From e10a11aa192009b8ed31a02e9d540062d135c9fc Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 20:47:34 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 19 new, 841 updated, 886 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 8908800 -> 8908800 bytes .../wiki/Biomedical_scientist-0.md | 52 +++++++++++++ .../wiki/Biomedical_scientist-1.md | 28 +++++++ .../wiki/Biomedical_scientist-2.md | 69 ++++++++++++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-0.md | 26 +++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-1.md | 34 +++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-2.md | 58 +++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Chief_experimental_officer-0.md | 23 ++++++ .../wiki/Chief_scientific_officer-0.md | 40 ++++++++++ .../wiki/Clinical_technologist-0.md | 67 +++++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Computational_scientist-0.md | 15 ++++ .../wiki/Demographic_marketer-0.md | 19 +++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-0.md | 38 ++++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-1.md | 27 +++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-2.md | 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000000000..bbbc62d30 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Biomedical scientist" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:20.895269+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A biomedical scientist is a scientist trained in biology, particularly in the context of medical laboratory sciences or laboratory medicine. These scientists work to gain knowledge on the main principles of how the human body works and to find new ways to cure or treat disease by developing advanced diagnostic tools or new therapeutic strategies. The research of biomedical scientists is referred to as biomedical research. + +== Description == +The specific activities of the biomedical scientist can differ in various parts of the world and vary with the level of education. Generally speaking, biomedical scientists conduct research in a laboratory setting, using living organisms as models to conduct experiments. These can include cultured human or animal cells grown outside of the whole organism, small animals such as flies, worms, fish, mice, and rats, or, rarely, larger animals and primates. Biomedical scientists may also work directly with human tissue specimens to perform experiments as well as participate in clinical research. +Biomedical scientists employ a variety of techniques in order to carry out laboratory experiments. These include: + +Molecular and biochemical techniques +Electrophoresis and blotting +Immunostaining +Chromatography +Mass spectrometry +PCR and sequencing +Microarrays +Imaging technologies +Light, fluorescence, and electron microscopy +MRI +PET +X-ray +Genetic engineering/modification +Transfection +Viral transduction +Transgenic model organisms +Electrophysiology techniques +Patch clamp +EEG, EKG, ERG +In silico techniques +Bioinformatics +Computational biology + +=== Level of education === +Biomedical scientists typically obtain a bachelor of science degree, and usually take postgraduate studies leading to a diploma, master or doctorate. This degree is necessary for faculty positions at academic institutions, as well as senior scientist positions at most companies. Some biomedical scientists also possess a medical degree (MD, DO, PharmD, Doctor of Medical Laboratory Sciences[MLSD], MBBS, etc.) in addition to an academic degree. + +=== Work environment === + +==== Academics ==== +This category includes tenured faculty positions at universities, colleges, non-profit research institutes, and sometimes hospitals. These positions usually afford more intellectual freedom and give the researcher more latitude in the direction and content of the research. Scientists in academic settings, in addition to conducting experiments, will also attend scientific conferences, compete for research grant funding, publish scientific papers, and teach classes. + +==== Industry ==== +Industry jobs refer to private sector jobs at for-profit corporations. In the case of biomedical scientists, employment is usually at large pharmaceutical companies or biotechnology companies. Positions in industry tend to pay higher salaries than those at academic institutions, but job security compared to tenured academic faculty is significantly less. Researchers in industry tend to have less intellectual freedom in their research than those in the academic sector, owing to the ultimate goal of producing marketable products that benefit the company. + +==== Non-traditional career paths ==== +In recent years, more biomedical scientists have pursued careers where advanced education and experience in biomedical research is needed outside of traditional laboratory research. These areas include patent law, consulting, public policy, and science journalism. The primary reason for growth in these areas is that in recent years fewer positions are available in traditional academic research relative to the number of seekers; approximately 15-20% of PhD life scientists will obtain a tenure-track position or lab-head position in industry. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..96101d2bd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Biomedical scientist" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:20.895269+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== United Kingdom === +Biomedical Sciences, as defined by the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education Benchmark Statement in 2015 includes those science disciplines whose primary focus is the biology of human health and disease and ranges from the generic study of biomedical sciences and human biology to more specialised subject areas such as pharmacology, human physiology and human nutrition. It is underpinned by relevant basic sciences including anatomy and physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics and molecular biology, immunology, mathematics and statistics, and bioinformatics. +"Biomedical scientist" is the protected title used by professionals qualified to work unsupervised within the pathology department of a hospital. The biomedical sciences are made up of the following disciplines; biochemistry, haematology, immunology, microbiology, histology, cytology, and transfusion services. These professions are regulated within the United Kingdom by the Health and Care Professions Council. Anyone who falsely claims to be a biomedical scientist commits an offence and could be fined up to £5000. +Each department specialises in aiding the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Entry to the profession requires an Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) accredited BSc honours degree followed by a minimum of 12 months laboratory training in one of the pathology disciplines, however the actual time spent training can be considerably longer. Trainees are also required to complete a certificate of competence training portfolio, this requires gathering extensive amounts of evidence to demonstrate professional competence. At the end of this period the trainees portfolio and overall competence are assessed; if successful, a certificate of competence is awarded, which can be used to apply for registration with the HCPC. State registration indicates that the applicant has reached a required standard of education and will follow the guidelines and codes of practice created by the Health and Care Professions Council. The NHS, the largest employer of Biomedical Scientist, now run the 'Practitioners Training Program' in conjunction with several Universities which includes a years experienced as a part of a 3-year degree. This is known as BSc Healthcare Science (Life Science) +Biomedical Scientists are the second largest profession registered by the Health and Care Professions Council and make up a vital component of the health care team. Many of the decisions doctors make are based on the test results generated by Biomedical Scientists. Despite this, much of the general public are unaware of Biomedical Scientists and the important role they play. +Biomedical Scientists are not confined to NHS laboratories. Biomedical Scientists along with scientists in other inter-related medical disciplines seek out to understand human anatomy, genetics, immunology, physiology and behaviour at all levels. This is sometimes achieved through the use of model systems that are homologous to various aspects of human biology. The research that is carried out either in Universities or Pharmaceutical companies by Biomedical Scientists has led to the development of new treatments for a wide range of degenerative and genetic disorders. Stem cell biology, cloning, genetic screening/therapies and other areas of biomedical science have all been generated by the work of Biomedical Scientists from around the world. + +== Education == +Biomedical science graduate programs are maintained at academic institutions and medical schools around the world, and some biomedical graduate programs are administered jointly by an academic institution and a business, hospital, or independent research institute. While graduate students historically committed to a particular research specialty, such as molecular biology, biochemistry, genetics, or developmental biology, the recent trend (particularly in the United States) is to offer interdisciplinary programs that do not specialize and instead aim to incorporate a broad education in multiple biological disciplines. +Initially, graduate students usually rotate through the laboratories of several faculty researchers, after which the student commits to joining a particular laboratory for the remainder of his or her education. The remaining time is spent conducting original research under the direction of the principal investigator to complete and publish a dissertation. Unlike undergraduate and professional schools, there is no set time period for graduate education. Students graduate once a thesis project of significant scope to justify the writing of their dissertation has been completed, a point that is determined by the student's principal investigator as well as his or her faculty advisory committee. The average time to graduation can vary between institutions, but most programs average around 5–6 years. +Biomedical scientists typically study in undergraduate majors that are focused on biological sciences, such as genetics, immunology, biochemistry, microbiology, zoology, biophysics, etc. + +=== United Kingdom === +Education programmes have traditionally encompassed an initial bachelor's degree, which is presupposed for two years of further studies eventually earning the students a medicine master's examina. Many students choose to study on (for as much as) another 4 years to earn a PhD degree, at this time the students specialize in a certain areas such as nephrology, neurology, oncology or virology. +In the UK specifically, prospective undergraduate students wishing to undertake a BSc in biomedical sciences are required to apply via the UCAS application system (usually during the final year of college or sixth form secondary school). University departments offering degree programmes and/or research in biomedical sciences are represented by the Heads of University Centres of Biomedical Sciences (HUCBMS). HUCBMS was established in 1993 and has an international membership. The co-founders of HUCBMS were Prof Terry Baker (Bradford University), Prof Gerry McKenna (Ulster), Dr Ray Jones (Portsmouth) and John Clarke (Cardiff Metropolitan) + +== Areas of specialization == +Biomedical scientists can focus on several areas of specialty, including: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..583052a3a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "Biomedical scientist" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:20.895269+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Biochemistry: studies the chemical composition of cells, and in serum/plasma, and the chemistry behind biological processes +Molecular biology: studies the molecular makeup and processes of living organisms +Biophysics: studies mechanical and electrical energy in living cells and tissues +Cell biology: studies cell-level organization and processes +Cytopathology: Studies cell obtained by different means from human and sometimes animal bodies, using microscope and recent technologies to evaluate morphology, molecular pathology changes by molecular diagnostics. Also cytopathology involves cancer screening such cervical, breast, colon and prostate cancers. +Computational biology and Bioinformatics: uses computer modeling and data analysis to understand biological systems +Developmental biology: studies the growth and development of organisms and focuses on diseases of abnormal development +Epidemiology: studies the incidence and transmission of diseases in a population and population characteristics (behaviors, environment, etc.) that associate with diseases +Genetics: studies DNA and genes of humans and animals, as well as diseases caused by abnormal or mutated DNA. +Haematology: studies of the blood, such as blood cells, and mechanisms of coagulation. +Blood transfusion: studies of transfusion science (although frequently linked to haematology, it is however a specialist discipline in its own right). +Histopathology: Studies tissues for disease diagnosis, using histological, histochemical, immunohistochemical analysis or molecular genetic techniques for diagnostics. +Immunology: studies the immune system +Microbiology: studies characteristics of microorganisms such as bacteria and their role in human health +Neuroscience: studies on function and structure the nervous system, including the brain +Oncology (a.k.a. cancer biology): studies the causes and characteristics of cancer +Parasitology: studies parasites +Pathology: studies the underlying causes and bodily effects of disease through examination of organs, tissues, and cells +Pharmacology: studies effects of drugs on biological systems +Physiology: studies how various body systems function at macroscopic, microscopic and molecular levels +Virology: studies viruses and viral diseases +Medicinal chemistry: studies compound for medicinal usage +Toxicology +However, recent trends in biomedical graduate education (particularly in the United States) are for biomedical scientists to remain interdisciplinary and to not specialize. This approach emphasizes focus on a particular body or disease process as a whole and drawing upon the techniques of multiple specialties. + +== Salaries and job growth == + +=== United Kingdom === +In the United Kingdom, the salaries for biomedical scientists range from £28,407 (Band 5) to £81,138 (Band 8c) plus high cost area supplements and out of hours payments, depending on experience, education, and position. Entry-level biomedical scientists start at Band 5, specialist biomedical scientists at Band 6, senior biomedical scientists at Band 7, lead biomedical scientists/laboratory managers at Band 8a, deputy general managers at Band 8b and general managers at Band 8c. Job growth for the profession has been forecasted as follows: + +=== United States === +According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the 2010-2011 occupational outlook report suggests that biomedical scientist employment is expected "to increase 40 percent over the 2008-18 decade, much faster than the average for all occupations." +According to the 2010 BLS report, the median salaries for biomedical scientists in the United States in particular employment areas are: + +These figures include the salaries of post-doctoral fellows, which are paid significantly less than employees in more permanent positions. + +== See also == +MD-PhD +Biomedical research: basic research or applied research conducted to aid the body of knowledge in the field of medicine +Medicine: a branch of the health sciences concerned with maintaining or restoring human health +Research: a process of inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising facts +Scientist: an expert in at least one area of science who uses the scientific method to do research +Animal testing: the use of animals in experiments +Biology: the study of life +Nurse scientist +Clinical laboratory scientist +Health profession: profession in which a person exercises skill or provides a health-related service +Human experimentation: medical experiments performed on human beings +Medical Research Council (UK) +Society of Biology +United States National Academy of Sciences + +== References == + +== External links == +UK Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) +Resources at Prospects +Resources at Health Careers +Heads of University Centres of Biomedical Sciences (HUCBMS) Heads of University Centres of Biomedical Science (HUCBMS) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..010775610 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Chemist" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:22.162309+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A chemist (from Greek chēm(ía) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist) is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the field. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties. In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists. +Chemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products. + +== History of chemistry == + +The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning. Fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses. After gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy. The word chemist is derived from the Neo-Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista (alchemist). Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry. +Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century. +At the Washington Academy of Sciences during World War I, it was said that the side with the best chemists would win the war. + +== Education == + +=== Formal education === +Jobs for chemists generally require at least a bachelor's degree in chemistry, which takes four years. However, many positions, especially those in research, require a Master of Science or a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.). Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry, partly because chemistry is also known as "the central science", thus chemists ought to have a well-rounded knowledge about science. At the Master's level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, polymer chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry, environmental chemistry, and thermochemistry. Postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. +Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a chemistry degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, having an associate degree. A chemical technologist has more education or experience than a chemical technician but less than a chemist, often having a bachelor's degree in a different field of science with also an associate degree in chemistry (or many credits related to chemistry) or having the same education as a chemical technician but more experience. There are also degrees specific to become a chemical technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and instrumentation necessary to perform chemical analyzes than a chemical technician. They are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of environmental quality control and the operational phase of a chemical plant. + +=== Training === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0039726ef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Chemist" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:22.162309+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In addition to all the training usually given to chemical technologists in their respective degree (or one given via an associate degree), a chemist is also trained to understand more details related to chemical phenomena so that the chemist can be capable of more planning on the steps to achieve a distinct goal via a chemistry-related endeavor. The higher the competency level achieved in the field of chemistry (as assessed via a combination of education, experience and personal achievements), the higher the responsibility given to that chemist and the more complicated the task might be. Chemistry, as a field, has so many applications that different tasks and objectives can be given to workers or scientists with these different levels of education or experience. The specific title of each job varies from position to position, depending on factors such as the kind of industry, the routine level of the task, the current needs of a particular enterprise, the size of the enterprise or hiring firm, the philosophy and management principles of the hiring firm, the visibility of the competency and individual achievements of the one seeking employment, economic factors such as recession or economic depression, among other factors, so this makes it difficult to categorize the exact roles of these chemistry-related workers as standard for that given level of education. Because of these factors affecting exact job titles with distinct responsibilities, some chemists might begin doing technician tasks while other chemists might begin doing more complicated tasks than those of a technician, such as tasks that also involve formal applied research, management, or supervision included within the responsibilities of that same job title. The level of supervision given to that chemist also varies in a similar manner, with factors similar to those that affect the tasks demanded for a particular chemist. + +It is important that those interested in a Chemistry degree understand the variety of roles available to them (on average), which vary depending on education and job experience. Those Chemists who hold a bachelor's degree are most commonly involved in positions related to either research assistance (working under the guidance of senior chemists in a research-oriented activity), or, alternatively, they may work on distinct (chemistry-related) aspects of a business, organization or enterprise including aspects that involve quality control, quality assurance, manufacturing, production, formulation, inspection, method validation, visitation for troubleshooting of chemistry-related instruments, regulatory affairs, "on-demand" technical services, chemical analysis for non-research purposes (e.g., as a legal request, for testing purposes, or for government or non-profit agencies); chemists may also work in environmental evaluation and assessment. Other jobs or roles may include sales and marketing of chemical products and chemistry-related instruments or technical writing. The more experience obtained, the more independence and leadership or management roles these chemists may perform in those organizations. Some chemists with relatively higher experience might change jobs or job position to become a manager of a chemistry-related enterprise, a supervisor, an entrepreneur or a chemistry consultant. Other chemists choose to combine their education and experience as a chemist with a distinct credential to provide different services (e.g., forensic chemists, chemistry-related software development, patent law specialists, environmental law firm staff, scientific news reporting staff, engineering design staff, etc.). +In comparison, chemists who have obtained a Master of Science (M.S.) in chemistry or in a very related discipline may find chemist roles that allow them to enjoy more independence, leadership and responsibility earlier in their careers with less years of experience than those with a bachelor's degree as highest degree. Sometimes, M.S. chemists receive more complex tasks duties in comparison with the roles and positions found by chemists with a bachelor's degree as their highest academic degree and with the same or close-to-same years of job experience. There are positions that are open only to those that at least have a degree related to chemistry at the master's level. Although good chemists without a Ph.D. degree but with relatively many years of experience may be allowed some applied research positions, the general rule is that Ph.D. chemists are preferred for research positions and are typically the preferred choice for the highest administrative positions on big enterprises involved in chemistry-related duties. Some positions, especially research oriented, will only allow those chemists who are Ph.D. holders. Jobs that involve intensive research and actively seek to lead the discovery of completely new chemical compounds under specifically assigned monetary funds and resources or jobs that seek to develop new scientific theories require a Ph.D. more often than not. Chemists with a Ph.D. as the highest academic degree are found typically on the research-and-development department of an enterprise and can also hold university positions as professors. Professors for research universities or for big universities usually have a Ph.D., and some research-oriented institutions might require post-doctoral training. Some smaller colleges (including some smaller four-year colleges or smaller non-research universities for undergraduates) as well as community colleges usually hire chemists with a M.S. as professors too (and rarely, some big universities who need part-time or temporary instructors, or temporary staff), but when the positions are scarce and the applicants are many, they might prefer Ph.D. holders instead. + +=== Skills === +Skills that a chemist may need on the job include: + +Knowledge of chemistry +Familiarity with product development +Using scientific rules, strategies, or concepts to solve problems +Putting together small parts using hands and fingers with dexterity + +== Employment == + +Most chemists begin their lives in research laboratories. Many chemists continue working at universities. Other chemists may start companies, teach at high schools or colleges, take samples outside (as environmental chemists), or work in medical examiner offices or police departments (as forensic chemists). +Some software that chemists may find themselves using include: + +ChemSW Buffer Maker +LabTrack Electronic Lab Notebook +Agilent ChemStation +Waters Empower Chromatography Data Software +Microsoft Excel +Increasingly, chemists may also find themselves using artificial intelligence, such as for drug discovery. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8250b80b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Chemist" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:22.162309+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Subdisciplines === +Chemistry is typically organised into several major subdisciplines — including organic, inorganic, physical, analytical, and biochemistry — and encompasses numerous specialised and interdisciplinary fields. Many of these areas overlap with one another and with related sciences, and chemical research often intersects with disciplines such as biology, medicine, physics, materials science, and engineering. + +Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. +Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, for example, in medicinal chemistry. + +Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. The Inorganic chemistry is also the study of atomic and molecular structure and bonding. +Medicinal chemistry is the science involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities suitable for therapeutic use. It also includes the study of existing drugs, their biological properties, and their quantitative structure-activity relationships. +Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and chemical reaction of carbon compounds. +Physical chemistry is the study of the physical fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry has a large overlap with theoretical chemistry and molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of calculus in deriving equations. +Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular, the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with condensed matter physics and molecular physics. See reductionism. +All the above major areas of chemistry employ chemists. Other fields where chemical degrees are useful include astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemo-informatics, electrochemistry, environmental science, forensic science, geochemistry, green chemistry, history of chemistry, materials science, medical science, molecular biology, molecular genetics, nanotechnology, nuclear chemistry, oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry, supramolecular chemistry and surface chemistry. + +== Professional societies == +Chemists may belong to professional societies specifically for professionals and researchers within the field of chemistry, such as the Royal Society of Chemistry in the United Kingdom, the American Chemical Society (ACS) in the United States, or the Institution of Chemists in India. + +== Ethics == +The "Global Chemists' Code of Ethics" suggests several ethical principles that all chemists should follow: + +Promoting the general public's appreciation of chemistry +The importance of sustainability and protecting the environment +The importance of scientific research and publications +Respecting safety, such as by using proper personal protective equipment +Respecting chemical security throughout the chemical supply chain, especially for labs and industrial facilities +This code of ethics was codified in a 2016 conference held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, run by the American Chemical Society. The points listed are inspired by the 2015 Hague Ethical Guidelines. + +== Honors and awards == + +The highest honor awarded to chemists is the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, awarded since 1901, by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. + +== See also == +List of chemistry topics +List of chemists +List of Chemistry Societies + +== References == + +== External links == + +American Chemical Society +Chemical Abstracts Service indexes and abstracts the world's chemistry-related literature and patents +Chemists and Materials Scientists Archived 2006-01-16 at the Wayback Machine from the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook +Royal Society of Chemistry +History of Chemistry links for chemists +Luminaries of the Chemical Sciences accomplishments, biography, and publications from 44 of the most influential chemists +Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry +Links for Chemists guide to web sites related to chemistry +ChemistryViews.org \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experimental_officer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experimental_officer-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..74ba67156 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experimental_officer-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Chief experimental officer" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experimental_officer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:23.328993+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A chief experimental officer (CEO) is the head of an experimental organization, especially in the military or civil service. +Chief Experimental Officer has been the topmost class in the Experimental Officer Class of the British Civil Service. + + +== See also == +Chief executive officer (CEO) +Chief innovation officer (CINO) +Chief scientific officer (CSO) +Chief technology officer (CTO) +Government scientist + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_scientific_officer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_scientific_officer-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63422bd56 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_scientific_officer-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Chief scientific officer" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_scientific_officer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:24.666063+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A chief scientific officer (CSO) is a position at the head of scientific research operations at organizations or companies performing significant scientific research projects. + + +== Description == +A CSO is typically responsible for envisioning and developing research capabilities (human, methodological, and technological) for developing evidence of the validity and utility of research products, and for communicating with the scientific and customer communities concerning capabilities and scientific product offerings. +In some organizations, the same person may hold this title along with that of chief technology officer (CTO). Alternatively, a company could have one or the other, or both occupied by separate people. Often, CSOs exist in heavily research-oriented companies; while CTOs exist in product development focused companies. The typical category of research and development that exists in many science and technology companies can be led by either post, depending upon which area is the organization's primary focus. +A CSO almost always has a pure science background and an advanced degree, whereas a CTO often has a background in engineering or business development. +Some academic research organizations, such as the Fox Chase Cancer Center, Dana–Farber Cancer Institute, and the San Diego Supercomputer Center have adopted a similar title of CSO. Typically, their role is to evaluate and set scientific priorities and coordinate the administrative structure that supports scientists. A CSO commonly has a scientific or academic background, yet they may or may not be practicing scientists or academics. + + +== England == +In the National Health Service, the CSO is the head of profession for the 53,000 healthcare scientists working in the organization and its associated bodies. The CSO is one of six NHS professional officers (including the chief medical officer and the chief nursing officer) who are employed within NHS England. These roles lead their own professional groups as well as providing expert knowledge about their specific disciplines to the NHS and wider health and care system. +The CSO provides professional leadership and expert clinical advice across the health system, as well as working alongside senior clinical leaders within NHS England and the broader commissioning system. The CSO is also responsible for delivering the government's strategy for a modernised healthcare science workforce, Modernising Scientific Careers. +Professor Dame Sue Hill has been the CSO since October 2002 first within the department of health and subsequently NHS England. The role was strengthened in March 2023 with the appointment of a deputy CSO, Dr.Joel. + + +== Canada == +The Public Health Agency of Canada is home to a CSO. As of May 2020, the PHAC CSO was named Pascal Michel. +The Canadian Food Inspection Agency is home to a Chief Science Operating Officer. + + +== See also == + +C-suite +Chief experimental officer (CEO) +Chief innovation officer (CINO) +Chief technology officer (CTO) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_technologist-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_technologist-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..28171d965 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_technologist-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "Clinical technologist" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_technologist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:27.238487+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A clinical technologist, also known as a healthcare science practitioner, is a medical professional involved in the practical delivery of medical physics and clinical engineering services. In some locations there is considerable overlap in closely related terms, for example in many countries technologist and radiographer are synonyms, while in the United Kingdom they are considered separate professions. Clinical technologists can be found in nuclear medicine, radiotherapy, radiation protection, and rehabilitation engineering departments, and they are often described by their scope of practice (for example as a nuclear medicine technologist). + + +== Roles and responsibilities == +Depending on local practices, in radiology and radiotherapy technologist may be a synonym for radiographer or a separate position. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) uses technologist primarily to refer to the staff involved in the practical clinical delivery of radiotherapy, radiology and nuclear medicine. +There is no single European Union definition or minimum training level for technologists, and the use of the term varies between member states. In radiotherapy, the European SocieTy for Radiotherapy and Oncology (ESTRO) previously referred to the staff carrying out the practical elements of treatment as Radiation Technologists (RTT), however they have since revised this to Radiation TherapisTs. +In the United Kingdom, clinical technologists and radiographers are separate professions with differing responsibilities. In X-ray radiography and radiotherapy, it is radiographers who will carry out the imaging or treatment, while technologists may be involved in equipment testing and radiation protection activities. In nuclear medicine however, those with technologist or radiographer training largely have the same responsibilities. +In the United States, and many other countries, technologist is the main term for the healthcare professionals performing diagnostic imaging (radiographers), as well as the staff involved in testing and quality control of X-ray equipment, with the latter specifically known as quality control technologists. Similarly in Canada medical radiation technologists (MRTs) carry out practical aspects of radiology and radiotherapy on patients. + + +=== Nuclear medicine === +In nuclear medicine departments, clinical technologists are typically involved in the practical delivery of the service. They may be involved in preparing and injecting radiopharmaceuticals, talking to patients about their procedures, performing scans on gamma cameras and PET scanners, and quality control activities. Nuclear medicine technologists may perform a similar roles to, and in some departments work alongside, radiographers. + + +=== Radiation protection === +Radiation protection technologists work alongside medical physicists and other professionals to provide advice, measurements and practical solutions for the protection of staff, patients and the general public from the harmful effects of ionising radiation. + + +=== Dialysis === +In the UK a renal technologist (or dialysis technician) is responsible for technical and clinical aspects of the equipment involved in renal dialysis. + + +== Education and training == + + +=== Africa === + + +==== South Africa ==== +In South Africa, clinical technologists are regulated by the Health Professions Council of South Africa. They work in one of seven categories: nephrology, neurophysiology, cardiology, critical care, pulmonology, cardiovascular perfusion, and reproductive biology. Training starts with a Health Sciences degree (BHSc) in Clinical Technology. + + +=== Europe === + + +==== United Kingdom ==== +There are several routes to clinical technologist careers. For medical physics roles, the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) sets out a clinical technologist training scheme which lasts for two years and combines workplace-based clinical training with a post-graduate diploma in clinical technology. For renal technologists, the Association of Renal Technologists (ART) maintains a training scheme which includes practical training and university modules. +The practitioner training programme (PTP), overseen by the National School of Healthcare Science (NSHCS), is a three year course with clinical training and an undergraduate degree in healthcare science. +IPEM, ART, and the Institute of Healthcare Engineering and Estate Management (IHEEM) jointly operate the Register of Clinical Technologists. The register is accredited by the Professional Standards Authority. +IPEM and other professional bodies have campaigned for technologists to be included on a statutory register, for example with the Health and Care Professions Council. + + +=== North America === + + +==== United States ==== +In the United States a wide number of training schemes are available, ranging from one-year post-baccalaureate certificate programmes to four-year bachelor's degree programmes. +Several methods of registration and certification exist. + + +== See also == +Medical physicist +Medical technologist +Cardiovascular technologist + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_scientist-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_scientist-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..be0324d06 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_scientist-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Computational scientist" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_scientist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:28.392968+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A computational scientist is a person skilled in scientific computing. This person is usually a scientist, a statistician, an applied mathematician, or an engineer who applies high-performance computing and sometimes cloud computing in different ways to advance the state-of-the-art in their respective applied discipline; physics, chemistry, social sciences and so forth. Thus scientific computing has increasingly influenced many areas such as economics, biology, law, and medicine to name a few. Because a computational scientist's work is generally applied to science and other disciplines, they are not necessarily trained in computer science specifically, though concepts of computer science are often used. Computational scientists are typically researchers at academic universities, national labs, or tech companies. +One of the tasks of a computational scientist is to analyze large amounts of data, often from astrophysics or related fields, as these can often generate huge amounts of data. Computational scientists often have to clean up and calibrate the data to a usable form for an effective analysis. Computational scientists are also tasked with creating artificial data through computer models and simulations. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_marketer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_marketer-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..569faa518 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_marketer-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Demographic marketer" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_marketer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:29.489603+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Demographic marketers use demographics in marketing research, and the assessment of the changing trends of consumer behavior. Demographics can be called a science, and demographic marketers can be called scientists. A demographic is used to describe individuals who are from a particular area. It can also be used to describe individuals who would rely on purchasing a particular product or service. Using demographics, a marketing manager can try to grasp what certain people think and what they are willing to buy. +By understanding how various characteristics of the population reflect their tastes, demographic marketers get an idea of the probability of the sales returns of a launched product in a given area. For any type of business, knowing who the customers are most likely to be through demographic analysis will make it easier to market effectively. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Demographics Reports \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5fe626146 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Engineer" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:33.022400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An engineer is a practitioner of engineering. The word engineer (Latin ingeniator, Ir is the term and or title of an engineer in countries like Belgium, The Netherlands, and Indonesia) is derived from the Latin words ingeniare ("to contrive, devise") and ingenium ("cleverness"). The foundational qualifications of a licensed professional engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice (culminating in a project report or thesis) and passage of engineering board examinations. +The work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. + +== Definition == +In 1961, the Conference of Engineering Societies of Western Europe and the United States of America defined "professional engineer" as follows: + +A professional engineer is competent by virtue of his/her fundamental education and training to apply the scientific method and outlook to the analysis and solution of engineering problems. He/she is able to assume personal responsibility for the development and application of engineering science and knowledge, notably in research, design, construction, manufacturing, superintending, managing, and in the education of the engineer. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a routine mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgment and the ability to supervise the technical and administrative work of others. His/her education will have been such as to make him/her capable of closely and continuously following progress in his/her branch of engineering science by consulting newly published works on a worldwide basis, assimilating such information, and applying it independently. He/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. His/her education and training will have been such that he/she will have acquired a broad and general appreciation of the engineering sciences as well as thorough insight into the special features of his/her own branch. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice and assume responsibility for the direction of important tasks in his/her branch. + +== Roles and expertise == + +=== Design === + +Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, including 14% actively searching for information. +Engineers weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements and needs. Their task is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. The work of an engineer requires problem solving skills. + +=== Analysis === + +Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure, and test output to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Engineering analysis proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of operation or failure, analyzing or estimating each component of the operation or failure mechanism in isolation, and recombining the components. They may analyze risk. +Many engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs, to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates, to generate specifications for parts, to monitor the quality of products, and to control the efficiency of processes. + +=== Specialization and management === + +Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines. Numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural engineering, along with transportation engineering, geotechnical engineering, and materials engineering, including ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer engineering. Mechanical engineering cuts across most disciplines since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials. +Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time; that is, the work tasks they perform and how their time is distributed among these. Research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers' work: technical work (i.e., the application of science to product development), social work (i.e., interactive communication between people), computer-based work and information behaviors. Among other more detailed findings, a 2012 work sampling study found that engineers spend 62.92% of their time engaged in technical work, 40.37% in social work, and 49.66% in computer-based work. Furthermore, there was considerable overlap between these different types of work, with engineers spending 24.96% of their time engaged in technical and social work, 37.97% in technical and non-social, 15.42% in non-technical and social, and 21.66% in non-technical and non-social. +Engineering is also an information-intensive field, with research finding that engineers spend 55.8% of their time engaged in various different information behaviors, including 14.2% actively seeking information from other people (7.8%) and information repositories such as documents and databases (6.4%). +The time engineers spend engaged in such activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. In addition to engineers' core technical competence, research has also demonstrated the critical nature of their personal attributes, project management skills, and cognitive abilities to success in the role. + +== Types of engineers == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f095dbe0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Engineer" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:33.022400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies and products. Typically, engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. For example, mechanical engineering curricula typically include introductory courses in electrical engineering, computer science, materials science, metallurgy, mathematics, and software engineering. +An engineer may either be hired for a firm that requires engineers on a continuous basis, or may belong to an engineering firm that provides engineering consulting services to other firms. +When developing a product, engineers typically work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers. A mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators. An electrical engineer would design the power systems, sensors, electronics, embedded software in electronics, and control circuitry. Finally, a software engineer would develop the software that makes the robot behave properly. Engineers that aspire to management engage in further study in business administration, project management and organizational or business psychology. Often engineers move up the management hierarchy from managing projects, functional departments, and divisions, and some eventually become CEOs of multi-national corporations. + +== Ethics == + +Engineers have obligations to the public, their clients, employers, and the profession. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold. Depending on their specializations, engineers may also be governed by specific statute, whistleblowing, product liability laws, and often the principles of business ethics. +Some graduates of engineering programs in North America may be recognized by the iron ring or Engineer's Ring, a ring made of iron or stainless steel that is worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada with The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer, where the ring serves as a symbol and reminder of the engineer's obligations to the engineering profession. In 1972, the practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States including members of the Order of the Engineer. + +== Education == + +Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along with courses in both mathematics and the physical and life sciences. Many programs also include courses in general engineering and applied accounting. A design course, often accompanied by a computer or laboratory class or both, is part of the curriculum of most programs. Often, general courses not directly related to engineering, such as those in the social sciences or humanities, also are required. +Accreditation is the process by which engineering programs are evaluated by an external body to determine if applicable standards are met. The Washington Accord serves as an international accreditation agreement for academic engineering degrees, recognizing the substantial equivalency in the standards set by many major national engineering bodies. In the United States, post-secondary degree programs in engineering are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology. + +== Regulation == + +In many countries, engineering tasks such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, industrial equipment, machine design and chemical plants, must be approved by a licensed professional engineer. Most commonly titled professional engineer is a license to practice and is indicated with the use of post-nominal letters; PE or P.Eng. These are common in North America, as is European engineer (EUR ING) in Europe. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c53d5ab85 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Engineer" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:33.022400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the United States, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensure is generally attainable through combination of education, pre-examination (Fundamentals of Engineering exam), examination (professional engineering exam), and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and licenses professional engineers. Currently, most states do not license by specific engineering discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional judgment regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the professional societies. Despite this, at least one of the examinations required by most states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise. In the United States, an "industrial exemption" allows businesses to employ employees and call them an "engineer", as long as such individuals are under the direct supervision and control of the business entity and function internally related to manufacturing (manufactured parts) related to the business entity, or work internally within an exempt organization. Such person does not have the final authority to approve, or the ultimate responsibility for, engineering designs, plans, or specifications that are to be incorporated into fixed works, systems, or facilities on the property of others or made available to the public. These individuals are prohibited from offering engineering services directly to the public or other businesses, or engage in practice of engineering unless the business entity is registered with the state's board of engineering, and the practice is carried on or supervised directly only by engineers licensed to engage in the practice of engineering. In some instances, some positions, such as a "sanitation engineer", does not have any basis in engineering sciences. Although some states require a BS degree in engineering accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) with no exceptions, about two thirds of the states accept BS degrees in engineering technology accredited by the Engineering Technology Accreditation Commission (ETAC) of ABET to become licensed as professional engineers. Each state has different requirements on years of experience to take the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and Professional Engineering (PE) exams. A few states require a graduate MS in engineering to sit for the exams as further learning. After seven years of working after graduation, two years of responsibility for significant engineering work, continuous professional development, some highly qualified PEs are able to become International Professional Engineers Int(PE). These engineers must meet the highest level of professional competencies and this is a peer-reviewed process. Once the IntPE title is awarded, the engineer can gain easier admission to national registers of a number of members jurisdictions for international practice. +In Canada, engineering is a self-regulated profession. The profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with four or more years of post graduate experience in an engineering-related field and passing exams in ethics and law will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists (APEGBC) in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of P.Eng allowing one to practice engineering. +In Continental Europe, Latin America, Turkey, and elsewhere the title is limited by law to people with an engineering degree and the use of the title by others is illegal. In Italy, the title is limited to people who hold an engineering degree, have passed a professional qualification examination (Esame di Stato) and are enrolled in the register of the local branch of National Associations of Engineers (a public body). In Portugal, professional engineer titles and accredited engineering degrees are regulated and certified by the Ordem dos Engenheiros. In the Czech Republic, the title "engineer" (Ing.) is given to people with a (master's) degree in chemistry, technology or economics for historical and traditional reasons. In Greece, the academic title of "Diploma Engineer" is awarded after completion of the five-year engineering study course and the title of "Certified Engineer" is awarded after completion of the four-year course of engineering studies at a Technological Educational Institute (TEI). + +== Definition by country == + +The definition of the term "engineer" varies across countries and continents. + +=== Asia and Africa === +In the Indian subcontinent, Russia, Middle East, Africa, and China, engineering is one of the most sought-after undergraduate courses, for which entrance examinations are highly competitive. +In Egypt, the educational system makes engineering the second-most respected profession in the country (after medicine); engineering colleges at Egyptian universities require extremely high marks on the General Certificate of Secondary Education (Arabic: الثانوية العامة al-Thānawiyyah al-`Āmmah) – in the order of 97 or 98 per cent – and are thus considered (along with the colleges of medicine, natural science, and pharmacy) to be among the "pinnacle colleges" (كليات القمة kullīyāt al-qimmah). +In the Philippines and Filipino communities overseas, engineers who are either Filipino or not, especially those who also profess other jobs at the same time, are addressed and introduced as Engineer, rather than Sir/Madam in speech or Mr./Mrs./Ms. (G./Gng./Bb. in Filipino) before surnames. That word is used either in itself or before the given name or surname. + +=== Europe === + +As of 2022, thirty two countries in Europe (including nearly all 27 countries of the EU) now recognise the title of "European Engineer" which permits the use of the pre-nominal title of "EUR ING" (always fully capitalised). Each country sets its own precise qualification requirement for the use of the title (though they are all broadly equivalent). Holding the requisite qualification does not afford automatic entitlement. The title has to be applied for (and the appropriate fee paid). The holder is entitled to use the title in their passport. EUR INGs are allowed to describe themselves as professionally qualified engineers and practise as such in any of the 32 participating countries including those where the title of engineer is regulated by law. + +==== France ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e61087411 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Engineer" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:33.022400+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In France, the term ingénieur (engineer) is not a protected title and can be used by anyone who practices this profession. +However, the title ingénieur diplomé (graduate engineer) is an official academic title that is protected by the government and is associated with the Diplôme d'Ingénieur, which is a renowned academic degree in France. Anyone misusing this title in France can be fined a large sum and jailed, as it is usually reserved for graduates of French engineering grandes écoles. Engineering schools which were created during the French revolution have a special reputation among the French people, as they helped to make the transition from a mostly agricultural country of late 18th century to the industrially developed France of the 19th century. A great part of 19th-century France's economic wealth and industrial prowess was created by engineers that have graduated from École Centrale Paris, École des Mines de Paris, École polytechnique or Télécom Paris. This was also the case after WWII when France had to be rebuilt. Before the "réforme René Haby" in the 1970s, it was very difficult to be admitted to such schools, and the French ingénieurs were commonly perceived as the nation's élite. However, after the Haby reform and a series of further reforms (Modernization plans of French universities), several engineering schools were created which can be accessed with relatively lower competition. +Engineering positions in France are now shared between the ingénieurs diplomés graduating from engineering grandes écoles and the holders of a master's degree in science from public universities. + +==== Italy ==== + +In Italy, only people who hold a formal engineering qualification of at least a bachelor's degree are permitted to describe themselves as an engineer. So much so that people holding such qualifications are entitled to use the pre-nominal title of "Ingegnere" (or "Ingegnera" if female - in both cases often abbreviated to "Ing.") in lieu of "Signore", "Signorina" or "Signora" (Mr, Miss and Mrs respectively) in the same manner as someone holding a doctorate would use the pre-nominal title "Doctor". + +==== United Kingdom ==== +In the UK, the practice of engineering is not a regulated profession but control of the titles of chartered engineer (CEng) and incorporated engineer (IEng) is regulated. These titles are protected by law and are subject to strict requirements defined by the Engineering Council. The title CEng is in use in nations of the Commonwealth of Nations that follow or adapt British professional codes. +Many skilled and semi-skilled tradespeople in the UK, including, for example, engineering technicians who service domestic appliances or telephone systems, call themselves engineers, and the term in that context is commonly used by the public. Proposals such as a 2015 petition to the UK parliament to legally protect the title "engineer" so that only professional engineers could use it have been unsuccessful (as of 2023) + +=== North America === + +==== Canada ==== +In Canada, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensed professional engineers are referred to as P.Eng. Many Canadian engineers wear an Iron Ring. +In all Canadian provinces, the title "Professional Engineer" is protected by law and any non-licensed individual or company using the title is committing a legal offence and is subject to fines and restraining orders. Contrary to insistence from the Professional Engineers Ontario ("PEO") and Engineers Canada, use of the title "Engineer" itself has been found by Canadian law to be acceptable by those not holding P.Eng. titles. +The title of engineer is not exclusive to P.Eng titles. The title of Engineer is commonly held by "Software Engineer", the Canadian Military as various ranks and positions, railway locomotive engineers, Stationary engineer and Aircraft Maintenance Engineers (AME), all of which do not commonly hold a P.Eng. designation. + +==== United States ==== +In the United States, the practice of professional engineering is highly regulated and the title "professional engineer" is legally protected, meaning that it is unlawful to use it to offer engineering services to the public unless permission, certification or other official endorsement is specifically granted by that state through a professional engineering license. + +=== Spanish-speaking countries === + +Certain Spanish-speaking countries follow the Italian convention of engineers using the pre-nominal title, in this case "ingeniero" (or "ingeniera" if female). Like in Italy, it is usually abbreviated to "Ing." In Spain this practice is not followed. +The engineering profession enjoys high prestige in Spain, ranking close to medical doctors, scientists and professors, and above judges, journalists or entrepreneurs, according to a 2014 study. + +== See also == +Building engineer +Engineer's degree +Engineers Without Borders +European Engineer +Greatest Engineering Achievements +History of engineering +List of engineers +List of engineering branches +List of Engineering schools +List of fictional scientists and engineers + +== References == + +== External links == + + Media related to Engineers at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..46e94c0d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Engineering technician" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:34.272828+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An engineering technician is a professional trained in skills and techniques related to a specific branch of technology, with a practical understanding of the relevant engineering concepts. Engineering technicians often assist in projects relating to research and development, or focus on post-development activities like implementation or operation. +The Dublin Accord was signed in 2002 as an international agreement recognizing engineering technician qualifications. The Dublin Accord is analogous to the Washington Accord for engineers and the Sydney Accord for engineering technologists. + + +== Nature of work == +Engineering technicians help solve technical problems in many ways. They build or set up equipment, conduct experiments, collect data, and calculate results. They might also help to make a model of new equipment. Some technicians work in quality control, checking products, tests, and collecting data. In manufacturing, they help to design and develop products. They also find ways to produce things efficiently. There are multiple fields in this job such as; software design, repair, etc. +They may also be people who produce technical drawings or engineering drawings. +Engineering technicians are responsible for using the theories and principles of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve problems and come up with solutions in the research, design, development, manufacturing, sales, construction, inspection, and maintenance of systems and products. Engineering technicians help engineers and scientists in researching and developing, while some other engineering technicians may be responsible for inspections, quality control, and processes which may include conducting tests and data collection. + + +== Education == + +Engineering technician diplomas and two-year degrees are generally offered by technical schools and non-university higher education institutions like colleges of further education, vocational schools, and community colleges. Many four-year colleges and universities offer bachelor's degrees in engineering technology but engineering technologists are somewhat different from engineering technicians. +In Portugal and Spain, the titles Portuguese: engenharia técnica and Spanish: ingeniería técnica (literally 'technical engineering') are used. Professionals attain the title with the award of a short-cycle three- to four-year undergraduate degree (associate degree or bachelor's degree) in a technical engineering field from colleges or technical engineering institutes (in Portugal) and (in Spain), from universities. Spanish "technical engineers" have full competency in their respective professional fields of engineering, being the difference that the three or four-year Engineers have competence only in their specialty (Mechanical, Electrical, Chemical, etc.), and the "Engineering Superior School" Engineers have wider competencies. +In the United States, the engineering technology accreditation commission (ETAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) grants two-year associate degree programs to students that meet a set of specified standards. These programs include at least a college algebra and trigonometry course and, if needed, one or two basic science courses at any accredited school. The number of math and science prerequisite courses depends on the branch of engineering that the student chooses. +Engineering technicians apply scientific and engineering skills usually gained in postsecondary programs below the bachelor's degree level or through short-cycle bachelor's degrees. However, some university institutions award undergraduate degrees in the engineering field, which may confer the title of Engineering technician to the student, who is eligible to become a fully chartered engineer after further studies at the master's degree level. Engineering technicians are called professional engineers in the UK only. + + +== Certification == +Even though the term engineering technician is used throughout, it is mindful that these roles are often termed differently within specific jurisdictions. It also includes roles such as; certified or professional technician, which may also be called engineering associates. + + +=== Canada === +The individual professional title Certified Technician and post-nominal C.Tech. are protected by provincial legislation and can only be used by registrants certified by engineering and applied science member organizations. The nine provincial professional associations are unified federally through Technology Professionals Canada, which advocates for the profession within the provincial associations and respective regulatory bodies. + + +=== United Kingdom === +In the United Kingdom, the term Engineering Technician and post-nominal EngTech are protected in civil law and can only be used by technicians registered with the Engineering Council UK. + + +== See also == + +Practical engineer +Drafter +American Society for Engineering Education +National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying +UNESCO-UNEVOC + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +List of tasks and requirements for mechanical engineering technicians +Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) UK +The Engineering Technician Forum on LinkedIn \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md index 323e9da3e..0c43edcf8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:28:29.012236+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:30.685638+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" ---