -Human Proteome Folding - Phase 2 (HPF2) (launched June 23, 2006) was the third project to run on World Community Grid, and completed in 2013. This project, following on from HPF1, focused on human-secreted proteins, with special focus on biomarkers and the proteins on the surface of cells as well as Plasmodium, the organism that causes malaria. HPF2 generates higher-resolution protein models than HPF1. Though these higher-resolution models are more useful, they also require more processing power to generate. -In a July 2012 status report, the project scientists reported that the results generated by the WCG calculations are being used by Dr. Markus Landthaler of the Max Delbruch Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC) in Berlin. The HPF2 results helped Dr. Markus Landthaler and his collaborators in writing up a new paper on "The mRNA-Bound Proteome and Its Global Occupancy Profile on Protein-Coding Transcripts" - -=== Help Defeat Cancer === - -The Help Defeat Cancer project seeks to improve the ability of medical professionals to determine the best treatment options for patients with breast, head, or neck cancer. The project was launched on July 20, 2006, and completed in April 2007. The project worked by identifying visual patterns in large numbers of tissue microarrays taken from archived tissue samples. By correlating the pattern data with information about treatment and patient outcome, the results of this project could help provide better targeted treatment options. - -=== Genome Comparison === - -The Genome Comparison project is sponsored by the Brazilian research institution Fiocruz. The project was launched on November 21, 2006, and completed on July 21, 2007. The project seeks to compare gene sequences of different organisms against each other in order to find similarities between them. Scientists hope to discover what purpose a particular gene sequence serves in a particular function of one organism, via comparing it to a similar gene sequence of known function in another organism. - -=== Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy – Phase 1 === - -Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy is run by Décrypthon, a collaboration between French Muscular Dystrophy Association, French National Center for Scientific Research and IBM. Phase 1 was launched on December 19, 2006, and completed on June 11, 2007. The project investigated protein–protein interactions for 40,000 proteins whose structures are known, with particular focus on those proteins that play a role in neuromuscular diseases. The database of information produced will help researchers design molecules to inhibit or enhance binding of particular macromolecules, hopefully leading to better treatments for muscular dystrophy and other neuromuscular diseases. This project was available only to agents running the Grid MP client, making it unavailable to users running BOINC. - -=== Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together === - -Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together was sponsored by scientists at the University of Texas and the University of Chicago and will run in two phases. Phase 1, launched August 21, 2007, used AutoDock 2007 (the same software used for FightAIDS@Home) to test potential antiviral drugs (through NS3 protease inhibition) against viruses from the family flaviviridae and completed on August 11, 2009. Phase 2 "[uses] a more computationally intensive program to screen the candidates that make it through Phase 1." The drug candidates that make it through Phase 2 will then be lab-tested. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-4.md deleted file mode 100644 index 9a370c859..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-4.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,39 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "World Community Grid" -chunk: 5/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:20.451805+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -=== AfricanClimate@Home === -The mission of AfricanClimate@Home was to develop more accurate climate models of specific regions in Africa. It was intended to serve as a basis for understanding how the climate will change in the future so that measures designed to alleviate the adverse effects of climate change could be implemented. World Community Grid's tremendous computing power was used to understand and reduce the uncertainty with which climate processes were simulated over Africa. Phase 1 of African Climate@Home launched on September 3, 2007, and ended in July 2008. - -=== Help Conquer Cancer === - -Help Conquer Cancer project (launched November 1, 2007) is sponsored by the Ontario Cancer Institute (OCI), Princess Margaret Hospital and University Health Network of Toronto, Canada. The project involves X-ray crystallography. The mission of Help Conquer Cancer is to improve the results of protein X-ray crystallography, which helps researchers not only annotate unknown parts of the human proteome, but importantly improves their understanding of cancer initiation, progression and treatment. -The HCC project was the first WCG project benefiting from graphics processing units (GPU)s which helped finish it a lot earlier than initially projected due to the massive power of GPUs. In the April 2013 status report the scientists report there is still a lot of data to analyze but that they are preparing a new project that will search for prognostic and predictive signatures (sets of genes, proteins, microRNAs, etc.) that help predict patient survival and response to treatment. -The project finished in May 2013. - -=== Nutritious Rice for the World === - -The Nutritious Rice for the World project is carried out by Ram Samudrala's Computational Biology Research Group Archived 2008-06-14 at the Wayback Machine at the University of Washington. The project was launched on May 12, 2008, and completed on April 6, 2010. The purpose of this project is to predict the structure of proteins of major strains of rice, in order to help farmers breed better rice strains with higher crop yields, promote greater disease and pest resistance, and utilize a full range of bioavailable nutrients that can benefit people around the world, especially in regions where malnutrition is a critical concern. The project has been covered by more than 200 media outlets since its inception. On April 13, 2010, World Community Grid officially announced that the Nutritious Rice for the World project finished on April 6, 2010. -In April 2014, an update was posted stating that the research team was able to publish structural information about thousands of proteins, and advance the field of computational protein modeling. These results – which were only possible because of the massive amount of donated computing power they had available – are expected to guide future research and plant science efforts. - -=== The Clean Energy Project === - -The Clean Energy project is sponsored by the scientists of Harvard University's Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology. The mission of the Clean Energy Project is to find new materials for the next generation of solar cells and later, energy storage devices. Researchers are employing molecular mechanics and electronic structure calculations to predict the optical and transport properties of molecules that could become the next generation of solar cell materials. -Phase 1 was launched on December 5, 2008, and completed on October 13, 2009. By harnessing the computing power of the World Community Grid, researchers were able to calculate the electronic properties of tens of thousands of organic materials – many more than could ever be tested in a lab – and determine which candidates are most promising for developing affordable solar energy technology. -Phase 2 was launched June 28, 2010, sponsored by the scientists of Harvard University's Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology. Further calculations about optical, electronic and other physical properties of the candidate materials are being conducted with the Q-Chem quantum chemistry software. Their findings have been submitted to the Energy & Environmental Science journal. - -=== Help Fight Childhood Cancer === -Help Fight Childhood Cancer project (launched March 13, 2009) is sponsored by the scientists at Chiba Cancer Center Research Institute and Chiba University. The mission of the Help Fight Childhood Cancer project is to find drugs that can disable three particular proteins associated with neuroblastoma, one of the most frequently occurring solid tumors in children. Identifying these drugs could potentially make the disease much more curable when combined with chemotherapy treatment. - -=== Influenza Antiviral Drug Search === - -Influenza Antiviral Drug Search project is sponsored by Dr. Stan Watowich and his research team at The University of Texas Medical Branch (Galveston, Texas, USA). The project was launched on May 5, 2009, and completed on October 22, 2009. The mission of the Influenza Antiviral Drug Search project is to find new drugs that can stop the spread of an influenza infection in the body. The research will specifically address the influenza strains that have become drug resistant as well as new strains that are appearing. Identifying the chemical compounds that are the best candidates will accelerate the efforts to develop treatments that would be useful in managing seasonal influenza outbreaks, and future influenza epidemics and even pandemics. Phase 1 of The Influenza Antiviral Drug Search project has already finished on October 22, 2009. Now the researchers are performing post-processing on the results from Phase 1 and are preparing for Phase 2. -In November 2012, the project's scientists stated that, given the fact that there is no immediate danger of an influenza outbreak, all of the project's results would be posted online and their resources would be refocused on the Dengue Project. - -=== Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy – Phase 2 === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-5.md deleted file mode 100644 index 72f13bee8..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-5.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,42 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "World Community Grid" -chunk: 6/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:20.451805+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -World Community Grid and researchers supported by Decrypthon, a partnership between AFM (French Muscular Dystrophy Association), CNRS (French National Center for Scientific Research), Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, and IBM were investigating protein–protein interactions for more than 2,200 proteins whose structures are known, with particular focus on those proteins that play a role in neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 was launched on May 12, 2009, and completed on September 26, 2012. The database of information produced will help researchers design molecules to inhibit or enhance binding of particular macromolecules, hopefully leading to better treatments for muscular dystrophy and other neuromuscular diseases. -Phase 2 of the Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy project began once the results from the first phase had been analyzed. Phase 2 ran on the BOINC platform. - -=== Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 === - -Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 (launched February 17, 2010) is sponsored by The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston, Texas, United States and the University of Chicago in Illinois, USA. The mission is to identify promising drug candidates to combat the Dengue, Hepatitis C, West Nile, Yellow Fever, and other related viruses. The extensive computing power of World Community Grid will be used to complete the structure-based drug discovery calculations required to identify these drug candidates. - -=== Computing for Clean Water === -Computing for Clean Water (launched September 20, 2010) is sponsored by the Center for Nano and Micro Mechanics of Tsinghua University in Beijing. The project's mission is to provide deeper insight on the molecular scale into the origins of the efficient flow of water through a novel class of filter materials. This insight will in turn guide future development of low-cost and more efficient water filters. It is estimated that 1.2 billion people lack access to safe drinking water, and 2.6 billion have little or no sanitation. As a result, millions of people die annually – an estimated 3,900 children a day due to a lack of clean water. On April 25, 2014, the project scientists released an update stating that they had exciting results to report when the paper is submitted and that the project on WCG was finished. - -=== Drug Search for Leishmaniasis === -Drug Search for Leishmaniasis (launched September 7, 2011) is spearheaded by the University of Antioquia in Medellín, Colombia, with assistance from researchers at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, Texas. The mission is to identify potential molecule candidates that could possibly be developed into treatments for Leishmaniasis. The extensive computing power of World Community Grid will be used to perform computer simulations of the interactions between millions of chemical compounds and certain target proteins. This will help find the most promising compounds that may lead to effective treatments for the disease. - -=== GO Fight Against Malaria Project === -The mission of the GO Fight Against Malaria project (launched November 16, 2011) is to discover promising drug candidates that could be developed into new drugs that cure drug resistant forms of malaria. The computing power of World Community Grid will be used to perform computer simulations of the interactions between millions of chemical compounds and certain target proteins, to predict their ability to eliminate malaria. The best compounds will be tested by scientists at The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, California, U.S.A. and further developed into possible treatments for the disease. - -=== Say No to Schistosoma === -Say No to Schistosoma (launched February 22, 2012) was the 20th research project to be launched on World Community Grid. The researchers at Infórium University in Belo Horizonte and FIOCRUZ-Minas, Brazil, ran this project on World Community Grid to perform computer simulations of the interactions between millions of chemical compounds and certain target proteins in the hope of finding effective treatments for schistosomiasis. As of April 2015, subsequent analysis had been performed, and three of the most promising candidate substances had been identified for in-vitro testing. - -=== Computing for Sustainable Water === -Computing for Sustainable Water was the 21st research project to be launched on World Community Grid. The researchers at the University of Virginia were running this project on World Community Grid to study the effects of human activity on a large watershed and gain deeper insights into what actions can support the restoration, health and sustainability of this important water resource. The project was launched on April 17, 2012, and completed on October 17, 2012. - -=== Uncovering Genome Mysteries === -The Uncovering Genome Mysteries project launched on October 16, 2014, and is a joint collaboration between Australian and Brazilian scientists. The project aims to examine close to 200 million genes from many life forms and compare them with known genes in order to find out what their function is. The results could have an effect in fields such as medicine and environmental research. - -=== Outsmart Ebola Together === -Outsmart Ebola Together was a collaboration with the Scripps Research Institute to help find chemical compounds to fight Ebola virus disease. It was launched on 3 December 2014. The aim is to block crucial steps in the life cycle of the virus, by finding drugs with high binding affinity with certain of its proteins. There are two targets: a surface protein used by the virus to infect human cells, and "transformer" proteins which change shape to carry out different functions. The project officially completed December 6, 2018. - -=== OpenZika === -OpenZika was launched on May 18, 2016, to help combat the Zika virus. The project targets proteins that are believed to be used by the Zika virus to survive and spread in the body, based on known results from similar diseases like dengue fever and yellow fever. These results will help researchers develop an anti-Zika drug. The project officially completed December 13, 2019. - -=== FightAIDS@Home === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-6.md deleted file mode 100644 index 26c62fcbb..000000000 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-6.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ ---- -title: "World Community Grid" -chunk: 7/7 -source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid" -category: "reference" -tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T01:34:20.451805+00:00" -instance: "kb-cron" ---- - -FightAIDS@Home (launched November 19, 2005) was World Community Grid's second project and its first to target a single disease. Each individual computer processes one potential drug molecule and tests how well it would dock with HIV protease, acting as a protease inhibitor. Scripps Research Institute published its first peer-reviewed scientific paper about the results of FightAIDS@Home on April 21, 2007. This paper explains that the results up to that point will primarily be used to improve the efficiency of future FightAIDS@Home calculations. - -=== FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 === -FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 (launched September 30, 2015) is looking more closely at the results of Phase 1. The project has two goals in the early experiments; the simulation architecture is functioning correctly and giving reliable results, and using BEDAM and AutoDock together provides better results than using just BEDAM or AutoDock. - -=== Microbiome Immunity Project === -Microbiome Immunity Project (launched August 2017) is a study of proteins in bacteria located in and on the human body; the human microbiome, which comprises around 3 million separate bacterial genes. By studying bacterial genes, researchers can determine their individual shapes, which in turn dictate the function of the bacteria. Collaborative institutions includes the University of California San Diego, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, and the Simons Foundation's Flatiron Institute. - -=== Help Stop TB === -Help Stop TB was launched in March 2016 to help combat tuberculosis, a disease caused by a bacterium that is evolving resistance to currently available treatments. The computations of this project target mycolic acids in the bacterium's protective coat, simulating the behaviour of these molecules to better understand how they offer protection to the bacteria. - -=== Smash Childhood Cancer === - -Launched in January 2017, the Smash Childhood Cancer project builds on the work from the Help Fight Childhood Cancer project by looking for drug candidates targeting additional childhood cancers. Upon Dr. Akira Nakagawara's retirement in March 2020, the principal investigator changed to Dr. Godfrey Chan, who was one of the original members of the Smash Childhood Cancer team. Additionally, PRDM14 and Fox01 have been added as new targets for investigation. An inhibitor of the osteopontin protein was modeled. - -== See also == -BOINC -Folding@home -List of volunteer computing projects -World community - -== References == - -== External links == -Official website \ No newline at end of file