From d6986a064126a996567e18bdeedf60756986327f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Tue, 5 May 2026 06:21:47 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 14093 new, 3913 updated, 18491 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 117964800 -> 117964800 bytes .../wiki/Aelita_(spacecraft)-0.md | 36 ++++ ..._of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes-0.md | 2 +- ...An_Astronaut's_Guide_to_Life_on_Earth-0.md | 52 ++++++ .../wiki/Battle_of_Tutung-0.md | 14 ++ .../wiki/Booster_separation_motor-0.md | 21 +++ .../wiki/Broad_Band_X-ray_Telescope-0.md | 29 +++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm-0.md | 26 +++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm-1.md | 53 ++++++ .../wiki/Canceled_Space_Shuttle_missions-0.md | 32 ++++ ...er_Center_for_Space_Science_Education-0.md | 57 ++++++ ...r_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-0.md | 2 +- ...r_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-1.md | 2 +- ...r_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-2.md | 2 +- ...r_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-3.md | 2 +- 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b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelita_(spacecraft)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Aelita (spacecraft)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aelita_(spacecraft)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:50.179773+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Aelita was a Soviet design of a version of a Soyuz spacecraft started in 1978. The Aelita was part of the Soyuz programme, but was planned to use an unmanned Soyuz spacecraft as an infrared astronomy telescope satellite. A Soyuz spacecraft was planned to be modified to become the Aelita project satellite. The Aelita project was not completed, and was cancelled in 1982. + + +== Design == +The Soviet plan for an infrared astronomy satellite began in 1965 as part of the Soviet Cloud Space Station plan. The Cloud Space Station developed into the MKBS/MOK space station complex plan. In February 1976, both production of Aelita and production of the MKBS/MOK-Mir space station were approved. Aelita was to have a gross mass of 7,350 kilograms (16,200 lb). Aelita's plans had a passive space docking port so that the spacecraft could be serviced by Soyuz manned spacecraft. Crew members could replace the telescope film cassettes every six months and repair or replace instruments if needed. Since the spacecraft/satellite would not need to go through reentry into the atmosphere of Earth, the Soyuz descent equipment and orbital modules would be removed, so the infrared astronomy telescope could be installed. The telescope was to be placed in a large pressurized cylinder in the Soyuz spacecraft. By 1978, the Aelita instrument payload was in the design and development phase. Soyuz spacecrafts were built by the Experimental Design Bureau. In May 1974, the N1 launch vehicle and the MKBS space station both were cancelled after the many failures of the N1 rocket. Aelita was a subset of the MKBS space station, not Mir, so Aelita was also cancelled. After the failure of the N1 rocket and thus the Soviet lunar program, the Soviet space program was completely reorganized. While the lunar project was cancelled in February 1976, a new space station was authorized, the DOS-7/DOS-8 space station, which evolved into Mir, launched in 1986. +While Aelita never flew, Aelita's sister spacecraft, the Gamma satellite, was complete and was launched in 1990. The Gamma project was a joint Soviet-French project. +Aelita is known for being one of the longest projects on the drawing board, started in 1965 and ending in 1982, 17 years in planning. + + +== See also == + +Soyuz 7K +Soyuz 9K +Soyuz 7K-P + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Information on Soyuz spacecraft +NASA - Russian Soyuz TMA Spacecraft Details Archived 24 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission - details \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_Concerning_Cooperation_in_the_Exploration_and_Use_of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_Concerning_Cooperation_in_the_Exploration_and_Use_of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes-0.md index 09d3e80b1..12220d2dc 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_Concerning_Cooperation_in_the_Exploration_and_Use_of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_Concerning_Cooperation_in_the_Exploration_and_Use_of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_Concerning_Cooperation_in_the_Exploration_and_Use_of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:35:19.478582+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:51.442809+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Astronaut's_Guide_to_Life_on_Earth-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Astronaut's_Guide_to_Life_on_Earth-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..47f2bf81e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Astronaut's_Guide_to_Life_on_Earth-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Astronaut's_Guide_to_Life_on_Earth" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:47.685022+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth: What Going to Space Taught Me About Ingenuity, Determination, and Being Prepared for Anything is a 2013 autobiography by Canadian retired astronaut and writer Chris Hadfield. It is Hadfield's debut book and was first published in October 2013 in the United States by Little, Brown and Company, and in the United Kingdom by Pan Macmillan. Hadfield has since written two more non-fiction books, and three novels. +An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth won the 2014 CBA Libris Non-Fiction Book of the Year Award, and was a New York Times bestseller in December 2013. + + +== Background == +Hadfield became a NASA astronaut in the early 1990s, and went on to become the first Canadian to perform a spacewalk in 2001 and command the International Space Station (ISS) in 2003. A good communicator, Hadfield garnered a following of nearly a million Twitter users when he posted images of Earth from the ISS and documented his experiences in space. In an interview with BBC News, Hadfield said, "Space was too good not to share it". +Hadfield told Space.com that he considered writing this book around 2003, and made some notes of what he could include, but it was not until 2011 that be began working on it. Hadfield said he never intended for it to be an autobiography, but rather a rundown of some of the talks he had presented over the previous twenty one years. When An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth was published on October 29, 2013, Hadfield began a three-month book tour in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and Ireland to promote the release of his memoir. + + +== Synopsis == +In An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth, Hadfield recounts how, when he was a nine-year-old boy living on a farm in rural Canada, he watched the Apollo 11 Moon landing and decided he wanted to be an astronaut. While in high school, Hadfield joined the Royal Canadian Air Cadets and obtained his pilot's license at the age of 16. After school he went to military college and trained to become a Canadian fighter pilot. He entered the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in 1987 and graduated to a test pilot in 1988. In 1992, Hadfield became an astronaut for the Canadian Space Agency, and joined NASA at their Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas in the same year. +Hadfield's first space flight was aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis in 1995, which docked with the Russian Space Station Mir. His first spacewalk was in 2001 when he flew to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour to install the ISS Canadarm2 robotic arm. In 2012 and 2013 Hadfield spent almost five months aboard the ISS, and became the space station's commander during the latter months. It was during this period that Hadfield used social media to share his experiences in space with hundreds of thousands of follows on Earth. +In the autobiography Hadfield describes the daily activities in space, including exercising, eating, washing and visiting the bathroom. Work-related activities include space station maintenance, performing scheduled experiments, making observations, and attending to unscheduled problems that crop up from time to time. Hadfield emphasises the importance of attention to detail, and states, "every astronaut is essentially a perpetual student", and later, "our passion isn't for thrills but for the grindstone, and pressing our nose to it." + + +== Critical reception == +Kirkus Reviews described An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth as a "page-turning memoir of life as a decorated astronaut". The reviewer stated that Hadfield's descriptions of his time in space are "lively", and called his "behind-the-scenes" glimpses of what means to be an astronaut, "satisfying" and "a useful corrective to the popular celebrity image." +A reviewer in The New York Times called the memoir "part fascinating ... part Boy Scout manual." They said while Hadfield's charm on Twitter surfaces from time to time in the book, he stresses how important it is to be "focused less on the magical than the mundane". The reviewer commented that considering how "naturally thrilling" the book's subject is, "Mr. Hadfield makes an overly earnest tour guide". +Writing in Nature, John Gilbey was "impress[ed]" by Hadfield's memoir and recommended it to secondary school students for "inspiration, motivation and a sense of belief in the future of humanity in space". Gilbey said this book deserves a place alongside those written by the Apollo 11 astronauts, and added, "I can think of no higher praise". +In a review in The Wall Street Journal, Adam Savage, co-producer and co-host of MythBusters, found the book "fascinating" and "more enjoyable than I expected". He said it is both "autobiographical and instructional", and differs from "most 'success' books" in the way it highlights the importance of dwelling on trivial detail and what can go wrong in space flight. Savage noted that the book is "a very human glimpse into a rarefied world", and concluded: + +"The vacuum of space is unforgiving and brutal. Life on earth isn't easy, either. Mr. Hadfield has genuinely and refreshingly increased our understanding of how to thrive in both places." + + +== TV adaptation == +Deadline announced in August 2014 that ABC, in association with Warner Bros. TV and 3 Arts Entertainment, has acquired the rights to a TV adaptation of Hadfield's book, An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth. Deadline stated that the script will be written by Justin Halpern and Patrick Schumacker, who will also executive produce with Erwin Stoff and Tom Lassally from 3 Arts. Hadfield will be the consulting producer. Deadline described the TV show as "a family comedy about an astronaut who is back from space and finds that re-entering domestic life might be the hardest mission he’s ever faced." +Hadfield said in an interview in October 2014 that Warner Brothers contacted him soon after his memoir was published in 2013 about a possible adaptation. Hadfield and his wife met with Warner Brother and several US TV networks, and ABC elected to undertake the production. Hadfield said he began working with the writers to create a pilot, but added that he did not know who will be in the cast. +As of April 2026 no further announcements have been made regarding the development or release of this TV series. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Hadfield, Chris (2013). An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-25301-7. + + +== External links == +An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth at chrishadfield.ca \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tutung-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tutung-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a02684bcf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tutung-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Battle of Tutung" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tutung" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:39.948320+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Battle of Tutung (Chinese: 頭屯河戰役) of 1934 occurred when Gen. Ma Zhongying's Chinese Muslim 36th Division was attacked by the Soviet Red Army on the banks of the frozen Tutung River. The battle took place over several days, and Soviet bombers used mustard gas. At one point, the Chinese Muslim troops dressed up in sheepskins for camouflage in the snow, and stormed Soviet machine-gun posts with curved swords at a short range and defeated a Soviet pincer attack. Casualties were getting heavy on both sides before Ma Zhongying ordered a retreat. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_separation_motor-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_separation_motor-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..acef98c20 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_separation_motor-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Booster separation motor" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booster_separation_motor" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:50.051678+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The booster separation motors or BSMs on the Space Shuttle were relatively small rocket motors that separated the reusable solid rocket boosters (SRB) from the orbiter after SRB burnout. Eight booster separation motors were attached to each of the shuttle's two reusable solid rocket boosters, four on the forward frustum and four on the aft skirt. +About two minutes into a Space Shuttle flight, all 16 of these motors were fired simultaneously for 1.2 seconds, providing the precise thrust required to safely separate the spent boosters from the Space Shuttle's external tank and orbiter, while traveling more than 1,300 metres per second (2,900 mph) and an altitude of approximately 44 kilometres (27 mi). +The booster separation motors were produced by ATK Launch Systems Group, part of Alliant Techsystems (ATK) Inc., at their facility in Brigham City, Utah. The Booster separation motors each weighed 167 pounds (76 kg) when loaded with propellant, and 90 pounds (41 kg) when empty. They were 31.1 inches (79 cm) long and 12.88 inches (32.7 cm) in diameter. +Northrop Grumman is now manufacturing the booster separation motors for the Space Launch System Boosters, part of the NASA Space Launch System (SLS) for the Artemis program. +For Ariane 5 and Ariane 6, a Norwegian-Finnish company Nammo manufactures similar but different booster separation motors. + + +== References == + + +== Sources == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_Band_X-ray_Telescope-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_Band_X-ray_Telescope-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..58113ee52 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_Band_X-ray_Telescope-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Broad Band X-ray Telescope" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_Band_X-ray_Telescope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:51.333582+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Broad Band X-ray Telescope (BBXRT) was flown on the Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-35) from December 2 through December 11, 1990 as part of the ASTRO-1 payload. The flight of BBXRT marked the first opportunity for performing X-ray observations over a broad energy range (0.3-12 keV) with a moderate energy resolution (typically 90 eV and 150 eV at 1 and 6 keV, respectively). +BBXRT was co-mounted with three ultraviolet telescopes HUT, WUPPE, and HIT for Astro-1 in 1990. +This was, "..the first focusing X-ray telescope operating over a broad energy range 0.3-12 keV with a moderate energy resolution (90 eV at 1 keV and 150eV at 6 keV)." according to NASA. + + +== Hardware == + + +== See also == +Spacelab +X-ray astronomy +List of X-ray space telescopes + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Broad Band X-ray Telescope (BBXRT. GSFC. NASA) on the internet \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4fa0a78ea --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Canadarm" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:52.556317+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Canadarm or Canadarm1 (officially Shuttle Remote Manipulator System or SRMS, also SSRMS) is a series of robotic arms that were used on the Space Shuttle orbiters to deploy, maneuver, and capture payloads. After the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, the Canadarm was always paired with the Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS), which was used to inspect the exterior of the shuttle for damage to the thermal protection system. + +== Development == + +In 1969, Canada was invited by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to participate in the Space Shuttle program. At the time what that participation would entail had not yet been decided but a manipulator system was identified as an important component. Canadian company DSMA ATCON had developed a robot to load fuel into CANDU nuclear reactors; this robot attracted NASA's attention. In 1975, NASA and the Canadian National Research Council (NRC) signed a memorandum of understanding that Canada would develop and construct the Canadarm. +NRC awarded the manipulator contract to Spar Aerospace (now MDA). Three systems were constructed within this design, development, test, and evaluation contract: an engineering model to assist in the design and testing of the Canadarm, a qualification model that was subjected to environmental testing to qualify the design for use in space, and a flight unit. + +=== End effector === +Anthony "Tony" Zubrzycki, a design engineer at DSMA ATCON, while seconded to SPAR, originated the concept for the Canadarm End Effector, inspired by an elastic band around his fingers. Zubrzycki formally presented this concept to NASA officials. Frank Mee, head of the SPAR mechanical development laboratory, built the end effector prototype based on Tony's concept and is credited by SPAR as the inventor of the Canadarm End Effector. The three-wire crossover design won over the claw-like mechanisms and others, such as the camera iris model, that were being considered. + +=== Controls and software === +The main control algorithms were developed by SPAR and by subcontractor Dynacon Inc. of Toronto. CAE Electronics Ltd. in Montreal provided the display and control panel and the hand controllers located in the Shuttle aft flight deck. Other electronic interfaces, servo amplifiers, and power conditioners located on the Canadarm were designed and built by SPAR at its Montreal factory. The graphite composite boom that provides the structural connection between the shoulder and the elbow joint and the similar boom that connects the elbow to the wrist were produced by General Dynamics in the United States. Dilworth, Secord, Meagher and Associates, Ltd. in Toronto was contracted to produce the engineering model end effector then SPAR evolved the design and produced the qualification and flight units. The Space Shuttle flight software that monitors and controls the Canadarm was developed in Houston, Texas, by the Federal Systems Division of IBM. Rockwell International's Space Transportation Systems Division designed, developed, tested, and built the systems used to attach the Canadarm to the payload bay of the orbiter. +An acceptance ceremony for NASA was held at Spar's RMS Division in Toronto on 11 February 1981. Here Larkin Kerwin, then the head of the NRC, gave the SRMS the informal name, Canadarm. The term was originally coined by Dr. Wally Cherwinski for use by Larkin Kerwin during his speech at the press conference. The NRC Canadarm Project Manager, Dr. Art Hunter, worked with colleagues, NASA and Spar, to add the Canadian flag and wordmark onto the arm to fly Canadian colours with those of the USA. +The first Canadarm was delivered to NASA in April 1981. Astronaut Judith Resnik developed the NASA software and onboard operating procedures for the system. In all, five arms – Nos. 201, 202, 301, 302, and 303 – were built and delivered to NASA. Arm 302 was lost in the Challenger accident. + +== Design and capabilities == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ca9835a24 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Canadarm" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:52.556317+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The original Canadarm was capable of deploying payloads weighing up to 65,000 pounds (29,000 kg) in space. In the mid-1990s, the arm control system was redesigned to increase the payload capability to 586,000 pounds (266,000 kg) in order to support space station assembly operations. While able to maneuver payloads with the mass of a loaded bus in space, the arm motors cannot lift the arm's own weight when on the ground. NASA, therefore, developed a model of the arm for use at its training facility within the Johnson Space Center located in Houston, Texas. The Canadarm can also retrieve, repair and deploy satellites, provide a mobile extension ladder for extravehicular activity crew members for work stations or foot restraints, and be used as an inspection aid to allow the flight crew members to view the orbiter's or payload's surfaces through a television camera on the Canadarm. +The basic Canadarm configuration consists of a manipulator arm, a Canadarm display, and a control panel, including rotational and translational hand controllers at the orbiter aft flight deck flight crew station, and a manipulator controller interface unit that interfaces with the orbiter computer. One crew member operates the Canadarm from the aft flight deck control station, and a second crew member usually assists with television camera operations. This allows the Canadarm operator to view Canadarm operations through the aft flight deck payload and overhead windows and through the closed-circuit television monitors at the aft flight deck station. +The Canadarm is outfitted with an explosive-based mechanism to allow the arm to be jettisoned. This safety system would have allowed the Orbiter's payload bay doors to be closed in the event that the arm failed in an extended position and was not able to be retracted. +The Canadarm is 15.2 metres (50 ft) long and 38 centimetres (15 in) diameter with six degrees of freedom. It weighs 410 kilograms (900 lb) by itself, and 450 kilograms (990 lb) as part of the total system. The Canadarm has six joints that correspond roughly to the joints of the human arm, with shoulder yaw and pitch joints, an elbow pitch joint, and wrist pitch, yaw, and roll joints. The end effector is the unit at the end of the wrist that grapples the payload's grapple fixture. The two lightweight boom segments are called the upper and lower arms. The upper boom connects the shoulder and elbow joints, and the lower boom connects the elbow and wrist joints. + +== Service history == + +A simulated Canadarm installed on the Space Shuttle Enterprise was seen when the prototype orbiter's payload bay doors were open to test hangar facilities early in the Space Shuttle program. The Canadarm was first tested in orbit in 1981, on Space Shuttle Columbia's STS-2 mission. Its first operational use was on STS-3 to deploy and manoeuvre the Plasma Diagnostics Package. Canadarm subsequently flew on more than 90 missions with all five orbiters. +Since the installation of the Canadarm2 on the International Space Station (ISS), the two arms have been used to hand over segments of the station for assembly from the orbiter's Canadarm to the Canadarm2; the use of both elements in tandem has earned the nickname of "Canadian Handshake" in the media. + +=== Retirement === +The Canadarm's 90th and final Shuttle mission was in July 2011 on STS-135, delivering the Raffaello MPLM to the ISS and back. It is on display at Johnson space center in Texas Discovery's Canadarm is displayed next to it in the National Air and Space Museum's Udvar-Hazy Center. Endeavour left its OBSS at the International Space Station as part of its final mission, while its Canadarm was originally going to be displayed in the headquarters of the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). However, Endeavour's Canadarm is now on permanent display at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum in Ottawa. The last of the Canadarms to fly in space, the SRMS flown aboard Atlantis on STS-135 in July 2011, was shipped to NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston for engineering study and possible reuse on a future mission. + +== Derivatives == + +=== Canadarm2 === + +Based on the Canadarm1, the larger Canadarm2 is used for berthing the trusses, berthing the commercial vehicles, and inspecting the whole International Space Station. + +=== Canadarm3 === + +The smaller Canadarm3 was planned to be used for berthing the modules, performing maintenance or repairs and inspecting the Lunar Gateway. In June 2024, the full contract for design and construction of the arm was awarded to MDA Space. On May 2, 2025, the project was canceled as a result of the second Trump administration's FY26 budget proposal, which resulted in the termination of the Lunar Gateway Program. + +== In popular media == +On November 13, 2012, Google Canada displayed a doodle on its home search page to celebrate the 31st anniversary of the Canadarm's first use in space. +Starting November 7, 2013, Canadarm2 was included on the back of the Canadian five dollar note. + +== See also == + +List of Canadian inventions and discoveries +Dextre – Robotic arm on ISS +European Robotic Arm – Robotic arm installed on the ISS Russian Segment +Kibo (ISS module) § Remote Manipulator System +Mobile Servicing System – Robotic system on board the International Space Station +Strela – Russian crane on the International Space Station + +== References == + +== External links == + +NASA:RMS: PAYLOAD DEPLOYMENT AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM Archived 31 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine +Canadian Space Agency : Canadarm +CBC Digital Archives - Canadarm - A Technology Star \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canceled_Space_Shuttle_missions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canceled_Space_Shuttle_missions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3b5b61adb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canceled_Space_Shuttle_missions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Canceled Space Shuttle missions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canceled_Space_Shuttle_missions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:53.896602+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +During NASA's Space Shuttle program, several missions were canceled. Many were canceled as a result of the Challenger and the Columbia disasters or due to delays in the development of the shuttle. Others were canceled because of changes in payload and mission requirements. + + +== Canceled due to the late development of the Space Shuttle == +In 1972, NASA's planners had projected 570 Space Shuttle missions between 1980 and 1991. Later, this estimate was lowered to 487 launches between 1980 and 1992. The details of the first 23 projected missions, listed in the third edition of Manned Spaceflight (Reginald Turnill, 1978) and the first edition of the STS Flight Assignment Baseline, an internal NASA document published in October 1977, are: + +Later in the development process, NASA suggested using the first crewed Space Shuttle mission, STS-1, as a sub-orbital test of the Return to Launch Site (RTLS) flight profile devised for an emergency abort. Columbia would have launched from Kennedy Space Center, then executed a 180-degree turn at a speed of 8,400 kilometres per hour (5,200 mph), or 6.7 times the speed of sound, in order to land at the Kennedy Space Center runway. The mission was canceled when astronauts refused to fly it, having deemed the plan to be too dangerous. STS-1 commander John W. Young recalled that "I said no. I said let's not practice Russian roulette, because you may have a loaded gun there. So we didn't." + + +== Canceled between the first flight of the Space Shuttle (1981) and the Challenger disaster (1986) == + + +== Canceled due to the Challenger disaster == + + +== Canceled between 1988 and the Columbia disaster (2003) == + + +== Canceled due to the Columbia disaster == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_Center_for_Space_Science_Education-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_Center_for_Space_Science_Education-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a207b662e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_Center_for_Space_Science_Education-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Challenger Center for Space Science Education" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenger_Center_for_Space_Science_Education" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:56.434141+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Challenger Center for Space Science Education is a United States 501(c)(3) non-profit organization headquartered in Washington, DC. It was founded in 1986 by the families of the astronauts who died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986. +The organization's mission is to inspire and educate students in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) through hands-on, immersive learning experiences that simulate space missions. +Challenger Learning Centers give students the chance to become astronauts and engineers and solve real-world problems as they participate in missions through the Solar System. Using space simulation and role-playing strategies, students bring their classroom studies to life. + + +== United States == + + +== History == +Challenger Center was established in the aftermath of the Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986, when the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded during its launch, killing all seven crew members. The families of the crew members, including Christa McAuliffe, who was a teacher and the first private citizen selected to fly in space, founded the organization as a living tribute to the crew and to continue their commitment to education. Their goal was to create a living memorial for the crew and to inspire future generations to pursue careers in STEM fields. +The first Challenger Learning Center opened in Houston, Texas, in 1988. Since then, the organization has grown to include over 30 Challenger Learning Centers across the United States, Canada, and several other countries. In addition to the centers, Challenger Center also offers educational programs for schools and teachers, as well as online resources for students. + + +== Missions and programs == +Challenger Center's programs are designed to engage students in immersive learning experiences that simulate space missions. These experiences incorporate STEM education concepts, teamwork, problem-solving, critical thinking, and communication skills. Programs are designed for students in grades K-12, as well as for college and adult learners. +Challenger Center's flagship program is the Challenger Learning Center Mission Simulation, a two-hour simulated space mission that places students in roles such as mission commander, navigator, medical officer, and engineer. Students work together to complete a space mission, solve problems, and overcome challenges. The mission simulations are supported by curriculum resources and professional development for educators. +Challenger Center also offers e-Mission simulations, which allow students to participate in space missions virtually, using video conferencing and online resources. In addition, the organization provides teacher professional development programs, student summer camps, and community outreach initiatives. + + +== Impact == +Since its founding, Challenger Center has impacted more than 6 million students and 250,000 educators worldwide. The organization's immersive learning experiences have been shown to increase students' interest in STEM subjects and improve their critical thinking and problem-solving skills. +Challenger Center has also received numerous awards and accolades for its work in STEM education. In 2017, the organization received the National Science Board's Public Service Award in recognition of its contributions to STEM education and has been recognized by the U.S. Department of Education as a model for science education. + + +== International == +Challenger Learning Center at the Ontario Science Center (Toronto, Canada) +Challenger Learning Center at SongAm Space Center (Gyeonggi-do, South Korea) +Challenger Learning Center at the National Space Centre (Leicester, United Kingdom) + + +== Board of directors == +Notable members of the Board of Directors include: + +Charles Resnik MD - Brother of Judith Resnik + + +== Governance and funding == +Challenger Center is governed by a board of directors, which includes family members of the Challenger crew and business leaders. The organization is funded through a combination of private donations, corporate partnerships, and grants from government agencies. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +Teacher resources +Challenger Center for Space Science Education's channel on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-0.md index 56c128ea4..63d7287bc 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:50:58.409108+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:25.784341+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-1.md index 974fb5650..435bcca4e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:50:58.409108+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:25.784341+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-2.md index a26a2b0b5..a1f4e789f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:50:58.409108+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:25.784341+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-3.md index 42913ede5..2e9403c06 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_C._Kraft_Jr._Mission_Control_Center" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:50:58.409108+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:25.784341+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conroy_Virtus-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conroy_Virtus-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..30622ed4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conroy_Virtus-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Conroy Virtus" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conroy_Virtus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:57.624613+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Conroy Virtus was a proposed American large transport aircraft intended to carry the Space Shuttle. Designed, beginning in 1974, by John M. Conroy of the Turbo-Three Corporation, it was to incorporate a pair of Boeing B-52 Stratofortress fuselages to form a new craft using existing parts for cost-savings. While the project was seriously considered, it proved impractically large and NASA chose to develop the Boeing 747–based Shuttle Carrier from surplus commercial aircraft instead. + + +== History == +The Space Shuttle was originally designed to use on-board turbofan engines for propulsion within the atmosphere on re-entry and for ferry flights between landing sites, such as Edwards Air Force Base, the White Sands Missile Range or contingency landing sites such as Easter Island, to the launch site at Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral. When the air-breathing engines were deleted from the Shuttle design due to cost and weight concerns, a requirement arose for a transport aircraft capable of carrying the Shuttle from landing sites back to the Kennedy Space Center. One early design for a shuttle carrier aircraft was proposed by John M. Conroy, developer of the Pregnant Guppy and Super Guppy oversized cargo aircraft, in cooperation with the NASA Langley Research Center; named Virtus, a contract was issued for design and development work in 1974. +Expected to cost US$12.5 million each (equivalent to $61.7 million in 2024), Virtus was a twin-fuselage design powered by four large jet engines; it was intended for these to be Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans. Conroy proposed extensive use of 'off the shelf' military parts in the design to reduce costs; this included the use of fuselages from Boeing B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers to form the aircraft's main fuselage pods, added to a new wing and tail section. The Space Shuttle Orbiter would be carried under the center section of the Virtus aircraft's wing, between the fuselages; other large cargoes, including the Space Shuttle external tank, the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, or dedicated cargo pods, could be alternatively carried. +The Virtus design was tested in the NASA Langley wind tunnel; while the results of the wind tunnel tests were considered promising, the drawbacks of such a large design, including the cost of developing an entirely new aircraft, flight testing the design and the sheer size of the aircraft requiring the development and/or expansion of infrastructure to support it, militated against further development of Virtus. The Lockheed Corporation, which had proposed a twin-fuselage version of its C-5 Galaxy airlifter to carry the Shuttle, also saw its proposal rejected for the same reasons. A more modest conversion of existing C-5s was proposed and nearly taken up by NASA but it was determined that having aircraft continually available was preferable to being restricted by the United States Air Force on the use of C-5s and a proposal by Boeing for a conversion of the 747 airliner was selected, becoming the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. A proposed commercial version of the Virtus design, named Colossus, also failed to gain any further interest, and the Virtus design was abandoned. + + +== Specifications == +Data from Lowther 2012General characteristics +Wingspan: 450 ft (140 m) +Wing area: 22,166 sq ft (2,059.3 m2) +Aspect ratio: 9 +Max takeoff weight: 850,000 lb (385,554 kg) +Powerplant: 4 × Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3A high-bypass turbofans, 45,800 lbf (204 kN) thrust each +Performance + +Cruise speed: 300 mph (480 km/h, 260 kn) +Range: 3,000 mi (4,800 km, 2,600 nmi) +Service ceiling: 35,000 ft (11,000 m) + + +== See also == + +Antonov An-225 Mriya +Scaled Composites Stratolaunch +C-5 Shuttle Carrier +Related development + +Boeing B-52 Stratofortress +Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era + +Myasishchev VM-T +Shuttle Carrier Aircraft + + +== References == + + +=== Bibliography === + + +== External links == +Conroy, John M. (February 28, 1974). "Feasibility Study to Consider an Aircraft for the Launch and Air Transportation of the Space Shuttle Orbiter" (PDF). Turbo-Three Corporation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawler-transporter-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawler-transporter-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f8606c278 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawler-transporter-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Crawler-transporter" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawler-transporter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:58.842585+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The crawler-transporters, formally known as the Missile Crawler Transporter Facilities, are a pair of tracked vehicles used to transport launch vehicles from NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) along the Crawlerway to Launch Complex 39. They were originally used to transport the Saturn IB and Saturn V rockets during the Apollo, Skylab and Apollo–Soyuz programs. They were then used to transport Space Shuttles from 1981 to 2011. The crawler-transporters carry vehicles on the mobile launcher platforms (MLPs) used by NASA, and after each launch return to the pad to take the platform back to the VAB. +The two crawler-transporters were designed and built by Marion Power Shovel Company using some components designed and built by Rockwell International at a cost of US$14 million (equivalent to $143 million in 2025) each. Upon its construction, the crawler-transporter became the largest self-powered land vehicle in the world. While other vehicles such as bucket-wheel excavators like Bagger 288, dragline excavators like Big Muskie and power shovels like The Captain are significantly larger, they are powered by external sources. +The two crawler-transporters were added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 21, 2000. + + +== Specifications == + +The crawler-transporter has a mass of 2,721 tonnes (6 million pounds; 2,999 short tons) and has eight tracks, two on each corner. Each track has 57 shoes, and each shoe weighs 998 kg (2,200 lb). The vehicle measures 40 by 35 meters (131 by 114 ft). The height from ground level to the platform is adjustable from 6.1 to 7.9 m (20 to 26 ft), and each side can be raised and lowered independently of the other. The crawler uses a laser guidance system and a leveling system to keep the Mobile Launcher Platform level within 10 minutes of arc (0.16 degrees; about 30 cm (1 ft) at the top of the Saturn V), while moving up the 5 percent grade to the launch site. A separate laser docking system provides pinpoint accuracy when the crawler-transporter and Mobile Launch Platform are positioned in the VAB or at the launch pad. A team of nearly 30 engineers, technicians and drivers operate the vehicle, centered on an internal control room, and the crawler is driven from two control cabs located at either end. Before the launch the crawler-transporter is removed. +The crawlers were overhauled in 2003 with upgrades to the Motor Control Center, which houses the switchgear and electrical controls of all of major systems on board; a new engine and pump ventilation system; new diesel engine radiators; and replacement of the two driver cabs on each vehicle (one on each end). After the 2003 refit, each crawler had 16 traction motors, powered by four 1,000 kW (1,341 hp) generators, in turn driven by two 2,050 kW (2,750 hp) V16 ALCO 251C diesel engines. Two 750 kW (1,006 hp) generators, driven by two 794 kW (1,065 hp) engines, were used for jacking, steering, lighting, and ventilating. Two 150 kW (201 hp) generators were also available to power the Mobile Launcher Platform. The crawler's tanks held 19,000 liters (5,000 U.S. gal) of diesel fuel, and it burned 296 liters per kilometer (125.7 U.S. gal/mi). +Due to their age and the need to support the heavier Space Launch System and its launch tower, in 2012–2014 the crawlers were undergoing an upgrade involving "new engines, new exhausts, new brakes, new hydraulics, new computers"; CT-2 was further upgraded in 2014–2016 to increase its lifting capacity from 5,400 to 8,200 tonnes (12 to 18 million pounds). +The crawlers traveled along the 5.5 and 6.8 km (3.4 and 4.2 mi) Crawlerways, to LC-39A and LC-39B, respectively, at a maximum speed of 1.6 kilometers per hour (1 mph) loaded, or 3.2 km/h (2 mph) unloaded. The average trip time from the VAB along the Crawlerway to Launch Complex 39 is about five hours. Each Crawlerway is 2 m (7 ft) deep and covered with Alabama and Tennessee river rock for its low friction properties to reduce the possibility of sparks. In 2000, NASA unearthed and restored an Apollo-era segment of the Crawlerway to provide access to High Bay 2 in the VAB in order to provide protection from a hurricane for up to three Shuttles at the same time. +Kennedy Space Center has been using the same two crawlers since their initial delivery in 1965. They are now nicknamed "Hans and Franz", after the parodic Austrian bodybuilder characters on Saturday Night Live, played by Dana Carvey and Kevin Nealon. In their lifetime, they have traveled more than 5,500 km (3,400 mi), about the same driving distance as from Miami to Seattle. + + +== Future use == + + +=== Crawler-Transporter 2 === + +NASA currently uses crawler-transporter 2 to transport the Space Launch System with the Orion spacecraft atop it from the Vehicle Assembly Building to Launch Pad 39B for the Artemis missions. Early in 2016, NASA finished upgrading crawler-transporter 2 (CT-2) to a "Super Crawler" for use in the Artemis program. NASA performed a rollout of the Artemis 1 Space Launch System and Orion on March 17, 2022, for the first Wet Dress Rehearsal, and the rollout for launch, which launched in November 2022. The rollout for the WDR, marked the first time one of the crawler transporters rolled a launch vehicle to the launch pad since STS-135. + + +=== Crawler-Transporter 1 === +NASA had originally planned for crawler-transporter 1 to be used by commercial launch vehicles. In April 2016, then Orbital ATK, now Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems, and NASA entered negotiations for the lease of CT-1 and one of the four Vehicle Assembly Building bays. Northrop Grumman planned to use CT-1 to transport their Omega from the Vehicle Assembly Building to Launch Pad 39B. Omega was cancelled in September 2020 after Northrop Grumman lost the National Security Space Launch contract to United Launch Alliance and SpaceX. + + +== Appearances in popular culture == +The crawler-transporters have featured in television and movies. In a 2007 season three episode of Dirty Jobs, host Mike Rowe helps workers maintain a crawler-transporter and takes the vehicle for a short drive. The crawler was also seen in the 1995 film Apollo 13, the 2011 film Transformers: Dark of the Moon and the 2019 film Apollo 11. Similar vehicles also appeared in the 2013 film Pacific Rim. +In the 2009 Fallout 3 video game add-on pack "Broken Steel", the US government survivors, The Enclave, have a mobile base built on and into a heavily modified crawler. In Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri, various units are called "crawlers" and feature chassis based on the crawler-transporters. In Asphalt 8: Airborne, three crawler-transporters drive over the space center French Guiana track, despite the fact the actual space center of French Guiana doesn't use similar vehicles + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == +List of largest machines + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +28.58808°N 80.65521°W / 28.58808; -80.65521 - Crawler-transporter parking area at Kennedy Space Center \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawlerway-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawlerway-0.md index 7d375d388..06c8b4abe 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawlerway-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawlerway-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawlerway" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:33:23.913657+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:00.107731+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-0.md index d56b7d842..045c4cd82 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:21:40.993895+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:01.403249+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-1.md index 9d088121d..8a20679bd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:21:40.993895+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:01.403249+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-2.md index fbabbb5ce..6ae470df3 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:21:40.993895+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:01.403249+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-3.md index 6e800868c..8ba3db438 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Space_Shuttle_program" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:21:40.993895+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:01.403249+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Defense_Manned_Space_Flight_Support_Office-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Defense_Manned_Space_Flight_Support_Office-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b71cf346c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Defense_Manned_Space_Flight_Support_Office-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Department of Defense Manned Space Flight Support Office" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Defense_Manned_Space_Flight_Support_Office" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:02.590807+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Department of Defense Manned Space Flight Support Office (DDMS) coordinated all United States Department of Defense (DoD) contingency support to NASA's human spaceflight programs. The office was deactivated in 2007 and replaced by a staff element that is part of the United States Space Force's 45th Space Wing staff at Patrick Space Force Base in Florida. +The commander of U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) was the DoD Manager for Manned Space Flight Support Operations. +The 45th Space Wing commander at Patrick Space Force Base, Florida, was the Deputy DoD Manager. The DDMS offices and staff were located at Patrick SFB and were responsible for the day-to-day operations and support to NASA's human spaceflights. Additionally, DDMS maintained a Landing Support Office at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. + + +== History == +Chartered in 1958 by the Secretary of Defense, DDMS was originally formed with the express purpose of providing much-needed DoD support to the U.S. initial crewed space flight effort ... putting people into space and returning them safely to Earth. Since then, the support office continued to be the focal point for all DoD contingency support to Project Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, Apollo/Soyuz Test Project and Space Shuttle. This support included astronaut and space capsule recovery, worldwide communications, tracking and data relay, public affairs, and medical support. + + +== Responsibilities == +In the Space Shuttle program, DDMS had the responsibility for astronaut rescue and recovery, contingency landing site support, payload security, medical support, coordination of airlift/sealift for contingency operations, as well as other support services required in the event of a Shuttle emergency. To carry out these responsibilities, DDMS would receive and validate NASA requests for DoD support. The support office would then select assets best able to provide the required support, task selected units through appropriate command channels, and provide tactical control of those DoD forces supporting a specific Space Shuttle mission. + + +=== Assets === +In the Kennedy Space Center area, U.S. Air Force air-refuelable HH-60 Pave Hawk helicopters, HC-130 tanker aircraft, pararescue and medical personnel, and U.S. Navy and Coast Guard ships are deployed to support launch contingencies and astronaut recovery. Additionally, the Navy provided a KC-130 tanker for helicopter air refueling, E-2C aircraft for enhanced air traffic control and P-3 Orion aircraft for search and rescue operations in the mid-Atlantic region. To support the potential for a Transoceanic Abort Landing (TAL), NASA selected four TAL sites in Spain and Africa. These sites were Morón and Zaragoza Air Bases in Spain; Ben Guerir Air Base, Morocco; and Yundum International Airport, Banjul, The Gambia. Three of these four TAL sites were activated for each shuttle launch. DDMS supported these TAL sites with C-12 or C-21 aircraft for on-scene weather reconnaissance and in-flight checks of Space Shuttle unique landing aids; C-130 aircraft with pararescue and medical support personnel; and DoD fire/crash/rescue equipment and personnel. + + +=== Operations === +DDMS would operate the DoD Support Operations Center at Patrick SFB starting the day prior to a Space Shuttle launch and continuing through landing. Crewed by DDMS staff officers, the Support Operations Center would maintain 24-hour contact with those DoD forces and facilities around the world supporting each mission. The center was the DoD focal point for managing a contingency response in the event of a Shuttle emergency landing or astronaut bail out. The center, for example, played a key role in providing support to NASA in response to the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003. + + +=== Responsibilities in orbit === +While a Space Shuttle orbiter was on orbit, designated DoD sites worldwide were ready to support a Shuttle contingency landing. The center would receive status reports from these locations during mission support periods. On landing day, the Support Operations Center would coordinate the DoD fire/crash/rescue support and medevac helicopters at Kennedy Space Center, Edwards Air Force Base, and Holloman Air Force Base. + + +=== Post-landing support === +After landing at locations other than Kennedy Space Center, the Space Shuttle orbiter was ferried back to Florida on a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. DDMS coordinates a U.S. Air Force C-141 "Pathfinder" aircraft to transport NASA personnel and equipment supporting ferry flight operations. The office personnel flew with the NASA team on these ferry flights, providing specialized support en route at DoD installation stops. Due to the unique weather sensitivities of ferry flights, a dedicated weather support team was also assembled to monitor en route weather. This included a DoD meteorologist to monitor weather conditions from the Cape Canaveral Forecast Facility in Florida, as well as a DoD meteorologist who traveled with the ferry flight team, providing direct en route weather support. + + +=== Commanders === +Lt Col David Mahan +Lt Col Nick Pettit +Lt Col Richard Bolton +Lt Col Michael Thompson +Lt Col Jason Havel +Lt Col Michael McClure + + +== References == +US Strategic Command Fact Sheet (current as of March 2004) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EASE/ACCESS-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EASE/ACCESS-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..557fa1fa7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EASE/ACCESS-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "EASE/ACCESS" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EASE/ACCESS" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:05.093730+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Experimental Assembly of Structures in EVA and the Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structures, or EASE/ACCESS, were a pair of space shuttle flight experiments that were performed on STS-61-B, on November 29 and December 1, 1985. The purpose of the experiments was to study how quickly astronauts would become proficient at assembling space structures during extravehicular activity, and how quickly they would become fatigued, and to explore various construction and maintenance techniques. In particular, researchers studied the applied moments of inertia arising in the manual assembly of a large space structure. +EASE was a project of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center and the Space Systems Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (later at the University of Maryland), while ACCESS was developed by NASA's Langley Research Center. + + +== Experiment and EVAs == +Astronauts Jerry L. Ross and Sherwood C. Spring repeatedly assembled a 3.7-meter (12 ft) tetrahedral truss (EASE) and a triangular column truss (ACCESS) during two extra-vehicular activities (EVAs). The first EVA was devoted to studying human performance in assembly techniques, while the second was dedicated to supplementary experiments, including alternative construction techniques and maintenance scenarios. +The EASE structure consisted of six identical aluminum beams, each 12 feet (3.7 m) long and with a mass of 64 pounds (29 kg), connected by four nodal joints. ACCESS consisted of 93 tubular aluminum struts, each 1-inch (25 mm) in diameter—thirty-three 4.5 feet (1.4 m) struts, and sixty 6 feet (1.8 m) struts—connected by thirty-three nodal joints. While assembling the EASE structure, the astronauts moved about the structure under their own power. For the assembly of the ACCESS structure, the astronauts were secured to a mobile platform on the Remote Manipulator System, which was guided by astronaut Mary L. Cleave. +A stereoscopic camera system recorded the movements of the structural beams during assembly. Taking into account the effects of inertia, drag, and virtual mass, researchers used this data to reconstruct the applied moments of inertia. The structure was also assembled in neutral buoyancy simulation, and the two environments were compared. The EVAs were also recorded by an IMAX camera mounted in the shuttle cargo bay. + + +== Results == + +Applied moments of inertia during EVA were found to be on the order of 2.0 newton-meters (1.5 lbf⋅ft). In neutral buoyancy simulation, the applied moments of inertia were around five times greater than those during EVA. Assembly time during EVA was around 20% less than in neutral buoyancy simulation. The learning curve was on the order of 78%, and was unaffected by the strength, coordination, or size of the astronaut, or the fit of the space suit. In both environments, moments of inertia were applied as short impulses, interspersed by several seconds of coasting. + + +== Conclusion == +The EASE/ACCESS experiments were deemed to be successful. The information gathered provided a basis for planning future manually assembled space structures, and in the process NASA accrued valuable EVA assembly experience. The team responsible for the EASE project was awarded a NASA Group Achievement Award. + + +== See also == + +List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999 +Space Shuttle program +Human factors + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to EASE/ACCESS at Wikimedia Commons +NASA Oral History Project - Bryan D. O'Connor (PDF) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educator_Astronaut_Project-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educator_Astronaut_Project-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2256e2b1e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educator_Astronaut_Project-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Educator Astronaut Project" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educator_Astronaut_Project" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:06.334233+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Educator Astronaut Project is a NASA program to educate students and spur interest in science, technology, engineering, math, and space exploration. It is a successor to the Teacher in Space Project of the 1980s, which NASA cancelled after the death of teacher-astronaut Christa McAuliffe in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (STS-51-L) amid concerns about the risk of sending civilians into space. + + +== History == + +In the 1990s, NASA created the Educator Astronaut Project, which carries on the objectives of the Teacher in Space Program—seeking to elevate teaching as a profession and inspire students. Unlike the Teacher in Space Program, educator astronauts are fully trained astronauts who do the same jobs and duties that any other astronaut does. They fly as crew members with critical mission responsibilities, as well as education-related goals. In addition to their technical assignments, they assist other astronauts in connecting to students and teachers through space exploration. +Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger were selected as the first educator mission specialists in the 2004 class. Both Acaba and Arnold were part of the crew of STS-119, a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) which was flown by Space Shuttle Discovery in March 2009. Metcalf-Lindenburger flew on STS-131 in April 2010, also visiting the ISS aboard Space Shuttle Discovery. + + +== Barbara Morgan == +Barbara Morgan, the backup to Christa McAuliffe in the Teacher in Space Project, remained involved with NASA after the Challenger disaster and continued to work with NASA's Education Division until her selection as a mission specialist in 1998. Morgan completed two years of astronaut training and evaluation, and began official duties in 2000. Morgan became the first former teacher to travel to space on STS-118. While NASA press releases and media briefings often referred to her as a "mission specialist educator" or "educator astronaut", Morgan did not train in the Educator Astronaut Project. NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin clarified at a press conference after STS-118 that Morgan was not considered a mission specialist educator, but rather was a standard mission specialist, who had once been a teacher. Morgan's duties as a mission specialist were no different from other Shuttle mission specialists. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Duration_Orbiter-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Duration_Orbiter-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f193746d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Duration_Orbiter-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Extended Duration Orbiter" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Duration_Orbiter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:08.754675+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) program was a project by NASA to prepare for long-term (months) microgravity research aboard Space Station Freedom, which later evolved into the International Space Station. Scientists and NASA needed practical experience in managing progressively longer times for their experiments. The original Space Shuttle configuration usually provided a week to ten days of spaceflight. Several research projects and hardware components were part of the project, of which the EDO-pallet was one of the most visible, contracted by Rockwell International. +The first orbiter outfitted with the EDO hardware configuration was Endeavour, during its construction, and its last EDO flight was STS-67, in 1995. Endeavour's EDO modifications were removed in 1996 as part of routine maintenance, to reduce the orbiter's weight prior to STS-89. Columbia was outfitted for EDO flight during its maintenance period from August 10, 1991, through February 9, 1992, prior to STS-50, which was the first EDO flight. From 1992, through 1994, Atlantis went through a maintenance period, during which Atlantis was modified to have the provisions needed for EDO capability, but NASA chose not to proceed with the final modifications, and Atlantis never had EDO capability. The EDO-pallet used in these orbiter configurations was destroyed in the 2003 Columbia disaster. + + +== EDO Pallet == + +The Extended Duration Orbiter Cryogenic kit (EDO-pallet or CRYO) was a 15-foot-diameter (4.6 m) equipment assembly which attached vertically to the payload bay rear bulkhead of an orbiter, and allowed the orbiter to support a flight of up to 16 days duration. The equipment included cryogenic tanks, associated control panels, and avionics equipment. Although Atlantis was partially upgraded to accommodate the EDO, only Columbia and Endeavour actually flew with the pallet. The pallet made its debut on STS-50, and was lost on STS-107 in 2003. +Initially, NASA considered adding a second EDO pallet to Endeavour, placed in front of the first, for a total of thirteen tank sets, that would have allowed an orbiter to remain in space for 28 days, but managers decided against it when the International Space Station assembly began, and instead removed the EDO capability from the orbiter, to reduce its weight and allow it to carry more cargo to the ISS. +No replacement for the pallet was planned, since the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System provided much of the same abilities, and the 2011 retirement of the shuttle fleet made it unnecessary. + + +=== Specifications === +The EDO tanks stored 368 pounds (167 kg) of liquid hydrogen at −418 degrees Fahrenheit (−250.0 °C), and 3,124 pounds (1,417 kg) of liquid oxygen at −285 degrees Fahrenheit (−176.1 °C). Total empty weight of the system was 3,571 pounds (1,620 kg). When filled with cryogens, the system weight was approximately 7,000 pounds (3.2 t). + + +=== Use === +The EDO pallet was designed to augment the orbiter's endurance for prolonged missions by supplying additional hydrogen and oxygen for its fuel cells. These fuel cells, in turn, converted hydrogen and oxygen into electrical energy essential for the orbiter's operations. For instance, during STS-80, 5,856 kWh was produced from 3,989 lb of oxygen and 502 lb of hydrogen. For STS-50, 6,204.7 kWh was generated from 4,367 lb of oxygen and 550 lb of hydrogen. In comparison, STS-77, a mission without the EDO pallet, yielded 3,924 kWh from 2,745 lb of oxygen and 346 lb of hydrogen. +Another byproduct of the fuel cell operation was potable water. STS-77 produced 3,091 lb, while missions utilizing the EDO pallet, such as STS-50 and STS-80, yielded 4,914.6 lb and 4,492 lb, respectively. +Missions incorporating the EDO pallet provided extended opportunities for scientific research. They enabled detailed studies in areas like microgravity, life sciences, terrestrial observations, and astronomical observations. They also facilitated an understanding of human adaptability in reduced gravity conditions. +The following missions used the EDO pallet: + + +== EDO medical project == +Prior to the EDO project, no shuttle had flown a mission longer than 10 days. Since space travelers may faint when they stand up (orthostatic intolerance) after returning to normal gravity even after short flights, and muscle strength may be reduced, the EDOMP project focused on ensuring that the crew could land the orbiter, and exit from it without help after a 16-day flight. Astronauts on 40 shuttle flights (STS-32 through STS-72) participated in 36 EDOMP investigations. The results of these investigations were used to make rules and recommendations for 16-day flights. Several types of exercise devices (i.e. a treadmill, a cycle ergometer, and a rower) were among the devices and procedures developed to prevent the de-conditioning of the body that occurs during space flight. The crew transport vehicles, in which astronauts were transported after landing, were built to enhance medical capabilities at the landing site, as well as crew comfort and safety. A database of 125 formal publications, and 299 abstracts, technical papers, and presentations, also resulted from the EDOMP. The project saw its successor in the ISS Medical Project. + + +== Other EDO projects and studies == +Manual Apparel Cleaning System - A system for laundering selected items of clothing. +An automated Fault Detection, Isolation, and Reconfiguration-system (FDIR) that would support the shuttles for up to 28 days. +Extended Duration Orbiter Waste Collection System. A similar system was later added to ISS as the ISS Waste Collector Subsystem. +Extended Duration Orbiter Regenerable CO2 Removal System. +Medical Extended Medical Enterprise (MEME). + + +== See also == +List of Space Shuttle missions + + +== References == + + +== External links == +"Extended Duration Missions". NASA. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton_(satellite)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton_(satellite)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ef1ff26a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton_(satellite)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Foton (satellite)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton_(satellite)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:52.688967+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Foton (or Photon) is the project name of two series of Russian science satellite and reentry vehicle programs. Although uncrewed, the design was adapted from the crewed Vostok spacecraft capsule. The primary focus of the Foton project is materials science research, but some missions have also carried experiments for other fields of research including biology. The original Foton series included 12 launches from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome from 1985 to 1999. +The second series, under the name Foton-M, incorporates many design improvements over the original Foton, and is still in use. So far, there have been four launch attempts of the Foton-M. The first was in 2002 from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, which ended in failure due to a problem in the launch vehicle. The last three were from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, in 2005, 2007, and 2014; all were successful. Both the Foton and Foton-M series used Soyuz-U (11A511U and 11A511U2) rockets as launch vehicles. Starting with the Foton-7 mission, the European Space Agency has been a partner in the Foton program. + + +== Foton-M == +Foton-M is a new generation of Russian robotic spacecraft for research conducted in the microgravity environment of Earth orbit. The Foton-M design is based on the design of the Foton, with several improvements including a new telemetry and telecommand unit for increased data flow rate, increased battery capacity, and a better thermal control system. It is produced by TsSKB-Progress in Samara. +The launch of Foton-M1 failed because of a malfunction of the Soyuz-U launcher. The second launch (of Foton-M2) was a success. Foton-M3 was launched on 14 September 2007, carried by a Soyuz-U rocket lifting off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan with Nadezhda, a cockroach that conceived in space and produced 33 offspring after the spacecraft returned successfully to Earth on 26 September 2007, landing in Kazakhstan at 7:58 GMT. + + +== Reentry == +The Foton capsule has limited thruster capability. As such, the reentry path and orientation can not be controlled after the capsule has separated from the engine system. This means that the capsule has to be protected from reentry heat on all sides, thus explaining the spherical design (as opposed to Project Mercury's conical design), which allows for maximum volume while minimizing the external surface. However, the lack of lift means the capsule experiences high forces on reentry, up to 8 to 9g. + + +== Foton launches == + + +== See also == +Biosatellite +Bion +BIOPAN +Animals in space + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Foton (from Encyclopedia Astronautica) +Russian Space Web \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freestar_experiment-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freestar_experiment-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e18b96d48 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freestar_experiment-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Freestar experiment" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freestar_experiment" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:12.371367+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +FREESTAR, which stands for Fast Reaction Experiments Enabling Science Technology Applications and Research, was a payload of six separate experiments on the Space Shuttle Columbia. +It was mounted on a crossbay Hitchhiker Multipurpose Equipment Support Structure in the Shuttle's payload bay during the STS-107 flight, which ended with the disintegration of Columbia during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. Although data was lost in the re-entry, much of the data collected while in space, such as that from MEIDEX, had already been transmitted to ground stations. + + +== Experiments == +The six experiments were: + + +=== Mediterranean Israeli Dust Experiment (MEIDEX) === + +The primary mission of the MEIDEX payload was to study the temporal and spatial distribution and physical properties of atmospheric desert dust over North Africa, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Saharan regions. The aim was achieved by a remote sensing experiment operated by the astronauts aboard the shuttle. Also, MEIDEX accomplished diverse secondary science objectives by performing slant visibility observations, sea-surface reflectivity observations, desert surface observations and observations of Transient Luminous Events, better known as sprites. MEIDEX also made the first space observation of a glory. + + +=== Shuttle Ozone Limb Sounding Experiment-02 (SOLSE-02) === +SOLSE-2 was a hyperspectral imaging spectrometer built at the Goddard Space Flight Center that demonstrated a new technique to measure the vertical distribution of ozone in the atmosphere. The first demonstration flight of SOLSE-1 was on STS-87 in 1997. Once proven over a wider range of viewing conditions, the SOLSE-2 technique was incorporated to routinely measure ozone by the next generation of weather satellites, including the Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS), that was launched in 2011. + + +=== Critical Viscosity of Xenon-2 (CVX-2) === +The Critical Viscosity of Xenon-2 Experiment measures the viscous behavior of xenon – a heavy, inert gas used in flash lamps and ion rocket engines – at its critical point. +The data from the CVX-2 experiment was believed lost in the disaster. The hard drive that carried its data, a Seagate ST9385AG 2.5" hard drive with 400 MB storage capacity, was found and believed to be melted beyond recognition. In 2008, however, a data recovery specialist cleaned the hard drive's storage platters and rebuilt them into a new hard drive. They were able to recover 99% of the data, saving the experiment. + + +=== Solar Constant Experiment-3 (SOLCON-3) === +The SOLCON instrument is designed to accurately measure the solar constant and identify variations in the value during a solar cycle. SOLCON measures the solar irradiance in space to avoid perturbations by the atmosphere of the Earth. It is also used as a reference to construct a long-duration time series of the solar irradiance. This data will ensure continuity of the solar constant level obtained by instruments mounted on free flyers, over climate time-scale duration. + + +=== Space Experiment Module (SEM) === +The SEM is made up of 11 separate student experiments from schools across the United States and is the 14th flight of a SEM on the Space Shuttle. + + +=== Low Power Transceiver (LPT) experiment === +The Low Power Transceiver is a compact, flexible device that can be configured to perform custom communications and navigation functions in terrestrial, airborne and space applications. The LPT experiment was executed in conjunction with the Communications And Navigation Demonstration On Shuttle (CANDOS) experiment, which examined mobile IP in space. + + +== See also == +NASA +Space Shuttle program + + +== References == + + +== External links == +NASA.gov, Flight activity requirements +NASAN.gov, SOLSE Lost – Saturday, February 1, 2003 +NASA.gov, STS-107, Crew Worked Directly With Goddard Team +NASAN.gov, Sprites and Elve from MEIDEX +NASA.gov, Interactions of mineral dust and sea salt with clouds; some results from the MEIDEX campaign \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getaway_Special-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getaway_Special-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bba490937 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getaway_Special-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Getaway Special" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getaway_Special" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:13.705491+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Getaway Special was a NASA program that offered interested individuals, or groups, opportunities to fly small experiments aboard the Space Shuttle. Over the 20-year history of the program, over 170 individual missions were flown. The program, which was officially known as the Small, Self-Contained Payloads program, was canceled following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003. + + +== History == + +The program was conceived by NASA's Shuttle program manager John Yardley, and announced in the fall of 1976. The "Getaway Special" nickname originated from a special vacation fare for flights between Los Angeles and Honolulu being advertised by Trans World Airlines at the time around the program's conception. +The first Getaway Special was purchased by Gilbert Moore of Thiokol on October 12, 1976, and donated to Utah State University. It was flown on Columbia during STS-4 in June/July 1982. The program was canceled after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003. The last Getaway Special, which was carried aboard STS-107, was the Freestar experiment package, which carried six different experiments. Much of the data was lost when Columbia was destroyed, but some data was transmitted during the mission. +After reorganization of the Shuttle Program, NASA cited the need for the remaining Shuttle fleet to complete assembly of the ISS to justify its decision to cancel the program. The GAS program canisters and GAS Bridge combined weight were only usable on low orbit missions, which were rescheduled with higher priority payloads. With payload and program limits set on the remaining Shuttle missions until the expected STS close-out in 2010, the GAS program was eliminated. + + +== Allocation == +To assure that diverse groups would have access to space, NASA rotated GAS payload assignments among four major categories of users: educational, foreign, commercial, and U.S. government. GAS payloads had been reserved by foreign governments and individuals; U.S. industrialists, foundations, high schools, colleges and universities; professional societies; service clubs; and many others. Although persons and groups involved in space research obtained many of the reservations, a large number of spaces were reserved by persons and organizations outside the space community. +GAS requests were first approved at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., by the director of the Transportation Services Office. At that point NASA screened the propriety and objectives of each request. To complete the reservation process for GAS payloads, each request was accompanied or preceded by the payment of $500. Approved requests were assigned an identification number and referred to the GAS team at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, the designated lead center for the project. The GAS team screened the proposals for safety and provided advice and consultation on payload design. It certified that proposed payloads would be safe and would not harm or interfere with the operations of the space shuttle, its crew, or other experiments on the flight. The costs of any physical testing required to answer safety questions before launch were borne by the GAS customer. + + +== Requirements == + +There were no stringent requirements to qualify for participation in the GAS program. However, each payload was required to meet specific safety criteria, have been screened for its propriety, as well as being evaluated for its educational, scientific or technological objectives. These guidelines preclude commemorative items, such as medallions, that are intended for sale as objects that have flown in space. NASA's Space Shuttle program had specific standards and conditions relating to GAS payloads. Payloads were required to have fit into NASA standard containers and weigh no more than 200 pounds (91 kg). Two or more experiments could have been included in a single container if they fit while not exceeding weight limitations. The payload must have been self-powered, as experiments could not draw on the Shuttle orbiter's electricity. In addition, the crew's involvement with GAS payloads was limited to six simple activities (such as turning on and off up to three payload switches), due to the fact that crew activity schedules do not provide opportunities to either monitor or service GAS payloads in flight. +The cost of this unique service depended on the size and weight of the experiment. Getaway specials of 200 pounds (91 kg) and 5 cubic feet (0.14 m3) cost $10,000; 100 pounds (45 kg) and 2.5 cubic feet (0.071 m3), $5,000; and 60 pounds (27 kg) and 2.5 cubic feet (0.071 m3), $3,000. The weight of the GAS container, experiment mounting plate and its attachment screws, and all hardware regularly supplied by NASA was not charged to the experimenter's weight allowance. +The GAS container provided internal pressure, which could be varied from near vacuum to about one atmosphere. The bottom and sides of the container were always thermally insulated, and the top may have been insulated or not, depending on the specific experiment. A lid that could be opened, or one with a window, may be required, and were offered as options at additional cost. The GAS containers were made of aluminum, and the circular end plates are 5⁄8 inch (16 mm) thick aluminum. The bottom 3 inches (76 mm) of the container were reserved for NASA interface equipment, such as command decoders and pressure regulating systems. The container was a pressure vessel that could be evacuated before or during launch, or on orbit, and could be re-pressurized during re-entry, or on orbit, as required by the experimenter. +The getaway bridge, which was capable of holding 12 canisters, made its maiden flight on STS-61-C. The aluminum bridge fit across the payload bay of the orbiter and offered a convenient and economic way of flying several GAS canisters. + + +== Example of GAS experiments == +STS-7 – Pugas +STS-40 – G-616 Cosmic Radiation Effects on Floppy Disks +STS-47 – Project POSTAR +STS-61-C – 1986: Vertical Horizons (G-481) +Ellery Kurtz, artist, and Howard Wishnow, Project Coordinator. An art conservation experiment on board the Space Shuttle Columbia. Included in the canister as part of the experiment were four original oil paintings by Kurtz, and other artistic materials, in order to evaluate the effects of spaceflight on fine art materials. +STS-91 – June 2, 1998 (G-743) + + +== Full list of experiments == + +Reference for this table: + + +== See also == + +Hitchhiker Program – program run by the same office as the GAS Program (SSPP) +Space Shuttle + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e7c7da03 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Hitchhiker Program" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:14.913706+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Hitchhiker Program (HH) was a NASA program established in 1984 and administered by the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC). The program was designed to allow low-cost and quick reactive experiments to be placed on board the Space Shuttle. The program was discontinued after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster of STS-107. + +== Program history == +NASA's Hitchhiker project began in early 1984. It was created to accommodate small attached payloads in the Space Shuttle payload bay. Hitchhikers were intended for customers whose space activity requires power, data or command services. +The first Hitchhiker launched on STS-61-C on January 12, 1986. Called HHG-1, it was mounted to the side of the payload bay and carried three experiments. The second Hitchhiker launched on STS-39 on April 28, 1991. This payload was called Space Test Payload (STP)-1 and consisted of five experiments mounted onto a cross-bay carrier. Between 1992 and 1995, 12 Hitchhikers were manifested to fly on the Space Shuttle. +The Hitchhiker system provided real-time communications between the payload and customers in the Hitchhiker control center at Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland. The system also provided crew control/display capability, if necessary. Hitchhikers were created to provide a quick reaction and low cost capability for flying small payloads in the Shuttle payload bay. +Along with NASA's Get Away Specials (GAS), Hitchhiker was developed and operated by the Goddard Space Flight Center Shuttle Small Payloads Project (SSPP). Unlike Hitchhikers, GAS payloads were only mounted in canisters, did not connect to orbiter electrical services and did not require significant Shuttle support. + +== Hitchhiker experiments == +Hitchhiker experiments were housed in canisters or attached to mounting plates. The Hitchhiker canister came in two varieties—the Hitchhiker Motorized Door Canister and the Sealed Canisters. The Hitchhiker Motorized Door Canister had mechanical interfaces nearly identical to a GAS canister and could accommodate a customer payload of up to 160 pounds (72.6 kilograms). This canister allowed a payload to be exposed directly to the environment of space. +The Sealed Canister, without a door, could accommodate a customer payload up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms). The payload in this canister was sealed in an atmosphere of nitrogen or air. +Experiments attached to mounting plates could be placed on the vertical plate, a 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) by 39 inches (99.1 centimeters) mounting surface for up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of customer hardware. A larger mounting plate measured 50 inches (127 centimeters) by 60 inches (152.4 centimeters). This plate, available for use on the side-mount carrier, was for larger experiments or hardware requirements. Customer hardware mounted on plates may have needed additional customer-provided thermal control provisions, such as heaters or blankets. + +== List of all Hitchhiker and GAS experiments == + +Reference for this table: + +== Hitchhiker carrier system == + +The Hitchhiker carrier system was modular and expandable in accordance with payload requirements. This flexibility allowed maximum efficiency in utilizing orbiter resources and increased the potential for early manifesting on the shuttle. +There were two types of carrier systems—the Hitchhiker Side-Mount Carrier System and the Hitchhiker Cross-Bay Bridge Carrier System. Either system could accept the Hitchhiker canister and the mounting plates. +The Hitchhiker Side-Mount Carrier System used a GAS Adapter Beam for all equipment. The beam attached to the orbiter frame. The side-mount carrier was usually installed in the forward starboard side of the payload bay, although other configurations and locations were possible. This carrier could hold up to three experiments and the Hitchhiker avionics box, which connected the power, data and signal from the shuttle to the experiments. +The Hitchhiker Cross-Bay Carrier could be located anywhere in the payload bay. The carrier could accommodate 11 Hitchhiker canisters or 11 of the smaller mounting plates. There was also room for the necessary avionic units. +Four additional mounting slots were located on the top of the carrier and could accept 33 inch (83.8 centimeter) by 27 inch (68.6 centimeter) pallets or 33 inch (83.8 centimeter) by 55 inch (139.7 centimeter) pallets in any combination with up to 500 pounds (226.8 kilograms) of equipment. Any customer experiments and hardware that could be mounted on the side-mount carrier could also be flown on the cross-bay carrier. + +== Astronaut involvement == +NASA created Hitchhikers to provide customers with a way to send small payloads into orbit on the Space Shuttle. This was done with a short turn-around-time—from manifest to flight took an average of 18 months. To keep the project on schedule, experiments needed to fit in canisters or on mounting plates and meet standard mechanical and electrical interfaces. +Because the payload met these conditions, it also was entitled to special "handling" in the orbiter that other small payloads, like the Get Away Specials did not receive. This special handling included tapping into the Shuttle for power and "astronaut" services," such as requiring specific shuttle attitudes or maneuvers. The orbiter crew moved the Shuttle when necessary to the position needed for the Hitchhiker experiment, provided it did not interfere with the needs of the primary payloads. +Hitchhikers were manifested to fly with primary payloads that either have similar requirements or that will not be affected by the changes in shuttle position necessary to the Hitchhiker experiments. In addition to making adjustments to the orbiter, the astronaut crew participated in the Hitchhiker experiments by controlling the flow of orbiter power on or off using two switches located on the Standard Switch Panel. +The first switch controlled power to the avionics unit. The second switch allowed power to flow from the avionics unit to the experiment. This simple measure allowed the astronauts to have some control over the experiment, in the event of a problem. For some payloads, the crew had a keyboard/display unit, for additional control. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aea4fe581 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Hitchhiker Program" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitchhiker_Program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:14.913706+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Avionics == +Getting the power from the shuttle to the payload required an avionics unit. This unit connected the power from the shuttle to the experiment. The avionics unit also carried the equipment for transmitting the data real-time to the ground control center. The avionics unit also contained the relay switching equipment and had the connections for the customer to use the shuttle television system, and the crew control/display system. Each avionics unit could handle the requirements for six experiments. + +== The Goddard Connection == +Goddard was responsible for the management and operation of the Hitchhiker project through the Shuttle Small Payloads Project. In this capacity Goddard provided the Hitchhiker carriers and the avionics unit. +During the mission, customers used a control center located at Goddard. The customer provided Ground System Equipment (CGSE), software and personnel to generate commands to the payload and display data from the payload during flight, as well as during payload-to-carrier integration and verification testing. +The Hitchhiker carrier system was equipped with a "transparent" data system which allowed customers to easily use their existing ground equipment and software to control their experiments during flight. Data was sent down to the control center in real time, but it also was recorded at Goddard once it reached the ground. The data was transmitted over Goddard's Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System. + +== See also == +NASA +Getaway Special +Space Shuttle program + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Hitchhiker Program - NASA Fact Sheet +University of Arizona - Hitchhiker + +== External links == +Hitchhiker Ejection System +Hitchhiker STS-95 Experiments +Studied the critical viscosity of Xenon-a gas used in flash lamps and ion rocket engines +Infrared Spectral Imaging Radiometer experiment \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopkins_Ultraviolet_Telescope-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopkins_Ultraviolet_Telescope-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..abbf2219d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopkins_Ultraviolet_Telescope-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopkins_Ultraviolet_Telescope" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:16.087100+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT) was a space telescope designed to make spectroscopic observations in the far-ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum. It was flown into orbit on the Space Shuttle and operated from the Shuttle's payload bay on two occasions: in December 1990, as part of Shuttle mission STS-35, and in March 1995, as part of mission STS-67. +HUT was designed and built by a team based at Johns Hopkins University, led by Arthur Davidsen. The telescope consisted of a 90 cm main mirror used to focus ultraviolet light onto a spectrograph situated at the prime focus. This instrument had a spectroscopic range of 82.5 to 185 nms, and a spectral resolution of about 0.3 nm. +It weighed 789 kilograms (1736 pounds). +HUT was used to observe a wide range of astrophysical sources, including supernova remnants, active galactic nuclei, cataclysmic variable stars, as well as various planets in the Solar System. During the 1990 flight, HUT was used to make 106 observations of 77 astronomical targets. During the 1995 flight, 385 observations were made of 265 targets. +HUT was co-mounted with WUPPE, Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope [UIT], and BBXRT on the Astro-1 mission (1990) and with just WUPPE and UIT on Astro-2 (in 1995). +As of January 2023, HUT is now in storage at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. in the United States. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +HUT webpage at Johns Hopkins University \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergolic_Maintenance_and_Checkout_Facility-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergolic_Maintenance_and_Checkout_Facility-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d7a0bb610 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergolic_Maintenance_and_Checkout_Facility-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Hypergolic Maintenance and Checkout Facility" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergolic_Maintenance_and_Checkout_Facility" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:18.091542+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hypergol Maintenance and Checkout Facility was a rocket fuel and engine complex located in an isolated part of the Kennedy Space Center industrial area. It was constructed in 1964 to support the Apollo program and upgraded in 1985 to support the Space Shuttle program. The hypergolic propellants used in the Space Shuttle's reaction control system, Orbital Maneuvering System, and the auxiliary power units provided hydraulic power to the shuttle's control surfaces, main engines and brakes were stored and processed in part of the complex. Part of the facility was used for cryogenic testing during the Apollo program and Solid Rocket Booster aft skirt hot-testing. +Among other structures, the facility included two hypergol storage buildings, a hazardous waste staging shelter, a liquid oxygen fuel pad, a liquid hydrogen fuel pad, leaching ponds and equipment shelters. Its Hypergol Support Building was recorded and documented by the National Park Service in 2013. +Later, part of the facility became known as the Hypergol Maintenance Facility Hazardous Waste South Staging Area. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igla_(spacecraft_docking_system)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igla_(spacecraft_docking_system)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd0cc337d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igla_(spacecraft_docking_system)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Igla (spacecraft docking system)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igla_(spacecraft_docking_system)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:53.907520+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Igla (Russian: Игла, "Needle") docking system was a Soviet radio telemetry system for automated docking of Soyuz spacecraft. The first prototypes were made in late 1965. On 30 October 1967, the first automated docking of Soyuz uncrewed spacecraft took place. + + +== Problems == +The Soyuz 15 mission was aborted when the system failed to dock to the Salyut 3, on 26 August 1974. There was no manual backup system. +Salyut 5, launched on June 22, 1976, was equipped with an improved radio system. On July 6, 1976, Soyuz 21 had problems undocking automatically, but was able to undock manually. Soyuz 23 failed to dock, ran out of fuel to manual dock, and returned to Earth. +The Igla docking system suffered an engine failure on Soyuz 33 on 10 April, 1979. After consideration by ground crews, the mission was aborted by firing the backup engines and initiating a ballistic reentry. + + +== Kurs == +In 1986 Igla was succeeded by the Kurs docking system, first used on Soyuz TM-1. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Russian space history questions from Zeb Ottobre \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Upper_Stage-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Upper_Stage-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..783b1a43b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Upper_Stage-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Inertial Upper Stage" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Upper_Stage" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:19.347204+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), originally designated the Interim Upper Stage, was a two-stage, solid-fueled space launch system developed by Boeing for the United States Air Force beginning in 1976 for raising payloads from low Earth orbit to higher orbits or interplanetary trajectories following launch aboard a Titan 34D or Titan IV rocket as its upper stage, or from the payload bay of the Space Shuttle as a space tug. + + +== Development == +During the development of the Space Shuttle, NASA, with support from the Air Force, wanted an upper stage that could be used on the Shuttle to deliver payloads from low earth orbit to higher energy orbits such as GTO or GEO or to escape velocity for planetary probes. The candidates were the Centaur, propelled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, the Transtage, propelled by hypergolic storable propellants Aerozine-50 and dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), and the Interim Upper Stage, using solid propellant. The US Department of Defense (DoD) reported that Transtage could support all defense needs but could not meet NASA's scientific requirements. The IUS could support most defense needs and some science missions, while the Centaur could meet all needs of both the Air Force and NASA. Development began on both the Centaur and the IUS, and a second stage was added to the IUS design which could be used either as an apogee kick motor for inserting payloads directly into geostationary orbit or to increase the payload mass brought to escape velocity. +Boeing was the primary contractor for the IUS while Chemical Systems Division of United Technologies built the IUS solid rocket motors. +When launched from the Space Shuttle, the IUS could deliver up to 2,270 kilograms (5,000 lb) directly to GEO or up to 4,940 kilograms (10,890 lb) to GTO. +The first launch of the IUS was in 1982 on a Titan 34D rocket from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station shortly before the STS-6 Space Shuttle mission. +Development of the Shuttle-Centaur was halted after the Challenger disaster, and the Interim Upper Stage became the Inertial Upper Stage. + + +== Design == +The solid rocket motor on both stages had a steerable nozzle for thrust vectoring. The second stage had hydrazine reaction control jets for attitude control whilst coasting, and for separation from payload. Depending on mission, one, two or three 54 kg (120 lb) tanks of hydrazine could be fitted. + + +== Applications == + +On Titan launches, the Titan booster would launch the IUS, carrying the payload into low Earth orbit where it was separated from the Titan and ignited its first stage, which carried it into an elliptical "transfer" orbit to a higher altitude. +On Shuttle launches, the orbiter's payload bay was opened, the IUS and its payload raised (by the IUS Airborne Support Equipment (ASE)) to a 50-52° angle, and released. After the Shuttle separated from the payload to a safe distance, the IUS first stage ignited and, as on a Titan booster mission, entered a "transfer orbit". +Upon reaching apogee in the transfer orbit, the first stage and interstage structure were jettisoned. The second stage then fired to circularize the orbit, after which it released the satellite and, using its attitude control jets, began a retrograde maneuver to enter a lower orbit to avoid any possibility of collision with its payload. +In addition to the communication and reconnaissance missions described above, which placed the payload into stationary (24-hour) orbit, the IUS was also used to boost spacecraft towards planetary trajectories. For these missions, the second IUS stage was separated and ignited immediately after first stage burnout. Igniting the second stage at low altitude (and thus, high orbital speed) provided the extra velocity the spacecraft needed to escape from Earth orbit (see Oberth effect). IUS could not impart as much velocity to its payload as Centaur would have been able to: while Centaur could have launched Galileo directly on a two-year trip to Jupiter, the IUS required a six-year voyage with multiple gravity assists. +The final flight of the IUS occurred in February 2004. + + +== Flights == + + +== Gallery == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Evolution of the Inertial Upper Stage Crosslink Winter 2003 Vol 4 Num 1 (published by The Aerospace Corporation), page 38 +Inertial Upper Stage at Federation of American Scientists \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..054630c95 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Journalist in Space Project" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:20.532632+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Journalist in Space Project was a NASA program designed to inform the public about spaceflight. Journalists would have flown in space on NASA's Space Shuttle. Some forty finalists were selected from over 1,700 applications, but the project was postponed indefinitely and subsequently cancelled after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986. + +== Origins == +From the earliest days of the Space Shuttle program, the National Air and Space Administration (NASA) had assumed that as experience with the Space Shuttle increased the safety of space flight, civilian passengers would be able to be taken along; journalists were specifically mentioned as likely candidates. In 1985, as the Space Shuttle flights became more routine, NASA asked the Association of Schools of Journalism and Mass Communication (ASJMC) to recommend journalists who could ride on the Space Shuttle as passengers as part of its Journalist in Space Project. The goal of the Journalist in Space Project was not simply to fly a journalist in space as a passenger, but to inform the public about spaceflight. +The ASJMC was formed in 1984 from the merger of two existing organizations. With its headquarters at the University of South Carolina College of Journalism in Columbia, South Carolina, it represented schools of journalism in 170 colleges and universities across the United States. The Journalist in Space Project was the ASJMC's first major project, and NASA's second citizens in space project after the Teacher in Space Project announced the year before. The ASJMC received US$50,000 (equivalent to $147,000 in 2025) in funding for the project. Albert Scroggins, the dean emeritus of the University of South Carolina College of Journalism, was appointed its chief program officer. + +== Selection == +The ASJMC established a steering committee to coordinate the selection process. It met with representatives of professional journalist organizations on 16 October 1985, and created a Journalism Advisory Committee to liaise with them about the selection process. The main concerns were that the selection criteria should be broad, so as to maximise the number of people who would be eligible, and that there should as few restrictions on their reporting as possible. +The Journalist in Space Project was publicly announced at a NASA press conference on 24 October 1985. Press releases were sent out, and the ASJMC published announcements in professional magazines. Copies of the announcement were sent directly to the Asian American Journalists Association, the California Chicano News Media Association, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists, the Native American Press Association, the Overseas Press Club of America, and the organizations represented on the Journalism Advisory Committee. +To be eligible to participate, applicants had to be: + +A United States citizen; +With five or more years of professional experience in US-based print or broadcast journalism covering contemporary events as a full-time reporter, correspondent, columnist, photographer or editorial cartoonist; +And the approval or support of their employer; +But not a US government employee, a former NASA employee, or the spouse of a present NASA employee. +The individuals chosen to participate would receive training from NASA, and form part of a press pool for the period of training, the flight itself, and for up to thirty days afterwards. They would be free and encouraged to report as they chose, subject to privacy and national security concerns. +Applications opened on 1 December 1985 and had to be submitted by 15 January 1986. Application packages containing the necessary forms were mailed out to everyone who wrote in or telephoned a request. The forms did not include questions about the applicant's race, sex or age, as these were not considered relevant to the requirements of the project. Applicants were asked to provide three references and two samples of their work. They had to write two short essays, and were informed that interviews would be video recorded. They had to sign a form stating that they understood the requirements of the project. Most application forms were received in the last few days. They were randomly assigned to one of the regional selection panels in the region where the applicant lived. In all, there were 5,149 requests for applications, from which 1,705 applications were received. Of these, 728 were from newspaper journalists, 584 from broadcast journalists, 101 worked for magazines and 159 were freelance journalist. The remaining 133 worked for other media organizations and wire services. +Sam Donaldson, the ABC News White House correspondent, asked President Ronald Reagan for a reference, but this was declined on the grounds that it would be unfair to provide him with special treatment. Lynn Sherr asked her friend, astronaut Sally Ride, for a reference. "Fully aware that I would read what she wrote", Sherr recalled, "and no doubt convinced that she could arrange never to fly with a greenhorn like me (me, the Greek major who had avoided physics because botany seemed a more useful college major)—she typed out an essay that made me sound like Brenda Starr with wings." + +In his application essay, Walter Cronkite wrote:I do not agree that the men and women who have gone into space are so inarticulate or so narrowly focused that they've been unable to communicate with us groundlings... Even before television's superb pictures, our astronauts gave us an extraordinarily vivid sense of what it is like up there. +The principal thing that a journalist can offer is to free the public of the last lingering suspicion regarding reports from those who are part of the program; to guarantee that what is reported is free from control, or pressure, or even self interest. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5b3954e7c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Journalist in Space Project" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist_in_Space_Project" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:20.532632+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In this sense the space-flying journalist will again be performing, as have all journalists through history, the role assigned him by our concept of a free press. He will be the people's surrogate, their eyes and ears in a situation in which the people themselves cannot participate. +The steering committee divided the United States into five geographic regions. In each region, there were four cooperating schools and one coordinating school which hosted the selection panels, of which there were four in each region. They consisting of working journalists and academics from the journalism faculty of colleges and universities in the region. At least three members of each panel had to be working journalists, and print and broadcast journalists were on every panel. Efforts were also made to ensure that the panels had good demographic representation. The method of scoring and ranking candidates was left entirely up to the individual section panels. NASA gave final approval to the selection process on 18 November 1985. +The selection panels would recommend five candidates each. A regional panel would interview the twenty semifinalists from its region, and select the best eight. The forty national semifinalists would then attend a national workshop and orientation event, during which they would be interviewed by a national selection panel consisting of fourteen journalists and academics, and former astronaut Terry Hart. This panel would select the best five. These five finalists would undergo medical and background checks, and then be interviewed by the NASA's seven-person Space Flight Participant Evaluation Committee, the same committee that had selected the candidates for the Teacher in Space Project. They would select the prime and backup candidates for the mission, The mission was scheduled to be flown on the Space Shuttle Challenger on 27 September 1986. +The project was immediately and indefinitely suspended after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on 28 January 1986. Astronaut Michael Smith, who was to have flown on the 27 September mission, was among those killed. NASA and the ASJMC reviewed the project, and agreed to continue with the selection process. The regional selection panels commenced work on 2 March and completed their selections by 5 April. The semifinalists were then contacted and asked if they wished to continue. Two candidates withdrew at this point, and were replaced by alternative choices of the selection panels. The identity of the 100 regional semifinalists was publicly announced on 16 April. The applicants who were not selected were notified of their non-selection. All applicants were sent a personalized certificate of recognition for their participation in the project. +Meanwhile, the steering committee had developed a set of standard procedures for video taped interviews of the 100 semifinalists. Although the project (and the whole Space Shuttle program) was under a cloud, NASA and the ASJMC decided to continue with the next phase of selection. Interviews were conducted between 27 April and 13 May, and the forty finalists were publicly announced on 14 May 1986. + +== Finalists == +Of the forty national semifinalists, fifteen worked for newspapers, fourteen in radio or television, three for magazines, five were freelance journalists, and three worked for wire services. + +Source: + +== Suspension == +The steering committee expected that the workshop and selection of the five finalists would be conducted in October 1986, but on 1 July 1986, NASA asked the ASJMC to put the selection process on hold until such a time as another mission could be scheduled. This never happened. The Journalist in Space Project was never revived. In 1990, Japanese journalist Toyohiro Akiyama became the first journalist to fly in space, as a member of the Soyuz TM-11 mission. An announcement was to be made in February 2003 that Miles O'Brien had been chosen as the first journalist to fly to the International Space Station on the Space Shuttle, but this was cancelled after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. + +== Notes == + +== References == +Association of Schools of Journalism and Mass Communication (31 July 1986). Journalist-in-Space Project – Final Report (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 6 March 2022. +Jenkins, Dennis (2013). Space Shuttle: Developing an Icon 1972-2013. Vol. III. Forrest Lake, Minnesota: Specialty Press. ISBN 978-1-58007-249-6. +Logsdon, John M. (2019). Ronald Reagan and the Space Frontier. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-98961-7. +NASA (1 June 1972). Space Shuttle: Emphasis for the 1970's (PDF). NASA-EP-96. Retrieved 6 March 2022. +Sherr, Lynn (2014). Sally Ride: America's First Woman in Space. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4767-2578-9. OCLC 885483468. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-0.md index f38376050..abcb29adf 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/8 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:51.262294+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:21.881414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-1.md index 2dd1738bf..beb94fd60 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/8 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:51.262294+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:21.881414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-2.md index 981180abc..259492f76 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/8 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:51.262294+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:21.881414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-3.md index b8b59e885..cc7959501 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/8 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:51.262294+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:21.881414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-4.md index 31b444bc6..09da3cfdd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/8 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:51.262294+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:21.881414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-5.md index 913d04374..ed88b46fd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/8 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:51.262294+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:21.881414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39-6.md 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"reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:51.262294+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:21.881414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-0.md index 23596b941..3662cabf1 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:52.512763+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:23.221243+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-1.md index 12387cebf..91fc76ff1 100644 --- 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"2026-05-05T13:21:23.221243+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-3.md index 2ca526836..9b7b35680 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:52.512763+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:23.221243+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39B-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39B-0.md index 7cbc12c80..51e037d33 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39B-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39B-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39B" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:41:53.783513+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:24.481901+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Astronaut_Program-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Astronaut_Program-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..13bd44cf9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Astronaut_Program-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Korean Astronaut Program" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Astronaut_Program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:56.295744+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Korean Astronaut Program (Korean: 한국 우주인 배출 사업) was an initiative by the South Korean government to send the first Korean into space via the Russian space program. A ten-day flight to the International Space Station (ISS) with astronaut Yi So-yeon occurred in 2008. + + +== First astronaut class == + +On December 25, 2006, two candidates—one woman and one man—were selected by South Korea during a ceremony held at SBS television center in Dungchon-dong, Seoul. This choice was the result of a comprehensive selection process which started with the screening of 36,000 applications. + +Ko San (36, male, unmarried, researcher at Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology) +Yi So-yeon (34, female, unmarried, researcher at the KAIST) + + +=== Other finalists === +The eight other finalists were: + +Park Ji-young (23, female, master's course student at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology) +Yun Seok-oh (29, male, unmarried, official at Hanyang University) +Lee Jin-young (36, male, married, squadron leader at Republic of Korea Air Force) +Jang Joon-sung (25, male, unmarried, lieutenant at Bucheon Nambu Police Station) +Ryu Jeong-won (33, male, married, chief technology officer at IT Magic Co.) +Lee Han-gyu (33, male, unmarried, researcher at Samsung SDI) +Choi Ah-jeong (24, female, unmarried, master's course student at Seoul National University) +Kim Young-min (33, male, married, researcher at Korea Basic Science Institute) + + +=== First space mission === +The winning pair was sent to Russia in early 2007 to undergo a 15-month training course at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center near Moscow. +On September 5, 2007, Ko San was named as the prime candidate, whilst Yi So-yeon served as his backup. However, on March 10, 2008, it was announced that the prime candidate would be changed to Yi So-yeon due to several violations of training protocol by Ko San. Ko San served as backup. +On April 8, 2008 Yi So-yeon took off from the Baikonur space center in Kazakhstan at 11:16 GMT aboard Soyuz TMA-12. She spent ten days conducting scientific experiments aboard the International Space Station. +It cost South Korea approximately 26 billion won (US$28 million) to pay for the training and spaceflight. + + +=== Post-first mission === +In 2014, Yi So-yeon resigned from the program to pursue an MBA, which was incompatible with continuing as an astronaut. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Korean astronaut program \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LI-900-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LI-900-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f43bb25b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LI-900-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "LI-900" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LI-900" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:30.724147+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +LI-900 is a type of reusable surface insulation tile developed and manufactured by Lockheed Missiles and Space Company. It was designed for use on the Space Shuttle orbiter as part of its thermal protection system to minimize thermal conductivity while providing maximum thermal shock resistance. + + +== Statistics == +LI-900 has a bulk density of 144.2 kg/m3, or 9 lb/ft3. Due to this material’s density being 9 lb/ft3 it was called the LI-900. It is made from 99.9% pure silica glass fibres, and is 94% air by volume. An LI-900 tile can be heated to 1,204 °C (1,477 K; 2,199 °F) and then immediately plunged into cold water and suffer no damage. +Black and white tiles were used on the Space Shuttle to control the temperature of the vehicle while in orbit. + +White tiles (known as low temperature reusable surface insulation or LRSI) were used mainly on the upper surface and have higher thermal reflectivity. These are therefore pointed towards the sun in order to minimize solar gain. +Black tiles (known as high temperature reusable surface insulation or HRSI) are optimized for maximum emissivity, which means they lose heat faster than white tiles. This property is required in order to maximise heat rejection during re-entry. +There are typically 20,000 HRSI LI-900 tiles on a Space Shuttle, and 725 LRSI LI-900 tiles. + + +== Problems == + + +=== Strength === +As a result of optimizing its thermal properties, overall strength was reduced. The tile was therefore not suitable to be used in high-stress areas such as around the landing gear doors and windows. To solve this, a higher strength version of the LI-900 material was produced, with a bulk density of 352.4 kg/m3 (22 lb/ft3), which was called the LI-2200. This tile provided the strength and insulating properties, but with a considerable weight penalty. + + +== See also == +Space Shuttle thermal protection system +Atmospheric reentry + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +NASA facts on the Orbiter Thermal Protection System +Research and technology report on shuttle materials resistant to MMOD \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_Dynamic_Range_Imager-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_Dynamic_Range_Imager-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b607713ec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_Dynamic_Range_Imager-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Laser Dynamic Range Imager" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_Dynamic_Range_Imager" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:26.981657+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Laser Dynamic Range Imager (LDRI) is a LIDAR range imaging device developed by Sandia National Laboratories for the US Space Shuttle program. The sensor was developed as part of NASA's "Return to Flight" effort following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster to provide 2-D and 3-D images of the thermal protection system on the Space Shuttle Orbiter. +The LDRI generates 3-dimensional images from 2-dimensional video. Modulated laser illumination is demodulated by the receive optics, and the resulting video sequences can be processed to produce 3-d images. The modulation produces a flickering effect from frame-to-frame in the video imagery. +As part of the Orbiter Boom Sensor System, the LDRI is mounted at the end of the boom on a pan-tilt unit (PTU) along with an intensified video camera (ITVC). During 2-dimensional imaging of the reinforced carbon-carbon panels on the leading edge of the shuttle's wings, the LDRI is capable of seeing damage as small as a 0.020 in (0.51 mm) crack. +During the mission STS-114, the LDRI was used to obtain 3-D measurements of a loose gap filler on the underside of the orbiter. The LDRI also flew on the subsequent mission, STS-121. On this mission, NASA TV broadcast live raw video from the LDRI of the entire wing leading edge and nosecap surveys on flight day 2. +An earlier version of the LDRI originally flew as a DTO on STS-97. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_Complex_39_Press_Site-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_Complex_39_Press_Site-0.md index 3dbec82c0..198bc50f7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_Complex_39_Press_Site-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_Complex_39_Press_Site-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_Complex_39_Press_Site" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:33:54.196183+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:28.216775+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_human_spaceflight_missions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_human_spaceflight_missions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..723fb08ed --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_human_spaceflight_missions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "List of Russian human spaceflight missions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_human_spaceflight_missions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:00.987370+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of the human spaceflight missions conducted by Roscosmos (previously and alternatively known as the Russian Space Agency, the Russian Aviation and Space Agency, and the Russian Federal Space Agency) since 1992. All Russian human spaceflight missions thus far have been carried out using the Soyuz vehicle, and all visited either Mir or the International Space Station. +The Roscosmos program is the successor to the Soviet space program. Numeration of the Soyuz flights therefore continues from previous Soviet Soyuz launches. For previous flights of the Soyuz and other crewed space vehicles, see List of Soviet human spaceflight missions. + + +== Soyuz-TM (1992–2002) == + + +== Soyuz-TMA (2003–2012) == + + +== Soyuz TMA-M (2010–2016) == + + +== Soyuz MS (2016–present) == + + +=== Future crewed flights === + + +== Notes == +1 Commercially funded cosmonaut or other "spaceflight participant". + + +== References == + + +== See also == +List of Progress flights, with all flights of the Progress resupply craft that is based on the Soyuz \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soviet_human_spaceflight_missions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soviet_human_spaceflight_missions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..06e276c5d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soviet_human_spaceflight_missions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "List of Soviet human spaceflight missions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soviet_human_spaceflight_missions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:02.246241+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of the human spaceflight missions conducted by the Soviet space program. These missions belong to the Vostok, Voskhod, and Soyuz space programs. +The first patch from the Soviet Space Program was worn by Valentina Tereshkova, then the same patch for the Voskhod 2, Soyuz 4/5 and Soyuz 11, Soyuz 3 had an official insignia that wasn't worn during the flight, and then in the Apollo–Soyuz program. After that and until Soyuz TM-12 "Juno" flight mission patches had been designed only for international missions. + + +== Vostok program == + + +== Voskhod program == + + +== Soyuz program == + + +=== First Soyuz missions to Salyut 1 (1967–1971) === + + +=== 1973–1977 === + + +=== Salyut 6 to Salut 7 (1977–1986) === + + +=== Crewed Soyuz-TM Mir missions (1987–1991) === + +For subsequent Soyuz missions conducted by the Russian Federal Space Agency, see List of Russian human spaceflight missions. + + +=== Notes === +1 Commercially funded cosmonaut or other "spaceflight participant". + + +== See also == +List of Progress flights, with all flights of the Progress resupply craft that is based on the Soyuz spacecraft + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soyuz_missions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soyuz_missions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..784727c51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soyuz_missions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ +--- +title: "List of Soyuz missions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Soyuz_missions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:49.005667+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of crewed and uncrewed flights of Soyuz series spacecraft. +The Soyuz programme is an ongoing human spaceflight programme which was initiated by the Soviet Union in the early 1960s, originally part of a Moon landing project intended to put a Soviet cosmonaut on the Moon. It is the third Soviet human spaceflight programme after the Vostok and Voskhod programmes. Since the 1990s, as the successor state to the Soviet Union, Russia has continued and expanded the programme, which became part of a multinational collaboration to ensure a permanent human presence in low Earth orbit on the ISS (ISS). Soyuz spacecraft previously visited the Salyut and Mir space stations. Between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first orbital flight of SpaceX's Crew Dragon in 2019, Soyuz were the only human-rated orbital spacecraft in operation, and the only way to transport crews to the ISS. Russia plans to succeed Soyuz in the 2020s with the Federatsiya/Orel programme, using new reusable capsules launching on Angara rockets, to transport cosmonauts to orbit. + + +== Crewed mission numbers and spacecraft generations == +Beginning in 1966, the Soyuz programme has sent humans into space on a regular basis for over fifty years. Due to its length, the program has a complex history, which may lead to confusion about its mission numbers. The mission numbering scheme for crewed Soyuz flights is closely related to the generations of spacecraft. Understanding the former is made significantly easier by understanding the latter. +The first era of the Soyuz programme's crewed missions (Soyuz 1-40) used the 7K series of Soyuz craft, which included the first-generation (1.0) Soyuz 7K-OK, a variant (1.5) Soyuz 7K-OKS, the second-generation (2.0) Soyuz 7K-T, and the (2.5) Soyuz 7K-TM variant. Following this first era, successive eras of crewed missions have had mission numbers which were directly tied to the names of craft used: + +The second era of Soyuz T flights used the third-generation (3.0) craft of the same name. Mission numbers were of the form: "Soyuz T-#". +The third era of Soyuz TM flights used the fourth-generation (4.0) craft of the same name. Mission numbers were of the form: "Soyuz TM-#". +The fourth era of Soyuz TMA flights used the fifth-generation (5.0) craft of the same name. Mission numbers were of the form: "Soyuz TMA-#". +The fifth era of Soyuz TMA-M flights used the fifth-generation variant (5.5) craft of the same name. Mission numbers were of the form "Soyuz TMA-##M". +The sixth and current era of Soyuz MS flights uses the sixth-generation (6.0) craft of the same name. Mission numbers are of the form: "Soyuz MS-##". +Within each given era, a mission number generally reflects the mission's chronological launch order, e.g. Soyuz TMA-12M was the twelfth mission of the TMA-M era, immediately preceded by Soyuz TMA-11M and immediately followed by Soyuz TMA-13M. Although there are exceptions to this (detailed below in the first table), the mission numbering scheme is usually consistent with chronological launch orders. This is in contrast with the mission numbers of the Space Shuttle program, which were tied to specific mission objectives and did not reflect chronological launch orders, e.g. STS-50, the forty-eighth Shuttle mission, was immediately followed by STS-46, the forty-ninth Shuttle mission. + + +== Soyuz 7K (1966–1981) == +The first Soyuz series was the 7K series. + + +=== Soyuz 7K-L1 === + +Spacecraft designed for Soviet human circumlunar missions. Missions are included under the Zond programme. + + +=== Soyuz 7K-LOK === + +Spacecraft designed for Soviet human lunar orbital and landing missions. + + +== Soyuz T (1979–1986) == + + +== Soyuz TM (1987–2002) == + + +== Soyuz TMA (2002–2012) == + + +== Soyuz TMA-M (2010–2016) == + + +== Soyuz MS (2016–) == + + +== See also == + +List of Space Shuttle missions +Progress (spacecraft) +Soyuz programme +Soyuz (spacecraft) +Soyuz(Rocket) +Soyuz(Rocket family) + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Wade, Mark. "Encyclopedia Astronautica". Archived from the original on 5 July 2002. + + +== Footnotes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Freedom_Star-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Freedom_Star-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b1c01121b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Freedom_Star-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "MV Freedom Star" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Freedom_Star" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:11.220450+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +MV Freedom Star is a formerly NASA-owned and United Space Alliance-operated vessel which primarily served as an SRB recovery ship following the launch of Space Shuttle missions. It also performed tugboat duties and acted as a research platform. +From 2012 to 2016, it was a National Defense Reserve Fleet vessel in the James River Reserve Fleet, when it was then loaned by the U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD) to the Paul Hall Center for Maritime Training and Education in Piney Point, Maryland, for use as a training vessel. Her sister ship is the MV Liberty Star (now TV Kings Pointer). + + +== History == +The recovery ships were built at Atlantic Marine Shipyard on Fort George Island, Florida, and delivered in January 1981 to their original owner, United Technologies Corporation. As well as recovering the Space Shuttle's SRBs, Freedom Star has since 1998 been used to tow the Space Shuttle external fuel tanks from their assembly plant at Michoud Assembly Facility near New Orleans, Louisiana, to the Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. She served a similar role in recovering the first test flight of the Ares I and was anticipated to continue recovering boosters for the Constellation program before it was canceled in 2010. +Freedom Star underwent special strengthening enhancements to withstand the greater burden of towing the external fuel tanks. The stern was strengthened at critical points, new bulwark fairings were added, and an H-bitt was installed through which cabling is threaded to keep it centered during towing operations. Also installed was a hydraulic towing winch, referred to as a double-drum waterfall winch, holding 2,000 feet (610 m) or more of wire rope on each drum. One drum supports booster retrievals while the other is devoted to external tank towing. +Freedom Star had been used to support scientific research operations including research for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and several universities. She was usually docked alongside her sister at the Solid Rocket Booster processing facility at the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida. +Each ship is propelled by two main engines providing a total of 2,900 horsepower. The main engines turn two seven-foot (2.1-meter) propellers with controllable pitch, which provides greater response time and maneuverability. The ships also are equipped with two thrusters. The stern thruster is a water jet system that allows the ship to move in any direction without the use of propellers. This system was installed to protect the endangered manatee population that inhabits regions of the Banana River where the ships are based. The system also allows divers to work near the ship during operations at a greatly reduced risk. +In April 2012, NASA used Freedom Star to track a commercial orbital spaceflight by a Falcon 9 launch vehicle flown to the International Space Station by their space transport contractor SpaceX. + + +=== Transfer === +On September 28, 2012, Freedom Star was transferred to the U.S. Department of Transportation's James River Reserve Fleet for potential use as a training vessel. +On November 6, 2015, USNS Freedom Star arrived at the Piney Point, Maryland-based maritime training school to become the Paul Hall Center's training vessel, on loan from MARAD's James River Reserve Fleet in Jamestown, Virginia. At the school, the Freedom Star replaces the Osprey, a yard patrol type vessel that served as the school's training platform from 1996 to 2009. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Freedom Star (tugboat, 1981) at Wikimedia Commons + +Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster Retrieval Ships at NASA.gov \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Liberty_Star-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Liberty_Star-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cb531cb71 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Liberty_Star-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "MV Liberty Star" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Liberty_Star" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:31.930113+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +MV Liberty Star is a formerly NASA-owned and United Space Alliance-operated vessel which primarily served as an SRB recovery ship following the launch of Space Shuttle missions. It also performed tugboat duties and acted as a research platform. In 2012, it was transferred to the U.S. Department of Transportation for use as a training vessel at the United States Merchant Marine Academy as the T/V Kings Pointer. Her sister ship is the MV Freedom Star. + + +== History == +The recovery ships were built at Atlantic Marine Shipyard on Fort George Island, Florida, and delivered in January 1981 to their original owner, United Technologies Corporation. As well as recovering the Space Shuttle, SRB's Liberty Star has since 1998 been used to tow the Space Shuttle external fuel tanks from their assembly plant at Michoud Assembly Facility near New Orleans, Louisiana, to the Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. She served a similar role in recovering the first test flight of the Ares I and was anticipated to continue recovering boosters for the Constellation program before it was canceled in 2010. +The Liberty Star underwent special strengthening enhancements to withstand the greater burden of towing the external fuel tanks. The stern was strengthened at critical points, new bulwark fairings were added, and an H-bitt was installed through which cabling is threaded to keep it centered during towing operations. Also installed was a hydraulic towing winch, referred to as a double-drum waterfall winch, holding 2,000 feet (610 m) or more of wire rope on each drum. One drum supports booster retrievals while the other is devoted to external tank towing. + +Liberty Star has also occasionally been used to support scientific research operations including research for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and several universities. She is usually docked alongside her sister at the Solid Rocket Booster processing facility at the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida. +Each ship is propelled by two main engines providing a total of 2,900 horsepower. The main engines turn two seven-foot (2.1-meter) propellers with controllable pitch, which provides greater response time and maneuverability. The ships also are equipped with two thrusters. The stern thruster is a water jet system that allows the ship to move in any direction without the use of propellers. This system was installed to protect the endangered manatee population that inhabits regions of the Banana River where the ships are based. The system also allows divers to work near the ship during operations at a greatly reduced risk. + + +=== Transfer === +On August 21, 2012, NASA agreed to transfer the Liberty Star to the U.S. Department of Transportation for use as a training vessel at the United States Merchant Marine Academy. The ship arrived at Kings Point, New York, on September 13, 2012, with formal turnover occurring on September 14. After being refit for training duty, which included additional berthing, she was renamed TV Kings Pointer, the fifth vessel of the Academy to carry that name. The transfer agreement stipulated that NASA could again use the vessel on future missions if she was available. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Liberty Star (tugboat, 1981) at Wikimedia Commons + +Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster Retrieval Ships at NASA.gov \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Marietta_Spacemaster-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Marietta_Spacemaster-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..df6662b7a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Marietta_Spacemaster-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Martin Marietta Spacemaster" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Marietta_Spacemaster" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:34.348866+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Martin Marietta Spacemaster was a proposed configuration for what became the Space Shuttle, which featured an X-24-derived orbiter, and an unusual "catamaran style" booster stage. During launch and ascent, the orbiter would be located in a recess in the booster. The booster's 14 engines would be located in clusters of seven, at the bottom of both halves of the booster. Unlike the final design for the Space Shuttle, the Spacemaster would lack an external tank, and the boosters would be joined, by means of connecting struts which would also serve as the mounting for the orbiter. +The concept was evaluated in 1967, but was rejected. Martin Marietta went on to produce the Space Shuttle external tank (ET) for the final STS Space Shuttle design (by Lockheed Martin after a merger with Lockheed). +A model of the Martin Marietta Spacemaster is in the collection of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. + + +== See also == +List of space launch system designs +Space Shuttle program + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Spacemaster scale model in black (in the foreground to the right) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate-Demate_Device-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate-Demate_Device-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a87426b42 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate-Demate_Device-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Mate-Demate Device" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate-Demate_Device" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:35.571996+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Mate-Demate Device was a specialized gantry crane designed to lift a Space Shuttle orbiter onto and off the back of a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA). Two Mate-Demate Devices were built, one at the Armstrong Flight Research Center in California, the other at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. A third Orbiter Lifting Fixture was to serve a similar function at the Vandenberg Air Force Base, the proposed West Coast launch location for the Shuttle. It was later moved to Palmdale to support the plant where the Shuttle was built and refurbished. A portable sling was also built to support mate-demate operations away from the primary locations. + + +== Armstrong Flight Research Center == + +The first Mate-Demate Device was built at NASA's Armstrong Flight Research Center on Edwards Air Force Base, California, and completed in late 1976. It was first used with the prototype Space Shuttle Enterprise during the five Approach and Landing Tests in 1977. +While the Shuttle Landing Facility airport at Kennedy Space Center in Florida served as the primary landing site for orbiters, the longer runways at Edwards were used for 11 of the first 12 missions and remained the primary backup site throughout the Shuttle program, being used on a total of 54 out of 135 missions (40%). This MDD was used to hoist orbiters onto the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft for transport back to Florida. +The MDD in California consisted of two 100-foot (30 m) towers with stationary work platforms every 20 feet (6.1 m) up to the 80-foot (24 m) level. A horizontal structure was mounted at the 80-foot (24 m) level between the two towers. The horizontal unit cantilevers out 70 feet (21 m) from the main tower units. It controlled and guided a large lift beam that attached to the orbiters to raise and lower them. +Three large hoists were then used simultaneously to raise and lower the lift beam. Two of the hoists are connected to the portion of the lift beam that attaches to the rear of the orbiter, and one is attached to the portion of the beam that attaches to the front. Each hoist had a 100,000-pound (45,000 kg) lift capability. Operating together, the total lifting capacity of the three units is 240,000 pounds (110,000 kg). Two access platforms for servicing specialists could descend from the cantilevered section to the sides of the orbiter. +Connell Associates of Coral Gables, Florida, designed the MDD, which was constructed in 1976 by the George A. Fuller Company of Chicago, Illinois, for US$1,700,000 (equivalent to $9,618,421 in 2025). The MDD was dismantled in 2014 by Pantano Demolition of Manteca, California, at a cost of US$178,000 (equivalent to $242,079 in 2025). + + +== Kennedy Space Center == + +A similar but slightly less complex Mate-Demate Device was located at the Shuttle Landing Facility airport at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. The MDD was located just off the southeast end of the runway. Its primary use was unloading the orbiter after its cross-country flight from Edwards. +Like its sibling in California, the MDD in Florida consisted of two 100-foot (30 m) towers equipped with hoists, adapters and movable platforms for access to certain orbiter components and equipment. The KSC MDD's hoists had a total lifting capacity of 230,000 pounds (100,000 kg), slightly less than the California version. + +The contract to build the KSC MDD was awarded during the first quarter of calendar year 1977 and it was completed in June 1978. The first use of the KSC MDD was on 19 October 1978 when the Space Shuttle Pathfinder was lifted for a fit-check. The first operational shuttle to use the KSC MDD was the Space Shuttle Columbia which was lifted up in March 1979 at the end of its delivery flight. The first air traffic control tower for the Shuttle Landing Facility was built on top of the KSC MDD. The KSC MDD was dismantled in 2014. + + +== Orbiter Lifting Fixture == + +Orbiter Lifting Fixture was a scaled-down version of the MDD planned for use exclusively at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. It was first used by Space Shuttle Discovery during a fit-check during its initial delivery flight in November 1983 and was used to unload and load Space Shuttle Enterprise for pad fit checks at Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 6 in 1984 and 1985. Shuttle flights from the West Coast were canceled following the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. +The Orbiter Lifting Fixture was relocated to United States Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California where the orbiters were built and overhauled. The relocated Orbiter Lifting Fixture was first used for the delivery of the Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1991. Previously, the orbiters were trucked to the MDD at the Armstrong Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base, about 36 miles (58 km) away, which took about 10 hours. The Orbiter Lifting Fixture was dismantled in 2008. + + +== Mobile sling == + +On the rare occasions when an orbiter needed to be loaded or unloaded at a location where a permanent lifting device was not available, NASA had a special sling that could be attached to the orbiter, allowing it to be lifted by cranes. Typically, a smaller crane supported the front end of the sling, while a larger crane supported the rear. To compensate for the absence of the stabilizing structure normally provided by the MDD, an arrangement of wire ropes, masts, and winches would be set up to provide stability for the suspended Orbiter/Sling combination. +The mobile sling was used multiple times early in the Shuttle program during the late 1970s and mid-1980s to transport Space Shuttle Enterprise for display at various locations around the world. It was also used to load Space Shuttle Columbia onto an SCA when it landed at White Sands in New Mexico at the end of STS-3 in 1982. + +The sling went unused between the mid-1980s and 2012, but remained on standby to transport the shuttle in the case that it landed at one of its backup landing sites other than Edwards. The sling saw heavy use in 2012 to transport Discovery, Endeavour and Enterprise to museums at the conclusion of the Shuttle program. + + +== References == + This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-0.md index 159481824..8683026cf 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:34:03.896659+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:36.805977+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-1.md index c64da2168..a591c7252 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:34:03.896659+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:36.805977+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-2.md index 82f3a6802..7cd18fb85 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michoud_Assembly_Facility" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:34:03.896659+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:36.805977+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Soyuz-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Soyuz-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a3876bf47 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Soyuz-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +--- +title: "Military Soyuz" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Soyuz" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:03.407160+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soviet Union planned several military Soyuz spacecraft models. These versions were named Soyuz P, Soyuz PPK, Soyuz R, Soyuz 7K-VI, and Soyuz OIS (Orbital Research Station). However, none of the spacecraft ever flew in space. + + +== Soyuz P, R and PPK == + + +=== Soyuz P === +The Soyuz P (Perekhvatchik, Interceptor) space interceptor and Soyuz R (Razvedki, intelligence) command-reconnaissance spacecraft was proposed in December 1962 by Sergei Korolev. In the initial draft project, the Soyuz P would use the Soyuz 9K rocket stage and Soyuz 11K tanker spacecraft to conduct a series of dockings and re-fueling operations. The complete complex would then conduct intercepts of enemy satellites in orbits up to 6,000 km in altitude. Soyuz P was cancelled in 1963. + + +=== Soyuz R === +The Soyuz-R system (1963-1966) consisted of two separately launched spacecraft, including the small orbital station 11F71 with photo-reconnaissance and electronic intelligence equipment and a Soyuz 7K-TK for crew transport. Soyuz R was cancelled in 1966. + + +=== Soyuz PPK === +Initially the Soyuz P was designed for piloted inspection and destruction of enemy satellites. It was intended that the Soyuz would rendezvous with the target satellite. To minimize risk to the crew, a new version, Soyuz PPK (pilotiruemovo korablya-perekhvatchika, crewed interceptor spacecraft) was later proposed in 1964. + + +== Soyuz 7K-VI Zvezda == +The Zvezda (star) station was based on a radically modified Soyuz begun in October 1965. Dmitri Kozlov was the chief engineer of the Soyuz VI project, he also worked on Soyuz-P and Soyuz-R. Soyuz 7K-VI objectives were crew earth observation, orbital inspection and destruction of enemy satellites. Zvezda would be powered by two plutonium radioisotope thermoelectric generators, as solar arrays required the spacecraft to be position to the sun, not a desired attack mode. Also the military experiments need more power than solar provided. Soyuz 7K-VI had a recoilless gun for defense. It was designed for shooting in a vacuum and defending the military research spacecraft from enemy satellite inspector and interceptor satellites. The gun was aimed by maneuvering the entire spacecraft. A special gunsight was installed in the descent module for aiming the gun. A forward docking apparatus to allow docking with Almaz was also included. Work on Zvezda was cancelled in 1967 with a single prototype in advanced stages of construction. Cosmonaut training for the VI began in September 1966. The cosmonaut group selected included commander Pavel Popovich, pilot Alexei Gubarev, flight-engineers Yuri Artyukhin, Vladimir Gulyaev, Boris Nikolaevich Belousov, and Gennadiy Kolesnikov. Popovich-Kolesnikov and Gubarev-Belousov were the prime crews, with the other engineers acting as reserves and then assigned to later crews. + + +== Soyuz OIS (Orbital Research Station) == +The Soyuz OIS (Orbital Research Station) would consist of a separately-launched orbital block 11F731 OB-VI and a transport Soyuz 7K-S. + + +=== Soyuz OB-VI === +The Soyuz OB-VI would be launched for 30-day missions in a 51.6° orbit at 250 x 270 km. Power was provided by solar panels, and the payload included 700 to 1,000 kg of instrumentation. The total mass would be around 6,500 kg (14,300 lb). + + +=== Soyuz 7K-S === +The initial Soyuz 7K-S program was to consist of four uncrewed, followed by two crewed test flights, then two operational launches. Cosmonauts were assigned to the project in 1973. +In 1975, the project was cancelled. At that time the launch escape system for 7K-S was ready and was used for Apollo-Soyuz Test Project flights. Three complete vehicles were launched as uncrewed test missions: + + +=== Soyuz 7K-ST === +The Soyuz 7K-ST transport project was develop in parallel to the military 7K-S and was redesigned for a crew of three, eventually becoming the Soyuz-T used with the Salyut space stations. + + +==== Specifications ==== +Crew Size: 2 +Total Length: 7.5 m +Maximum Diameter: 2.7 m +Total Habitable Volume: 9.00 m3 +Total Mass: 6,800 kg +Primary Engine Thrust: 400 kgf +Main Engine Propellants: N2O4/UDMH +Main Engine Isp: 305 seconds +Electrical System: Solar panels + + +== Relation with other Soyuz versions == +The list below shows proposed, flown (in bold) and military (in italic) Soyuz versions. + + +== See also == +List of space stations +Salyut programme + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development +Information on Soyuz spacecraft +OMWorld's ASTP Docking Trainer Page \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_recovery_ship-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_recovery_ship-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dc523cacf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_recovery_ship-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "NASA recovery ship" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_recovery_ship" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:39.113825+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The NASA recovery ships are two ships, the MV Liberty Star and the MV Freedom Star, that were tasked with retrieving spent Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) following the launch of Space Shuttle missions. Although owned by NASA, the ships were operated by Space Flight Operations contractor United Space Alliance. Following the end of the Space Shuttle program, and therefore booster recovery, NASA transferred both vessels to the Department of Transportation. + + +== Design and construction == +Both ships were built at Atlantic Marine Shipyard on Fort George Island, Florida, and delivered in January 1981 to their original owner, United Technologies Inc. They are propelled by two main engines providing a total of 2,900 horsepower (2.2 MW), and are capable of towing 60,000 pounds (27,000 kg) each. Two auxiliary engines with Jacuzzi-like jets (similar to those found in Naval riverine craft) as well as the extra caution taken by the crew allow the ships to coast up the Banana River without harming the significant manatee population. +All gear on deck, including the 7,500-pound (3,400 kg) deck crane used to lift the booster frustum on deck, compressors for removing seawater from the boosters, winches and reels, bolt on and off to allow the vessels to be used for purposes other than booster recovery such as towing the Pegasus barge from Michoud Assembly Facility. +Communications equipment includes a Kongsberg dynamic position system and joy stick control, X-band and S-band radars for tracking ship traffic and the falling SRBs, global positioning system, handheld VHF radios and GPS units, digital video and recording systems, voice and data satellite communication capability, VHF automatic direction finding, high-frequency single-side band radios, electronic chart plotters, night vision and Sea Area-3 Global Maritime Distress Safety System consoles. To satisfy NASA's need for more observational data during shuttle launches, a Weibel Scientific Continuous Pulse Doppler X-band radar was mounted on MV Liberty Star to provide velocity and motion information about the shuttle and any debris during launch. + + +== Activities == +Aside from their usual missions of retrieving the Space Shuttle SRBs, the Liberty Star and Freedom Star have occasionally been used for other purposes. Starting in 1998, the ships began making use of their downtime between Shuttle launches by towing the Space Shuttle external fuel tanks from their assembly plant at Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana to the Vehicle Assembly Building at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The ships performed similar missions when the Ares 1-X rocket was tested. +To withstand the towing burden, Liberty Star and Freedom Star underwent deck-strengthening enhancements. The sterns were strengthened at critical points, new bulwark fairings were added, and an H-bitt was installed through which cabling is threaded to keep it centered during towing operations. A hydraulic towing winch was also installed, referred to as a double-drum waterfall winch, holding 2,000 feet or more of wire rope on each drum. One drum supports booster retrievals while the other is devoted to external tank towing. +The ships have also occasionally been used to support scientific research operations including research for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and several universities. The ships are normally docked alongside each other next to the Solid Rocket Booster processing facility at the Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..126c2d32c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "North American DC-3" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:41.394188+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The DC-3 was one of several early design proposals for the NASA Space Shuttle designed by Maxime Faget at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) in Houston. It was nominally developed by North American Aviation (NAA), although it was a purely NASA-internal design. Unlike the design that eventually emerged, the DC-3 was a fully reusable launch vehicle two-stage-to-orbit spaceplane design with a small payload capacity of about 12,000 lb (5,400 kg) and limited maneuverability. Its inherent strengths were good low-speed handling during landing, and a low-risk development that was relatively immune to changes in weight and balance. +Work on the DC-3 program ended when the US Air Force joined the Shuttle program and demanded a much greater "cross-range" maneuverability than the DC-3 could deliver. There were also serious concerns about its stability during re-entry, as well as heating conditions on its straight wings. NAA eventually won the Shuttle Orbiter contract, based on a very different design from another team at MSC. + +== History == + +=== Background === +In the mid-1960s the US Air Force conducted a series of classified studies on next-generation space transportation systems. Among their many goals, the new launchers were intended to support a continued crewed military presence in space, and so needed to dramatically lower the cost of launches and increase launch rates. Selecting from a series of proposals, the Air Force concluded that semi-reusable designs were the best choice from an overall cost basis, and the Lockheed Star Clipper design was one of the most-studied examples. They proposed a development program with an immediate start on a "Class I" vehicle based on expendable boosters, followed by a slower development of a "Class II" semi-reusable design, and perhaps a "Class III" fully reusable design in the further future. Although it is estimated that the Air Force spent up to $1 billion on the associated studies, only the Class I program proceeded to development, as the X-20 Dyna-Soar, which was later cancelled. +Not long after the Air Force studies, NASA started studying the post-Project Apollo era. A wide variety of projects were examined, many based on re-using Apollo hardware (Apollo X, Apollo Applications Program, etc.) Flush with the success of the Moon landings, a series of ever-more ambitious projects gained currency, a process that was considerably expanded under the new NASA director, Thomas O. Paine. By about 1970 these had settled on the near-term launching of a 12-man space station in 1975, expanding this to a 50-man "space base" by 1980, a smaller lunar-orbiting station, and then eventually a crewed mission to Mars in the 1980s. NASA awarded $2.9-million study contracts for the space stations to North American and McDonnell Douglas in July 1969. +Almost as an afterthought the idea of a small and inexpensive "logistics vehicle" for supporting these missions developed in the late 1960s. George Mueller was handed the task of developing plans for such a system, and held a one-day symposium at NASA headquarters in December 1967 to study various options. Eighty people attended and presented a wide variety of potential designs, many from the earlier Air Force work, from small Dyna-Soar like vehicles primarily carrying crew and launched on existing expendable boosters, to much larger fully reusable designs. + +=== ILRV === +On 30 October 1968 NASA officially began work on what was then known as the "Integral Launch and Re-entry Vehicle" (ILRV), a name they borrowed from the earlier Air Force studies. The development program was to take place in four phases; Phase A: Advanced Studies; Phase B: Project Definition; Phase C: Vehicle Design; and Phase D: Production and Operations. Four teams were to participate in Phase A; two in Phase B; and then a single prime contractor for Phases C and D. A separate Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) competition was to run in parallel. +NASA Houston and Huntsville jointly issued the Request for Proposal (RFP) for eight-month Phase A ILRV studies. The requirements were for 5,000 to 50,000 lb of payload to be delivered into a 500 km altitude orbit. The re-entry vehicle should have a cross range of at least 450 miles, meaning that it could fly to the left or right of its normal orbital path. General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell-Douglas, Martin Marietta, and (the newly named) North American Rockwell were invited to bid. In February 1969, following study of the RFPs, Martin Marietta's entry was dropped, although they continued work on their own. The other entries were all given additional Phase A funding. +Supported by Paine's ambitious plans, in August 1969 the ILRV program was re-defined to be a "maximum effort" design, and only fully reusable designs would be accepted. This led to a second series of Phase A studies. The designs that were returned varied widely, meeting the huge payload range specified in the original RFP. Two basic fuselage designs seemed to be the most common; lifting body designs that offered high cross-range but limited maneuverability after re-entry, and delta-winged designs that reversed these criteria. + +=== DC-3 === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..603412b14 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "North American DC-3" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:41.394188+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Faget felt that all of the proposed designs incorporated an unacceptable amount of development risk. Unlike a conventional aircraft, with separate fuselage and wings, the ILRV designs had blended wing-body layouts. This meant that changes in weight and balance, which are almost unavoidable during development, would require changes to the entire orbiter structure to compensate. He also felt that the poor low-speed handling of any of these layouts presented a real danger during landing. Upset by what he felt was a project that seemed to guarantee failure, he started work on his own design, and presented it as the DC-3. +Unlike the other entries, DC-3 was much more conventional in layout, with an almost cylindrical fuselage and low-mounted slightly swept wings. The design looked more like a cargo aircraft than a spacecraft. Re-entry was accomplished in a 60 degree nose-high attitude that presented the lower surface of the spacecraft to the airflow, using a ballistic blunt-body approach that was similar to the one Faget had successfully pioneered on the Mercury capsule. During re-entry, the wings provided little or no aerodynamic lift. After re-entry, when the spacecraft entered the lower atmosphere, it would pitch over into a conventional flying attitude, ducts would open, and jet engines would start up for landing. +The upside of this design approach was that changes in the weight and balance could be addressed simply by moving the wing or re-shaping it, a common solution that had been used for decades in aircraft design—including the original Douglas DC-3 whose wings were swept rearward for just this reason. The downside was that the spacecraft would have little hypersonic lift, so its ability to maneuver while re-entering would be limited and its cross-range would be about 300 miles. It could make up for some of this with its improved low-speed flying ability, but would still not be able to match the mandated 450 miles. The ballistic portion of its reentry profile also meant flying in a stall, which many NASA astronauts perceived as risky. +Although the DC-3 had never been part of the original ILRV plans, Faget's name was so well respected that others at NASA MSC in Houston quickly rallied around him. Other NASA departments all selected their own favorite designs, including recoverable versions of Saturn boosters developed at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, lifting-bodies based on the HL-10 that were favored by the Langley Research Center and Dryden Flight Research Center (Edwards), and even a single-stage-to-orbit Aerospaceplane were also proposed. From then on, the entire program was beset with in-fighting between the various teams. On 1 June 1969, a report was published that attacked the DC-3 design, followed by several others over the remainder of the year. In spite of this, North American quickly took up the DC-3 design, having learned over the years that the best way to win a NASA contract was to make whatever design Faget favored. They won contract NAS9-9205 to develop the DC-3 in December 1969. +In order to clear the logjam developing between the departments, on 23 January 1970 a meeting was held in Houston to study all of the in-house concepts. Over the next year a number of proposed designs would be dropped, including the entire series of lifting-body-derived vehicles as it proved too difficult to fit cylindrical tanks into the airframe. This left two basic approaches, delta wings and Faget's DC-3 series. Development of the DC-3 continued, with a drop test of a 1/10-scale model starting on 4 May. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..07f470b29 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "North American DC-3" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:41.394188+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Space Task Group === +On 12 February 1969 Richard Nixon formed the Space Task Group under the direction of Vice President Spiro Agnew, giving them the task of selecting missions for a post-Apollo NASA. Agnew quickly became a proponent of NASA's ambitious plans that would culminate in a Mars attempt. The Task Group's final report, delivered on 11 September 1969, outlined three broad plans; the first required funding at $8 to $10 billion a year and would fulfill all of NASA's goals, the second would reduce this to $8 billion or less if the crewed lunar orbiting station was dropped, and finally the third would require only $5 billion a year and would develop only the space stations and shuttle. +At first Nixon did not comment on the plans. Later he demanded that the program be greatly reduced even from the smallest of the Task Group's proposals, forcing them to select either the space base or the shuttle. Discussing the problem, NASA engineers concluded that the development of a shuttle would lower the cost of launching portions of the space station, so it seemed that proceeding with the shuttle might make the future development of the station more likely. However, NASA's estimates of the shuttle development costs were met with great skepticism by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). Studies by RAND in 1970 showed that there was no benefit to developing a reusable spacecraft when development costs were taken into account. The report concluded that a crewed station would be more cheaply supported with expendable boosters. +By this time Paine had left NASA to return to General Electric, and had been replaced by the more pragmatic James Fletcher. Fletcher ordered independent reviews of the shuttle concept; Lockheed was to prepare a report on how the shuttle could reduce payload costs, Aerospace Corporation was to make an independent report on development and operational costs, and Mathematica would later combine these two into a final definitive report. Mathematica's report was extremely positive; it showed that development of a fully reusable design would lower the per-launch cost, thereby reducing payload costs and driving up demand. However, the report was based on a greatly increased rate of launch; inherent in the math was that lower launch rates would completely upset any advantage. Nevertheless, the report was extremely influential, and made the shuttle program an ongoing topic of discussion in Washington. +Looking to shore up support for the program, Fletcher directed NASA to develop the shuttle to be able to support the Air Force's requirements as well, as initially developed in their "Class III" fully reusable vehicles. If the shuttle became vital to the Air Force as well as NASA, it would be effectively unkillable. The Air Force's requirements were based on a projected series of large spy satellites then under development, which were 60 feet long and weighed 40,000 lbs. They needed to be launched into polar orbits, corresponding to a normal launch from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) of 65,000 lbs (launches to the east receive a free boost from the Earth's natural rotation). +The Air Force also demanded a cross-range capability of 1,500 miles, meaning that the spacecraft would have to be able to land at a point 1,500 miles (2,400 km) to either side of its orbital path when it started re-entry. This was due to the desire to be able to land again after one orbit, the so-called "orbit-once-around". This capacity was useful to NASA as well, as it made more abort possibilities available if needed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8afe07490 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "North American DC-3" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:41.394188+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== End of DC-3 === +The new cross-range requirements doomed the DC-3 design. +Satellites orbit around the center of the Earth, not the surface. If a spacecraft were launched due East from the equator into a 90-minute low Earth orbit, it will circle the Earth and return to the spot where it was launched 90 minutes later. However, the launch site will have moved due to the Earth's rotation. Over the 90-minute period, the Earth would rotate 2,500 kilometres (1,600 miles) to the east, escaping from the spacecraft as it returns. Given the orbital speed about 28,000 kilometres per hour (17,000 mph), simply starting the re-entry about 5 minutes later than the complete 90-minute orbit would make up this difference. +At Kennedy Space Center's 28.5° north latitude the situation is more complicated. Over the 90-minute orbit KSC will rotate about 1,350 miles (2,170 km). Unlike the equatorial orbit case, however, letting the spacecraft stay in the inclined orbit a little longer will start taking it south of the launch site (for the most efficient launch eastward, where the orbital inclination is equal to the launch latitude, making the launch point the most northerly of its ground path), its closest point of approach being about 300 miles (480 km) to the southwest. A spacecraft wishing to return to its launch site will need about 300 miles of cross-range maneuverability during re-entry, and the NASA shuttle designs demanded about 450 miles in order to have some working room. +Polar orbits from the Air Force's Vandenberg Air Force Base are another matter entirely. At almost 35° N, the distance it would move over a single orbit would be slightly smaller than KSC, but critically, the shuttle would be traveling south, not east. This meant that it was not flying toward the launch point as it traveled in its orbit, and when it completed one orbit it would have to make up the entire 1,350 miles during re-entry. These missions required a dramatically improved cross-range capability, set at 1,500 miles to give it a slight reserve. The ballistic re-entry profile of the DC-3 series simply could not come close to matching this requirement. +On 1 May 1971 the OMB finally released a budget plan, limiting NASA to $3.2 billion per year for the next five years. Given existing project budgets, this limited any spending on the shuttle to about $1 billion a year, far less than required to develop any of the completely reusable designs. Based on these constraints, NASA returned to a Class II-like vehicle with external tankage, which led to the MSC-020 design. Later that year all straight-wing designs were officially abandoned, although Faget's team continued to work on them for some time in spite of this. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ffc8851b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "North American DC-3" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_DC-3" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:41.394188+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Description == +The DC-3 was a two-stage vehicle with a large booster and smaller shuttle/orbiter of overall similar design. Both were similar to "jumbo jets" in layout in general terms, with their large cylindrical fuselage containing fuel tanks instead of passengers or cargo. The bottom of the fuselage was flattened for re-entry aerodynamics, with a slight upward toward the nose in early models. The wings were low-mounted, in-line with the bottom of the fuselage, with a 14 degree rearward sweep on the front and no sweep on the back. The general layout of the wing planform was similar to the original DC-3. The empennage was a conventional three-surface unit, although in the original MSC-001 design the delta-shaped horizontal stabilizer was located at the bottom of the fuselage and served double-duty in protecting the rear-mounted engines during re-entry. Later versions did not generally include this feature, and used more conventional surfaces mid-mounted on the fuselage. +The orbiter carried a crew of two, and had accommodations for up to ten passengers. A cargo area was mounted in the middle of the craft between the liquid hydrogen (LH2) tank behind it, and a combined LH2/liquid oxygen tank in front of it. This arrangement was used in order to center the cargo over the wing, with the heavier oxygen and crew compartment balancing the weight of the engines. The lighter weight hydrogen then filled out the rest of the internal space. The booster had no cargo area, so it used a simpler arrangement of tankage with a single LH2 tank at the rear. The booster normally flew uncrewed, but included a two-person cockpit area that was used during ferry flights. +The orbiter was powered by two modified XLR-129 engines with the thrust increased from 250,000 to 300,000 lbf, two 15,000 lbf RL-10 orbital manoeuvring engines, and six Rolls-Royce RB162 jet engines for landing. The booster used eleven of the same XLR-129 engines, and four Pratt & Whitney JT8D for landing. XLR-129s on both the shuttle and booster were fired for vertical take-off. The orbiter was mounted relatively far forward for launch, its tail in-line with the booster's wings. The combined weight at launch would be about 2,030 tons. +The orbiter would re-enter nose-high at an angle of about 60 degrees above horizontal, decelerating at a peak of 2G until it reached low subsonic speeds at 40,000 ft. At this point the forward speed of the craft would be very low, so the nose was pitched down and the orbiter dove to pick up airspeed over the wings and transition to level flight. Expected re-entry heating rates on the orbiter were 1650 deg C on the leading edge, and 790 deg C over 80% of the lower surface. +In order to maximize overall performance, the booster released the orbiter at Mach 10 and 45 miles altitude. This required the booster to carry a complete thermal protection system in order to re-enter for landing. Both the orbiter and booster were to be protected with the LI-1500 silica tiles similar to those eventually used on the Space Shuttle, a design that had recently been introduced by Lockheed and quickly became a baseline design for all of the shuttle contenders. As a result, both airframes were able to be built out of aluminum, greatly reducing airframe cost. +Both craft carried just enough JP-4 for landing go-around. Both could also carry increased loads of JP-4 for test flights or ferrying. After dispatching the orbiter the booster would be too far down-range to easily turn around and return to Kennedy, so the normal mission profile had it coast across the ocean, land automatically, refuel and pick up a crew, and then be flown back to Kennedy on its JT8D engines. +Lockheed estimated that development and initial production would cost $5.912 billion over a period from 1970 to 1975. A fleet of six orbiters and four boosters would have supported a launch rate of 50 flights per year. + +== References == +Maxime Faget, "Space Shuttle: A New Configuration", Astronautics & Aeronautics, January 1970, p. 52 +Marcus Lindroos, "MSC/North America Concept-A, 'DC-3'", 21 January 2003 (has 4 refs) +"Shuttle", astronautix.com Archived 2012-03-13 at the Wayback Machine + +== External links == +The DC-3 fully reusable Space Shuttle early concept, video rendering by Hazegrayart \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Shocker-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Shocker-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e9db0c503 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Shocker-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Operation Shocker" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Shocker" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:30.349477+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Operation Shocker was a 23-year counterintelligence operation run by the US Federal Bureau of Investigation against the Soviet Union. The operation involved the fake defection in place of a US Army sergeant based in Washington, D.C. who, in return for hundreds of thousands of dollars over two decades, provided information to Soviet intelligence (GRU) as agreed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff. This included over 4,000 documents on a new nerve gas the US believed unweaponizable, with the US intending to waste Soviet resources. + + +== Overview == +The operation began in 1959 when U.S. Army First Sergeant Joseph Edward Cassidy (1920-2011), assigned to the Army's nuclear power office near Washington, D.C., was approached (with Army permission) by the FBI. Cassidy, despite having no previous training, was able to make contact with a Soviet naval attache believed to be a spy, and set up an arrangement where he would provide information to the Soviets in exchange for money. Soviet requests for information were passed to the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, and various classified information provided as a result. +The principal Russian interest was in information about the US nerve gas program, and Cassidy initially established his credentials by providing genuine data from the US program. By 1964 he was in a position to begin pointing Soviet research towards a G-series nerve agent, GJ, which the US thought could not be produced in stable, weaponizable form. Cassidy provided over 4,000 documents on a mixture of real and non-existent research into the new gas, with the US intending to waste Soviet resources attempting to duplicate the work. David Wise, in his book Cassidy's Run, implies that the Soviet program to develop the Novichok agents may have been an unintended result of the misleading information. +The operation was highly classified, and when two FBI agents died in a plane crash while surveilling a Soviet spy, press and public were misled about the circumstances, and even the agents' families were told nothing for years. +A similar, and arguably more significant, disinformation operation was run by the FBI via double-agent Dmitri Polyakov, feeding the Soviet Union the false information that the US was covertly continuing with its biological weapons program despite public announcements to the contrary. The disinformation may have been one reason which led the Soviet Union to expand its biological weapons program, and a near-universal belief into the 1990s among its scientists that they were mirroring US efforts. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_Maneuvering_System-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_Maneuvering_System-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..08c8e0e8a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_Maneuvering_System-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Orbital Maneuvering System" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_Maneuvering_System" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:42.636684+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) is a system of hypergolic liquid-propellant rocket engines used on the Space Shuttle and the Orion spacecraft. Designed and manufactured in the United States by Aerojet, the system allowed the orbiter to perform various orbital maneuvers according to requirements of each mission profile: orbital injection after main engine cutoff, orbital corrections during flight, and the final deorbit burn for reentry. From STS-90 onwards the OMS were typically ignited part-way into the Shuttle's ascent for a few minutes to aid acceleration to orbital insertion. Notable exceptions were particularly high-altitude missions such as those supporting the Hubble Space Telescope (STS-31) or those with unusually heavy payloads such as Chandra (STS-93). An OMS dump burn also occurred on STS-51-F, as part of the Abort to Orbit procedure. + + +== Overview == +The OMS consists of two pods mounted on the orbiter's aft fuselage, on either side of the vertical stabilizer. Each pod contains a single AJ10-190 engine, based on the Apollo Service Module's Service Propulsion System engine, which produces 26.7 kilonewtons (6,000 lbf) of thrust with a specific impulse (Isp) of 316 seconds. The oxidizer-to-fuel ratio is 1.65-to-1, The expansion ratio of the nozzle exit to the throat is 55-to-1, and the chamber pressure of the engine is 8.6 bar. The dry weight of each engine is 118kg (260lb). Each engine could be reused for 100 missions and was capable of a total of 1,000 starts and 15 hours of burn time. +These pods also contained the Orbiter's aft set of reaction control system (RCS) engines, and so were referred to as OMS/RCS pods. The OM engine and RCS both burned monomethylhydrazine (MMH) as fuel, which was oxidized with MON-3 (mixed oxides of nitrogen, 3% nitric acid), with the propellants being stored in tanks within the OMS/RCS pod, alongside other fuel and engine management systems. When full, the pods together carried around 4,087 kilograms (9,010 lb) of MMH and 6,743 kilograms (14,866 lb) of MON-3, allowing the OMS to produce a total delta-v of around 305 metres per second (1,000 ft/s) with a 29,000-kilogram (64,000 lb) payload. + + +== Proposed OMS Payload Bay Kit == +It was never built, but to augment the OMS an OMS Payload Bay Kit was proposed. It would have used one, two or three sets of OMS tanks, installed in the payload bay, to provide an extra 150 m/s, 300 m/s or 450 m/s (490 ft/s, 980 ft/s or 1,500 ft/s) of delta-V to the orbiter. The orbiter control panels had related switches and gauges but they were nonfunctional. + + +== Orion ESM main engine == + +Following the retirement of the Space Shuttle, these engines were repurposed for use on the Orion spacecraft's service module. This variant uses monomethylhydrazine as fuel, with MON-3 (mixed oxides of nitrogen) as oxidizer. It is planned to be used for the first six flights of the Artemis program; afterwards it would be replaced by a new "Orion Main Engine" starting with Artemis 7. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiter_Boom_Sensor_System-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiter_Boom_Sensor_System-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..69a304e32 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiter_Boom_Sensor_System-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Orbiter Boom Sensor System" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiter_Boom_Sensor_System" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:43.851887+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS) was a 50-foot (15.24 m) boom carried on board NASA's Space Shuttles. The boom was grappled by the Canadarm and served as an extension of the arm, doubling its length to a combined total of 100 feet (30 m). At the far end of the boom was an instrumentation package of cameras and lasers used to scan the leading edges of the wings, the nose cap, and the crew compartment after each lift-off and before each landing. If flight engineers suspected potential damage to other areas, as evidenced in imagery captured during lift-off or the rendezvous pitch maneuver, then additional regions could be scanned. +The OBSS was introduced to the shuttle fleet with STS-114, the "Return to Flight" mission executed by Discovery, and was flown on every mission after that until the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet in 2011. It was used to inspect the shuttle for damage to the heat shield, officially called the Thermal Protection System (TPS), that could jeopardize the shuttle during re-entry. The decision to perform focused inspections of the TPS was prompted by the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, in which Columbia was destroyed due to damage inflicted to its TPS during launch. The OBSS was central to focused inspections of the TPS, not only because it carried all the instruments necessary for detailed measurements and observations, but also because without it, the Canadarm was too short to reach to all the areas that needed to be surveyed. + + +== Description == +The boom was essentially the same design as the Canadarm itself, except that the articulatory joints are fixed. OBSS arms for the three remaining orbiters were manufactured relatively quickly, primarily because some spare parts for the Canadarm system were used. +Two instrumentation packages are installed at the far end of the OBSS. Sensor package 1 consists of the Laser Dynamic Range Imager (LDRI) and an Intensified Television Camera (ITVC). Sensor package 2 is the Laser Camera System (LCS) and a digital camera (IDC). The sensors can record at a resolution of a few millimeters, and can scan at a rate of about 2.5 inches (64 mm) per second. +It is also fitted with handrails, so that the boom could be used to provide spacewalkers with access to the shuttle's underbelly in case in-flight repairs were required. + + +== STS-120 ISS repair == + +During STS-120 the OBSS was used as an extension boom for the space station's Canadarm2, something it was never designed to do. During this mission the P6 solar array had become damaged during the redeploy. Canadarm2 grabbed the arm on its center Flight-Releasable Grapple Fixture and then astronaut Scott E. Parazynski was mounted at the end of the boom to make the repair. Because Canadarm2 was unable to power the OBSS, it was without power many hours more than it was designed to handle, but because it was heated up considerably before the start of the repair it stayed undamaged. + + +== Enhanced ISS boom assembly == +Due to the benefits for spacewalkers from the extended range provided by connecting an OBSS to the International Space Station (ISS)'s robotic arm, NASA implemented a plan for STS-134 to leave its OBSS behind on the ISS, where it would permanently remain. The plan resulted in a number of modifications to the OBSS, now known as the Enhanced ISS Boom Assembly, including the addition of a Power Data and Grapple Fixture which enables mating to the robotic arm on the end of the boom with a Canadarm2-compatible grapple fixture to favor station use. The boom was stowed on the ISS S1 Integrated Truss Structure on the fourth spacewalk of STS-134 on May 27, 2011. The OBSS sensors were disconnected during the EVA, and are not designed to withstand thermal conditions outside the ISS without power to keep them warm. However, the modification of the grapple fixture could enable such equipment to be mounted onto the OBSS in the future. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +NASA -Space Shuttle page \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Juno-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Juno-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..988701576 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Juno-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Project Juno" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Juno" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:55.062026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Project Juno was a privately funded campaign which selected Helen Sharman to be the first Briton in space. +As the United Kingdom did not, at that time, have a human spaceflight programme (until the UK joined the human spaceflight elements of ESA's exploration programme in December 2012, which led to Tim Peake's ESA mission in 2015), a private consortium was formed to raise money to pay the Soviet Union for a seat on a Soyuz mission to the Mir space station. The Soviet Union had recently flown Toyohiro Akiyama, a Japanese journalist, under a similar arrangement. + + +== Selection == +A call for applicants was publicized in the UK (one ad read "Astronaut wanted. No experience necessary"), leading to 13,000 applications. Juno selected four candidates to train in the Soviet Union: + +Gordon Brooks (Royal Navy physician, then 33) +Major Timothy Mace (Army Air Corps, 33) +Clive Smith (Kingston University lecturer, 27) +Helen Sharman (food technologist, 26) +The training process was documented in a Scottish Television documentary, 'Mission Juno', broadcast on 28th December 1989. Eventually Mace and Sharman were selected to continue full-time training at Star City. After learning Russian and familiarising themselves with the science programme, Smith and Brooks were employed to teach the other two how to perform the experiments and then to conduct them in a life sized mock up of Mir for live media during the mission. + + +== Funding == +The cost of the flight was to be funded by various innovative schemes, including sponsoring by private British companies and a lottery system. Corporate sponsors included British Aerospace, Memorex, and Interflora, and television rights were sold to ITV. +The flight cost £7 million. +Ultimately the Juno consortium failed to raise the entire sum, and the Soviet Union considered cancelling the mission. However Mikhail Gorbachev directed the mission to proceed at Soviet cost. The ambitious microgravity experiments originally planned were dropped when time ran out for sending required equipment on an automated 'Progress' flight. Helen did perform experiments designed by British schools that could be done with existing equipment aboard Mir along with a British microbiology screening investigation taken over by the Russians. + + +== Flight and after == +Sharman was launched aboard Soyuz TM-12 on 18 May 1991, and returned aboard Soyuz TM-11 on 26 May 1991. +Both Sharman and Mace were candidates but not selected in the 1992 and 1998 European Space Agency selection rounds for its astronaut corps. Brooks was also put forward for the European Astronaut Corps in 1982, but dropped out when employed on AI systems elsewhere. Mace did not fly in space, but married the daughter of cosmonaut Vitali Zholobov. He was later the helicopter pilot for President of South Africa Nelson Mandela. He died in September 2014 from cancer. + + +== See also == +British National Space Centre +British space programme +British astronauts + + +== References == + + +== External links == +BBC article +Spacefacts bio of Timothy Mace +Article about Gordon Brooks and Juno +JUNO Amateur Radio Contacts with Schools \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c7d3123b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The RS-25, also known as the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME), is a liquid-fuel cryogenic rocket engine that was used on NASA's Space Shuttle and is used on the Space Launch System. +Designed and manufactured in the United States by Rocketdyne (later Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne and Aerojet Rocketdyne), the RS-25 burns cryogenic (very low temperature) liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants, with each engine producing 1,859 kN (418,000 lbf) thrust at liftoff. Although RS-25 heritage traces back to the 1960s, its concerted development began in the 1970s with the first flight, STS-1, on April 12, 1981. The RS-25 has undergone upgrades over its operational history to improve the engine's thrust, reliability, safety, and maintenance load. +The engine produces a specific impulse (Isp) of 452 seconds (4.43 kN⋅s/kg) in vacuum, or 366 seconds (3.59 kN⋅s/kg) at sea level, has a mass of approximately 3.5 tonnes (7,700 pounds), and is capable of throttling between 67% and 109% of its rated power level in one-percent increments. Components of the RS-25 operate at temperatures ranging from −253 to 3,300 °C (−400 to 6,000 °F). +The Space Shuttle used a cluster of three RS-25 engines mounted at the stern of the orbiter, with fuel drawn from the external tank. The engines were used for propulsion throughout the spacecraft ascent, with total thrust increased by two solid rocket boosters and the orbiter's two AJ10 orbital maneuvering system engines. Following each flight, the RS-25 engines were removed from the orbiter, inspected, refurbished, and then reused on another mission. +Four RS-25 engines are installed on each Space Launch System, housed in the engine section at the base of the core stage, and expended after use. The first four Space Launch System flights use modernized and refurbished engines built for the Space Shuttle program. Subsequent flights will make use of a simplified RS-25E engine called the Production Restart, which is under testing and development. + +== Components == + +The RS-25 engine consists of pumps, valves, and other components working in concert to produce thrust. Fuel (liquid hydrogen) and oxidizer (liquid oxygen) from the Space Shuttle's external tank entered the orbiter at the umbilical disconnect valves and from there flowed through the orbiter's main propulsion system (MPS) feed lines; whereas in the Space Launch System (SLS), fuel and oxidizer from the rocket's core stage flow directly into the MPS lines. Once in the MPS lines, the fuel and oxidizer each branch out into separate paths to each engine (three on the Space Shuttle, four on the SLS). In each branch, pre-valves then allow the propellants to enter the engine. +Once in the engine, the propellants flow through low-pressure fuel and oxidizer turbopumps (LPFTP and LPOTP), and from there into high-pressure turbopumps (HPFTP and HPOTP). From these HPTPs the propellants take different routes through the engine. The oxidizer is split into four separate paths: to the oxidizer heat exchanger, which then splits into the oxidizer tank pressurization and pogo suppression systems; to the low-pressure oxidizer turbopump (LPOTP); to the high-pressure oxidizer pre-burner, from which it is split into the HPFTP turbine and HPOTP before being reunited in the hot gas manifold and sent on to the main combustion chamber (MCC); or directly into the main combustion chamber (MCC) injectors. +Meanwhile, fuel flows through the main fuel valve into regenerative cooling systems for the nozzle and MCC, or through the chamber coolant valve. The fuel passing through the MCC cooling system then passes back through the LPFTP turbine before being routed either to the fuel tank pressurization system or to the hot gas manifold cooling system (from where it passes into the MCC). Fuel in the nozzle cooling and chamber coolant valve systems is then sent via pre-burners into the HPFTP turbine and HPOTP before being reunited again in the hot gas manifold, from where it passes into the MCC injectors. Once in the injectors, the propellants are mixed and injected into the main combustion chamber where they are ignited. The ejection of the burning propellant mixture through the throat and bell of the engine's nozzle creates the thrust. + +=== Turbopumps === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4a67e811f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Oxidizer system ==== +The low-pressure oxidizer turbopump (LPOTP) is an axial-flow pump which operates at approximately 5,150 rpm driven by a six-stage turbine powered by high-pressure liquid oxygen from the high-pressure oxidizer turbopump (HPOTP). It boosts the liquid oxygen's pressure from 0.7 to 2.9 MPa (100 to 420 psi), with the flow from the LPOTP then being supplied to the HPOTP. During engine operation, the pressure boost permits the high-pressure oxidizer pump to operate at high speeds without cavitating. The LPOTP, which measures approximately 450 by 450 mm (18 by 18 in), is connected to the vehicle propellant ducting and supported in a fixed position by being mounted on the launch vehicle's structure. +Then, mounted before the HPOTP, is the pogo oscillation suppression system accumulator. For use, it is pre-and post-charged with He and charged with gaseous O2 from the heat exchanger, and, not having any membrane, it operates by continuously recirculating the charge gas. A number of baffles of various types are present inside the accumulator to control sloshing and turbulence, which is useful of itself and also to prevent the escape of gas into the low-pressure oxidizer duct to be ingested in the HPOTP. +The HPOTP consists of two single-stage centrifugal pumps (the main pump and a pre-burner pump) mounted on a common shaft and driven by a two-stage, hot-gas turbine. The main pump boosts the liquid oxygen's pressure from 2.9 to 30 MPa (420 to 4,350 psi) while operating at approximately 28,120 rpm, giving a power output of 23,260 hp (17.34 MW). The HPOTP discharge flow splits into several paths, one of which drives the LPOTP turbine. Another path is to, and through, the main oxidizer valve and enters the main combustion chamber. Another small flow path is tapped off and sent to the oxidizer heat exchanger. The liquid oxygen flows through an anti-flood valve that prevents it from entering the heat exchanger until sufficient heat is present for the heat exchanger to utilize the heat contained in the gases discharged from the HPOTP turbine, converting the liquid oxygen to gas. The gas is sent to a manifold and then routed to pressurize the liquid oxygen tank. Another path enters the HPOTP second-stage pre-burner pump to boost the liquid oxygen's pressure from 30 to 51 MPa (4,300 psia to 7,400 psia). It passes through the oxidizer pre-burner oxidizer valve into the oxidizer pre-burner and through the fuel pre-burner oxidizer valve into the fuel pre-burner. The HPOTP measures approximately 600 by 900 mm (24 by 35 in). It is attached by flanges to the hot-gas manifold. +The HPOTP turbine and HPOTP pumps are mounted on a common shaft. Mixing of the fuel-rich hot gases in the turbine section and the liquid oxygen in the main pump can create a hazard and, to prevent this, the two sections are separated by a cavity that is continuously purged by the engine's helium supply during engine operation. Two seals minimize leakage into the cavity; one seal is located between the turbine section and the cavity, while the other is between the pump section and cavity. Loss of helium pressure in this cavity results in automatic engine shutdown. + +==== Fuel system ==== +The low-pressure fuel turbopump (LPFTP) is an axial-flow pump driven by a two-stage turbine powered by gaseous hydrogen. It boosts the pressure of the liquid hydrogen from 30 to 276 psia (0.2 to 1.9 MPa) and supplies it to the high-pressure fuel turbopump (HPFTP). During engine operation, the pressure boost provided by the LPFTP permits the HPFTP to operate at high speeds without cavitating. The LPFTP operates at around 16,185 rpm, and is approximately 450 by 600 mm (18 by 24 in) in size. It is connected to the vehicle propellant ducting and is supported in a fixed position by being mounted to the launch vehicle's structure. +The HPFTP is a three-stage centrifugal pump driven by a two-stage hot-gas turbine. It boosts the pressure of the liquid hydrogen from 1.9 to 45 MPa (276 to 6,515 psia), and operates at approximately 35,360 rpm with a power of 71,140 hp (53.05 MW). The discharge flow from the turbopump is routed to, and through, the main valve and is then split into three flow paths. One path is through the jacket of the main combustion chamber, where the hydrogen is used to cool the chamber walls. It is then routed from the main combustion chamber to the LPFTP, where it is used to drive the LPFTP turbine. A small portion of the flow from the LPFTP is then directed to a common manifold from all three engines to form a single path to the liquid hydrogen tank to maintain pressurization. The remaining hydrogen passes between the inner and outer walls of the hot-gas manifold to cool it and is then discharged into the main combustion chamber. A second hydrogen flow path from the main fuel valve is through the engine nozzle (to cool the nozzle). It then joins the third flow path from the chamber coolant valve. This combined flow is then directed to the fuel and oxidizer pre-burners. The HPFTP is approximately 550 by 1,100 mm (22 by 43 in) in size and is attached to the hot-gas manifold by flanges. + +=== Powerhead === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a3b3c477 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Preburners ==== +The oxidizer and fuel pre-burners are welded to the hot-gas manifold. The fuel and oxidizer enter the pre-burners and are mixed so that efficient combustion can occur. The augmented spark igniter is a small combination chamber located in the center of the injector of each pre-burner. Two dual-redundant spark igniters are activated by the engine controller and are used during the engine start sequence to initiate combustion in each pre-burner. They are turned off after approximately three seconds because the combustion process is then self-sustaining. The pre-burners produce the fuel-rich hot gases that pass through the turbines to generate the power needed to operate the high-pressure turbopumps. The oxidizer pre-burner's outflow drives a turbine that is connected to the HPOTP and to the oxidizer pre-burner pump. The fuel pre-burner's outflow drives a turbine that is connected to the HPFTP. +The speed of the HPOTP and HPFTP turbines depends on the position of the corresponding oxidizer and fuel pre-burner oxidizer valves. These valves are positioned by the engine controller, which uses them to throttle the flow of liquid oxygen to the pre-burners and, thus, control engine thrust. The oxidizer and fuel pre-burner oxidizer valves increase or decrease the liquid oxygen flow, thus increasing or decreasing pre-burner chamber pressure, HPOTP and HPFTP turbine speed, and liquid oxygen and gaseous hydrogen flow into the main combustion chamber, which increases or decreases engine thrust. The oxidizer and fuel pre-burner valves operate together to throttle the engine and maintain a constant 6.03:1 propellant mixture ratio. +The main oxidizer and main fuel valves control the flow of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen into the engine and are controlled by each engine controller. When an engine is operating, the main valves are fully open. + +==== Main combustion chamber ==== +The engine's main combustion chamber (MCC) receives fuel-rich hot gas from a hot-gas manifold cooling circuit. The gaseous hydrogen and liquid oxygen enter the chamber at the injector, which mixes the propellants. The mixture is ignited by the "Augmented Spark Igniter", an H2/O2 flame at the center of the injector head. The main injector and dome assembly are welded to the hot-gas manifold, and the MCC is also bolted to the hot-gas manifold. The MCC comprises a structural shell made of Inconel 718 which is lined with a copper-silver-zirconium alloy called NARloy-Z, developed specifically for the RS-25 in the 1970s. Around 390 channels are machined into the liner wall to carry liquid hydrogen through the liner to provide MCC cooling, as the temperature in the combustion chamber reaches 3,300 °C (5,970 °F) during flight – higher than the boiling point of iron. +An alternative for the construction of RS-25 engines to be used in SLS missions is the use of advanced structural ceramics, such as thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) and ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs). These materials possess significantly lower thermal conductivities than metallic alloys, thus allowing more efficient combustion and reducing the cooling requirements. TBCs are thin ceramic oxide layers deposited on metallic components, acting as a thermal barrier between hot gaseous combustion products and the metallic shell. A TBC applied to the Inconel 718 shell during production could extend engine life and reduce cooling costs. Further, CMCs have been studied as a replacement for Ni-based superalloys and are composed of high-strength fibers (BN, C) continuously dispersed in a SiC matrix. An MCC composed of a CMC, though less studied and farther from fruition than the application of a TBC, could offer unprecedented levels of engine efficiency. + +=== Nozzle === + +The engine's nozzle is 121 in (3.1 m) long with a diameter of 10.3 inches (0.26 m) at its throat and 90.7 inches (2.30 m) at its exit. The nozzle is a bell-shaped extension bolted to the main combustion chamber, referred to as a de Laval nozzle. The RS-25 nozzle has an unusually large expansion ratio (about 69:1) for the chamber pressure. At sea level, a nozzle of this ratio would normally undergo flow separation of the jet from the nozzle, which would cause control difficulties and could even mechanically damage the vehicle. However, to aid the engine's operation Rocketdyne engineers varied the angle of the nozzle walls from the theoretical optimum for thrust, reducing it near the exit. This raises the pressure just around the rim to an absolute pressure between 4.6 and 5.7 psi (32 and 39 kPa), and prevents flow separation. The inner part of the flow is at much lower pressure, around 2 psi (14 kPa) or less. The inner surface of each nozzle is cooled by liquid hydrogen flowing through brazed stainless steel tube wall coolant passages. On the Space Shuttle, a support ring welded to the forward end of the nozzle is the engine attach point to the orbiter-supplied heat shield. Thermal protection is necessary because of the exposure portions of the nozzles experience during the launch, ascent, on-orbit and entry phases of a mission. The insulation consists of four layers of metallic batting covered with a metallic foil and screening. + +=== Controller === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3518355e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Each engine is equipped with a main engine controller (MEC), an integrated computer which controls all of the engine's functions (through the use of valves) and monitors its performance. Built by Honeywell Aerospace, each MEC originally comprised two redundant Honeywell HDC-601 computers, later upgraded to a system composed of two doubly redundant Motorola 68000 (M68000) processors (for a total of four M68000s per controller). Having the controller installed on the engine itself greatly simplifies the wiring between the engine and the launch vehicle, because all the sensors and actuators are connected directly to only the controller, each MEC then being connected to the orbiter's general purpose computers (GPCs) or the SLS's avionics suite via its own engine interface unit (EIU). Using a dedicated system also simplifies the software and thus improves its reliability. +Two independent dual-CPU computers, A and B, form the controller; giving redundancy to the system. The failure of controller system A automatically leads to a switch-over to controller system B without impeding operational capabilities; the subsequent failure of controller system B would provide a graceful shutdown of the engine. Within each system (A and B), the two M68000s operate in lock-step, thereby enabling each system to detect failures by comparing the signal levels on the buses of the two M68000 processors within that system. If differences are encountered between the two buses, then an interrupt is generated and control turned over to the other system. Because of subtle differences between M68000s from Motorola and the second source manufacturer TRW, each system uses M68000s from the same manufacturer (for instance system A would have two Motorola CPUs while system B would have two CPUs manufactured by TRW). Memory for block I controllers was of the plated-wire type, which functions in a manner similar to magnetic core memory and retains data even after power is turned off. Block II controllers used conventional CMOS static RAM. +The controllers were designed to be tough enough to survive the forces of launch and proved to be extremely resilient to damage. During the investigation of the Challenger accident the two MECs (from engines 2020 and 2021), recovered from the seafloor, were delivered to Honeywell Aerospace for examination and analysis. One controller was broken open on one side, and both were severely corroded and damaged by marine life. Both units were disassembled and the memory units flushed with deionized water. After they were dried and vacuum baked, data from these units was retrieved for forensic examination. + +==== Main valves ==== +To control the engine's output, the MEC operates five hydraulically actuated propellant valves on each engine; the oxidizer pre-burner oxidizer, fuel pre-burner oxidizer, main oxidizer, main fuel, and chamber coolant valves. In an emergency, the valves can be fully closed by using the engine's helium supply system as a backup actuation system. +In the Space Shuttle, the main oxidizer and fuel bleed valves were used after shutdown to dump any residual propellant, with residual liquid oxygen venting through the engine and residual liquid hydrogen venting through the liquid hydrogen fill and drain valves. After the dump was completed, the valves closed and remained closed for the remainder of the mission. +A coolant control valve is mounted on the combustion chamber coolant bypass duct of each engine. The engine controller regulates the amount of gaseous hydrogen allowed to bypass the nozzle coolant loop, thus controlling its temperature. The chamber coolant valve is 100% open before the engine start. During engine operation, it is 100% open for throttle settings of 100 to 109%. For throttle settings between 65 and 100%, its position ranged from 66.4 to 100%. + +=== Gimbal === + +Each engine is installed with a gimbal bearing, a universal ball and socket joint which is bolted to the launch vehicle by its upper flange and to the engine by its lower flange. It represents the thrust interface between the engine and the launch vehicle, supporting 7,480 lb (3,390 kg) of engine weight and withstanding over 500,000 lbf (2,200,000 N) of thrust. As well as providing a means to attach the engine to the launch vehicle, the gimbal bearing allows the engine to be pivoted (or "gimballed") around two axes of freedom with a range of ±10.5°. This motion allows the engine's thrust vector to be altered, thus steering the vehicle into the correct orientation. The comparatively large gimbal range is necessary to correct for the pitch momentum that occurs due to the constantly shifting center of mass as the vehicle burns fuel in flight and after booster separation. The bearing assembly is approximately 290 by 360 mm (11 by 14 in), has a mass of 105 lb (48 kg), and is made of titanium alloy. +The low-pressure oxygen and low-pressure fuel turbopumps were mounted 180° apart on the orbiter's aft fuselage thrust structure. The lines from the low-pressure turbopumps to the high-pressure turbopumps contain flexible bellows that enable the low-pressure turbopumps to remain stationary while the rest of the engine is gimbaled for thrust vector control, and also to prevent damage to the pumps when loads were applied to them. The liquid-hydrogen line from the LPFTP to the HPFTP is insulated to prevent the formation of liquid air. + +=== Helium system === +In addition to fuel and oxidizer systems, the launch vehicle's main propulsion system is also equipped with a helium system consisting of ten storage tanks in addition to various regulators, check valves, distribution lines, and control valves. The system is used in-flight to purge the engine and provides pressure for actuating engine valves within the propellant management system and during emergency shutdowns. During entry, on the Space Shuttle, any remaining helium was used to purge the engines during reentry and for repressurization. + +== History == + +=== Development === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3624343df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The history of the RS-25 traces back to the 1960s when NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center and Rocketdyne were conducting a series of studies on high-pressure engines, developed from the successful J-2 engine used on the S-II and S-IVB upper stages of the Saturn V rocket during the Apollo program. The studies were conducted under a program to upgrade the Saturn V engines, which produced a design for a 350,000 lbf (1,600 kN) upper-stage engine known as the HG-3. As funding levels for Apollo wound down the HG-3 was cancelled as well as the upgraded F-1 engines already being tested. It was the design for the HG-3 that would form the basis for the RS-25. +Meanwhile, in 1967, the US Air Force funded a study into advanced rocket propulsion systems for use during Project Isinglass, with Rocketdyne asked to investigate aerospike engines and Pratt & Whitney (P&W) to research more efficient conventional de Laval nozzle-type engines. At the conclusion of the study, P&W put forward a proposal for a 250,000 lbf engine called the XLR-129, which used a two-position expanding nozzle to provide increased efficiency over a wide range of altitudes. +In January 1969 NASA awarded contracts to General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and North American Rockwell to initiate the early development of the Space Shuttle. As part of these 'Phase A' studies, the involved companies selected an upgraded version of the XLR-129, developing 415,000 lbf (1,850 kN), as the baseline engine for their designs. This design can be found on many of the planned Shuttle versions right up to the final decision. However, since NASA was interested in pushing the state of the art in every way they decided to select a much more advanced design in order to "force an advancement of rocket engine technology". They called for a new design based on a high-pressure combustion chamber running around 3,000 psi (21,000 kPa), which increases the performance of the engine. +Development began in 1970, when NASA released a request for proposal for 'Phase B' main engine concept studies, requiring development of a throttleable, staged combustion, de Laval-type engine. The request was based on the then-current design of the Space Shuttle which featured two reusable stages, the orbiter and a crewed fly-back booster, and required one engine which would be able to power both vehicles via two different nozzles (12 booster engines with 550,000 lbf (2,400 kN) sea level thrust each and 3 orbiter engines with 632,000 lbf (2,810 kN) vacuum thrust each). Rocketdyne, P&W and Aerojet General were selected to receive funding although, given P&W's already-advanced development (demonstrating a working 350,000 lbf (1,600 kN) concept engine during the year) and Aerojet General's prior experience in developing the 1,500,000 lbf (6,700 kN) M-1 engine, Rocketdyne was forced to put a large amount of private money into the design process to allow the company to catch up to its competitors. +By the time the contract was awarded, budgetary pressures meant that the shuttle's design had changed to its final orbiter, external tank, and two boosters configuration, and so the engine was only required to power the orbiter during ascent. During the year-long 'Phase B' study period, Rocketdyne was able to make use of their experience developing the HG-3 engine to design their SSME proposal, producing a prototype by January 1971. The engine made use of a new Rocketdyne-developed copper-zirconium alloy (called NARloy-Z) and was tested on February 12, 1971, producing a chamber pressure of 3,172 psi (21,870 kPa). The three participating companies submitted their engine development bids in April 1971, with Rocketdyne being awarded the contract on July 13, 1971—although work did not begin on engine development until March 31, 1972, due to a legal challenge from P&W. +Following the awarding of the contract, a preliminary design review was carried out in September 1972, followed by a critical design review in September 1976 after which the engine's design was set and construction of the first set of flight-capable engines began. A final review of all the Space Shuttle's components, including the engines, was conducted in 1979. The design reviews operated in parallel with several test milestones, initial tests consisting of individual engine components which identified shortcomings with various areas of the design, including the HPFTP, HPOTP, valves, nozzle, and fuel pre-burners. The individual engine component tests were followed by the first test of a complete engine (0002) on March 16, 1977, after its final assembly line was established in the main Rocketdyne factory in Canoga Park, Los Angeles. NASA specified that, prior to the Shuttle's first flight, the engines must have undergone at least 65,000 seconds of testing, a milestone that was reached on March 23, 1980, with the engine having undergone 110,253 seconds of testing by the time of STS-1 both on test stands at Stennis Space Center and installed on the Main Propulsion Test Article (MPTA). The first set of engines (2005, 2006 and 2007) was delivered to Kennedy Space Center in 1979 and installed on Columbia, before being removed in 1980 for further testing and reinstalled on the orbiter. The engines, which were of the first manned orbital flight (FMOF) configuration and certified for operation at 100% rated power level (RPL), were operated in a twenty-second flight readiness firing on February 20, 1981, and, after inspection, declared ready for flight. + +=== Space Shuttle program === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0b74bf3d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Each Space Shuttle had three RS-25 engines, installed in the aft structure of the Space Shuttle orbiter in the Orbiter Processing Facility prior to the orbiter being transferred to the Vehicle Assembly Building. If necessary, the engines could be changed on the pad. The engines, drawing propellant from the Space Shuttle external tank (ET) via the orbiter's main propulsion system (MPS), were ignited at T−6.6 seconds prior to liftoff (with each ignition staggered by 120 ms), which allowed their performance to be checked prior to ignition of the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs), which committed the shuttle to the launch. At launch, the engines would be operating at 100% RPL, throttling up to 104.5% immediately following liftoff. The engines would maintain this power level until around T+40 seconds, where they would be throttled back to around 70% to reduce aerodynamic loads on the shuttle stack as it passed through the region of maximum dynamic pressure, or max. q. The engines would then be throttled back up until around T+8 minutes, at which point they would be gradually throttled back down to 67% to prevent the stack exceeding 3 g of acceleration as it became progressively lighter due to propellant consumption. The engines were then shut down, a procedure known as main engine cutoff (MECO), at around T+8.5 minutes. +After each flight the engines would be removed from the orbiter and transferred to the Space Shuttle Main Engine Processing Facility (SSMEPF), where they would be inspected and refurbished in preparation for reuse on a subsequent shuttle flight. A total of 46 reusable RS-25 engines, each costing around US$40 million, were flown during the Space Shuttle program, with each new or overhauled engine entering the flight inventory requiring flight qualification on one of the test stands at the Stennis Space Center prior to flight. + +==== Upgrades ==== + +Over the course of the Space Shuttle program, the RS-25 went through a series of upgrades, including combustion chamber changes, improved welds and turbopump changes in an effort to improve the engine's performance and reliability and so reduce the amount of maintenance required after use. As a result, several versions of the RS-25 were used during the program: + +FMOF (first manned orbital flight): Certified for 100% rated power level (RPL). Used for the orbital flight test missions STS-1 – STS-5 (engines 2005, 2006 and 2007). +Phase I: Used for missions STS-6 – STS-51-L, the Phase I engine offered increased service life and was certified for 104% RPL. Replaced by Phase II after the Challenger Disaster. +Phase II (RS-25A): First flown on STS-26, the Phase II engine offered a number of safety upgrades and was certified for 104% & 109% RPL (full power level, FPL) in the event of a contingency. +Block I (RS-25B): First flown on STS-70, the Block I engines offered improved turbopumps featuring ceramic bearings, half as many rotating parts, and a new casting process reducing the number of welds. Block I improvements also included a new, two-duct powerhead (rather than the original design, which featured three ducts connected to the HPFTP and two to the HPOTP), which helped improve hot gas flow, and an improved engine heat exchanger. +Block IA (RS-25B): First flown on STS-73, the Block IA engine offered main injector improvements. +Block IIA (RS-25C): First flown on STS-89, the Block IIA engine was an interim model used whilst certain components of the Block II engine completed development. Changes included a new large throat main combustion chamber (which had originally been recommended by Rocketdyne in 1980), improved low-pressure turbopumps, and certification for 104.5% RPL to compensate for a 2 seconds (0.020 km/s) reduction in specific impulse (original plans called for the engine to be certified to 106% for heavy International Space Station payloads, but this was not required and would have reduced engine service life). A slightly modified version first flew on STS-96. +Block II (RS-25D): First flown on STS-104, the Block II upgrade included all of the Block IIA improvements plus a new high-pressure fuel turbopump. This model was ground-tested to 111% RPL in the event of a contingency abort, and certified for 109% RPL for use during an intact abort. +RS-25E: A variant in development. It is planned to be used on the Space Launch System for future Artemis program missions beginning with Artemis V, as the RS-25D stock is gradually being expended on SLS flights (the core stage is disposed in the atmosphere, along with the engines). Unlike previous versions, this engine is designed to be expendable. The powerhead is almost completely redesigned (as of September 2023 the specific design changes from the RS-25D have not been announced), and intended to incorporate various cost-saving measures and innovations in manufacturing. The first testing engine, E10001, passed all its qualifications and tests at NASA's Stennis Space Center, and demonstrated operation at 113% RPL. + +==== Engine throttle/output ==== +The most obvious effects of the upgrades the RS-25 received through the Space Shuttle program were the improvements in engine throttle. Whilst the FMOF engine had a maximum output of 100% (RPL), Block II engines could throttle as high as 109% or 111% in an emergency, with usual flight performance being 104.5%. Existing engines used on the Space Launch System are throttled to 109% RPL during normal flight, while new RS-25E engines produced for the Space Launch System can be run at 111% RPL, with 113% throttle being tested. These increases in throttle level made a corresponding difference to the thrust produced by the engine: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd6c1dc46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Specifying power levels over 100% may seem nonsensical, but there was a logic behind it. The 100% level does not mean the maximum physical power level attainable, rather it was a specification decided on during engine development—the expected rated power level. When later studies indicated the engine could operate safely at levels above 100%, these higher levels became standard. Maintaining the original relationship of power level to physical thrust helped reduce confusion, as it created an unvarying fixed relationship so that test data (or operational data from past or future missions) can be easily compared. If the power level was increased, and that new value was said to be 100%, then all previous data and documentation would either require changing or cross-checking against what physical thrust corresponded to 100% power level on that date. Engine power level affects engine reliability, with studies indicating the probability of an engine failure increasing rapidly with power levels over 104.5%, which was why power levels above 104.5% were retained for contingency use only. + +==== Incidents ==== + +During the course of the Space Shuttle program, a total of 46 RS-25 engines were used (with one extra RS-25D being built but never used). During the 135 missions, for a total of 405 individual engine-missions, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne reports a 99.95% reliability rate, with the only in-flight SSME failure occurring during Space Shuttle Challenger's STS-51-F mission. The engines, however, did suffer from a number of pad failures (redundant set launch sequencer aborts, or RSLSs) and other issues during the course of the program: + +STS-41-D Discovery – No. 3 engine caused an RSLS shutdown at T−4 seconds due to loss of redundant control on main engine valve, stack rolled back and engine replaced. +STS-51-F Challenger – No. 2 engine caused an RSLS shutdown at T−3 seconds due to a coolant valve malfunction. +STS-51-F Challenger – No. 1 engine (2023) shutdown at T+5:43 due to faulty temperature sensors, leading to an abort to orbit (although the mission objectives and length were not compromised by the ATO). +STS-55 Columbia – No. 3 engine caused an RSLS shutdown at T−3 seconds due to a leak in its liquid-oxygen preburner check valve. +STS-51 Discovery – No. 2 engine caused an RSLS shut down at T−3 seconds due to a faulty hydrogen fuel sensor. +STS-68 Endeavour – No. 3 engine (2032) caused an RSLS shutdown at T−1.9 seconds when a temperature sensor in its HPOTP exceeded its redline. +STS-93 Columbia – An Orbiter Project AC1 Phase A electrical wiring short occurred at T+5 seconds causing an under voltage which disqualified SSME 1A and SSME 3B controllers but required no engine shut down. In addition, a 0.1-inch diameter, 1-inch long gold-plated pin, used to plug an oxidizer post orifice (an inappropriate SSME corrective action eliminated from the fleet by redesign) came loose inside an engine's main injector and impacted the engine nozzle inner surface, rupturing three hydrogen cooling lines. The resulting three breaches caused a leak resulting in a premature engine shutdown, when four external tank LO2 sensors flashed dry resulting in low-level cutoff of the main engines and a slightly early main engine cut-off with a 16 ft/s (4.9 m/s) underspeed, and an 8 nautical mile lower altitude. + +=== Constellation program === + +During the period preceding final Space Shuttle retirement, various plans for the remaining engines were proposed, ranging from them all being kept by NASA, to them all being given away (or sold for US$400,000–800,000 each) to various institutions such as museums and universities. This policy followed changes to the planned configurations of the Constellation program's Ares V cargo-launch vehicle and Ares I crew-launch vehicle rockets, which had been planned to use the RS-25 in their first and second stages respectively. While these configurations had initially seemed worthwhile, as they would use then-current technology following the shuttle's retirement in 2010, the plan had several drawbacks: + +The engines would not be reusable, as they would be permanently attached to the discarded stages and disposed of in the atmosphere. +Each engine would have to undergo a test firing prior to installation and launch, with refurbishment required following the test. +It would be expensive, time-consuming, and weight-intensive to convert the ground-started RS-25D to an air-started version for the Ares I second stage. +Following several design changes to the Ares I and Ares V rockets, the RS-25 was replaced with a single J-2X engine for the Ares I second stage and six modified RS-68 engines (which was based on both the SSME and Apollo-era J-2 engine) on the Ares V core stage; these changes meant that the RS-25 would be retired along with the Shuttle fleet. In 2010, however, NASA was directed to halt the Constellation program, and with it development of the Ares I and Ares V, instead of focusing on building a new heavy-lift launcher. + +=== XS-1 === + +On May 24, 2017, DARPA announced that they had selected The Boeing Company to complete design work on the XS-1 program. The technology demonstrator was planned to use an Aerojet Rocketdyne AR-22 engine. The AR-22 was a version of the RS-25, with parts sourced from Aerojet Rocketdyne and NASA inventories from early versions of the engine. In July 2018 Aerojet Rocketdyne successfully completed ten 100-second firings of the AR-22 in ten days. +On January 22, 2020, Boeing announced its departure from the XS-1 program, leaving no role for the AR-22. + +== Present use == + +=== Space Launch System === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f81e9f42f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On 14 September 2011, following the retirement of the Space Shuttle, NASA announced that it would be developing a new launch vehicle, known as the Space Launch System (SLS), to replace the shuttle fleet. The design for the SLS features the RS-25 as part of its core stage, with different versions of the rocket being equipped with between three and five engines. The initial flights of the new launch vehicle are making use of previously flown Block II RS-25D engines, with NASA keeping such engines in a "purged safe" environment at Stennis Space Center, "along with all of the ground systems required to maintain them." For Artemis I, the RS-25D units with serial numbers E2045, E2056, E2058, and E2060 from all three orbiters were used. They were installed on the core stage by November 6, 2019. For Artemis II, the units with serial numbers E2047, E2059, E2062, and E2063 were slated to be used. They were installed on the core stage by September 25, 2023. In spring 2025, engine E2063 was replaced with E2061 after a leak was discovered in its oxygen valve hydraulics. +In addition to the RS-25Ds, the SLS program makes use of the Main Propulsion Systems (MPS, the "plumbing" feeding the engines) from the three remaining shuttle orbiters for testing purposes (having been removed as part of the orbiters' decommissioning), with the first two launches (Artemis I and Artemis II) originally predicted to make use of the MPS hardware from Space Shuttles Atlantis and Endeavour in their core stages. The SLS's propellants are supplied to the engines from the rocket's core stage, which consists of a modified Space Shuttle external tank with the MPS plumbing and engines at its aft, and an interstage structure at the top. + +For the first two Artemis missions, the engines were installed on the SLS core stage in Building 103 of the Michoud Assembly Facility; they will be installed in the Space Station Processing Facility at Kennedy beginning with Artemis III. +Once the remaining RS-25Ds are exhausted, they are to be replaced with a cheaper, expendable version designated the RS-25E. In 2023, Aerojet Rocketdyne reported reductions in manufacturing time and labor requirements during manufacturing of new-production RS-25 engines, such as a 15% reduction in fabrication time for the powerhead and a 22-month reduction in the time needed to produce a main combustion chamber. +On 1 May 2020, NASA awarded a contract extension to manufacture 18 additional RS-25 engines, with associated services, for $1.79 billion, bringing the total SLS contract value to almost $3.5 billion. +On 29 August 2022, Artemis I was delayed by a problem with engineering sensors on RS-25D #3 (serial number E2058) erroneously reporting that it hadn't chilled down to its ideal operating temperature. +On 16 November 2022, Artemis I launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B, the first time the RS-25 engine had flown since the Space Shuttle's final flight, STS-135, on 21 July 2011. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad6401447 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "RS-25" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-25" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:33.138292+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Engine tests ==== +In 2015, a test campaign was conducted to determine RS-25 engine performance with a new engine controller unit, under lower liquid-oxygen temperatures, with greater inlet pressure due to the taller SLS core-stage liquid-oxygen tank and higher vehicle acceleration; and with more nozzle heating due to the four-engine configuration and its position in-plane with the SLS booster exhaust nozzles. New ablative heat-shield insulation was to be tested as well. Tests occurred on January 9 (500 seconds), May 28 (450 seconds), June 11 (500 seconds), June 25 (650 seconds), July 17 (535 seconds), August 13 (535 seconds) and August 27 (535 seconds). +Following these tests, four more engines were scheduled to enter a new test cycle. A new series of tests designed to evaluate performance in SLS-use cases was initiated in 2017. +On February 28, 2019, NASA conducted a 510-second test burn of a developmental RS-25 at 113 percent of its originally designed thrust for more than 430 seconds, about four times longer than any prior test at this thrust level. +On January 16, 2021, the RS-25 engines were fired again, during a hot-fire test as part of the Artemis program. The test was originally scheduled as an 8-minute test but was terminated at the 67th second due to intentionally conservative test parameters being breached in the hydraulic system of Engine 2's (serial number E2056) Core Stage Auxiliary Power Unit (CAPU) during the thrust vector control (TVC) system test. Engine 2's CAPU was shut down automatically, although if this issue had occurred during flight, it would not have caused an abort, as the remaining CAPUs are capable of powering the TVC systems of all four engines. The engine also suffered a different "Major Component Failure", in the engine control system, that was caused by instrumentation failure. This would have triggered an abort of the launch countdown during an actual launch attempt. +On March 18, 2021, the four RS-25 core-stage engines were once again fired as part of the second SLS core stage hot-fire test, which lasted the full duration of 500 seconds, successfully certifying the Artemis I core stage for flight. +On December 14, 2022, a single development RS-25E, serial number E10001, attempted a 500-second hot-fire test. The test aborted at T+209.5 due to test systems subsequently interpreting signals from a group of improperly configured accelerometers during the hot fire as exceeding acceptable vibration limits. Tests of the engine continued in 2023; on February 8, 2023, it was fired for 500 seconds at 111% power, fitted with a new-production nozzle. Subsequent tests included a 600-second test at 111% power on February 22, a 520-second test at 113% power on March 8, a 600-second test at 113% power on March 21, a 500-second, 113% power level test on April 5, a 720-second fire that tested the engine's thrust vectoring gimbal system on April 26, a 630-second test on May 10, and five more 500-second, 113% power level tests without gimbaling on May 23, June 1, June 8, June 15, and June 22. +The RS-25E developmental unit E0525, with significant inclusion of new components including a redesigned nozzle, hydraulic actuators, flex ducts and turbopumps, was hot fire tested to 111% power levels for 550 seconds in the first in a series of certification tests beginning October 17, 2023. It was tested to 113% power levels for 500 seconds on November 15, and to 113% for 650 seconds with gimbaling on November 29, 2023, to 113% for 500 seconds on January 17, 2024, January 23, and January 29, to 113% for 550 seconds on February 23, to 111% for 615 seconds on February 29, and to 113% for 600 seconds on March 6 and 500 seconds on March 22 and 27, and April 3. +On February 20, 2025, engine no. E20001 was installed at the test stand, the first full production RS-25E to undergo testing. It was tested to 111% power levels for 500 seconds on June 20. On November 12, the second production RS-25E, serial number E20002, was tested to the same levels and time limit. +On January 22, 2026, the RS-25D engine with serial number E2063 was successfully tested to 109% power levels for 300 seconds, to validate post-repair work in its oxygen valve hydraulics and clear it for assignment to Artemis IV. + +== See also == +Shuttle-C +RD-0120 + +== Notes == + +== References == + This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. + +== External links == + +Spherical panoramas of RS-25D in SSME Processing Facility prior to shipping to Stennis Space Center +Lawrence J. Thomson Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections Files of Lawrence J. Thomson, chief engineer for the SSME from 1971 to 1986 +Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. TX-116-I, "Space Transportation System, Space Shuttle Main Engine, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2101 NASA Parkway, Houston, Harris County, TX", 20 photos, 2 measured drawings, 8 photo caption pages \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_NBC_Protection_Troops-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_NBC_Protection_Troops-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..80c8ab4a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_NBC_Protection_Troops-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "Russian NBC Protection Troops" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_NBC_Protection_Troops" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:26.748091+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Troops of Radiological, Chemical and Biological Defence of the Russian Armed Forces (Russian: Войска радиационной, химической и биологической защиты Вооружённых сил Российской Федерации, abbr. Войска РХБ защиты ВС РФ, romanized: Voyska radiatsionnoy khimicheskoy i biologicheskoy zashchiti Vooruzhyonnykh sil Rossiyskoy Federatsii, Voyska RKhB zashchiti VS RF) are an organisation designed to reduce the losses of the Ground Forces and ensuring their combat tasks assigned during operations in conditions of radioactive, chemical and biological contamination, as well as at enhancing their survivability and protection against high-precision and other weapons. + + +== History == + +In 1944, the Red Army's Chemical Troops had 19 brigades (14 technical and five chemical protection). After the end of World War II, most of them were disbanded. +General Major Vladimir Pikalov (promoted to Colonel General by 1975) commanded the Chemical Troops of the Ministry of Defence from March 1968 to December 1988. He was in charge of the specialised military units at the site of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant disaster. Pikalov arrived at the scene on the afternoon of 26 April 1986, and assumed command of the specialised military units there. General Pikalov was later made a Hero of the Soviet Union for his actions there. +Among the 23 brigades of the Chemical Troops in the late 1980s were the 1st Brigade at Shikhany-2 (Vol'sk-18), two kilometres from Shikhany, in the Saratov Oblast of the Volga Military District, 2nd Brigade at Teikovo in the Moscow Military District, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 11th, 12th, 16th, 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 25th, 26th, 27th, 28th, and the 29th located in Severodonetsk in the Kyiv Military District. +In 1992, the Chemical Troops within the Russian Armed Forces were renamed the NBC Protection Troops. +Shikhany-2, the military chemical base, and Shikhany-4, the arsenal, are located in Saratov Oblast. Shikhany-4 appears to be the location of the 115th Arsenal of the Radiation, Chemical and Biological Protection Troops. +On 17 December 2024, the Commander of the RKhB Defence Troops, lieutenant general Igor Kirillov, was killed in a bombing in Moscow. + + +== Structure and tasks == + +The basis of the NBC Protection Troops are multifunctional separate NBCP brigades which have subunits capable to perform all NBC protection activities. The Russians know them as Radiological, Chemical and Biological (RKhB) troops. They often work within a combined arms army. Their main tasks include: + +identification and assessment of radiological, chemical and biological environment, scales and effects of damages of objects hazardous radiatively, chemically and biologically; +protection of formations and units against the nuclear effects of mass destruction weapons and radiological, chemical and biological contamination; +reducing the visibility of troops and facilities; +disaster (damage) recovery in objects hazardous radiatively, chemically and biologically; +causing loss to the enemy by using flame-incendiary means. +The NBC Protection Troops are organised for both conduct of hostilities using nuclear, biological and chemical weapons and without them and includes: + +nuclear detection; +NBC reconnaissance and control; +collection and processing of data and information on radiological, chemical and biological environment; +notification of troops on NBC contamination; +conducting special treatment (decontamination, degassing and disinfection) of armaments, military and special equipment, buildings and other objects, as well as sanitisation of personnel; +aerosol counteraction against the enemy’s reconnaissance and targeting means. +The NBCP Troops are developing as dual-purpose forces, able to solve tasks both in war and peace times, in the aftermath of accidents and disasters in industrial facilities hazardous radiatively, chemically and biologically. Further build-up of their capacity is realized by creating a modern system to identify and assess the extent and effects of weapons of mass destruction, integrated with automated control systems of troops and weapons and stable functioning in the NBC threat environment and strong electronic countermeasures. In addition, there is a process to equip formations, units and subdivisions of NBCP with new, highly effective means of NBC reconnaissance, individual and collective defence, technical means of reducing the visibility and masking, flame-throwing incendiary weapons, as well as to introduce improved materials, formulations, methods and technical means of decontamination. +The 395th Independent Test Aviation Squadron which supports the NBCP Troops is based at Bagay-Baranovka in Saratov Oblast. + + +== Hardware == + +What follows is a partial list as of November 2018 of military hardware available to the Russian NBCP troops: + +RPO-A Shmel infantry rocket flamethrower +PMK-4 gas mask +TOS-1 Buratino or TOS-1A Solntsepyok flamethrower +TOS-2 Tosochka flamethrower +TDA-3 smoke generator on a 3-axle 53501 Kamaz chassis, is designed to camouflage military facilities +TMS-65 is a specialized chemical vehicle on Ural-375 undercarriage +RKhM-6 is a chemical reconnaissance vehicle on a four-axle BTR-80 base +RPM-2 is a radiological reconnaissance vehicle on a four-axle BTR-80 base +UTM-80 heat engine, designed to clean other equipment after exposure to NCB threats + + +== Units == + + +== Videogallery == + + +== See also == +ru:Центральный военно-химический склад № 136 (Central Military Chemical Warehouse No. 136,) Kambarka, Udmurtia +ru:Химическое оружие России +ru:Чапаевский завод по уничтожению химического оружия +NBC Protection Military Academy +Canadian Joint Incident Response Unit +2nd Dragoon Regiment (France) +United States Army CBRN School + + +== References == + This article incorporates text by Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation available under the CC BY 4.0 license. + +Feskov, V.I.; Golikov, V.I.; Kalashnikov, K.A.; Slugin, S.A. (2013). Вооруженные силы СССР после Второй Мировой войны: от Красной Армии к Советской [The Armed Forces of the USSR after World War II: From the Red Army to the Soviet: Part 1 Land Forces] (in Russian). Tomsk: Scientific and Technical Literature Publishing. ISBN 9785895035306. + + +== External links == + Media related to NBC Protection Troops of the Russian Armed Forces at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..908434c9b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Sarin" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:27.945210+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sarin (NATO designation GB short for G-series, B) is an extremely toxic organophosphorus compound that has been often used as a chemical weapon due to its extreme potency as a nerve agent. +Sarin is a volatile, colorless and odorless liquid. Exposure can be lethal even at very low concentrations, and death can occur within one to ten minutes after direct inhalation of a lethal dose due to suffocation from respiratory paralysis, unless antidotes are quickly administered. Those who absorb a non-lethal dose and do not receive immediate medical treatment may still suffer permanent neurological damage. +Sarin is widely considered a weapon of mass destruction. Production and stockpiling of sarin was outlawed as of April 1997 by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993, and it is classified as a Schedule 1 substance. + +== Health effects == + +Like some other nerve agents that affect the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, sarin attacks the nervous system by interfering with the degradation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions. Death usually occurs as a result of asphyxia due to the inability to control the muscles involved in breathing. +Initial symptoms following exposure to sarin are a runny nose, tightness in the chest, and constriction of the pupils (miotic action). Soon after, the person will have difficulty breathing and experience nausea and drooling. This progresses to losing control of bodily functions, which may cause the person to vomit, defecate, and urinate. This phase is followed by twitching and jerking. Ultimately, the person becomes comatose and suffocates in a series of convulsive spasms. Common mnemonics for the symptomatology of organophosphate poisoning, including sarin, are the "killer Bs" of bronchorrhea and bronchospasm because they are the leading cause of death, and SLUDGE – salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, gastrointestinal distress, and emesis (vomiting). Death may follow in one to ten minutes after direct inhalation, but may also occur after a delay ranging from hours to several weeks in cases where exposure is limited but no antidote is applied. +Sarin has a high volatility (ease with which a liquid can turn into vapour) relative to similar nerve agents, making inhalation very easy. It may even absorb through the skin. A person's clothing can release sarin for about 30 minutes after it has come in contact with sarin gas, which can lead to its exposure to other people. + +=== Management === +Treatment measures have been described. Treatment is typically with the antidotes atropine and pralidoxime. Atropine, an antagonist to muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, is given to treat the physiological symptoms of poisoning. Since muscular response to acetylcholine is mediated through nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, atropine does not counteract the muscular symptoms. Pralidoxime can regenerate cholinesterases if administered within approximately five hours. Biperiden, a synthetic acetylcholine antagonist, has been suggested as an alternative to atropine due to its better blood–brain barrier penetration and higher efficacy. + +=== Mechanism of action === +Sarin is a potent inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that degrades the neurotransmitter acetylcholine after it is released into the synaptic cleft. In vertebrates, acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, where signals are transmitted between neurons from the peripheral nervous system to muscle fibres. Normally, acetylcholine is released from the neuron to stimulate the muscle, after which it is degraded by acetylcholinesterase, allowing the muscle to relax. A build-up of acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft, due to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, means the neurotransmitter continues to act on the muscle fibre, so that any nerve impulses are effectively continually transmitted. +Sarin acts on acetylcholinesterase by forming a covalent bond with the particular serine residue at the active site. Fluoride is the leaving group, and the resulting organo-phosphoester is robust and biologically inactive. +Its mechanism of action resembles that of some commonly used insecticides, such as malathion. In terms of biological activity, it resembles carbamate insecticides, such as Sevin, and the medicines pyridostigmine, neostigmine, and physostigmine. + +=== Diagnostic tests === +Controlled studies in healthy men have shown that a nontoxic 0.43 mg oral dose administered in several portions over a 3-day interval caused average maximum depressions of 22 and 30%, respectively, in plasma and erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase levels. A single acute 0.5 mg dose caused mild symptoms of intoxication and an average reduction of 38% in both measures of acetylcholinesterase activity. Sarin in blood is rapidly degraded either in vivo or in vitro. Its primary inactive metabolites have in vivo serum half-lives of approximately 24 hours. The serum level of unbound isopropyl methylphosphonic acid (IMPA), a sarin hydrolysis product, ranged from 2–135 μg/L in survivors of a terrorist attack during the first four hours post-exposure. Sarin or its metabolites may be determined in blood or urine by gas or liquid chromatography, while acetylcholinesterase activity is usually measured by enzymatic methods. +A newer method called "fluoride regeneration" or "fluoride reactivation" detects the presence of nerve agents for a longer period after exposure than the methods described above. Fluoride reactivation is a technique that has been explored since at least the early 2000s. This technique obviates some of the deficiencies of older procedures. Sarin not only reacts with the water in the blood plasma through hydrolysis (forming so-called 'free metabolites'), but also reacts with various proteins to form 'protein adducts'. These protein adducts are not so easily removed from the body, and remain for a longer period of time than the free metabolites. One clear advantage of this process is that the period, post-exposure, for determination of sarin exposure is much longer, possibly five to eight weeks according to at least one study. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c0d38f7f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Sarin" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:27.945210+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Toxicity === +As a nerve gas, sarin in its purest form is estimated to be 26 times more deadly than cyanide. The LD50 of subcutaneously injected sarin in mice is 172 μg/kg. +Sarin is highly toxic, whether by contact with the skin or breathed in. The toxicity of sarin in humans is largely based on calculations from studies with animals. The lethal concentration of sarin in air is approximately 28–35 mg per cubic meter per minute for a two-minute exposure time by a healthy adult breathing normally (exchanging 15 liters of air per minute, lower 28 mg/m3 value is for general population). This number represents the estimated lethal concentration for 50% of exposed victims, the LCt50 value. The LCt95 or LCt100 value is estimated to be 40–83 mg per cubic meter for exposure time of two minutes. Calculating effects for different exposure times and concentrations requires following specific toxic load models. In general, brief exposures to higher concentrations are more lethal than comparable long time exposures to low concentrations. There are many ways to make relative comparisons between toxic substances. The list below compares sarin to some current and historic chemical warfare agents, with a direct comparison to the respiratory LCt50: + +Hydrogen cyanide, 2,860 mg/(min·m3) – Sarin is 81 times more lethal +Phosgene, 1,500 mg/(min·m3) – Sarin is 43 times more lethal +Sulfur mustard, 1,000 mg/(min·m3) – Sarin is 28 times more lethal +Chlorine, 19,000 mg/(min·m3) – Sarin is 543 times more lethal + +== Production and structure == +Sarin is a chiral molecule because it has four chemically distinct substituents attached to the tetrahedral phosphorus center. The SP form (the (–) optical isomer) is the more active enantiomer due to its greater binding affinity to acetylcholinesterase. +It is almost always manufactured as a racemic mixture (a 1:1 mixture of its enantiomeric forms) as this involves a much simpler synthesis while providing an adequate weapon. +A number of production pathways can be used to create sarin. The final reaction typically involves attachment of the isopropoxy group to the phosphorus with an alcoholysis with isopropyl alcohol. Two variants of this final step are common. One is the reaction of methylphosphonyl difluoride with isopropyl alcohol, which produces a racemic mixture of sarin enantiomers with hydrofluoric acid as a byproduct: + +The second process, known as the "Di-Di" process, uses equimolar quantities of methylphosphonyl difluoride (Difluoro) and methylphosphonyl dichloride (Dichloro). This reaction gives sarin, hydrochloric acid and other minor byproducts. The Di-Di process was used by the United States for the production of its unitary sarin stockpile. +The scheme below shows a generic example that employs the Di-Di method as the final esterification step; in reality, the selection of reagents and reaction conditions dictate both product structure and yield. The choice of enantiomer of the mixed chloro fluoro intermediate displayed in the diagram is arbitrary, but the final substitution is selective for chloro over fluoro as the leaving group. Inert atmosphere and anhydrous conditions (Schlenk techniques) are used for synthesis of sarin and other organophosphates. + +As both reactions leave considerable acid in the product, sarin produced in bulk by these methods has a short half-life without further processing, and would be corrosive to containers and damaging to weapons systems. Various methods have been tried to resolve these problems. In addition to industrial refining techniques to purify the chemical itself, various additives have been tried to combat the effects of the acid, such as: + +Tributylamine was added to US sarin produced at Rocky Mountain Arsenal. +Triethylamine was added to UK sarin, with relatively poor success. The Aum Shinrikyo cult experimented with triethylamine as well. +N,N-Diethylaniline was used by Aum Shinrikyo for acid reduction. +Ammonia gas was used by Nazi Germany as a non-additive stabilizer at RVIII Raubkammer, with success. Recovered artillery munitions filled with sarin from RVIII Raubkammer, in Munster, abandoned for half a century, showed a sarin concentration of over 80%. +N,N′-Diisopropylcarbodimide was added to sarin produced at Rocky Mountain Arsenal to combat corrosion. +Isopropylamine was included as part of the M687 155 mm field artillery shell, which was a binary sarin weapon system developed by the US Army. +Another byproduct of these two chemical processes is diisopropyl methylphosphonate, formed when a second isopropyl alcohol reacts with the sarin itself and from disproportionation of sarin, when distilled incorrectly. The factor of its formation in esterification is that as the concentration of DF-DCl decreases, the concentration of sarin increases, the probability of DIMP formation is greater. DIMP is a natural impurity of sarin, that is almost impossible to be eliminated, mathematically, when the reaction is a 1 mol-1 mol "one-stream". + +(CH3)2CHO− + CH3P(O)FOCH(CH3)2 → CH3P(O)(OCH(CH3)2)2 + F− + +== Degradation and shelf life == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ee5381a13 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Sarin" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:27.945210+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Degradation of phosphoryl halides begins with hydrolysis of the bond between phosphorus and the fluorine atom. This P-F bond is easily broken by nucleophilic agents through a SN2 mechanism, such as water and hydroxide. At high pH, sarin decomposes rapidly to relatively nontoxic phosphonic acid derivatives. The initial breakdown of sarin is into isopropyl methylphosphonic acid (IMPA), a chemical that is not commonly found in nature except as a breakdown product of sarin (this is useful for detecting the recent deployment of sarin as a weapon). IMPA then degrades into methylphosphonic acid (MPA), which can also be produced by other organophosphates. +Sarin with residual acid degrades after a period of several weeks to several months. The shelf life can be shortened by impurities in precursor materials. According to the CIA, some Iraqi sarin had a shelf life of only a few weeks, owing mostly to impure precursors. +Along with nerve agents such as tabun and VX, sarin can have a short shelf life. Therefore, it is usually stored as two separate precursors that produce sarin when combined. Sarin's shelf life can be extended by increasing the purity of the precursor and intermediates and incorporating stabilizers such as tributylamine. In some formulations, tributylamine is replaced by diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC), allowing sarin to be stored in aluminium casings. In binary chemical weapons, the two precursors are stored separately in the same shell and mixed to form the agent immediately before or when the shell is in flight. This approach has the dual benefit of solving the stability issue and increasing the safety of sarin munitions. + +== History == +Sarin was discovered in 1938 in Wuppertal-Elberfeld in Germany by scientists at IG Farben who were attempting to create stronger pesticides; it is the most toxic of the four G-Series nerve agents made by Germany. The compound, which followed the discovery of the nerve agent tabun, was named in honor of its discoverers: chemist Gerhard Schrader, chemist Otto Ambros, chemist Gerhard Ritter, and from Heereswaffenamt Hans-Jürgen von der Linde. + +=== Use as a weapon === +In mid-1939, the formula for the agent was passed to the chemical warfare section of the German Army Weapons Office, which ordered that it be brought into mass production for wartime use. Pilot plants were built, and a production facility was under construction (but was not finished) by the end of World War II. Estimates for total sarin production by Nazi Germany range from 500 kg to 10 tons. +Though sarin, tabun, and soman were incorporated into artillery shells, Germany did not use nerve agents against Allied targets. Adolf Hitler refused to initiate the use of gases such as sarin as weapons. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..efba81333 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Sarin" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:27.945210+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +1950s (early): NATO adopted sarin as a standard chemical weapon. The USSR and the United States produced sarin for military purposes. +1953: 20-year-old Ronald Maddison, a Royal Air Force engineer from Consett, County Durham, died in human testing of sarin at the Porton Down chemical warfare testing facility in Wiltshire, England. Ten days after his death an inquest was held in secret which returned a verdict of misadventure. In 2004, the inquest was reopened and, after a 64-day inquest hearing, the jury ruled that Maddison had been unlawfully killed by the "application of a nerve agent in a non-therapeutic experiment". +1957: Regular production of sarin chemical weapons ceased in the United States, though existing stocks of bulk sarin were re-distilled until 1970. +1970: During Operation Tailwind, America may have deployed sarin against the Communist Pathet Lao, alongside American defectors to the Laotian Communists. +1976: Chile's intelligence service, DINA, assigned biochemist Eugenio Berríos to develop Sarin gas within its program Proyecto Andrea, to be used as a weapon against its opponents. One of DINA's goals was to package it in spray cans for easy use, which, according to testimony by former DINA agent Michael Townley, was one of the planned procedures in the 1976 assassination of Orlando Letelier. Berríos later testified that it was used in a number of assassinations and it was planned to be used to kill inhabitants, through poisoning the water supply of Argentine capital Buenos Aires, in case Operation Soberanía took place. +March 1988: Halabja chemical attack; Over two days in March, the ethnic Kurdish city of Halabja in northern Iraq (population 70,000) was bombarded by Saddam Hussein's Iraqi Air Force jets with chemical bombs including sarin. An estimated 5,000 people died, almost all civilians. +April 1988: Iraq used Sarin four times against Iranian soldiers at the end of the Iran–Iraq War, helping Iraqi forces to retake control of the al-Faw Peninsula during the Second Battle of al-Faw. +1993: The United Nations Chemical Weapons Convention was signed by 162 member countries, banning the production and stockpiling of many chemical weapons, including sarin. It went into effect on April 29, 1997, and called for the complete destruction of all specified stockpiles of chemical weapons by April 2007. When the convention entered force, the parties declared worldwide stockpiles of 15,047 tonnes of sarin. As of November 28, 2019, 98% of the stockpiles have been destroyed. +1994: Matsumoto incident; the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo released an impure form of sarin in Matsumoto, Nagano, killing eight people and harming over 500. The Australian sheep station Banjawarn was a testing ground. +1995: Tokyo subway sarin attack; the Aum Shinrikyo cult released an impure form of sarin in the Tokyo Metro. Thirteen people died, and over 6,200 people received injuries. +2002: Pro-Chechen militant Ibn al-Khattab may have been assassinated with sarin by the Russian government. +May 2004: Iraqi insurgents detonated a 155 mm shell containing binary precursors for sarin near a U.S. convoy in Iraq. The shell was designed to mix the chemicals as it spun during flight. The detonated shell released only a small amount of sarin gas, either because the explosion failed to mix the binary agents properly or because the chemicals inside the shell had degraded with age. Two United States soldiers were treated after displaying the early symptoms of exposure to sarin. +March 2013: Khan al-Assal chemical attack; Sarin was used in an attack on a town west of Aleppo city in Syria, killing 28 and wounding 124. +August 2013: Ghouta chemical attack; Sarin was used in multiple simultaneous attacks in the Ghouta region of the Rif Dimashq Governorate of Syria during the Syrian Civil War. Varying sources gave a death toll of 322 to 1,729. +April 2017: Khan Shaykhun chemical attack: The Syrian Air Force released sarin gas in rebel-held Idlib Province in Syria during an airstrike. +April 2018: Victims of the Douma chemical attack in Syria reported to have symptoms consistent with exposure to sarin and other agents. On July 6, 2018, the Fact-Finding Mission (FFM) of the OPCW published their interim report. The report stated that, "The results show that no organophosphorous [sarin] nerve agents or their degradation products were detected in the environmental samples or in the plasma samples taken from alleged casualties". The chemical agent used in the attack was later identified as elemental chlorine. +July 2023: The U.S. destroyed the last of its declared chemical weapons, a sarin nerve agent-filled M55 rocket, on July 7, 2023. + +== See also == +Chlorosarin +Ethylsarin +Thiosarin +Gulf War syndrome + +== References == + +== External links == +Material Safety Data Sheet +CIA memo: The Stability of Iraq's Chemical Weapons Stockpile +CDC Sarin fact sheet +CDC Sarin Emergency Response Card \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sever_(spacecraft)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sever_(spacecraft)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c25e1cee7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sever_(spacecraft)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Sever (spacecraft)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sever_(spacecraft)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:05.747828+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz Sever, also spelled Soyuz Siber, (translates to Soyuz north), was an early (1959–1962) design of the Soyuz spacecraft. The Soyuz Sever design of a crewed spacecraft started the Soyuz programme. In 1956, the Soyuz Sever spacecraft was proposed as the replacement for the Vostok spacecraft. Vostok spacecraft had only a crew of one; the Soyuz Sever plan would have crew of three. Sever was planned to be launched on a R7 rocket or Vostok rocket. The Sever plans were made by the Experimental Design Bureau (OKB-1) of the Soviet Union. While the Sever spacecraft was never built and launched, many of the designs and testing outcomes became part of the first generation Soyuz spacecraft, Soyuz 7K-OK and the Soyuz 1 mission launched on 23 April 1967. Sever (Sever ferry) final plan was to take crews to a Sever space station, OS-1962. + + +== Design == +On 1 March 1959 the first proposal of OKB-1's engineer, Konstantin Feoktistov was for Sever to be twice as large as the final Soyuz spacecraft. The larger size was so Sever could be part of the Soviet future lunar program, the L4-1960 crewed lunar orbiter proposal. This was changed by August 1959 so Sever would become a small (Soyuz size) three-man spacecraft. In 1961, OKB-1 had several new designs for such a spacecraft: Sever, and competing designs: Sever L1-1960 became crewed obiter Soyuz-A, Soyuz-B (orbital tug), Soyuz-V, and Vostok-Zh (also called Vostok-7 in some sources, not to be confused with the proposed Vostok flight of the same name). One of the Sever designs would use a lifting body for lift off Earth to reduce crew G forces, as The Spaceship Company does and land more like the Space Shuttle. In 1961, Sever was still a part of the future lunar program. Other plans for Soyuz Sever was a crewed orbital space tug version, so spacecraft could be assembled in low earth orbit. This could be used as step to the moon. The assembled craft would have five rocket boosters assembled together to give enough power to go the moon. This plan was not taken up. There are two Sever versions known: one with one solar array and docking end-first, and one with two solar arrays and front-first docking (both requiring EVA to transfer crew). In 1961 Konstantin Vershinin, commander-in-chief of the Soviet Air Force, setup new requirements for the next generation spacecraft: crew of 2 cosmonauts, launch mass of 5896 to 6350 kg, able to manoeuvre at altitudes of 270 km to 300 km, restartable engines, 15 to 20 days duration, redundant communication radios, in a pressurized re-entry space capsule. Soviet engineer, Vladimir Chelomey, was still pushing for the lifting body spaceplane, but his plan was rejected. On 10 February 1962 a mockup-prototype of the Sever spacecraft with two crew members was completed and a 15-day test was started. The test was planned and led by chief spacecraft designer, Grigoriy Ivanovich Voronin at GKNII in Akhtubinsk. The 1962 proposal included L1-1962, a crewed lunar flyby spacecraft. Some of the 1962 L1-1962 proposal became part of the Soyuz spacecraft. + + +== Designated Sever proposals == +Some of the Sever proposals were formalized and given designated projects numbers: + +L1-1960 Sever crewed circumlunar spacecraft proposal from 1960. This became the Soyuz-A design. L1-1960 was proposed by Sergei Korolev in January 1960. The L1-1960 was a planned three crewed 5,000 to 6,000 kg spacecraft that would loop around the moon and then back to earth in 1964, first achieved with crew by Apollo 8's lunar orbit in 1968. The L1-1960 would use the N1 rocket that had started planning in May 1961 but had not started development until October 1965. +L4-1960 Sever crewed lunar orbiter proposal from 1960 with a gross mass of 12,000 kg, proposed by Korolev in January 1960. The L4-1960 lunar orbiter would be two times the size of the L1-1960. The L4-1960 would also use the N1 rocket. The L4-1960 would have had a payload of 6,000 to 8,000 kg. +L1-1962 Sever crewed lunar flyby spacecraft proposal from 1962 with a gross mass of 16,500 kg. The L1-1962 was planned to use a Vostok-Zh (or Vostok-7, a modernized Vostok 3KA) spacecraft as a manned space tug piloted by a 'cosmonaut assemblyman' to assemble a three stage circumlunar complex in earth orbit via in-orbit rendezvous with each component launched by multiple R-7 derived rockets. Following the assembly of the lunar complex in earth orbit, the Vostok-Zh spacecraft would return to earth and a separately launched Soyuz L1 (later developing into the Soyuz 7K-L1) spacecraft with a crew of one to three cosmonauts would dock with the lunar complex and travel to the moon, each stage firing in sequence for translunar injection. The Vostok-Zh spacecraft was also planned to be used to assemble the three-part Sever earth observatory, OS-1962, with the Vostok-Zh to be the ferry craft to take crews to and from the spacestation. + + +== OS-1962 space station == +Part of the Soviet space station Sever project was the planning of a crewed space station, the OS-1962 design plan (Orbital Station 1962). Korolev approved the OS-1962 project called the "Complex docking of spacecraft in earth orbit - Soyuz" on 10 March 1962. The plan also included the L1-1960, circumlunar spacecraft proposal project. The OS-1962 space station plan called for station with a gross mass of 13,500 kg. The OS-1962 plan first had the large spacecraft, which was later reduced by half. The space station was to be placed in orbit with three R-7 rocket launches and a Vostok-Zh (Vostok-7) spacecraft. OS-1962 was to be a platform for earth observation. The OS-1962 space station would have ZhO living section, the BAA scientific apparatus block, and the Sever (Soyuz) spacecraft docked to the space station. The OS-1962 station had four solar arrays for power. While OS-1962 was not built some of its designs were used in later space stations. The OP space station (1962), OS-1 space station (1965), Soyuz R space station (1966) and MKBS space station (1974) also were not built. Salyut 1 later became the Soviet Union's first space station in 1971. + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == + +List of space stations +Soviet crewed lunar programs +Comparison of crewed space vehicles +Soyuz 7K-LOK + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +The R7 based Crewed Lunar Mission "Sever" youtube.com +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Information on Soyuz spacecraft +NASA - Russian Soyuz TMA Spacecraft Details Archived 24 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission - details \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikhany-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikhany-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b9c8c3acd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikhany-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Shikhany" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikhany" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:29.134883+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Shikhany, also spelled Shikhansky (Russian: Шиханы) is a closed town in Saratov Oblast, Russia, 130 kilometers (81 mi) north of Saratov on the right bank of the Volga River Population: 6,067 (2010 census); 6,738 (2002 census); 12,763 (1989 Soviet census).. It has been a closed town since 1997, but lost this status on 1 January 2019. The town is 2 kilometres from the major chemical weapons base Shikhany-2 (previously known as Vol'sk-18). + + +== History == +The original settlement at Shikhany was founded in 1820 as part of the estate of Count Vasily Vasil'evich Orlov-Denisov. The first school was opened at the site in 1876. By 1917, there were still only five inhabitants resident in two houses. The subsequent expansion of the settlement was presumably a consequence of the opening of the adjacent chemical warfare establishment. On 30 June 1997, the town was transformed by an edict of President Yeltsin into a Closed Administrative-Territorial Formation (ZATO). Under the terms of this edict, travel to Shikhany was restricted and special police, procuracy and courts operated directly under Moscow jurisdiction. This status was revoked on 1 January 2019. +The town comprises Shikhany-1, the town proper, Shikhany-2, the military chemical base, and Shikhany-4, the arsenal. Shikhany-4 appears to be the location of the 115th Arsenal of the Russian Radiation, Chemical and Biological Protection Troops. + + +=== Shikhany-2 (Vol'sk-18) === + +The military chemical base at Shikany-2 (previously known as Vol'sk-18) has a long history. At the end of 1927, a secret Soviet–German agreement was reached concerning the construction of a joint chemical warfare experimental establishment at the site. Under the Versailles Treaty, Germany was forbidden from undertaking tests with chemical warfare agents or developing associated delivery systems. Collaboration with the Soviet Union was viewed as a useful means of concealing such activities from the eyes of the Western allies. The Shikhany-2 site was located 15 kilometres from the town of Vol'sk. It had been selected as early as 1924 to become a centre of Soviet chemical warfare activities. Under the terms of the agreement with the Germans, the Tomka project was created with the aim of both producing chemical weapons and operating experimental establishments at the site. The main focus of the Tomka project was on mustard gas, the climate at Shikhany being well suited for studying the field behaviours of the gas. Studies were also made of its toxicology. Stores for the joint project, including huts for accommodation, were transferred from Berlin to Shikhany. By the summer of 1928, chemical warfare field trials were fully underway. During the period through to 1931, around thirty German staff were based at Shikhany. The Tomka project was terminated in the spring of 1933. +After the departure of the German scientists, the Soviet military remained at the Shikhany-2 site, and the proving grounds and other facilities were now officially designated as the Central Army Chemical Proving Ground (TsVKhP). The area of the site increased from its original 100 square kilometres to 600 square kilometres by 1938. A further expansion in size took place in 1941–1942, by which time the site occupied 1,000 square kilometres. By 1940, Shikhany incorporated large laboratories occupying nine to ten buildings, workshops, garages, stalls for animals, barracks, a building for the commander and his subordinates, an airfield with hangars, a gas school with spacious instruction halls, a military hospital and buildings for the production of chemical warfare agents. The staff at this time comprised a Major General, 100 other officers, 850 non-commissioned officers and 250 scientists and related personnel. During the Second World War, Soviet POWs who had been employed at Shikhany revealed to German intelligence that trials had been undertaken during the period 1939–1943 to test the dispersion of various chemical warfare agents in aerial bombs and aircraft sprayers. Beginning in 1934, trials were also conducted in great secrecy of simulants of biological weapons at Shikhany. Soviet POWs revealed to their German captors that these BW trials continued through to at least December 1940. +On 6 August 1987, chemical weapons negotiators at the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva were invited to visit the Soviet military chemical establishment at Shikhany. During the period 3–4 October 1987, Colonel General Vladimir Karpovich Pikalov hosted foreign disarmament negotiators at the proving ground. The guests are reported to have been shown a range of chemical munitions and during their visit a rabbit was injected with sarin extracted from a bomb to demonstrate that it was real. The rabbit is reported to have died instantly and then the weapon was destroyed. +The following institutions and military units are currently reported to be located within Shikhany-2: the USSR Ministry of Defence's Order of the Red Banner of Labour 33rd Central Scientific-Research Experimental Institute (33rd TsNII); the proving ground of the 33rd TsNII; the 16th Central Military Clinical Hospital; Secondary School No. 44 of the Russian Ministry of Defence; School of Music; 2 kindergartens; 2 hotels; and officers quarters including a cinema. In 2004 a branch was opened in Shikhany-2 of Moscow's Contemporary Humanitarian Academy. The 1st Mobile Brigade (ru:1-я мобильная бригада РХБ защиты) of the Russian NBC Protection Troops is based at the site. There is a well-developed infrastructure at the base including access to a cable TV network and the internet, a café, nine grocery stores, three department stores, a post office and a branch of Russia's Sberbank, a sports centre incorporating a gym and swimming pool, a football pitch and ice hockey rink. + + +== Administrative and municipal status == +Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the closed administrative-territorial formation of Shikhany—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the closed administrative-territorial formation of Shikhany is incorporated as Shikhany Urban Okrug. + + +== Allegations concerning Shikhany-2 as source of novichok agent == +Based upon a report submitted by Russia to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), a British chemical weapons expert indicated that Shikhany was the source of the novichok agent used in the 2018 poisoning of Sergei Skripal and his daughter. However, a chemical weapons site in Uzbekistan that was dismantled and decontaminated in 1999 may have been used to originally produce and test the agent. + + +== See also == +Video Footage of Shikhany +Shihan + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..88786d8e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Shuttle-Centaur was a version of the Centaur upper stage rocket designed to be carried aloft inside the Space Shuttle and used to launch satellites into high Earth orbits or probes into deep space. Two variants were developed: Centaur G-Prime, which was planned to launch the Galileo and Ulysses robotic probes to Jupiter, and Centaur G, a shortened version planned for use with United States Department of Defense Milstar satellites and the Magellan Venus probe. The powerful Centaur upper stage allowed for heavier deep space probes, and for them to reach Jupiter sooner, prolonging the operational life of the spacecraft. However, neither variant ever flew on a Shuttle. Support for the project came from the United States Air Force (USAF) and the National Reconnaissance Office, which asserted that its classified satellites required the power of Centaur. The USAF agreed to pay half the design and development costs of Centaur G, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) paid the other half. +Both versions were cradled in the reusable Centaur integrated support system (CISS), an aluminum structure that handled communications between the Space Shuttle and the Centaur. All Centaur stages periodically vented hydrogen, which needs to be stored below −253 °C (−423 °F) to keep it from boiling. Two Shuttle-Centaur missions were scheduled, with one-hour launch windows six days apart, so two separate spacecraft and launch pads were required. The Space Shuttles Challenger and Atlantis were modified to carry the CISS. The Space Shuttle main engines would have been run at 109 percent of the rated power level (with regular Shuttle flights using 104%, possible thanks to margins that were found after development concluded). The payloads needed to be deployed on the first day in orbit, so the missions would be flown by four-person crews composed of astronauts who had already flown in space and were known to not suffer from space adaptation syndrome. The first Centaur G-Prime was rolled out from the General Dynamics factory in Kearny Mesa, San Diego, on 13 August 1985. +Just months before the Shuttle-Centaur was scheduled to fly, the Challenger disaster occurred, and the project was canceled. The Galileo and Ulysses probes were ultimately launched using the much less powerful solid-fueled Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), Galileo needing multiple gravitational assists from Venus and Earth to reach Jupiter. The USAF mated a variant of the Centaur G-Prime upper stage with its Titan rocket to produce the Titan IV, which made its first flight in 1994. Over the next 18 years, Titan IV and Centaur G-Prime placed eighteen military satellites in orbit. + +== Background == + +=== Centaur === +Centaur is an upper stage rocket that used liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen as an oxidizer. It was developed by General Dynamics in the late 1950s and early 1960s and powered by twin Pratt & Whitney RL10 engines. Rockets utilizing liquid hydrogen as fuel theoretically can lift 40 percent more payload per kilogram of liftoff weight than rockets burning kerosene, but the challenges of using liquid hydrogen required new technology to be developed. Liquid hydrogen is a cryogenic fuel, meaning that it condenses at extremely low temperatures, and must be stored below −253 °C (−423 °F) to keep it from boiling. Thus, insulation from all sources of heat, including the rocket exhaust, the relatively warm liquid oxygen, aerodynamic heating, and the radiant heat of the Sun, was required. + +Fuel could be lost through microscopic holes that only hydrogen could leak through, but sealing the fuel tank created another problem. Even when insulated, heat leaks could cause the temperature to rise and boil the hydrogen; pressure in the tank can then build up and rupture it unless proper venting is provided, but too much venting will cause the loss of excessive amounts of fuel. These challenges dogged the development of Centaur with technical difficulties, such as fuel leaking through the welds, and the shrinking of the metal bulkhead when coming into sudden contact with the cryogenic temperatures of liquid hydrogen. Further complicating matters was the explosion of an RL10 on an engine test stand during a demonstration for United States Air Force (USAF) and National Air and Space Administration (NASA) officials. +The project's management was transferred from NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, to its Lewis Research Center in Ohio in October 1962, and Abe Silverstein, a strong advocate of liquid hydrogen, took charge. He insisted on a thorough testing regime, which both identified problems and suggested solutions to them. The technical problems of the Centaur project were gradually overcome. The design notably included the weight-saving features pioneered by the Atlas rocket family: a monocoque steel shell that held its shape only when pressurized, hydrogen and oxygen tanks separated by a common bulkhead, and no internal bracing or insulation surrounding the propellant tanks. The technology for handling liquid hydrogen in Centaur was also used the S-II and S-IVB upper stages of the Saturn V rocket, and later by the Space Shuttle external tank and Space Shuttle main engines (SSME). +Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Centaur was used as the upper stage of Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles, which helped launch seven Surveyor missions, five Mariner missions, and the Pioneer 10 and 11 probes. In the 1970s, Centaur was also placed atop the USAF's Titan III booster to create the Titan IIIE launch vehicle, which was used to launch the Viking, Helios, and Voyager missions. By 1980, Centaur upper stages had flown 55 times, failing only twice. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4c3c2b328 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Space Shuttle upper stages === +The 1972 decision to develop the Space Shuttle augured badly for the projects to explore the Solar System with robotic probes, which were coming under intense scrutiny by an increasingly cost-conscious Nixon administration and United States Congress. The Space Shuttle was never intended to operate beyond low Earth orbit, but many satellites needed to be higher, particularly communications satellites, for which geostationary orbits were preferred. The Space Shuttle concept originally called for a crewed space tug, which would be launched by a Saturn V. It would use a space station as a base and be serviced and refueled by the Space Shuttle. Budget cutbacks led to the decision to terminate Saturn V production in 1970 and the abandoning of plans to build a space station. The space tug became an upper stage, to be carried into space by the Space Shuttle. As a hedge against further cutbacks or technical difficulties, NASA also commissioned studies of reusable Agena and Centaur upper stages. +With funding tight, NASA sought to offload Space Shuttle-related projects onto other organizations. NASA Deputy Administrator George Low met with Malcolm R. Currie, the Director of Defense Research and Engineering, in September 1973, and reached an informal agreement that the USAF would develop an interim upper stage (IUS) for the Space Shuttle, to be used for launching satellites in higher orbits pending the development of the space tug. After some debate, Pentagon officials agreed to commit to the IUS on 11 July 1974. The Secretary of Defense, James R. Schlesinger, confirmed the decision when he met with NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher and Low four days later. A series of study contracts were let, resulting in a decision that the IUS would be an expendable solid-fuel upper stage. A call for bids was then issued, and the competition was won by Boeing in August 1976. The IUS was renamed the Inertial Upper Stage in December 1977. The Marshall Space Flight Center was designated the lead center for managing IUS work. +In April 1978, the quote for the development of the IUS was $263 million (equivalent to $990 million in 2024), but by December 1979 it was renegotiated for $430 million (equivalent to $1495 million in 2024). The main drawback of the IUS was that it was not powerful enough to launch a payload to Jupiter without resorting to gravitational slingshot maneuvers around other planets to garner more speed, something most engineers regarded as inelegant, and which planetary scientists at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) disliked because it meant that the mission would take months or years longer to reach Jupiter. The IUS was constructed in a modular fashion, with two stages: a large one with 9,700 kilograms (21,400 lb) of propellant and a smaller one with 2,700 kilograms (6,000 lb), which was sufficient for most satellites. It could also be configured with two large stages to launch multiple satellites. The USAF asked NASA to develop a configuration with three stages, two large and one small, that could be used for a planetary mission like Galileo. NASA contracted with Boeing for its development. + +=== Deep space probes === +Congress approved funding for the Jupiter Orbiter Probe on 12 July 1977. The following year the spacecraft was renamed Galileo after Galileo Galilei, the 17th-century astronomer who had discovered the largest four of Jupiter's moons, now known as the Galilean moons. During the early 1980s, Galileo struggled with both technical and funding difficulties, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) targeted NASA for budget cuts. The intervention of the USAF saved Galileo from cancellation. It was interested in the development of autonomous spacecraft like Galileo that could take evasive action in the face of anti-satellite weapons, and in the manner in which the JPL was designing Galileo to withstand the intense radiation of the magnetosphere of Jupiter, which had application in surviving nearby nuclear detonations. The Galileo project aimed for a launch window in January 1982 when the alignment of the planets would be favorable to using Mars for a slingshot maneuver to reach Jupiter. Galileo would be the fifth spacecraft to visit Jupiter, and the first to orbit it, while the probe it carried would be the first to enter its atmosphere. In December 1984, Galileo project manager John R. Casani proposed that Galileo make a flyby of asteroid 29 Amphitrite while en route. It would be the first time a US space mission visited an asteroid. NASA Administrator James M. Beggs endorsed the proposal as a secondary objective for Galileo. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc255fd50 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +To enhance reliability and reduce costs, the Galileo project's engineers decided to switch from a pressurized atmospheric entry probe to a vented one. This added 100 kilograms (220 lb) to its weight, and another 165 kilograms (364 lb) was added in structural changes to improve reliability, all of which would require extra fuel in the IUS. But the three-stage IUS was itself overweight, by about 3,200 kilograms (7,000 lb) against its design specifications. Lifting Galileo and the IUS would require the use of the special lightweight version of the Space Shuttle external tank, the Space Shuttle orbiter stripped of all non-essential equipment, and the SSME running at full power—109 percent of their rated power level. This necessitated the development of a more elaborate engine cooling system. By late 1979, delays in the Space Shuttle program pushed the launch date for Galileo back to 1984, when the planets would no longer be aligned so that a Mars slingshot would be sufficient to reach Jupiter. +An alternative to the IUS was to use Centaur as an upper stage with the Space Shuttle. Shuttle-Centaur would require neither 109 percent power from the SSME, nor a slingshot maneuver to send the 2,000 kilograms (4,500 lb) to Jupiter. NASA's Associate Administrator for Space Transportation Systems, John Yardley, directed the Lewis Research Center to determine the feasibility of integrating Centaur with the Space Shuttle. The engineers at Lewis concluded that it was both feasible and safe. A source inside NASA told The Washington Post journalist Thomas O'Toole that the cost of modifying Centaur so it could be carried on the Space Shuttle would be worth it, as the performance benefit of Centaur would mean that Galileo was no longer tied to a 1982 launch window. +A third possibility considered was to launch Galileo using a Centaur upper stage atop a Titan IIIE, but this would have required rebuilding the launch complex at Cape Canaveral, which would have added at least $125 million (equivalent to $434 million in 2024) to the cost of the $285 million (equivalent to $991 million in 2024) Galileo project. Beggs insisted that expendable launch vehicles (ELVs) were obsolete and that any money spent on them would only undermine the Space Shuttle's cost-effectiveness. Moreover, Titan had been developed by and was owned and controlled by, the USAF, and its use would mean that NASA would have to work closely with the USAF, something that NASA management hoped to avoid as much as possible. While NASA and the USAF collaborated and depended on each other to some extent, they were also rivals, and NASA resisted attempts by United States Department of Defense (DoD) to manage the space program. On 13 November 1981, President Ronald Reagan issued National Security Decision Directive Number 8, which directed that the Space Shuttle would be the primary launch system for all military and civil government missions, but Edward C. Aldridge Jr., the Under Secretary of the Air Force (and secretly the Director of the National Reconnaissance Office) doubted that NASA could meet its target of twenty-four Space Shuttle launches a year; he thought that twelve was more likely, and given that only the newest two orbiters, Discovery and Atlantis could lift his largest payloads, there might not be enough Space Shuttle flights. Reagan was persuaded to revise his policy to permit a mixed fleet of ELVs and Space Shuttles, and the USAF ordered ten Titan IV rockets in 1984. NASA historian T. A. Heppenheimer noted that in retrospect, "it was a mistake not to go with the Titan IIIE-Centaur", given the delays and higher costs ultimately involved in using the Shuttle, but this was not apparent in 1984. +Although Galileo was the only American planetary mission scheduled, there was another mission in preparation: the International Solar Polar Mission, which was renamed Ulysses in 1984. It was originally conceived in 1977 as a two-spacecraft mission, NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) each providing one spacecraft, but the American one was canceled in 1981, and NASA's contribution was limited to the power supply, launch vehicle, and tracking via the NASA Deep Space Network. The object of the mission was to gain an enhanced knowledge of the heliosphere by putting a satellite into a polar orbit around the Sun. Because Earth's orbit is inclined only 7.25 degrees to the Sun's equator, the solar poles cannot be observed from Earth. Scientists hoped to gain a greater understanding of the solar wind, the interplanetary magnetic field, cosmic rays and cosmic dust. The Ulysses probe had the same initial destination as Galileo, as it would first have to travel out to Jupiter and then use a slingshot maneuver to leave the ecliptic plane and enter a solar polar orbit. +Another mission for Shuttle-Centaur subsequently appeared in the form of the Venus Radar Mapper, later renamed Magellan. The first mission integration panel meeting for this probe was held at the Lewis Research Center on 8 November 1983. Several Space Shuttle upper stages were considered, including the Orbital Sciences Corporation Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS), the Astrotech Corporation Delta Transfer Stage, and the Boeing IUS, but the meeting chose Centaur as the best option. Magellan was tentatively scheduled for launch in April 1988. The USAF adopted Shuttle-Centaur in 1984 for the launch of its Milstar satellites. These military communications satellites were hardened against interception, jamming and nuclear attack. Telephone conversations with General Dynamics regarding the project had to be conducted over secure lines. Having the USAF on board had saved the project from cancellation, but the USAF asked for design changes and performance enhancements. One such change was to allow the Milstar to have a direct connection with Centaur that would be separated using explosive bolts, which required further testing to ascertain the effect of the resulting shock. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f934a5fe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Decision to use Shuttle-Centaur == +NASA Administrator Robert A. Frosch stated in November 1979 that he was not in favor of using Centaur, but Centaur found a champion in Congressman Edward P. Boland, who considered the IUS too underpowered for deep space missions, although he did not oppose its development for other purposes. He was impressed by Centaur's ability to put Galileo in Jupiter orbit with just two years' flight and saw potential military applications for it as well. He chaired the House Intelligence Committee and the House Independent Agencies Appropriations Subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee, and had the Appropriations Committee instruct NASA to use Centaur if weight problems with Galileo prompted a further postponement. Orders from a Congressional committee had no legal standing, so NASA was free to disregard this. Appearing before the Senate, Frosch was non-committal, saying only that NASA had the matter under consideration. + +NASA decided to split Galileo into two separate spacecraft: an atmospheric probe and a Jupiter orbiter, the orbiter being launched in February 1984 and the probe following a month later. The orbiter would be in orbit around Jupiter when the probe arrived, allowing it to perform its role as a relay. Separating the two spacecraft was estimated to cost another $50 million (equivalent to $174 million in 2024). NASA hoped to be able to recoup some of this through separate competitive bidding on the two. But while the atmospheric probe was light enough to launch with the two-stage IUS, the Jupiter orbiter was too heavy to do so, even with a gravitational slingshot around Mars, so the three-stage IUS was still required. +By late 1980, the estimated cost of the development of the two-stage IUS had risen to $506 million (equivalent to $1612 million in 2024). The USAF could absorb this cost overrun (and indeed had anticipated that it might cost far more), but NASA was faced with a quote of $179 million (equivalent to $521 million in 2024) for the development of the three-stage version, which was $100 million (equivalent to $291 million in 2024) more than it had budgeted. At a press conference on 15 January 1981, Frosch announced that NASA was withdrawing support for the three-stage IUS and going with Centaur because "no other alternative upper stage is available on a reasonable schedule or with comparable costs." +Centaur provided important advantages over the IUS. The main one was that it was far more powerful. The Galileo probe and orbiter could be recombined and the probe could be delivered directly to Jupiter in two years' flight time. Longer travel times meant that components would age and the onboard power supply and propellant would be depleted. The radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) on Ulysses and Galileo produced about 570 watts at launch, which decreased at the rate of 0.6 watts per month. Some of the gravity assist options also involved flying closer to the Sun, which would induce thermal stresses. +Another advantage that Centaur had over the IUS was while it was more powerful, Centaur generated its thrust more slowly, thereby minimizing jerk and the chance of damage to the payload. Also, unlike solid-fuel rockets, which burned to depletion once ignited, the liquid-fuel engines on Centaur could be shut down and restarted. This gave Centaur flexibility in the form of mid-course corrections and multi-burn flight profiles, which increased the chances of a successful mission. Finally, Centaur was proven and reliable. The only concern was about safety; solid-fuel rockets were considered far safer than liquid-fuel ones, especially ones containing liquid hydrogen. NASA engineers estimated that additional safety features might take up to five years to develop and cost up to $100 million (equivalent to $291 million in 2024). +The IUS made its first flight atop a Titan 34D in October 1982, when it placed two military satellites in geosynchronous orbit. It was then used on a Space Shuttle mission, STS-6 in April 1983, to deploy the first tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-1), but the IUS's nozzle changed its position by one degree, resulting in the satellite being placed in the wrong orbit. It took two years to determine what had gone wrong and how to prevent it happening again. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f1450f9c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Congressional approval == +The decision to go with Centaur pleased planetary scientists and was welcomed by the communications industry, because it meant that larger satellites could be placed into geostationary orbits, whereas the Shuttle and IUS were limited to 3,000-kilogram (6,600 lb) payloads. NASA Headquarters liked Shuttle-Centaur as an answer to the ESA's Ariane rocket family; by 1986, new versions of the Ariane under development were expected to be able to lift payloads heavier than 3,000 kilograms (6,600 lb) into geostationary orbits, thereby cutting NASA out of a lucrative segment of the satellite launch business. The USAF, though disappointed with NASA's decision to drop the three-stage IUS, foresaw a need for USAF satellites to carry more propellant than previously to engage in avoidance maneuvers against anti-satellite weapons. +Two groups, in particular, were unhappy with the decision: Boeing and the Marshall Space Flight Center. Other aerospace companies were disappointed that NASA had decided to adapt the existing Centaur upper stage rather than develop a new high energy upper stage (HEUS) or the orbital transfer vehicle (OTV), as the space tug was now called. The OMB was not opposed to Centaur on any technical grounds, but it was a discretionary expense and in the budget-cutting atmosphere of 1981, one that the OMB felt could be dropped for the fiscal year 1983 budget, which was submitted to Congress in February 1982. Galileo was reconfigured for a 1985 launch using the two-stage IUS, which would take four years to get to Jupiter and reduce the number of moons visited by half when it got there. +Senator Harrison Schmitt, the Chairman of the Senate Subcommittee on Science, Technology and Space, and a former astronaut who had walked on the Moon on Apollo 17, was opposed to the OMB decision, as were the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. Support for it came from the Chairman of the House Subcommittee on Science, Technology and Space, Congressman Ronnie G. Flippo, whose district in Alabama encompassed the Marshall Space Flight Center. In July 1982, the proponents of Centaur added $140 million (equivalent to $384 million in 2024) to the Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act, which was signed into law by Reagan on 18 July 1982. As well as allocating the funding, it directed NASA and Boeing to cease work on the two-stage IUS for Galileo. +Flippo fought this decision. He argued that Centaur was too expensive, as it cost $140 million in the current year with the whole Shuttle-Centaur project estimated to cost around $634 million (equivalent to $1739 million in 2024); that it was of limited use, since it was only required for two deep space missions; and that it was a prime example of faulty procurement, because an important contract was being given to General Dynamics without any form of tender process. He enlisted the support of Congressman Don Fuqua, the Chairman of the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology. Centaur was defended by Congressman Bill Lowery, whose San Diego district included General Dynamics. +On 15 September, Flippo moved an amendment to the 1983 NASA appropriations bill that would have forbidden further work on Centaur, but his position was undermined by Aldridge and Beggs, who contended that the early Space Shuttle flights showed that classified Department of Defense satellites would require more shielding, which would add more weight, and therefore require the power of Centaur. Aldridge and Beggs announced that they would soon conclude an agreement for the joint development of Shuttle-Centaur. Flippo's amendment was defeated by a vote of 316 to 77, clearing the way for the Shuttle-Centaur project. + +== Design == + +On 30 August 1982, a meeting of representatives of the NASA centers and Centaur contractors was held at General Dynamics in San Diego to discuss the requirements of the project. The principal constraint was that both the satellite and Centaur upper stage had to fit inside the Space Shuttle's cargo bay, which could accommodate loads up to 18.3 meters (60 ft) long and 4.6 meters (15 ft) wide. The longer the Centaur, the less space for the payload and vice versa. +From this arose two new versions of Centaur: Centaur G and Centaur G-Prime. Centaur G was intended for USAF missions, specifically to place satellites into geostationary orbits, and the $269 million (equivalent to $738 million in 2024) to design and develop it was split 50–50 with the USAF. It was 6.1 meters (20 ft) long, allowing for large USAF payloads up to 12.2 meters (40 ft) long. Its dry weight was 3,060 kilograms (6,750 lb) and it weighed 16,928 kilograms (37,319 lb) fully loaded. Centaur G-Prime was intended for deep space missions and was 9.0 meters (29.5 ft) long, allowing it to carry more propellant, but restricting the length of the payload to 9.3 meters (31 ft). The dry weight of the Centaur G-Prime was 2,761 kilograms (6,088 lb), and it weighed 22,800 kilograms (50,270 lb) fully loaded. +The two versions were very similar, 80 percent of their components being the same. The Centaur G-Prime stage had two RL10-3-3A engines, each with 73,400 newtons (16,500 lbf) thrust, and a specific impulse of 446.4 seconds, with a 5:1 fuel ratio. The Centaur G stage had two RL10-3-3B engines, each with 66,700 newtons (15,000 lbf) thrust, and specific impulse of 440.4 seconds, with a 6:1 fuel ratio. The engines were capable of multiple restarts after long periods of coasting in space and had a hydraulic gimbal actuation system powered by the turbopump. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8580ab715 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Centaur G and G-Prime avionics were the same as that of the standard Centaur and were still mounted in the forward equipment module. They used a 24-bit Teledyne Digital Computer Unit with 16 kilobytes of RAM to control guidance and navigation. They still used the same pressurized steel tank, but with more insulation including a two-layer foam blanket over the forward bulkhead and a three-layer radiation shield. Other changes included new forward and aft adapters; a new propellant fill, drain and dump system; and an S band transmitter and RF system compatible with the TDRS system. Considerable effort was put into making Centaur safe, with redundant components to overcome malfunctions and a propellant draining, dumping and venting system so that the propellants could be dumped in case of emergency. +Both versions were cradled in the Centaur integrated support system (CISS), a 4.6-meter (15 ft) aluminum structure that handled communications between the Space Shuttle and the Centaur upper stage. It helped keep the number of modifications to the Space Shuttle to a minimum. When the cargo doors opened, the CISS would pivot 45 degrees into a ready position to launch Centaur. After twenty minutes, the Centaur would be launched by a set of twelve coil springs with a 10-centimeter (4 in) stroke known as the Super*Zip separation ring. The Centaur upper stage would then coast at a speed of 0.30 meters per second (1 ft/s) for 45 minutes before starting its main burn a safe distance from the Space Shuttle. For most missions, only a single burn was required. Once the burn was complete, the spacecraft would separate from the Centaur upper stage, which could still maneuver to avoid striking the spacecraft. + +All electrical connections between the Orbiter and the Centaur were routed through the CISS. Electrical power for the Centaur was provided by a 150-ampere-hour (540,000 C) silver zinc battery. Power for the CISS was provided by two 375-ampere-hour (1,350,000 C) batteries. Since the CISS was also plugged into the Orbiter, this provided two-failure redundancy. The Centaur G CISS weighed 2,947 kilograms (6,497 lb) and the Centaur G-Prime CISS 2,961 kilograms (6,528 lb). The CISS was fully reusable for ten flights and would be returned to Earth. The Space Shuttles Challenger and Atlantis were modified to carry the CISS. These changes included additional plumbing to load and vent Centaur's cryogenic propellants, and controls on the aft flight deck for loading and monitoring the Centaur upper stage. +By June 1981, the Lewis Research Center had awarded four contracts for Centaur G-Prime worth a total of $7,483,000 (equivalent to $20.5 million in 2024): General Dynamics was to develop the Centaur rockets; Teledyne, the computer and multiplexers; Honeywell, the guidance and navigation systems; and Pratt & Whitney, the four RL10A-3-3A engines. + +== Management == +Christopher C. Kraft Jr., William R. Lucas, and Richard G. Smith, the directors of the Johnson Space Center, Marshall Space Flight Center and Kennedy Space Center respectively, did not like NASA Headquarters' decision to assign Shuttle-Centaur to the Lewis Research Center. In a January 1981 letter to Alan M. Lovelace, the acting Administrator of NASA, they argued that management of the Shuttle-Centaur project should instead be assigned to the Marshall Space Flight Center, which had some experience with cryogenic propellants and more experience with the Space Shuttle, which the three directors regarded as a complex system that only their centers understood. +Engineers at the Lewis Research Center saw matters differently. The director of the Lewis Research Center, John F. McCarthy Jr., wrote to Lovelace in March, providing reasons why the Lewis Research Center was the best choice: it had led the project to evaluate the feasibility of mating the Space Shuttle with Centaur; it had more experience with Centaur than any of the other NASA centers; it had developed the Centaur; managed the Titan-Centaur project in which Centaur was mated with the Titan III booster; had experience with space probes through the Surveyor, Viking and Voyager projects; and had a highly skilled workforce where the average engineer had thirteen years of experience. In May 1981, Lovelace informed Lucas of his decision to have the Lewis Research Center manage the project. In November 1982, Andrew Stofan, the director of the Lewis Research Center, and Lew Allen, the director of the JPL, signed a Memorandum of Agreement on the Galileo project; JPL was responsible for the design and management of the mission, and the Lewis Research Center for integrating the Galileo spacecraft with the Centaur and the Space Shuttle. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b145e5784 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The future of the Lewis Research Center was uncertain in the 1970s and early 1980s. The cancellation of the NERVA nuclear rocket engine had caused a round of layoffs in the 1970s, and many of the more experienced engineers had elected to retire. Between 1971 and 1981, staff numbers fell from 4,200 to 2,690. In 1982, the staff became aware that the Reagan administration was considering closing the center, and they mounted a vigorous campaign to save it. The staff formed a committee to save the center, and began lobbying Congress. The committee enlisted Ohio Senator John Glenn and representatives Mary Rose Oakar, Howard Metzenbaum, Donald J. Pease, and Louis Stokes in their efforts to persuade Congress to keep the center open. +McCarthy retired in July 1982, and Andrew Stofan became the director of the Lewis Research Center. He was an associate administrator at NASA Headquarters, whose involvement with Centaur dated back to 1962 and who had headed the Atlas-Centaur and Titan-Centaur Offices in the 1970s. Under Stofan, the Lewis Research Center budget went from $133 million in 1979 (equivalent to $462 million 2024) to $188 million in 1985 (equivalent to $464 million in 2024). This permitted an increase in staff for the first time in 20 years, 190 new engineers being hired. In the process, the Lewis Research Center drifted away from fundamental research and became involved in the management of major projects like Shuttle-Centaur. +William H. Robbins was appointed the head of the Shuttle-Center Project Office at the Lewis Research Center in July 1983. Most of his experience was with NERVA, and this was his first experience with Centaur, but he was an experienced project manager. He handled the project's administration and financial arrangements. Vernon Weyers was his deputy. USAF Major William Files also became a deputy project manager. He brought with him six USAF officers who assumed key roles in the Project Office. Marty Winkler headed the Shuttle-Centaur program at General Dynamics. Steven V. Szabo, who had worked on Centaur since 1963, was head of the Lewis Research Center's Space Transportation Engineering Division, responsible for the technical side of the activities related to the integration of the Space Shuttle and Centaur, which included the propulsion, pressurization, structural, electrical, guidance, control and telemetry systems. Edwin Muckley was in charge of the Mission Integration Office, which was responsible for the payloads. Frank Spurlock managed trajectory mission design, and Joe Nieberding took charge of the Shuttle-Centaur group within the Space Transportation Engineering Division. Spurlock and Nieberding hired many young engineers, giving the Shuttle-Centaur project a mixture of youth and experience. + +The Shuttle-Centaur Project had to be ready to launch in May 1986, which was just three years away. The cost of a delay was estimated at $50 million (equivalent to $121 million in 2024). Failure to meet the deadline meant waiting another year until the planets were properly aligned again. The project adopted a mission logo depicting a mythical centaur emerging from the Space Shuttle and firing an arrow at the stars. Larry Ross, the Director of Space Flight Systems at the Lewis Research Center, had the logo emblazoned on project stationery and memorabilia like drink coasters and campaign buttons. A special Shuttle-Centaur project calendar was produced, with 28 months on it, covering January 1984 to April 1986. The cover sported the logo, with the project motto, co-opted from the movie Rocky III: "Go for it!" +When it came to integrating Centaur with the Space Shuttle, there were two possible approaches: as an element or a payload. Elements were components of the Space Shuttle like the external tank and the solid rocket boosters; whereas a payload was something being carried into space like a satellite. The 1981 Memorandum of Agreement between the Johnson Space Center and the Lewis Research Center defined the Centaur as an element. The engineers at the Lewis Research Center initially preferred to have it declared a payload, because time was short and this minimized the amount of interference in their work by the Johnson Space Center. Centaur was declared to be a payload in 1983, but the drawbacks soon became evident. Payload status was originally conceived as being for inert pieces of cargo. Complying with the requirements of this status resulted in a series of safety waivers. The difficulty of compliance was compounded by the Johnson Space Center, which added more for Centaur. Both centers wanted to make the Centaur as safe as possible, but differed over what trade-offs were acceptable. + +== Preparations == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cfee31a29 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Two Shuttle-Centaur missions were scheduled: STS-61-F for Ulysses in the Space Shuttle Challenger for 15 May 1986, and STS-61-G for Galileo in the Space Shuttle Atlantis for 20 May. Crews were assigned in May 1985: STS-61-F would be commanded by Frederick Hauck, with Roy D. Bridges Jr. as the pilot and mission specialists John M. Lounge and David C. Hilmers; STS-61-G would be commanded by David M. Walker, with Ronald J. Grabe as pilot and James van Hoften and John M. Fabian, who was replaced by Norman Thagard in September, as mission specialists. As well as being the STS-61-F commander, Hauck was the Shuttle-Centaur project officer at the Astronaut Office. He and Walker attended key senior management project meetings, which was unusual for astronauts. +The four-person crews would be the smallest since STS-6 in April 1983, and they would fly into a low 170-kilometer (110 mi) orbit, which was the highest that the Space Shuttle could achieve with a fully fueled Centaur on board. Centaur would periodically vent boiling hydrogen to maintain the proper internal pressure. The high rate of hydrogen boil-off from the Centaur meant that deploying it as soon as possible was essential to ensure it had sufficient fuel. Payload deployments were not normally scheduled for the first day to allow time for astronauts who came down with space adaptation syndrome to recover. To avoid this so as to permit a deployment attempt as early as seven hours after launch, both crews were entirely composed of astronauts who had already flown in space at least once before and were known to not suffer from it. +The two launches would only have a one-hour launch window and there would be just five days between them. Because of this, two launch pads would be used: Launch Complex 39A for STS-61-G and Atlantis and Launch Complex 39B for STS-61-F and Challenger. The latter had only recently been refurbished to handle the Space Shuttle. The first Centaur G-Prime, SC-1, was rolled out from the General Dynamics factory in Kearny Mesa, San Diego, on 13 August 1985. The theme music from Star Wars was played, a crowd of 300, mostly General Dynamics employees, was in attendance, as were astronauts Fabian, Walker and Hauck, and speeches were given by dignitaries. + +SC-1 was then flown to the Kennedy Space Center, where it was mated with CISS-1, which had arrived two months before. SC-2 and CISS-2 followed in November. The USAF made its Shuttle Payload Integration Facility at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station available in November and December so SC-1 and SC-2 could be processed at the same time. A problem was detected with the propellant level indicator in the oxygen tank in SC-1, which was promptly redesigned, fabricated, and installed. There was also a problem with the drain valves, which was found and corrected. Shuttle-Centaur was certified as flight ready by NASA Associate Administrator Jesse Moore in November 1985. +The Johnson Space Center committed to lifting 29,000 kilograms (65,000 lb) but the engineers at Lewis Research Center were aware that the Space Shuttle was unlikely to be able to lift that amount. To compensate, the Lewis Research Center reduced the amount of propellant in the Centaur. This limited the number of possible launch days to just six. Concerned that this was too few, Nieberding gave a presentation to key management officials in which he made the case to Moore for the Space Shuttle engines to be run at 109 percent. Moore approved the request over the objections of representatives of the Marshall Space Flight Center and Johnson Space Center who were present. +The astronauts considered the Shuttle-Centaur missions to be riskiest Space Shuttle missions yet, referring to Centaur as the "Death Star". The main safety issue that concerned them involved what would happen in the case of an aborted mission, a failure of the Space Shuttle systems to put them into orbit. In that case, the crew would dump the Centaur's propellant and attempt to land. This was an extremely dangerous maneuver, but also an extremely unlikely contingency (in fact, one that would never occur in the life of the Space Shuttle program). In such an emergency, all the propellant could be drained through valves on both sides of the Space Shuttle's fuselage in 250 seconds, but their proximity to the main engines and the Orbital Maneuvering System was a concern for the astronauts, who feared fuel leaks and explosions. The Space Shuttle orbiter would then have to land with Centaur still on board, and its center of gravity would be further aft than on any previous mission. +Hauck and John Young, the astronaut who was chief of the Shuttle office, took their concerns to the Johnson Space Center Configuration Control Board, which ruled the risk acceptable. Engineers at the Lewis Research Center, the JPL and General Dynamics dismissed the astronauts' concerns about liquid hydrogen, pointing out that the Space Shuttle was propelled by liquid hydrogen and at liftoff the Space Shuttle's external tank contained 25 times the amount of fuel carried by Centaur. Surprised by the board's approval of Centaur, Hauck offered his crew the opportunity to resign from the mission with his support, but no one accepted the offer. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6b42afbcb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-Centaur" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-Centaur" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:55.194283+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Cancellation == +On 28 January 1986, Challenger lifted off on STS-51-L. A failure of the right solid rocket booster 73 seconds into flight tore Challenger apart, resulting in the deaths of all seven crew members. The Challenger disaster was America's worst space disaster at the time. The Centaur team, many of whom witnessed the disaster, was devastated. On 20 February, Moore ordered the Galileo and Ulysses missions postponed. Too many key personnel were involved in the analysis of the accident for the two missions to proceed. They were not canceled, but the earliest they could be flown was in thirteen months. Engineers continued to perform tests and the Galileo probe was moved to the Vertical Processing Facility at the Kennedy Space Center, where it was mated with Centaur. Of the four safety reviews required of the Shuttle-Centaur missions, three had been completed, although some issues arising from the last two remained to be resolved. The final review was originally scheduled for late January. Some more safety changes had been incorporated into the Centaur Gs being built for the USAF, but had not made it to SC-1 and SC-2 owing to the strict deadline. After the disaster, $75 million (equivalent to $261 million in 2024) was earmarked for Centaur safety enhancements. +Although completely unrelated to the accident, Challenger had broken up immediately after throttling to 104 percent power. This contributed to the perception at the Johnson Space Center and Marshall Space Flight Centers that it was too risky to go to 109 percent. At the same time, the engineers at Lewis were aware that safety improvements to the Space Shuttle were likely and that this could only add more weight. Without 109 percent power, it seemed unlikely that the Shuttle could lift Centaur. In May a series of meetings were held with NASA and aerospace industry engineers at the Lewis Research Center in which the safety issues around Centaur were discussed. The meeting concluded that Centaur was reliable and safe. At one meeting at NASA Headquarters on 22 May, though, Hauck argued that Centaur posed an unacceptable degree of risk. A review by the House Appropriations Committee chaired by Boland recommended that Shuttle-Centaur be canceled. On 19 June Fletcher cancelled the project. This was only partly due to the NASA management's increased aversion to risk in the wake of the Challenger disaster. NASA management also considered the money and manpower required to get the Space Shuttle flying again and concluded that there were insufficient resources to resolve lingering problems with Shuttle-Centaur as well. +Termination letters went out to the NASA centers and to the major contractors, including General Dynamics, Honeywell, Teledyne, and Pratt & Whitney, and over 200 stop-work orders were issued. Most work was finished by 30 September, and all work was completed by the end of the year. Allowing work to continue to completion preserved the investment in technology. The NASA centers and major contractors deposited the project documentation in NASA's Centaur Engineering Data Center in September and October 1986, and the USAF purchased the flight hardware from NASA for use with Titan. NASA and the USAF had spent $472.8 million (equivalent to $1.14 billion in 2024) developing Shuttle-Centaur, and $411 million (equivalent to $995 million in 2024) on three sets of flight hardware. Shutting down the project cost another $75 million (equivalent to $182 million in 2024). Thus, a total of $959 million (equivalent to $2.32 billion in 2024) had been spent. + +== Legacy == + +Galileo was not launched until 17 October 1989, on STS-34 using the IUS. The spacecraft took six years to reach Jupiter instead of two, as it had to fly by Venus and Earth twice to garner enough speed to reach Jupiter. The delay jeopardized the mission. When JPL tried to use Galileo's high gain antenna, it was found to have been damaged, most likely by vibration during overland transportation between JPL and Kennedy Space Center three times, but possibly during the rough launch by the IUS. Damage to the titanium anodized coating and the titanium dry lubricant meant that bare metal could have been touching, and in the prolonged period of time in the vacuum of space that followed it might have undergone cold welding. Whatever the cause, the antenna could not be unfolded, rendering it unusable. A low-gain antenna had to be used, dramatically reducing the amount of data the spacecraft could transmit. +The Ulysses project scientists had to wait even longer; the Ulysses spacecraft was launched using the IUS and Payload Assist Module on STS-41 on 6 October 1990. +The USAF mated the Centaur G-Prime upper stage with the Titan booster to produce Titan IV, which made its first flight in 1994. Over the next 18 years, Titan IV with Centaur G-Prime placed eighteen military satellites in orbit. In 1997 NASA used it to launch the Cassini–Huygens probe to Saturn. +A Centaur G-Prime was on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, for many years. In 2016, the center decided to move it to make way for a redesigned outdoor display, and it was transferred to NASA's Glenn Research Center (as the Lewis Research Center had been renamed on 1 March 1999). It was officially placed on outdoor display on 6 May 2016 after a ceremony attended by forty retired NASA and contractor staff who had worked on the rocket thirty years before, and by officials including Glenn Director Janet Kavandi, former Glenn Director Lawrence J. Ross, and the USAF's former Titan IV mission manager, Colonel Elena Oberg. + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-derived_vehicle-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-derived_vehicle-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..da2d2ab70 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-derived_vehicle-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-derived vehicle" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-derived_vehicle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:29.474947+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Shuttle-derived vehicles (SDV) are space launch vehicles and spacecraft that use components, technology, and infrastructure originally developed for the Space Shuttle program. +In the late 1980s and early 1990s, NASA formally studied a cargo-only vehicle, Shuttle-C, that would have supplemented the crewed Space Shuttle. In 2005, NASA was developing the Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles, based in part on highly modified Shuttle components, to enable exploration of the Moon and Mars. The agency also studied a third such vehicle, the Ares IV. + +After the earlier programs were cancelled, NASA began development of the Space Launch System (SLS) in 2011. SLS is a super heavy-lift expendable launch vehicle. Its core stage is structurally and visually similar to the Space Shuttle external tank. Each SLS launch reuses and expends four of the pre-flown RS-25D engines that were de-mounted from the Space shuttles. SLS also uses a pair of solid rocket boosters derived from the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster. The first SLS was delivered to Kennedy Space Center in 2021 for the Artemis 1 mission. As of November 2022, this SLS was rolled out to Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B for several attempts to launch, finally launching on 16 November 2022. + +== Concepts == +SDV concepts were proposed even before the Space Shuttle itself began flying. + +=== Shuttle-C === + +The Shuttle-C was a study by NASA to turn the Space Shuttle launch stack into a dedicated uncrewed cargo launcher. The Space Shuttle external tank and Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) would be combined with a cargo module in place of the shuttle orbiter including the RS-25 engines. Various Shuttle-C concepts were investigated between 1984 and 1995, but were never implemented. + +=== National Launch System === + +The National Launch System (or New Launch System) was a study authorized in 1991 by President George H. W. Bush to study alternatives to the Space Shuttle for access to Earth orbit. Shortly thereafter, NASA asked Lockheed Missiles and Space, McDonnell Douglas, and TRW to perform a ten-month study. +A series of launch vehicles was proposed, based around the proposed Space Transportation Main Engine (STME) liquid-fuel rocket engine. The STME was to be a simplified, expendable version of the Space Shuttle main engine (SSME). The NLS-1 was the largest of three proposed vehicles and would have used a modified Space Shuttle external tank for its core stage. The tank would have fed liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen to four STMEs attached to the bottom of the tank. A payload or second stage would have fit atop the core stage, and two detachable Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters would have been mounted on the sides of the core stage as on the Shuttle. Period illustrations suggest that much larger rockets than NLS-1 were contemplated, using multiples of the NLS-1 core stage. + +=== Constellation program === + +One of the main goals of the Constellation program was the development of spacecraft and booster vehicles to replace the Space Shuttle. NASA had already begun designing two rockets, the Ares I and Ares V, when the program was established. Ares I was designed for the sole purpose of launching mission crews into orbit, while Ares V would have been used to launch other hardware which required a heavier lift capacity than the Ares I booster provided. + +==== Ares I ==== + +Ares I was the crew launch vehicle that was being developed by NASA as part of the Constellation program. The name "Ares" refers to the Greek deity Ares, who is identified with the Roman god Mars. Ares I was originally known as the "Crew Launch Vehicle" (CLV). +NASA planned to use Ares I to launch Orion, the spacecraft intended for NASA human spaceflight missions after the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011. Ares I was to complement the larger, uncrewed Ares V, which was the cargo launch vehicle for Constellation. NASA selected the Ares designs for their anticipated overall safety, reliability and cost-effectiveness. However, the Constellation program, including Ares I was cancelled by U.S. president Barack Obama in October 2010 with the passage of his 2010 NASA authorization bill. + +==== Ares V ==== + +The Ares V (formerly known as the Cargo Launch Vehicle or CaLV) was the planned cargo launch component of the cancelled NASA Constellation program, which was to have replaced the Space Shuttle after its retirement in 2011. Ares V was also planned to carry supplies for a human presence on Mars. Ares V and the smaller Ares I were named after Ares, the Greek god of war. +The Ares V was to launch the Earth Departure Stage and Altair lunar lander for NASA's return to the Moon, which was then planned for 2019. It would also have served as the principal launcher for missions beyond the Earth-Moon system, including the program's ultimate goal, a crewed mission to Mars. The uncrewed Ares V would complement the smaller, and human-rated Ares I rocket for the launching of the 4–6 person Orion spacecraft. Both rockets, deemed safer than the then-current Space Shuttle, would have employed technologies developed for the Apollo program, the Shuttle program, and the Delta IV EELV program. However, the Constellation program, including Ares V was cancelled by U.S. president Barack Obama in October 2010 with the passage of his 2010 NASA authorization bill. + +==== Ares IV ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-derived_vehicle-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-derived_vehicle-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f6595c07 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-derived_vehicle-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle-derived vehicle" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle-derived_vehicle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:29.474947+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Ares IV concept combines an Ares I upper stage on top of an Ares V. Specifically, the vehicle would consist of the liquid-fueled core stage from the Ares V design, two five-segment solid rocket boosters, and the liquid-fueled upper stage from the Ares I, as described by NASA in January 2007. The Ares IV would be a combined 367 ft (112 m) tall and could be used to reach the Moon. Total payload capacity would be 90,420 lb (41,000 kg) to 240 miles (390 km) for direct trans-lunar injection. +NASA had considered using Ares IV to evaluate high-speed "skip" reentry profiles of the Orion capsule in 2007. NASA had planned flight demonstrations of Ares I and Ares V hardware in "Heavy Lift" configurations beginning in 2013. The "Heavy Lift" test flights were to test the first stage of the Ares V simultaneously with the Ares I upper stage attached on top to save both time and money. The later Heavy Lift test vehicle configurations are similar to the Ares IV vehicle. + +==== Ares V Lite ==== + +Ares V Lite was an alternative launch vehicle for NASA's Constellation program suggested by the Augustine Commission. Ares V Lite was a scaled down Ares V. It would have used five RS-68 engines and two five-segment SRBs and have had a low Earth orbit payload of approximately 140 tonnes (310,000 lb). If chosen, Ares V Lite would have replaced the Ares V and Ares I launchers. One Ares V Lite version would have been a cargo lifter like Ares V and the second version would have carried astronauts in the Orion spacecraft. + +==== NASA Side-Mount Vehicle ==== + +The Shuttle-Derived Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle (HLV) was an alternate super heavy-lift launch vehicle proposal for the NASA Constellation program. It was first presented to the Augustine Commission on 17 June 2009. +Based on the Shuttle-C concept which has been the subject of various studies since the 1980s, the HLV was a SDLV that proposed to replace the winged Orbiter from the Space Shuttle stack with a side-mounted payload carrier. The Space Shuttle external tank (ET) and Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) would have remained the same. + +=== Jupiter === + +The Jupiter family of super heavy-lift launch vehicles was part of the proposed DIRECT Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle architecture. It was intended to be the alternative to the Ares I and Ares V rockets. +Major benefits were projected from re-using as much hardware and facilities from the Space Shuttle program as possible, including cost savings, experience with existing hardware, and preserving the workforce. + +=== Space Launch System === + +The Space Launch System (SLS) is a super heavy-lift expendable launch vehicle, which is used in the Artemis program. It is very similar in design to the NLS-1 concept. It is the primary launch vehicle of NASA's deep space exploration plans, including the crewed lunar flights of the Artemis program and a possible follow-on human mission to Mars. Its first launch, Artemis 1, flew on 16 November 2022. Its first crewed launch, Artemis 2, carried four astronauts (Reid Wiseman, Christina Koch, Victor Glover, and Jeremy Hansen) to a lunar flyby, breaking the distance record for furthest humans from Earth, previously held by Apollo 13. + +=== Liberty === + +Liberty was a 2011 launch vehicle concept proposed by Alliant Techsystems (ATK) and Astrium for phase 2 of the NASA Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program intended to stimulate development of privately operated crew vehicles to low Earth orbit. +Similar to the defunct Ares I project, which consisted of a five segment Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) and a new cryogenic second stage, Liberty would combine a five-segment SRB with the core stage of the European Ariane 5 as a second stage. + +== Gallery == + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Boeing (c. 2005), "Delta IV Heavy growth options for space exploration", Delta Launch 310 – Delta IV Heavy Demo Media Kit (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007, retrieved April 25, 2010 +Bush, George H. W. (1991), National Space Launch Strategy NSPD-4, July 10, 1991, archived from the original on December 30, 1999, retrieved April 25, 2010 +Duffy, J. B.; Lehner, J. W.; Pannell, B. (1993). "Evaluation of the national launch system as a booster for the HL-20". Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. 30 (5): 622. Bibcode:1993JSpRo..30..622D. doi:10.2514/3.25574. +Federation of American Scientists (1996), National Launch System - NLS, retrieved April 25, 2010 +Flight International (August 28 – September 3, 1991), "NASA Sets up 10-month NLS study", Flight International, 4 (4282), retrieved April 25, 2010 +Lyons, Michael T. (1992), "National launch system and its potential application to the launch of geosynchronous satellites." (PDF), AIAA International Communication Satellite Systems Conference and Exhibit, 14th, Washington, D. C., March 22-26, 1992, Technical Papers. Pt. 1 (A92-29751 11-32)., American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, pp. 18–22, archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2015, retrieved April 25, 2010 +NASA History Division (September 23, 1998), "The Policy Origins of the X-33 Part II: The NASA Access to Space Study", X-33 History Project, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, archived from the original on October 22, 2014, retrieved April 25, 2010 +Thompson, Elvia; Davis, Jennifer (November 4, 2009), Daniel Saul Goldin NASA Administrator, April 1, 1992 - November 17, 2001, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, archived from the original on December 8, 2016, retrieved April 25, 2010 +Wood, B. K. (2002), "Propulsion for the 21st Century—RS-68", 38th Joint Liquid Propulsion Conference, Indianapolis, Indiana. July 2002. Reston, Virginia, USA., American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, archived from the original on March 19, 2009, retrieved April 25, 2010 + +== Further reading == +Jenkins, Dennis R. (2002). Space Shuttle: The History of the National Space Transportation System. Stillwater MN: Voyageur Press. ISBN 0-9633974-5-1. + +== External links == + +SRB-X Launch Vehicle +CEV vs Apollo \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_Avionics_Integration_Laboratory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_Avionics_Integration_Laboratory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0f05cbb84 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_Avionics_Integration_Laboratory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_Avionics_Integration_Laboratory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:48.878058+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) was a facility at Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, US. + + +== Facility == +It was the only facility in the Space Shuttle Program where actual orbiter hardware and flight software can be integrated and tested in a simulated flight environment. It supported the entire Space Shuttle program to perform integrated verification tests. It also contained Firing Room Launch Equipment identical to that used at KSC. Thus, complete ground verifications, as well as countdown and abort operations, could be tested and simulated. +The testing process is extensive and rigorous; the software on the Shuttle is often considered to be among the most bug-free of operational systems. +The laboratory contains a complete avionics mock-up of a Shuttle, designated OV-095. While only a skeleton of an orbiter, the electronics are identical in position and type to those used on the Shuttle; it is a sufficiently faithful replica that crews sometimes prefer to use it to train on, rather than the training simulators. +NASA personnel who have been assigned to SAIL testing include Charlie Bolden (former NASA Administrator), Michael Coats (former Director at JSC NASA), Brewster Shaw (Boeing Vice President of Space Exploration Division) and Al Crews (selected as an astronaut for the X-20 Dyna-Soar). The first SAIL commander was James E. Westom of Rockwell International, retired Major USAF. He flew the Approach and Landing phase in SAIL before Space Shuttle Enterprise was launched off the top of the NASA C-747 airplane to prove it could fly on its own in the atmosphere. +The SAIL facility will be renovated and recreated as a stop on the Space Center Houston Level 9 Tour, a separate add-on to the visitor center admission in which tourists are given entrance to buildings normally off limits to visitors. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Melone, Kelly (September 2010). "SAILing through space" (PDF). Boeing Frontiers. 9 (5): 24–25. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f7da9308 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Sokol space suit" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:06.943171+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Sokol space suit (Russian: Cокол, lit. 'Falcon') is a series of soft-body pressure suits designed and built by NPP Zvezda. It was first introduced in 1973 for the Soviet space program following the Soyuz 11 disaster, and continues to see use in the modern day primarily by the Russian space program, being worn by space travelers flying aboard the Soyuz spacecraft. A version of Sokol is also used by the China Manned Space Program. +Sokol is described by its makers as a rescue suit[2] and it is not capable of being used outside the spacecraft in a spacewalk or extravehicular activity. Instead, its purpose is to keep the wearer alive in the event of an accidental depressurization of the spacecraft. + +== History == +Pressure suits were worn on the early Soviet Vostok space missions, but when the Soyuz spacecraft was being developed in the mid-1960s, its designers, OKB-1, did not incorporate the use of spacesuits into its design. Some of the early Soyuz flights carried Yastreb space suits but these were only for spacewalks and were only worn in orbit. +On June 30, 1971, the crew of Soyuz 11 died when their spacecraft depressurized during re-entry. One of the recommendations of the investigating government commission was that pressure suits should be worn by future crews during critical phases of their mission—launch, docking and landing. +NPP Zvezda was given the task of providing the suits. They rejected the use of existing Soviet space suits and chose to base a new suit on the existing Sokol aviation pressure suit. The main modification was the replacement of the Sokol suit's hard helmet. Other features of the aviation suit that were considered unnecessary were removed to save weight. +At the same time, a life support system was developed in co-operation with OKB-1. The new suit was named Sokol-K, K (Kosmos) being the abbreviation of the Russian word for space. + +== Description == +The modern version of Sokol consists of an inner pressure layer of rubberized polycaprolactam and an outer layer of white nylon canvas. The boots of the suit are integrated and unable to be removed. The gloves are removable, attaching to the suit via blue anodized aluminum wrist couplings. Sokol has a hinged polycarbonate visor mounted near the ears which seals with an anodized aluminum clavicle flange when closed, and a 'soft helmet' fabric hood which folds when the visor is raised. +There is a suit pressure gauge on the left wrist. A mirror on an elastic wrist band is worn on the right, to help the wearer see beyond the suit's limited field of view. During re-entry, an altimeter on a wrist strap may also be worn, allowing an immediate check on cabin pressure and an additional method of advance warning to brace prior to touchdown, as during the last phase of landing the cabin opens to the outside air. +Sokol is often worn with a wristwatch, with an elastic band replacing the strap to allow it to fit over the bulky suit glove.The watches are often privately purchased, and a wide variety of Swiss and Russian models have been used.[3][4] +Electrical cables are mounted on the right abdomen of the suit, while the left abdomen has separate hoses for air and oxygen. Normally, an electric blower ventilates the suit with cabin air through the larger hose at the rate of 150 litres (5.3 cubic feet) per minute. If the cabin pressure drops below 600 hectopascals (0.59 standard atmospheres; 8.7 pounds per square inch), the suit's air supply is automatically replaced with oxygen from pressurized bottles[5] at a rate of 22 litres (0.78 cubic feet) per minute. Both air and oxygen exhaust through the blue pressure relief valve at the center of the chest; this valve also regulates the pressure of the suit. +Effectively, the suit uses an open-circuit life support system that somewhat resembles scuba equipment. This has the advantage of simplicity; the disadvantage of a high rate of oxygen consumption is considered acceptable given that it is only intended for emergency use. +The suits weigh around 10 kilograms (22 lb) and are described by those who have used them as a considerable encumbrance when worn on the ground.[6] Despite this, they are intended to be worn for up to 30 hours in a pressurized environment or two hours in a vacuum. They can also float and have a neck dam that allows the visor to be raised in water without the risk of flooding the suit. However, Soyuz crews are provided with buoyancy aids and cold-water survival suits which would preferably be used if the Soyuz accidentally landed in water.[7][8] +As of 2002, a total of 309 flight suits had been made along with 135 training and testing suits.[9] + +== Operational use == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d0aeb9c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Sokol space suit" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:06.943171+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Each Soyuz crew member is provided with a made-to-measure suit for flight (although, from the numbers made, it appears that the suits provided for ground training are re-used). To ensure the suit fits correctly, the wearer spends two hours sitting in a launch couch with the suit inflated. Straps on the arms, legs and chest allow the fit to be adjusted slightly. +To don the suit, the two zips that make a 'V' on the chest are opened. Underneath, there is a large tubular opening in the inner pressure layer known as the appendix. Legs go in first, followed by the arms into the sleeves and head into the helmet. When the suit is on, an airtight seal is made by tightly rolling up the appendix and securing it with strong elastic bands. The large bulge of the rolled-up appendix is secured under the V-shaped flap in the suit's outer layer. When worn on the ground, the suit is attached to a portable ventilation unit—a hand-held device that supplies air to the suit, cooling it first with an ice filled heat exchanger. Grey leather outer boots are also worn on the ground; they protect the feet of the suit from damage and are removed before entering the spacecraft to avoid carrying debris into the cabin. +The suit is worn during launch and re-entry of the Soyuz spacecraft—the gloves are attached and the visor is sealed at these times. In an emergency, the suit pressure is usually maintained at 400 hPa (0.39 atm, 5.8 psi) above the ambient by the pressure relief valve. However, the suits only have a rudimentary pressure relief layer so they tend to balloon when inflated. Movement of the wearer becomes restricted, although it is still possible to pilot inside the capsule. +If more than limited movement is required, the pressure relief valve may be adjusted to a lower setting of 270 hPa (0.26 atm, 3.9 psi). Pure oxygen at this pressure will support life, but the setting is only intended for use in extreme emergencies;[10] the risk of decompression sickness becomes significant if the wearer spends more than 15 minutes at the lower pressure setting.[11] +The maximum length of time the suits may be used in a vacuum is 125 minutes. The time is limited because the oxygen flow to the suit is enough for life support, but insufficient to carry away the cosmonaut's body heat and longer use of the suit risks heat exhaustion. If the capsule becomes depressurized, either accidentally or deliberately to extinguish a fire, it must land within that time. + +== Variants == + +=== Sokol-K === +The first version of the suit, first used on Soyuz 12, launched on September 27, 1973. + +==== Specifications ==== +Name: Sokol-K Rescue Spacesuit +Derived from: Sokol aviation full pressure suit +Manufacturer: NPP Zvezda +Missions: Soyuz 12 (1973) to Soyuz 40 (1981) +Function: Intravehicular activity (IVA) +Operating pressure: 400 hPa (5.8 psi) +Suit weight: 10 kg (22 lb) + +=== Sokol-KR === +A version intended for use with the TKS spacecraft which was to be used as part of the Almaz program. The suit was never used, as TKS never flew with a crew. Its main difference was that it was designed to work with a regenerative life support system. + +=== Sokol-KM and Sokol-KV === +Work on improving the Sokol-K began in 1973, immediately after its introduction. The Sokol-KM and KV were intermediate models on which many of the features of the Sokol-KV2 were developed, neither was ever used in space. +To be donned, the Sokol-KM and KV split into upper and lower halves joined by zip fasteners. However, this feature was discarded in the Sokol-KV2 and the appendix was retained as a means of donning the suit—it was thought to be more reliable than the airtight zippers the Russians were able to make. Other changes included alterations to the fabric around the joints, to improve mobility, and improvement of the gloves, to make it easier to operate the spacecraft controls. +The KM and KV also featured a liquid-cooled undergarment that would increase the comfort of the wearer by efficiently removing body-heat; other suits relied on the flow of air to do this. + +==== Specifications ==== +Name: Sokol-KV Rescue Spacesuit +Manufacturer: NPP Zvezda +Missions: None +Function: Intra-vehicular activity (IVA) +Operating pressure: 400 hPa (5.8 psi) +Suit weight: 12 kg (26 lb) + +=== Sokol-KV2 === + +The Sokol-KV2, the current version of the suit, was first used on the Soyuz T-2 mission, launched on June 5, 1980. +The main improvement was the replacement of the rubber pressure layer of the Sokol-K with rubberized polycaprolactam to save weight. The visor was modified and enlarged to give the wearer a better field of view. Laces in the outer canvas layer were replaced with zippers to make the suit quicker to don and the pressure relief valve was moved from the left abdomen to the center of the chest so either hand could be used to alter the suit's pressure setting. The improved arms, legs, and gloves of the Sokol-KV were retained although the liquid cooled undergarment of the KM and KV was discarded. + +==== Specifications ==== +Name: Sokol-KV2 Rescue Spacesuit +Manufacturer: NPP Zvezda +Missions: 1980 to present +Function: Intra-vehicular activity (IVA) +Operating pressure: 400 hPa (5.8 psi) +Suit weight: 10 kg (22 lb) + +== Use by countries other than Russia == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..106924c5b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Sokol space suit" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokol_space_suit" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:06.943171+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The People's Republic of China purchased a number of space suits from the Russians for use in the China Manned Space Program. The suit worn by Yang Liwei on Shenzhou 5, the first crewed Chinese spaceflight, closely resembles a Sokol-KV2 suit, but it is believed to be a Chinese-made version rather than an actual Russian suit. Derivative versions of Sokol continue to be worn by Chinese taikonauts on flights of the Shenzhou spacecraft today, though details of the suits' design differ slightly; they are also reported to weigh less than the Russian version of Sokol. +Sokol suits have been bought for uses other than spaceflight. It was planned that the crew of the British QinetiQ 1 high-altitude balloon would wear modified Sokol suits purchased from Zvezda. As the balloonists would have occupied an open platform during their twelve-hour flight, the Sokol suits, together with heavily insulated outer garments, would have protected them from the cold and low pressure of the stratosphere as the balloon ascended to a height of around 40 km (130,000 ft). +Bulgaria developed its own version of the Sokol space suit in the mid-1970s. + +== U.S. equivalent == +During the flight of Gemini 7 in 1965, Frank Borman and Jim Lovell wore modified Gemini spacesuits sharing some similarities with the Sokol suits, but with significant differences. Their suits were known as the G5C by their manufacturer, the David Clark Company. + +== Collectors' market == +Sokol space suits, including ones flown in space, were first sold by Sotheby's at an auction devoted to Russian space history in 1993. Subsequently, components such as gloves, communications caps, and wrist mirrors have frequently come up for sale on eBay; even complete suits have occasionally come up for sale, such as the one that Heritage Auctions sold for US$31,070 in 2009. These are usually worn out items that have been discarded after use during ground training and were never intended for use in space. As these items are nominally the property of the Russian government, the legitimacy of their sale has been questioned. + +== See also == +Strizh (space suit) +Advanced Crew Escape Suit +Orlan space suit + +== References == +Citations + +Bibliography +^Isaak P. Abramov, A. Ingemar Skoog, (2003). Russian Space Suits: Springer-Praxsis. ISBN 1-85233-732-X. +^Helen Sharman Christopher Priest, (1993). Seize the Moment, Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-05628-2. +^Christopher S. Stuart, "Psst - Wanna Buy a Slightly Used Soviet Space Suit?". Wired Magazine, issue 13.04, April 2005. Retrieved February 17, 2006. +^Sotheby's Catalogue – Russian Space History, sale 6516, December 11, 1993. +^Sotheby's Catalogue – Russian Space History, sale 6753, March 16, 1996. + +== External links == + +NPP Zvezda's web site +NASA's guide to the clothing of International Space Station crewmembers \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soman-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soman-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6089c9140 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soman-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Soman" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soman" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:31.628266+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soman (or GD, EA 1210, Zoman, PFMP, A-255, systematic name: O-pinacolyl methyl­phos­phono­fluoridate) is an extremely toxic chemical substance. It is a nerve agent, interfering with normal functioning of the mammalian nervous system by inhibiting the enzyme cholin­esterase. It is an inhibitor of both acetyl­cholin­esterase and butyryl­cholin­esterase. As a chemical weapon, it is classified as a weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations according to UN Resolution 687. Its production is strictly controlled, and stockpiling is outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 where it is classified as a Schedule 1 substance. Soman was the third of the so-called G-series nerve agents to be discovered along with GA (tabun), GB (sarin), and GF (cyclosarin). +When pure, soman is a volatile, corrosive, and colorless liquid with a faint odor like that of mothballs or rotten fruit. More commonly, it is a yellow to brown color and has a strong odor described as similar to camphor. The LCt50 for soman is 70 mg·min/m3 in humans. +GD can be thickened for use as a chemical spray using an acryloid copolymer. It can also be deployed as a binary chemical weapon; its precursor chemicals are methyl­phos­phonyl difluoride and a mixture of pinacolyl alcohol and an amine. + +== History == +After World War I, during which mustard gas and phosgene were used as chemical warfare agents, the 1925 Geneva Protocol was signed in an attempt to ban chemical warfare. Nevertheless, research into chemical warfare agents and the use of them continued. In 1936 a new, more dangerous chemical agent was discovered when Gerhard Schrader of IG Farben in Germany isolated tabun (named GA for German Agent A by the United States), the first nerve agent, while developing new insecticides. This discovery was followed by the isolation of sarin (designated GB by the United States) in 1938, also discovered by Schrader. +During World War II, research into nerve agents continued in the United States and Germany. In summer 1944, soman, a colorless liquid with a camphor odor (designated GD by the United States), was developed by the Germans. Soman proved to be even more toxic than tabun and sarin. Nobel Laureate Richard Kuhn together with Konrad Henkel discovered soman during research into the pharmacology of tabun and sarin at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research at Heidelberg. This research was commissioned by the German Army. Soman was produced in small quantities at a pilot plant at the IG Farben factory in Ludwigshafen. It was never used in World War II. +Producing or stockpiling soman was banned by the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention. When the convention entered force, the parties declared worldwide stockpiles of 9,057 tonnes of soman. The stockpiles were destroyed by 2018. +The crystal structure of soman complexed with acetyl­cholin­esterase was determined by Millard et al. in 1999 by X-ray crystal­lography: 1som. Other solved acetyl­cholin­esterase structures with soman bound to them include 2wfz, 2wg0 and 2wg1. + +== Structure and reactivity == + +Soman (C(±)P(±)-soman) has four stereoisomers, each with a different toxicity, though largely similar. The stereoisomers are C(+)P(+)-soman, C(+)P(−)-soman C(−)P(−)-soman and C(−)P(+)-soman. +Soman has a phosphonyl group with a fluoride and a (large) hydrocarbon covalently bound to it. The structure is thus similar to that of sarin, which has only a smaller hydrocarbon group attached (isopropyl). Because of the similarity between the chemical structures, the reactivity of the two compounds is almost the same. Soman and sarin will both react using the phospho oxygen group, which can bind to amino acids like serine. + +== Synthesis == +The manufacture of soman is very similar to the manufacture of sarin. The difference is that the isopropanol from the sarin processes is replaced with pinacolyl alcohol: + +Soman is synthesized by reacting pinacolyl alcohol with methyl­phos­phonyl difluoride. The result of this reaction is the forming of soman which is described as “colorless liquid with a somewhat fruity odor.” The low vapor pressure of soman will also produce the volatile gas form of soman. Also, the acid hydrogen fluoride will form due to the elimination of fluoride and a proton. This acid is indirectly dangerous to humans. Skin contact with hydrogen fluoride will cause an immediate reaction with water which produces hydrofluoric acid. + +== Mechanisms of action == +Soman is an organo­phosphorus nerve agent with a mechanism of action similar to tabun. Nerve agents inhibit acetylcholine esterase (AChE) by forming an adduct with the enzyme via a serine residue on that enzyme. These adducts may be decomposed hydrolytically or, for example, by the action of some oximes and thereby regenerate the enzyme. A second reaction type, one in which the enzyme–organo­phosphate (OP) complex undergoes a subsequent reaction, is usually described as "aging". Once the enzyme–OP complex has aged it is no longer regenerated by the common, oxime reactivators. The rate of this process is dependent on the OP. Soman is an OP that stimulates the rate of aging most rapidly decreasing the half-life to just a few minutes. +AChE is an enzyme involved with neuro­transmission. Because of the severe decrease of the half-life of this enzyme, neuro­transmission is abolished in a matter of minutes. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soman-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soman-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7f7ee5f3a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soman-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Soman" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soman" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:31.628266+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Metabolism == +Once taken up in the human body, soman not only inhibits AChE, but it is also a substrate for other esterases. Reaction of soman with these esterases allows for the detoxication of the compound. No metabolic toxification reactions are known for soman. +Soman can be hydrolyzed by a so-called A-esterase, more specifically a diiso­propyl­fluoro­phosphatase. This esterase, also called somanase, reacts with the anhydride bond between phosphorus and fluorine and accounts for the hydrolysis of the fluoride. Somanase also hydrolyses the methyl group of soman resulting in the formation of pinacolyl methyl­phosphonic acid (PMPA), which is a less potent AChE inhibitor. +Soman can also bind to other esterases, e.g., AChE, cholin­esterase (ChE) and carboxyl­esterases (CarbE). In this binding, soman loses its fluoride. After binding to AChE or ChE soman also loses its phosphoryl group, leading to the formation of methyl­phosphonic acid (MPA). Binding to CarbE reduce the total concentration of soman in the blood, thus resulting in a lower toxicity. Furthermore, CarbE are involved in the detoxication by hydrolysing soman to PMPA. So CarbE account for the detoxication of soman in two ways. +The importance of the detoxication of soman after exposure was illustrated in experiments of Fonnum and Sterri (1981). They reported that only 5% of LD50 inhibited AChE in rats, resulting in acute toxic effects. This shows that metabolic reactions accounted for the detoxification of the remaining 95% of the dose. + +== Signs and symptoms == +As soman is closely related to compounds such as sarin, indications for a soman poisoning are relatively similar. One of the first observable signs of a soman poisoning is miosis. Some, but not all of the later indications are vomiting, extreme muscle pain and peripheral nervous system problems. Those symptoms show as soon as 10 minutes after exposure and may last for many days. +In addition to the direct toxic effects on the nervous system, people exposed to soman may experience long-term effects, most of which are psychological. Subjects who were exposed to a small dose of soman suffered severe toxic effects; once treated, the subjects often developed depression, had antisocial thoughts, were withdrawn and subdued, slept restlessly and had bad dreams. These symptoms lasted six months after exposure but disappeared without lasting damage. + +== Toxicity and efficacy == +The LC50 of soman in air is estimated to be 70 mg min per m3. Compared with the LC50 value for a rat, the human lethal concentration is much lower (954.3 mg min/m3 versus 70 mg min/m3). For compounds such as soman, which may also be used as a weapon, often a fraction of the LC50 dose is where the first effects appear. Miosis is one of the first symptoms of soman intoxication and can be seen in doses of less than 1% of the LC50. + +== Effects on animals == +Experiments have been done in which rats were exposed to soman to test if behavioral effects could be seen at low doses without generating overt symptoms. Exposure of the rats to soman in a dose of less than 3 percent of the LD50 caused alterations of the behavior. The active avoidance of the exposed rats was less than the avoidance of non-exposed rats (two-way shuttlebox experiment). Also the motor coordination (hurdle-stepping task), open field behavior and active as well as passive avoidance behavior were affected. One can conclude that rats that are exposed to soman performed with less success in tasks that require motor activity as well as the function of higher structures of the central nervous system (CNS) on the same time. In this, soman has a predominantly central effect. +The knowledge of the effects of low doses of soman and other choline esterase inhibitors on rats could possibly be used to explain the relatively high incidence of airplane accidents due to errors of agricultural pilots. If this knowledge could be applied to humans, one could explain this high incidence with depressed choline esterase activity due to exposure to pesticides. It is not known whether the extrapolation from rats to humans can be made. + +== References == + +== External links == +United States Senate, 103d Congress, 2d Session (May 25, 1994). Material Safety Data Sheet -- Lethal Nerve Agents Somain (GD and Thickened GD) (Archived 2013-09-12 at the Wayback Machine). Retrieved Nov. 6, 2004. +AChE inhibitors and substrates in Proteopedia +2wfz in Proteopedia +2wg0 in Proteopedia +2wg1 in Proteopedia +1som in Proteopedia +https://somantoxicologia.wixsite.com/meusite (in Portuguese) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d273c56f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Soviet Union and weapons of mass destruction" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:33.990706+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soviet Union had, by 1991, the world's largest stockpiles of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons. It carried out its first nuclear test in 1949 and its first multi-stage thermonuclear test in 1955. It was one of the five nuclear-weapon states of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and its biological weapons program proceeded despite its ratification of the Biological Weapons Convention. These programs were inherited primarily by Russia. +In 1991, the Soviet Union possessed approximately 29,000 nuclear warheads. The Soviet Armed Forces operated a nuclear triad that deployed over 10,000 strategic nuclear weapons: 6,280 warheads assigned to the Strategic Rocket Forces' 1,334 intercontinental ballistic missiles, 3,626 warheads to the Soviet Navy's 914 submarine-launched ballistic missiles, and 974 cruise missiles and bombs to Long Range Aviation's 106 Tu-95MS and Tu-160 bombers. +The Soviet Union conducted 715 nuclear tests, second only to the United States. These were primarily at Semipalatinsk Test Site, and Novaya Zemlya, where the most powerful nuclear test ever, the Tsar Bomba at 50 megatons, was conducted in 1961. The Soviet Union, with the US and UK, joined the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty banning non-underground tests. Its nuclear weapons infrastructure saw many radioactive contamination events; the 1957 Kyshtym disaster remains the worst military accident on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale. +The global Cold War saw many nuclear crises. During the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, Soviet nuclear warheads and missiles were briefly stationed in Cuba, often considered the closest call with World War III. Nuclear tensions again crescendoed during the 1969 Sino-Soviet border conflict, as Soviet leadership threatened a massive nuclear attack on China. Soviet nuclear weapons were also stationed in the Warsaw Pact countries of Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland, as well as Mongolia and potentially Egypt. +Following the December 1991 dissolution of the Union, tactical warheads stationed across post-Soviet states were withdrawn to Russia by May 1992. Strategic warheads between Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan were also withdrawn by 1996, under the Lisbon Protocol and Budapest Memorandum. +The Soviet chemical weapons program became the largest in world history. Russia in 1993 declared almost 40,000 tons of chemical weapons. The program produced Novichok, VR, sarin, and soman nerve agents, as well as lewisite, mustard, and phosgene, and others. In 1978, Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov was killed in London, allegedly with the toxin ricin, by Bulgaria's State Security with the aid of the Soviet KGB. +The Soviet biological weapons program was the world's largest, longest, and most sophisticated biological warfare project. It weaponized and stockpiled the biological agents that cause anthrax, plague, tularemia, smallpox, botulism and others. Genetic engineering improved agent stability and antibiotic resistance. The program employed a peak of 65,000 people and annually produced, for example, 100 tons of smallpox. The Sverdlovsk anthrax leak, which led to at least 68 deaths, began to reveal the extent of the program, continued by defectors including Ken Alibek and Vladimir Pasechnik. + +== Nuclear weapons == + +=== Delivery systems === + +==== Strategic ==== +In 1991, the USSR possessed approximately 29,000 nuclear warheads. The Soviet Armed Forces operated a nuclear triad that deployed over 10,000 strategic nuclear weapons: 6,280 warheads assigned to the Strategic Rocket Forces' 1,334 intercontinental ballistic missiles, 3,626 warheads to the Soviet Navy's 914 submarine-launched ballistic missiles, and 974 cruise missiles and bombs to Long Range Aviation's 106 Tu-95MS and Tu-160 bombers. Its most modern strategic missiles were the land-based RT-2PM Topol, RT-23 Molodets, and UR-100N, and submarine-based R-29RM, R-39, and R-29. +An estimated 3,000 nuclear weapons tipped surface-to-air missiles, and 100 tipped the ABM-1 and ABM-3 anti-ballistic missile systems around the capital city Moscow. + +==== Tactical ==== +Another 11,000 tactical nuclear weapons were assigned to land and naval tactical aircraft, missiles, nuclear artillery, and anti-submarine weapons including torpedoes and depth charges. +Tactical nuclear missiles included the R-17 Elbrus, 9K52 Luna-M, and OTR-21 Tochka. The largest nuclear artillery, 240 mm diameter, were delivered by the M240 towed mortar and 2S4 Tyulpan self-propelled mortar. +Tactical nuclear aircraft included the Mikoyan MiG-27, Sukhoi Su-24 and Su-17 fighters, maritime patrol Beriev Be-12, Ilyushin Il-38, and Tu-142, carrier-based Kamov Ka-27 and Ka-25 helicopters, and Kiev-class carrier-based Yakovlev Yak-38 vertical take-off and landing fighter. The think tank SIPRI considered the long-range bombers the Tu-22M, Tu-95K22, Tu-22 and Tu-16 to be assigned only "non-strategic" warheads, although these aircraft are sometimes considered strategic. + +=== Early development === + +=== Production sites === + +Three sites in the Russian SFSR produced 125.2 tons of weapons-grade plutonium from 1948 to 1991, with a consistent production peak between 1967 and 1989. Following the Moscow test reactor F-1 in 1946, the Mayak site in Chelyabinsk-40 began construction. The first plutonium production reactor A-1 began operation in 1948, fuelling the RDS-1 test. The Mayak site received nine further reactors were constructed. Of these, four were used for plutonium production, the other six reactors primarily produced tritium for thermonuclear weapons. Plutonium was also produced by five reactors at the Siberian Chemical Combine in Tomsk-7, and three reactors at the Mining and Chemical Combine in Krasnoyarsk-26. In this period, Mayak produced 30.9 tons, the Siberian Chemical Combine produced 54.9 tons, and the Mining and Chemical Combine produced 39.4 tons. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..41f60831a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Soviet Union and weapons of mass destruction" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:33.990706+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Russian sites ultimately produced 1,250 tons of highly enriched uranium (uncertainty ±120 tons) from 1949 to 2010, excluding HEU produced for naval nuclear reactors. Of this, 500 tons was downblended by the Megatons to Megawatts Program, and a further hundred tons were used in production research reactors, nuclear tests, and other downblending programs. Russia is now believed to possess 656 tons between HEU stockpiles and HEU inside weapons themselves. This began with the SU-20 electromagnetic separation plant, but the Soviet project quickly followed the Manhattan Project's gaseous diffusion scheme, constructing the D-1 plant in Sverdlovsk-44, eventually becoming the Ural Electrochemical Combine. The D-1 plant could produce 0.01 million SWU/year. The development of the gas centrifuge and waves of modernizations brought the Ural Electrochemical Combine to 11.9 million SWU/year by 1993. Further enrichment plants were built at the Siberian Chemical Combine, the Zelenogorsk Electrochemical Plant and the Angarsk Electrochemical Combine. + +=== Nuclear testing === + +The Soviet Union used three major test sites: Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan, Novaya Zemlya in the extreme north, and Kapustin Yar. +Notable tests at Semipalatinsk following RDS-1 include RDS-4, the first Soviet tactical nuclear weapon, RDS-6s, the first Soviet weapon to use thermonuclear reactions in a layer cake design, sometimes called a boosted fission weapon, and RDS-37, the first Soviet true two-stage thermonuclear weapon. +Novaya Zemlya was the site of further megaton-range explosions, including the Tsar Bomba, the largest weapon ever detonated, and the Raduga live test of an R-13 submarine-launched ballistic missile. Kapustin Yar was used for high-altitude nuclear tests launched by missiles, including the 1961 tests and Project K tests. +The Soviet Army also conducted the Totskoye nuclear exercise in Orenburg Oblast, 1954, in which 45,000 soldiers and hundreds of tanks, self-propelled guns, and armored personnel carriers were maneuvered through the blast zone of an RDS-4 nuclear bomb. After the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, underground testing continued at Semipalatinsk and Novaya Zemlya until 1990. The Soviet Union also developed "clean" thermonuclear weapons, including weapons with only deuterium as thermonuclear fuel, used in a brief program of peaceful nuclear explosions. + +=== Espionage and intelligence gathering === +During the Eisenhower administration, the US believed that successful aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union's nuclear facilities would be more likely than successful human intelligence. Thus it deployed a range of aircraft on overflights, including the Boeing RB-47 Stratojet and later the Lockheed U-2. A U-2 was famously shot down in 1960, causing international embarrassment to the US, after which it began transitioning to reconnaissance satellites. Under Project Genetrix in 1956, the US also launched high-altitude balloons for reconnaissance, which US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles justified saying "international law is obscure on the question of who owns the upper air". +The US also attempted a range of methods for a nuclear detonation detection system, including Project Grab Bag's air sampling balloons, and Project Mogul's infrasound monitoring balloons. +On 8 August 1974, the Central Intelligence Agency's Project Azorian obtained Soviet nuclear weapons in the form of nuclear torpedoes, from the sunken wreck of the Soviet submarine K-129 (1960). However, the raising ship Glomar Explorer lost the submarine's section containing the R-13 ballistic missiles and nuclear warheads, and codebooks and decoding machines. +In the late Cold War, the US developed a decapitation strike plan codenamed Canopy Wing, which would infiltrate and interfere with Soviet nuclear command and control in the event of conflict, including potentially supplying false commands to Soviet pilots via computer-generated voices. + +=== Foreign stationing === + +The Soviet Union practiced nuclear stationing during the Cold War, primarily with Warsaw Pact countries. It stationed nuclear weapons in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Mongolia, as well as briefly in Cuba during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. + +==== Cuba ==== +Under Operation Anadyr during the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Soviet Union brough an estimated 100 nuclear warheads to Cuba. Of these, 80 were assigned to FKR-1 cruise missiles, 12 to 9K52 Luna-M rocket, and 6 to 8 to R-12 Dvina missiles, although 42 Dvina missiles had been imported. Ilyushin Il-28 medium bombers had also been imported in crates, but were not unpacked, with 6 gravity bombs available to them. + +==== Suspected stationing in Bulgaria ==== +Approximately in 1985, the Soviet Union transferred a number of SS-23 intermediate-range missiles to Warsaw Pact allies East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria. This was discovered in 1990, when a report from The Military Balance revealed the undisclosed transfers. Although this wasn't in violation of any treaty, it was implied by the INF Treaty that they would be destroyed. According to a Pentagon official, during negotiations, the Soviet Union denied transferring any intermediate-range missiles to Bulgaria. Following the discovery, the 1990 annual U.S. "Report on Soviet Noncompliance with Arms Control Agreements" described the non-disclosure as "negotiating fraud" but it wasn't deemed an outright violation of the treaty. The missiles were equipped with conventional war-heads, but equipping them with nuclear warheads wouldn't have been difficult. The missiles were destroyed in 2002 as a consecuence of Bulgaria's bid to enter NATO. +This in conjunction with claims of USSR-Bulgarian nuclear weapon storage facilities, and alleged nuclear weapon release training from the Soviet Union to Bulgarian Air Force personnel have fueled the suspicion that Bulgaria could have been in possession of nuclear weapons at some point. + +==== Other ==== +In 1963, in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Socialist Republic of Romania made a secret declaration to the United States that it did not host Soviet nuclear weapons, and that it would wish to remain neutral rather than uphold its Warsaw Pact obligations in the event of a superpower conflict. +Some historical evidence indicates during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the Soviet Union deployed nuclear weapons to Egypt, including possibly providing two warheads to Soviet Scud missile brigades, as well as the typical nuclear weapons stored on ships and submarines of the 5th Operational Squadron based in Syria. + +=== Crises === + +==== Cuban Missile Crisis ==== + +==== Sino-Soviet border conflict ==== + +=== Post-dissolution === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2c231f18a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Soviet Union and weapons of mass destruction" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:33.990706+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Following the December 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, the hundreds of tactical warheads stationed in each of the fourteen other former Soviet republics were withdrawn to Russia by May 1992. The over two thousand strategic warheads, stationed between Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan, were withdrawn to Russia by November 1996, under the Lisbon Protocol and Budapest Memorandum. + +== Chemical weapons == + +Russia declared an arsenal of 39,967 metric tons of chemical agents, including the nerve agents sarin, soman, and VR, as well as lewisite, mustard, and phosgene, when it signed the CWC in 1993. The USSR also investigated and produced Novichok agents, hydrogen cyanide, ricin. By comparison, 27,770 metric tons were declared for the United States chemical weapons program in 1997. +By the time of the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, its chemical weapons research institute, GosNIIOKhT, employed approximately 6,000 people. The employees worked in Novocheboksarsk and Volgograd on nerve agent production, in Dzerzinsk on blister agent production, in Shikhany on testing, and in Nukus, Uzbekistan on testing. +Novichok agents were designed to be undetectable and unprotectable by NATO equipment, safer to handle, and circumvent the Chemical Weapons Convention list of controlled precursors, classes of chemical and physical form. +David Wise, in his book Cassidy's Run, implies that the FBI program Operation Shocker may have led the Soviet Union to develop Novichok agents. The program aimed to feed false information about US chemical and biological programs to the Soviet Union, and the Novichok agents may have resulted from false US research on a "GJ" codenamed agent. + +== Biological weapons == + +== See also == +United States and weapons of mass destruction +China and weapons of mass destruction + +== References == + +=== General and cited references === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-A-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-A-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..52f61ee9d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-A-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-A" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-A" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:26.734892+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sergei Korolev initially promoted the Soyuz A-B-V circumlunar complex (7K-9K-11K) concept (also known as L1) in which a two-man craft Soyuz 7K would rendezvous with other components (9K and 11K) in Earth orbit to assemble a lunar excursion vehicle, the components being delivered by the proven R-7 rocket. +Besides the Soyuz 7K spacecraft, the complex would feature a Soyuz 9K booster and a Soyuz 11K tanker with twin whip antennas. +The 7K would have been equipped with cameras and sensors to study the lunar surface during the flyby, at a distance of 1,000 to 20,000 km from the Moon's surface. Total flight time would have been 7 to 8 days. + + +== Relation with other Soyuz versions == + +Soyuz A is the base concept for the entire Soyuz spacecraft family. The 7K series is a direct descendant of this original proposal. +The list below shows proposed, flown (in bold) and military (in italic) Soyuz versions. + + +== See also == +Soyuz 9K +Soyuz 11K +Soyuz programme +Soyuz (spacecraft) +Parom +Progress (spacecraft) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-B-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-B-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e7c561a0b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-B-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-B" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-B" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:27.930359+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz-B (Russian: Союз-Б meaning Union-B) or Soyuz 9K (Russian: Союз 9К) was a proposed Soviet spacecraft, which was designed for use as an orbital tug. A number of applications were proposed for it, including use as part of the Soyuz A-B-V complex for crewed circumlunar spaceflight. +The Soyuz 9K was intended to have been launched into low Earth orbit by the Soyuz 11A511 carrier rocket. Following launch, it would have been refuelled by up to three Soyuz-V tankers, before commencing its mission. It was primarily intended for use in boosting crewed Soyuz 7K and Soyuz-P spacecraft into higher orbits; the Soyuz-A onto a circumlunar trajectory for human Lunar exploration, and the Soyuz-P into a higher orbit to intercept and destroy another spacecraft. +The Soyuz 9K consisted of two modules: the main spacecraft, and a docking module, NO (Russian: НО). The NO module housed rendezvous and docking systems for the Soyuz-V, as well as equipment for transferring fuel, and additional manoeuvring thrusters. Once the payload spacecraft had docked, the NO would be jettisoned, and the main engine would ignite to propel the Soyuz 9K and its docked payload into a higher orbit. +Following the cancellation of both the Soyuz 7K and P programmes; the former in favour of the LK-1 spacecraft, and the latter in favour of uncrewed anti-satellite programmes, the Soyuz 9K was no longer required, and it too was cancelled. + + +== See also == +Soyuz 7K +Soyuz 11K +Soyuz-P +Soyuz programme +Soyuz (spacecraft) +Parom +Progress (spacecraft) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-FG-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-FG-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a07d37494 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-FG-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-FG" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-FG" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:29.155094+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz-FG was an improved variant of the Soyuz-U launch vehicle from the R-7 rocket family, developed by the Progress Rocket Space Centre in Samara, Russia. It featured upgraded first and second stage engines, RD-107A and RD-108A, respectively, with enhanced injector heads that improved combustion efficiency and specific impulse. The designation "FG" refers to forsunochnaya golovka (injector head) in Russian. +Soyuz-FG made its maiden flight on 20 May 2001, delivering a Progress cargo spacecraft to the International Space Station (ISS). It became the primary vehicle for launching crewed Soyuz TMA, Soyuz TMA-M, and Soyuz MS spacecraft from 2002 until its retirement in 2019. +Launches occurred from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan: crewed missions from Gagarin's Start (Site 1/5) and satellite launches from Site 31/6. + + +== Design == +Soyuz-FG was introduced in May 2001 as a transitional solution while the more advanced Soyuz-2 was still in development. Development of the upgraded RD-107A (boosters) and RD-108A (core) engines outpaced the rest of the Soyuz-2 rocket. The availability of the upgraded engines allowed their early use on Soyuz-FG, while Soyuz-U continued using existing engine stockpiles. +The RD-107A and RD-108A engines, replaced the older RD-107 and RD-108 units, switching from 260 two-component centrifugal injectors to over 1,000 one-component injectors. This refinement enabled more complete propellant combustion, reduced high-frequency vibrations in combustion chambers, and improved specific impulse by 5 seconds (0.049 km/s), a five percent improvement, which allowed for a payload increase of 250 to 300 kilograms (550 to 660 lb). +For uncrewed missions, Soyuz-FG could fly with a Fregat upper stage, built by Lavochkin in Khimki. The first flight of this configuration took place on 2 June 2003, with a total of ten such launches marketed by the European-Russian company Starsem. +Soyuz-FG flew 70 times, with one failure on 11 October 2018 during the launch of Soyuz MS-10. A faulty sensor led to a booster collision with the core stage shortly after liftoff, triggering an emergency abort. The crew—NASA astronaut Nick Hague and Russian cosmonaut Aleksey Ovchinin—safely returned to Earth. +Following the MS-15 launch on 25 September 2019, Soyuz-FG was retired in favor of the fully digital Soyuz-2, which offers more precise guidance and greater mission flexibility. + + +== Launch history == + + +== See also == + +Soyuz (spacecraft) +Soyuz programme +Russian Federal Space Agency +Starsem + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +McDowell, Jonathan. "Launch Log". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 28 March 2013. +McDowell, Jonathan. "Satellite Catalog". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved 28 March 2013. + + +== External links == + +Russian Federal Space Agency about Soyuz-FG (in Russian) +LV's manufacturer TsSKB-Progress about Soyuz-FG \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-T-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-T-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e3573c87f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-T-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-T" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-T" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:30.343381+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz-T (Russian: Союз-T) was the third generation of the Soyuz spacecraft and operated from 1979 to 1986. The T designation stood for "transport" (Russian: транспортныйL, romanized: transportny), reflecting its primary role ferrying crews to and from space stations. The design was based on the second-generation Soyuz 7K-T and incorporated experience gained from the Military Soyuz program and the Soyuz 7K-TM used for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project. +Soyuz-T introduced several major improvements over earlier models. It was the first Soyuz to use solid-state electronics and featured an upgraded onboard computer intended to reduce the docking difficulties encountered on previous missions. Solar panels returned to the design, enabling autonomous flight for up to 11 days, and the spacecraft adopted a new propulsion system, the KTDU-426. Unlike preceding versions, Soyuz-T could carry three cosmonauts wearing pressure suits. + + +== Missions == + +Between 1979 and 1986, a total of 18 Soyuz T spacecraft were launched into LEO, 13 of which carried cosmonauts to and from the space stations Salyut 6, Salyut 7, and Mir. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-TM-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-TM-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..429960a04 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-TM-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-TM" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-TM" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:31.607372+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz TM (Russian: транспортный модифицированный, romanized: Transportnyi Modifitsirovannyi, lit. 'Transport Modified') were fourth generation (1986–2002) Soyuz spacecraft used for ferry flights to the Mir and ISS space stations. The Soyuz spacecraft consisted of three parts, the Orbital Module, the Descent Module and the Service Module. +The first launch of the spacecraft was the uncrewed Soyuz TM-1 on May 21, 1986, where it docked with the Mir space station. The final flight was Soyuz TM-34, which docked with the International Space Station and landed November 10, 2002. + + +== Background == +After the Apollo-Soyuz Test project in 1976, the Soyuz for crewed flights had the singular mission of supporting crewed space stations. The original Soyuz had a limited endurance when docked with a station, only about 60 to 90 days. There were two avenues for extending the duration of missions past this. The first avenue was to make upgrades to increase the Soyuz spacecraft's endurance. The Soyuz-T could last 120 days and the Soyuz-TM could last 180 days. The other was to use a Visiting Expedition to fly a new Soyuz up to the station and depart with the spacecraft nearing the end of its rated endurance. +The preliminary design was released in April 1981 and the main set of working documentation was released in early 1982. + + +== Upgrades from Soyuz-T == + + +=== Orbital Module === +With the growth of orbital complexes, the Soyuz-T used the Igla system that required continuous orientation with the station and had high fuel costs. The Soyuz-TM was upgraded with the Kurs system that did not require the same orientation from the station and allowed measurements from a range of 200 km instead of the 30 km of the Igla. + + +=== Descent Module === +It also increased the payload to 51.6° orbit by 200–250 kg and was able to return 70–90 kg more back to earth. Energia accomplished this by increasing the capabilities of the launch vehicle and decreasing the mass of the ship. The parachute system mass was decreased by 120 kg (40%) by using synthetic material for the slings and lightweight material for the parachute domes. + + +=== Propulsion/Service Module === +It also featured a new KTDU-80 propulsion module that permitted the Soyuz-TM to maneuver independently of the station, without the station making "mirror image" maneuvers to match unwanted translations introduced by earlier models' aft-mounted attitude control. It also used the baffles inside the tanks became structural, allowing further reduction in mass. + + +== Typical Flight for Soyuz-TM == + + +=== Training === + +Classroom training is completed on Soyuz systems and required crew operations. Cosmonauts must pass an oral test on the material for certification. Training was also completed on Soyuz mockups and simulators. Two weeks before launch, after passing all the tests, the crew is flown to Baikonur to participate in a test at the launch site to go through all the steps associated with the launch. + + +=== For Flight Readiness === +The final decision to launch is made by the assembly company (General Designer). There is a Space Committee formed of approximately 20 people headed by a 3-star General for Air and Space with the following representation: + +RSA +NPO-Energia +General Designer +Central Institute of Machine Building +Ministry of Defense +Physicians +Baikonur +When different companies/countries are involved, they are represented as well at on the Space Committee. For Soyuz launches, the Ministry of Defense representative states that everything has been checked because all preparations at Baikonur are performed by the military. Independent assessment is made by the Central Institute of Machine Building for every flight. Cosmonauts had to get clearance from the Russian Medical Commission, the Institute of Biomedical Problems and the GCTC at the flight readiness Review. + + +=== Launch === + + +=== Space Station === + + +=== Landing === + + +== Table of Flights == + + +== Gallery == + + +== External links == + +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Mir Hardware Heritage (wikisource) +Information on Soyuz spacecraft +OMWorld's ASTP Docking Trainer Page +NASA - Russian Soyuz TMA Spacecraft Details +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission - details + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..014f6f9bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-U" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:35.293937+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz-U (GRAU index: 11A511U) was a Soviet and later Russian expendable medium-lift launch vehicle designed by the TsSKB design bureau and constructed at the Progress factory in Samara, Russia. The U designation stands for unified, as the launch vehicle was the replacement for the Voskhod rocket and several earlier Soyuz rocket variants. The Soyuz-U is part of the larger R-7 rocket family, which evolved from the R-7 Semyorka, the first intercontinental ballistic missile. +The first Soyuz-U flight took place on 18 May 1973, carrying as its payload Kosmos 559, a Zenit military surveillance satellite. The final flight of a Soyuz-U rocket took place on 22 February 2017, carrying Progress MS-05 to the International Space Station. +Soyuz-U was in use continuously for almost 44 years. Production of R-7 derived launch vehicles peaked in the late 1970s-early 1980s at 55–60 a year. Soyuz-U held the world record of highest launch rate in a year in 1979 with 47 flights until this was beaten by SpaceX's Falcon 9 in 2022. Over its operational lifetime, the Soyuz-U variant flew a total of 786 missions, another world record. Soyuz-U has also been one of the most reliable launchers, with a success rate of 97.3%. + +== Development == +The original Soyuz rocket, introduced in 1966, represented the first attempt to standardize the R-7 design. It was largely identical to the Molniya booster but omitted the fourth stage. Two variants of the original Soyuz were produced, with at least three additional variants planned but ultimately canceled. +By the mid-1970s, the Soviet Union was operating a wide range of R-7 variants, including the Molniya, Voskhod, and various Vostok models. To address this fragmentation, the Soyuz-U was introduced as a unified platform. The "U" stood for "unified," as it replaced both the Voskhod and original Soyuz rockets. This model featured an upgraded core with enhanced RD-117/118 engines to mitigate issues like in-flight vibration and combustion instability. +Complete adoption of the Soyuz-U was not achieved until 1977, when the remaining stock of the original Soyuz boosters was depleted. However, despite the move toward standardization, some variants persisted. The Vostok-2M and Molniya-M continued to serve specialized roles, launching satellites into higher orbits until 1991 and 2010, respectively. + +== Versions == +Two versions of Soyuz-U were fitted with an additional upper stage: + +Soyuz-U/Ikar with the Ikar upper stage, produced by Progress is used to deliver various payloads with masses of 750 to 3,920 kg (1,650 to 8,640 lb) to heights of 250 to 1,400 km (160 to 870 mi). The performance of the Ikar upper stage is lower than that of the Fregat upper stage, but it offers more precise maneuvering and longer autonomous operation. This version was launched six times in 1999, carrying four GlobalStar satellites on each mission. The Ikar was replaced by the improved Volga upper stage which remains in use with the Soyuz-2. +Soyuz-U/Fregat with the Fregat upper stage, developed and produced by Lavochkin flew four times in 2000. The Fregat upper stage was subsequently flown regularly atop Soyuz-FG and Soyuz-2 boosters. +An older variant of Soyuz-U, the Soyuz-U2 launcher, first flown in 1982, had the same hardware as the basic Soyuz-U. Instead of standard RP-1, it used a high energy, synthetic version, Syntin, as the first stage fuel. This variant, mainly used to transport crew and cargo to the Mir space station, last flew in 1995, after production of Syntin ended due to cost reasons. +Soyuz-U was the basic platform for the development of the Soyuz-FG variant, which used an all-new first stage and took over crew transport to the ISS in 2002. Since 2013, both Soyuz-U and Soyuz-FG are gradually being replaced by the modernized Soyuz-2 launch vehicle. + +== Human spaceflight == +The first use of a Soyuz-U to launch a crewed mission took place 2 December 1974, when the Soyuz 16 crew was launched in preparation for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). Soyuz 19, which as part of the ASTP docked with the last Apollo spacecraft ever flown, was also launched by a Soyuz-U rocket. +On 6 July 1976, a Soyuz-U launched Soyuz 21, which took a crew of two to the Salyut 5 space station. Many subsequent space station crews were launched on Soyuz-U launchers. The final crewed mission to use the Soyuz-U was Soyuz TM-34, a Soyuz ferry flight to the International Space Station. +A spectacular accident occurred on 26 September 1983, when the launcher for the Soyuz T-10a mission was destroyed by fire on the launch pad. The crew was saved by activation of the launch escape system a few seconds before the explosion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba1c77467 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-U" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:35.293937+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Missions after 2000 == +From 2000 until its retirement in 2017, Soyuz-U vehicles were used by the Russian Federal Space Agency primarily to launch Progress-M robotic cargo spacecraft on resupply missions to the International Space Station (ISS). +Although the Soyuz-U was generally reliable, occasional failures occurred, most of them on launches of Zenit and Yantar reconnaissance satellites. As with all Soviet/Russian launch vehicles, the 11A511U featured the AVD malfunction detection system which would terminate engine thrust in-flight if it detected a deviation from the booster's normal performance levels and on Soyuz launches also activate the launch escape system. The flight termination command could not be sent until 20 seconds into launch so the booster wouldn't fall onto or around the launch complex and the AVD could not generate a flight termination command until eight seconds to ensure the booster had entered stable mainstage operation. On 18 June 1987, a launch of a Resurs satellite from Plesetsk ended disastrously when the Blok D strap-on LOX turbopump disintegrated at T+6 seconds due to ingested debris. The booster crashed near the pad, badly damaging it and putting it out of use for 18 months. During investigation into the mishap, it was concluded that the launch would not have been survivable had it been crewed because the failure occurred before the AVD system could have activated, and thus the launch escape system would not have worked on a crewed launch. +It was also concluded that eight seconds was excessive and the booster would reach mainstage operation by about T+1.6 seconds; the AVD system had been designed in the late 1950s when only a few R-7 prototypes had flown and there was little flight data to go by. The AVD was redesigned to be able to issue a flight termination command at 1.6 seconds, which of course would still be blocked until T+20 seconds. +On 27 July 1988, the first R-7 vehicle with the redesigned AVD system launched from Plesetsk with another Resurs satellite. The AVD issued an erroneous shutdown command at T+1.6 seconds. The booster lifted and flew until T+20 seconds when the shutdown command was unblocked and terminated engine thrust, causing it to fall near LC-43/4 and severely damage it. An investigation into the mishap found that the new AVD system had a faulty circuit layout. +The October 2002 launch of a Foton satellite crashed near the pad at Plesetsk after the Blok D strap-on booster suffered an engine malfunction. One person on the ground was killed. The Blok D experienced an abnormally slow thrust rise at ignition followed by a decay in performance starting at T+4 seconds. The AVD system sensed the drop in Blok D performance and issued the flight termination command at T+5 seconds but it was blocked until T+20 seconds. The Blok D shut down completely and broke off the stack at T+8 seconds. The booster continued to climb but started deviating from its flight path due to the unbalanced thrust. The flight termination command was unblocked at T+20 seconds and the core and remaining strap-ons shut down. The booster impacted the ground at T+41 seconds as a crowd of 300 spectators watched. Six Russian military servicemen were injured and one later died of his injuries. A building used to produce compressed air and nitrogen was also badly damaged. Investigation into the mishap found that the Blok D's hydrogen peroxide pump had stopped working due to ingested debris. +A Soyuz-U mission failed to launch Progress M-12M to the ISS on 24 August 2011, when the upper stage experienced a problem and broke up over Siberia. It was the first time a Progress spacecraft had failed to reach orbit. Another cargo ship, Progress MS-04, was lost on 1 December 2016 shortly after launch, likely due to a problem with the third stage of the Soyuz-U. +In April 2015, Soyuz-U was declared obsolete. Its production was stopped and the rocket was scheduled for retirement after launching the remaining vehicles with Progress cargo ships. The final flight was Progress MS-05, which launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on 22 February 2017, 05:58:33 UTC. + +== Replacement == +The modernized Soyuz 2 was introduced in 2004, adding several key enhancements, including improved engines along with digital flight control and telemetry systems, enabling launches from fixed platforms and the use of large payload fairings. The analogue flight control systems of the Soyuz-U and FG limited the ability of the launch vehicle to adjust its trajectory in-flight, requiring that the rocket be "aimed" before takeoff by a complex rotating launchpad. Long and wide payload fairings also introduced too much aerodynamic instability for the old analog system to handle, limiting the vehicle's potential to launch increasingly larger commercial satellites. +After several years of development, flight tests and concurrent use, the Soyuz 2 replaced the Soyuz-U in 2017 the Soyuz-FG in 2019, and launched its first crewed mission in 2020. + +== Gallery == + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == + +(PDF) Soyuz Launch Vehicle Users Manual +Astronautix.com entry on Soyuz-U / 11A511U +Astronautix.com entry on Soyuz-U2 / 11A511U2 +Russian Federal Space Agency about Soyuz-U +Russian Federal Space Agency about Soyuz-U/Ikar +Russian Federal Space Agency about Soyuz-U/Fregat +Russian Federal Space Agency about Soyuz-U2 +LV's manufacturer TsSKB-Progress about Soyuz-U (in Russian) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U2-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U2-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dceb4359e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U2-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-U2" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-U2" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:36.545944+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz-U2 (GRAU index 11A511U2) was a Soviet, later Russian, carrier rocket. It was derived from the Soyuz-U, and a member of the R-7 family of rockets. It featured increased performance compared with the baseline Soyuz-U, due to the use of syntin propellant, as opposed to RP-1 paraffin, used on the Soyuz-U. +The increased payload of the Soyuz-U2 allowed heavier spacecraft to be launched, while lighter spacecraft could be placed in higher orbits, compared to those launched by Soyuz-U rockets. In 1996, it was announced that the Soyuz-U2 had been retired, as the performance advantage gained through the use of syntin did not justify the additional cost of its production. The final flight, Soyuz TM-22, occurred on 3 September 1995 from Gagarin's Start in Baikonur. +The Soyuz-U2 was first used to launch four Zenit reconnaissance satellites, then it delivered crewed Soyuz spacecraft to space stations Salyut 7 and Mir: missions Soyuz T-12 to T-15 and Soyuz TM-1 to TM-22. It also supplied the stations with Progress cargo spacecraft: Progress 20 to Salyut 7, Progress 25 to 42 to Mir, followed by the new generation Progress M-1 to M-18 and finally M-23. Other missions included the Gamma telescope and three Orlets reconnaissance satellites. In total, Soyuz-U2 was launched 72 times and experienced no failures over its operational lifetime. + + +== See also == + +List of R-7 launches + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-V-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-V-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..13a46a53e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-V-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz-V" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz-V" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:37.748799+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz-V (Russian: Союз-В meaning Union-V) or Soyuz 11K (Russian: Союз 11К), sometimes known in the west as Soyuz-C, was a proposed Soviet spacecraft, which was designed for use as a fuel tanker. It would have been used to refuel other spacecraft, particularly the Soyuz 9K orbital tug. It was part of the Soyuz A-B-V complex for human circumlunar spaceflight. +The Soyuz 11K was intended to have been launched into low Earth orbit by the Soyuz 11A511 carrier rocket. Following launch, it would have docked with the NO docking module of a waiting Soyuz 9K, and transferred over 7,000 kilograms (15,000 lb) of fuel into the tug. Up to three Soyuz 11K tankers would have been launched per Soyuz 9K, each one carrying either propellant or oxidiser. The Soyuz 9K would then have been used to boost a crewed Soyuz 7K or Soyuz 7K-P spacecraft into a higher orbit; the Soyuz 7K onto a circumlunar trajectory for human Lunar exploration, and the Soyuz 7K-P into a higher orbit to intercept and destroy another spacecraft. The Soyuz 11K, along with the NO module of the Soyuz 9K, would have been jettisoned before the Soyuz 9K performed its burn. +Following the cancellation in 1964 of both the Soyuz 7K and Soyuz 7K-P programmes; the former in favour of the LK-1 spacecraft, and the latter in favour of uncrewed antisatellite programmes, the Soyuz 9K and Soyuz 11K were no longer required, and they too were cancelled. + + +== See also == +Soyuz 7K +Soyuz 9K +Soyuz 7K-P +Soyuz programme +Soyuz (spacecraft) +Parom +Progress (spacecraft) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8bc4641d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz (rocket)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:08.117103+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz (Russian: Союз, meaning "union", GRAU index 11A511) was a Soviet expendable carrier rocket designed in the 1960s by OKB-1 and manufactured by State Aviation Plant No. 1 in Kuybyshev, Soviet Union. It was commissioned to launch Soyuz spacecraft as part of the Soviet human spaceflight program, first with eight uncrewed test flights, followed by the first 19 crewed launches. The original Soyuz also propelled four test flights of the improved Soyuz 7K-T capsule between 1972 and 1974. It flew 30 successful missions over ten years and suffered two failures. +The Soyuz 11A511 type, a member of the R-7 family of rockets, first flew in 1966 and was an attempt to standardize the R-7 family and get rid of the variety of models that existed up to that point. It was basically a Molniya 8K78M without the Blok L stage. It featured the 8D74M RD-107 and the RD-110 engines from the 8K78M, The new, uprated core stage and strap-ons became standard for all R-7 derived launch vehicles to replace the numerous older variants in use. The RD-0110 engine had been introduced on the 8K78M booster in 1964 and was also used in 11A511s due to its enhanced performance, while Voskhod boosters continued using the less powerful RD-0107. +The AVD malfunction detection system, variants of which are a standard component of all Soviet/Russian SLVs, would issue an automatic shutdown command to the booster if operating parameters such as electrical power, engine performance, or flight trajectory deviated from normal, and on manned launches also activate the Launch Escape System. This would prevent a malfunctioning launch vehicle from flying around erratically and ensure it fell to the ground and impacted in a predictable location. The AVD on the 11A511 was blocked from operating until T+8 seconds to ensure the booster's systems had stabilized and entered mainstage operation, but the actual shutdown command was not transmitted until T+20 seconds to prevent the booster from falling back on the pad. Nonetheless, several launches failed over the years due to problems with the AVD itself, which issued erroneous shutdown commands. +Starting in 1973, the original Soyuz rocket was gradually superseded by the Soyuz-U type. It became the world's most prolific launcher, flying hundreds of missions over 43 years until its retirement in 2017. Other direct variants were Soyuz-L for low Earth orbit tests of the LK lunar lander (three flights) and Soyuz-M built for a quickly abandoned military spacecraft and used for reconnaissance satellites instead (eight flights). +The aborted Soyuz 18-1 launch in 1975 was the final crewed flight of the 11A511, and as it occurred shortly before the ASTP mission, the United States requested that the Soviets provide details about this failure. They stated that Soyuz 19 would be using the newer 11A5511U booster model (i.e. Soyuz-U), so the Soyuz 18-1 malfunction had no bearing on it. +Soyuz rockets were assembled horizontally in the MIK Building at the launch site. The rocket was then rolled out, and erected on the launch pad. + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0ce350f1f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz (rocket family)" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:47.624237+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz (Russian: Союз, lit. 'union', as in Soviet Union, GRAU index: 11A511) is a family of Soviet and later Russian expendable, medium-lift launch vehicles initially developed by the OKB-1 design bureau and has been manufactured by the Progress Rocket Space Centre in Samara, Russia. The Soyuz family holds the record for the most launches in the history of spaceflight. Most Soyuz rockets are part of the R-7 rocket family, which evolved from the R-7 Semyorka, the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile. +As with several Soviet launch vehicles, the names of recurring payloads became closely associated with the rocket itself. The Soyuz rocket became widely recognized as the launcher of crewed Soyuz spacecraft under the Soyuz programme, and of the derivative uncrewed Progress cargo spacecraft. Despite this recognition, the majority of Soyuz launches have been dedicated to deploying satellites for both governmental and commercial purposes. +All Soyuz variants use RP-1 (kerosene) and liquid oxygen (LOX) as propellants, with the exception of the Soyuz-U2, which used Syntin (a refined kerosene variant) with LOX. +Between the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011 and the first crewed flight of SpaceX's Crew Dragon in 2020, Soyuz rockets were the only certified launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to and from the ISS. + +== History == + +=== Development === + +The first Soyuz launcher was introduced in 1966. It was derived from the earlier Vostok launcher, which in turn had been based on the R-7 Semyorka, the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile. The Soyuz used a three-stage design with the Block I third stage. Its first four test flights ended in failure, but subsequent missions achieved success. +A four-stage variant, the Molniya, was developed by adding an additional upper stage, enabling launches into highly elliptical Molniya orbits. A later evolution, the Soyuz-U, became the workhorse of the family. +During the Cold War, the exact Soviet model designations were not publicly available. In the West, the United States Department of Defense referred to the Soyuz launcher as SL-4, while Charles Sheldon of the Library of Congress devised the A-2 designation. Both systems were eventually abandoned as more accurate information became available. +Production of Soyuz rockets peaked at about 60 units per year in the early 1980s. By the 21st century, the Soyuz had become the world's most frequently used space launcher, with more than 1,700 flights. Despite its age, the family has remained in service due to its comparatively low cost, high reliability, and proven performance. + +=== Soyuz / Fregat === + +In the early 1990s plans were made for a redesigned Soyuz with a Fregat upper stage. The Fregat engine was developed by NPO Lavochkin from the propulsion module of its Phobos interplanetary probes. Although endorsed by the Roscosmos and the Russian Ministry of Defence in 1993 and designated "Rus" as a Russification and modernization of Soyuz, and later renamed Soyuz-2, a funding shortage prevented implementation of the plan. The creation of Starsem in July 1996 provided new funding for the creation of a less ambitious variant, the Soyuz-Fregat or Soyuz-U/Fregat. This consisted of a slightly modified Soyuz-U combined with the Fregat upper stage, with a capacity of up to 1,350 kilograms (2,980 lb) to geostationary transfer orbit. In April 1997, Starsem obtained a contract from the European Space Agency (ESA) to launch two pairs of Cluster II plasma science satellites using the Soyuz-Fregat. Before the introduction of this new model, Starsem launched 24 satellites of the Globalstar constellation in 6 launches with a restartable Ikar upper stage, between 22 September 1999 and 22 November 1999. After successful test flights of Soyuz-Fregat on 9 February 2000 and 20 March 2000, the Cluster II satellites were launched on 16 July 2000 and 9 August 2000. Another Soyuz-Fregat launched the ESA's Mars Express probe from Baikonur in June 2003. + +=== ISS crew transport === +Between 1 February 2003 and 26 July 2005 with the grounding of the United States Space Shuttle fleet, Soyuz was the only means of transportation to and from the International Space Station. This included the transfer of supplies, via Progress spacecraft, and crew changeovers. After the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet in 2011, the United States space program was without any means to take astronauts into orbit, and NASA was dependent on the Soyuz to send crew into space until 2020. NASA resumed crewed flights from the United States in 2020 through the Commercial Crew Development program. + +=== Recent incidents === +A long streak of successful Soyuz launches was broken on 15 October 2002 when the uncrewed Soyuz-U launch of the Photon-M satellite from Plesetsk fell back near the launch pad and exploded 29 seconds after lift-off. One person from the ground crew was killed and eight were injured. +Another failure occurred on 21 June 2005, during a Molniya military communications satellite launch from the Plesetsk launch site, which used a four-stage version of the rocket called Molniya-M. The flight ended six minutes after the launch because of a failure of the third stage engine or an unfulfilled order to separate the second and third stages. The rocket's second and third stages, which are identical to the Soyuz, and its payload (a Molniya-3K satellite) crashed in the Uvatsky region of Tyumen (Siberia). +On 24 August 2011, an uncrewed Soyuz-U carrying cargo to the International Space Station crashed, failing to reach orbit. On 23 December 2011, a Soyuz-2.1b launching a Meridian 5 military communications satellite failed in the 7th minute of launch because of an anomaly in the third stage. +On 11 October 2018, the Soyuz MS-10 mission to the International Space Station failed to reach orbit after an issue with the main booster. Four payload mounted solid rocket jettison motors were used to pull the Soyuz spacecraft away from the malfunctioning rocket, as the main launch abort system tower had been jettisoned.The two crew, Aleksey Ovchinin and Nick Hague, followed a ballistic trajectory and landed safely over 400 km downrange from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. + +=== Soyuz 2 === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1349fdddf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz (rocket family)" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:47.624237+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The venerable Soyuz-U launcher was gradually replaced by a new version, named Soyuz 2, which has a new digital guidance system and a highly modified third stage with a new engine. The first development version of Soyuz 2 called Soyuz 2.1a, which is equipped with the digital guidance system, but is still propelled by an old third stage engine, started on 4 November 2004 from Plesetsk on a suborbital test flight, followed by an orbital flight on 23 October 2006 from Baikonur. The fully modified launcher (version Soyuz 2.1b) flew first on 27 December 2006 with the CoRoT satellite from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. +On 19 January 2005, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Roscosmos agreed to launch Soyuz ST rockets from the Guiana Space Centre. The equatorial launch site allows the Soyuz to deliver 2.7 to 4.9 tonnes into Sun-synchronous orbit, depending on the third-stage engine used. Construction of a new pad started in 2005 and was completed in April 2011. The pad used vertical loading common at French Guiana, unlike the horizontal loading used at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. A simulated launch was conducted in early May 2011. The first operational launch happened on 21 October 2011, bearing the first two satellites in Galileo global positioning system. +The Soyuz-U and Soyuz-FG rockets were gradually replaced by Soyuz 2 from 2014 until 2019. Soyuz-U was retired in 2017, while Soyuz-FG carried astronaut crews to the ISS until September 2019 (final flight, Soyuz MS-15, on 25 September 2019). + +== Variants == + +The Molniya-M (1964–2010) was also derived from the Soyuz family. + +== Assembly == + +The rocket is assembled horizontally in the Assembly and Testing Building. The assembled rocket is transported to the launch site in its horizontal state and then raised. This is different from the vertical assembly of, for example, the Saturn V, and is one of the features that makes Soyuz cheaper to prepare for launch. Assembling a horizontally positioned rocket is relatively simple as all modules are easily accessible. Assembling the rocket in vertical position would require a windproof high-rise hangar, which was not considered financially feasible at the time the rocket was designed, due to the failing economy of the Soviet Union. + +== Prelaunch == + +The entire rocket is suspended in the launch system by the load-bearing mechanisms on the strap-on boosters where they are attached to the central core. The latter rests on the nose sections of the strap-on boosters. This scheme resembles flight conditions when the strap-on boosters push the central core forward. The concept of suspending the rocket was one of the novelties introduced with the R-7/Soyuz. +Since the launch pad has been eliminated, the bottom portion of the rocket is lowered. The launch system trusses bear the wind loads. Resistance to high wind is an important feature of the launch system, as the Kazakhstan steppes, where the Baikonur launch site is located, are known for windstorms. + +== Launch == + +The engines are ignited by electrically initiated pyrotechnic flares, mounted on birch poles, which are ignited at approximately T-20 seconds, a few seconds before fuel components (liquid oxygen and kerosene-based liquids) are introduced into the combustion chamber. This sequence rarely fails due to its simplicity. During launch, the support booms track the movement of the rocket. After the support boom heads emerge from the special support recess in the nose sections of the strapons, the support booms and trusses disconnect from the rocket air-frame, swiveling on the support axes and freeing the way for the rocket to lift off. During launch, the rocket and the launch facility form a single dynamic system. +When the strap-on booster engines stop, the boosters fall away, providing non-impact separation. If the skies are clear, ground observers can see a Korolev cross formed by the falling boosters. + +== Fairings used for uncrewed missions == +The Soyuz launch vehicle is used for various Russian uncrewed missions and is also marketed by Starsem for commercial satellite launches. Presently the following fairing types are used: +Progress is the cargo spacecraft for uncrewed missions to the ISS and previously to Mir. The spacecraft uses a dedicated platform and fairing and can be launched with either Soyuz-U, Soyuz-FG or Soyuz-2. +A-type fairing is used for commercial launches. +S-type fairing is used for commercial launches by Starsem. The fairing has external diameter of 3.7 m and a length of 7.7 m. The Fregat upper stage is encapsulated in the fairing with the payload and a payload adapter/dispenser. S-type fairing along with Fregat upper stage were used to launch the following spacecraft: Galaxy 14, GIOVE A, Mars Express, AMOS-2, Venus Express, Cluster. +SL-type fairing is used for commercial launches by Starsem. The fairing has external diameter of 3.7 m and a length of 8.45 m. The Fregat upper stage is encapsulated in the fairing with the payload and a payload adapter/dispenser. SL-type fairing along with Fregat upper stage were used to launch the following spacecraft: CoRoT. +ST-type fairing is used for commercial launches by Starsem. Its external diameter is 4.1 m and its length is 11.4 m. It can be used with the Soyuz-2 only, because older analog control system cannot cope with aerodynamic instability introduced by a fairing this large. This carbon-plastic fairing is based on the proven configuration used for Arianespace's Ariane 4 vehicles, with its length increased by approximately one additional meter. The fairing has been developed and is being manufactured by TsSKB-Progress in accordance with the requirements of a customer (Starsem). This is the only fairing type offered by Starsem/Arianespace for launches from Kourou. Progress M-UM is the only Progress Spacecraft that was launched while being enclosed in a ST fairing. + +== Stages == + +=== First stage === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a4aa1517 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz (rocket family)" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:47.624237+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The first stage of Soyuz rockets consists of four identical conical liquid booster rockets strapped to the second stage core. These boosters are also called Blok-B, V, G, and D. Each engine has four main combustion chambers and two vernier thruster combustion chambers for attitude control. The engine is pump-fed by a hydrogen peroxide gas generator. Propellant tanks are pressurized using liquid nitrogen vaporization. +Statistics (each of 4 boosters): + +Height: 19.6 metres (64 feet 4 inches) +Diameter: 2.68 metres (8 feet 10 inches) +Empty mass: 3,784 kilograms (8,342 lb) +Gross mass: 43,400 kilograms (95,700 lb) +Propellant mass: 39,160 kilograms (86,330 lb) +Oxidizer load (liquid oxygen): 27,900 kilograms (61,500 lb) +Fuel load (RP-1): 11,260 kilograms (24,820 lb) +Powered by: 1 × RD-107A +Maximum thrust: +At sea level: 838.5 kilonewtons (188,500 lbf) +In vacuum: 1,021.3 kilonewtons (229,600 lbf) +Specific impulse: +At sea level: 262 seconds (2.57 km/s) +In vacuum: 319 seconds (3.13 km/s) +Burn time: 118 seconds +Throttling: two-level +Stage separation: Pyrotechnic fastener/springs/reaction nozzle + +=== Second stage === + +The Soyuz booster's second stage, also called Blok-A, is a single, generally cylindrical stage with one motor at the base, activated alongside the first-stage boosters. Like each first-stage booster, it also has four combustion chambers but with four (instead of two) vernier thruster combustion chambers for attitude control. The engine is pump-fed by a hydrogen peroxide gas generator. Propellant tanks are pressurized using liquid nitrogen vaporization. The second stage tapers toward the bottom, allowing the four first-stage rockets to fit more closely together. +Statistics: + +Height: 27.1 metres (88 feet 11 inches) +Diameter: 2.95 metres (9 feet 8 inches) +Empty mass: 6,545 kilograms (14,429 lb) +Gross mass: 99,765 kilograms (219,944 lb) +Propellant mass: 90,100 kilograms (198,600 lb) +Oxidizer load (liquid oxygen): 63,800 kilograms (140,700 lb) +Fuel load (RP-1): 26,300 kilograms (58,000 lb) +Powered by: 1 × RD-108A +Maximum thrust: +At sea level: 792.5 kilonewtons (178,200 lbf) +In vacuum: 990.2 kilonewtons (222,600 lbf) +Specific impulse: +At sea level: 255 seconds (2.50 km/s) +In vacuum: 319 seconds (3.13 km/s) +Burn time: 286 seconds +Throttling: one-level +Stage separation: Pyrotechnic fastener/hot staging + +=== Third stage === + +There are two variant upper stages in use, the Blok-I (used on the Soyuz 2.1a) and the Improved Blok-I (used on the Soyuz 2.1b). +Statistics: + +Height: 6.7 metres (22 feet 0 inches) +Diameter: 2.66 metres (8 feet 9 inches) +Empty mass: 2,355 kilograms (5,192 lb) +Gross mass: 27,755 kilograms (61,189 lb) +Propellant mass: 25,400 kilograms (56,000 lb) +Oxidizer load (liquid oxygen): 17,800 kilograms (39,200 lb) +Fuel load (RP-1): 7,600 kilograms (16,800 lb) +Blok-I powered by: 1 × RD-0110 with four main combustion chambers and four vernier thrusters combustion chambers for attitude control. The engine is pump-fed by using gas pressure generated by the vernier thrusters. The propellant tanks are pressurized with oxygen vaporization and generator gases. +Maximum thrust: 297.9 kilonewtons (67,000 lbf) +Specific impulse: 325 seconds (3.19 km/s) +Chamber pressure 6.8 MPa (986 psi) +Burn time: 250 seconds +Improved Blok-I powered by: 1 × RD-0124 with four main combustion chambers, each gimbaling in one axis for attitude control. The engine is pump-fed by using a closed-cycle gas generator. The propellant tanks are pressurized with helium vaporization. +Maximum thrust: 297.9 kilonewtons (67,000 lbf) +Specific impulse: 359 seconds (3.52 km/s) +Chamber pressure 16.2 MPa (2350 psi) +Burn time: 270 seconds + +== See also == + +Comparison of orbital launchers families +List of R-7 launches, including launches of the Soyuz rocket family +Delta (rocket family) + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +International Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems, Third Edition, Iaskowitz, Hopkins, and Hopkins ed., 1999, Reston, Virginia, AIAA Publications. ISBN 1-56347-353-4 + +== External links == +Starsem +Soyuz launch log at Starsem +Soyuz-U/Fregat +Soyuz launch vehicle: The most reliable means of space travel +Soyuz Booster Family +Soyuz User's Manual - Arianespace \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a4bb191b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz (spacecraft)" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:09.403714+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz (Russian: Союз, IPA: [sɐˈjus], lit. 'Union') is a series of spacecraft which has been in service since the 1960s, having made more than 140 flights. It was designed for the Soviet space program by the Korolev Design Bureau (now Energia). The Soyuz succeeded the Voskhod spacecraft and was originally built as part of the Soviet crewed lunar programs. It is launched atop the similarly named Soyuz rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. +Following the Soviet Union's dissolution, Roscosmos, the Russian space agency, continued to develop and utilize the Soyuz. Between the Space Shuttle's 2011 retirement and the SpaceX Crew Dragon's 2020 debut, Soyuz was the sole means of crewed transportation to and from the International Space Station, a role it continues to fulfill. The Soyuz design has also influenced other spacecraft, including China's Shenzhou and Russia's Progress cargo vehicle. +The Soyuz is a single-use spacecraft composed of three main sections. The descent module is where cosmonauts are seated for launch and reentry. The orbital module provides additional living space and storage during orbit but is jettisoned before reentry. The service module, responsible for propulsion and power, is also discarded prior to reentry. For added safety and aerodynamics, the spacecraft is encased within a fairing with a launch escape system during liftoff. + +== History == +The first Soyuz mission, Kosmos 133, launched unmanned on 28 November 1966. The first crewed Soyuz mission, Soyuz 1, launched on 23 April 1967 but ended tragically on 24 April 1967 when the parachute failed to deploy on reentry, killing cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. The following flight, Soyuz 2 was uncrewed. Soyuz 3 launched on 26 October 1968 and became the program's first successful crewed mission. The program suffered another fatal setback during Soyuz 11, where cabin depressurization during reentry killed the entire crew. These are the only humans to date who are known to have died above the Kármán line, the conventional definition of the edge of space. +Despite these early tragedies, Soyuz has earned a reputation as one of the safest and most cost-effective human spaceflight vehicles, a legacy built upon its unparalleled operational history. The spacecraft has served as the primary mode of transport for cosmonauts to and from the Salyut space stations, the Mir space station, and International Space Station (ISS). + +== Design == + +Soyuz spacecraft are composed of three primary sections (from top to bottom, when standing on the launch pad): + +Orbital module: A spheroid compartment providing living space for the crew. +Descent module: A small, aerodynamic capsule where the crew is seated for launch and return the crew to Earth. +Service module: A cylindrical section housing propulsion, power, and other systems. +The orbital and service modules are discarded and destroyed upon reentry. This design choice, while seemingly wasteful, reduces the spacecraft's weight by minimizing the amount of heat shielding required. As a result, Soyuz offers more habitable interior space (7.5 cubic metres, 260 cubic feet) compared to its Apollo counterpart (6.3 m3, 220 cu ft). While the reentry module does return to Earth, it is not reusable. A new Soyuz spacecraft is made for each mission. +Soyuz can carry up to three crew members and provide life support for about 30 person-days. +A payload fairing protects Soyuz during launch and is jettisoned early in flight. Equipped with an automated docking system, the spacecraft can operate autonomously or under manual control. + +=== Launch escape system === +The Vostok spacecraft used an ejector seat to bail out the cosmonaut in the event of a low-altitude launch failure, as well as during reentry; however, it would probably have been ineffective in the first 20 seconds after liftoff, when the altitude would be too low for the parachute to deploy. Inspired by the Mercury LES, Soviet designers began work on a similar system in 1962. This included developing a complex sensing system to monitor various launch-vehicle parameters and trigger an abort if a booster malfunction occurred. Based on data from R-7 launches over the years, engineers developed a list of the most likely failure modes for the vehicle and could narrow down abort conditions to premature separation of a strap-on booster, low engine thrust, loss of combustion-chamber pressure, or loss of booster guidance. The spacecraft abort system (SAS; Russian: Система Аварийного Спасения, romanized: Sistema Avariynogo Spaseniya) could also be manually activated from the ground, but unlike American spacecraft, there was no way for the cosmonauts to trigger it themselves. +Since it turned out to be almost impossible to separate the entire payload shroud from the Soyuz service module cleanly, the decision was made to have the shroud split between the service module and descent module during an abort. Four folding stabilizers were added to improve aerodynamic stability during ascent. Two test runs of the SAS were carried out in 1966–1967. + +The basic design of the SAS has remained almost unchanged in 50 years of use, and all Soyuz launches carry it. The only modification was in 1972, when the aerodynamic fairing over the SAS motor nozzles was removed for weight-saving reasons, as the redesigned Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft carried extra life-support equipment. The uncrewed Progress resupply ferry has a dummy escape tower and removes the stabilizer fins from the payload shroud. There have been three failed launches of a crewed Soyuz vehicle: Soyuz 18a in 1975, Soyuz T-10a in 1983 and Soyuz MS-10 in October 2018. The 1975 failure was aborted after escape-tower jettison. In 1983, Soyuz T-10a's SAS successfully rescued the cosmonauts from an on-pad fire and explosion of the launch vehicle. Most recently, in 2018, the SAS sub-system in the payload shroud of Soyuz MS-10 successfully rescued the cosmonauts from a rocket failure 2 minutes and 45 seconds after liftoff, after the escape tower had already been jettisoned. + +=== Orbital module === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb35a4577 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz (spacecraft)" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:09.403714+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The forepart of the spacecraft is the orbital module (Russian: бытовой отсек, romanized: bytovoi otsek), also known as habitation section. It houses all the equipment that will not be needed for reentry, such as experiments, cameras or cargo. The module also contains a toilet, docking avionics and communications gear. Internal volume is 6 m3 (210 cu ft), living space is 5 m3 (180 cu ft). On later Soyuz versions (since Soyuz TM), a small window was introduced, providing the crew with a forward view. +A hatch between it and the descent module can be closed so as to isolate it to act as an airlock if needed so that crew members could also exit through its side port (near the descent module). On the launch pad, the crew enter the spacecraft through this port. This separation also lets the orbital module be customized to the mission with less risk to the life-critical descent module. The convention of orientation in a micro-g environment differs from that of the descent module, as crew members stand or sit with their heads to the docking port. Also the rescue of the crew whilst on the launch pad or with the SAS system is complicated because of the orbital module. +Separation of the orbital module is critical for a safe landing; without separation of the orbital module, it is not possible for the crew to survive landing in the descent module. This is because the orbital module would interfere with proper deployment of the descent module's parachutes, and the extra mass exceeds the capability of the main parachute and braking engines to provide a safe soft-landing speed. In view of this, the orbital module was separated before the ignition of the return engine until the late 1980s. This guaranteed that the descent module and orbital module would be separated before the descent module was placed in a reentry trajectory. However, after the problematic landing of Soyuz TM-5 in September 1988 this procedure was changed, and the orbital module is now separated after the return maneuver. This change was made as the TM-5 crew could not deorbit for 24 hours after they jettisoned their orbital module, which contained their sanitation facilities and the docking collar needed to attach to Mir. The risk of not being able to separate the orbital module is effectively judged to be less than the risk of needing the facilities in it, including the toilet, following a failed deorbit. + +=== Descent module === + +The descent module (Russian: Спуска́емый Аппара́т, romanized: spuskáyemy apparát), also known as a reentry capsule, is used for launch and the journey back to Earth. Half of the descent module is covered by a heat-resistant covering to protect it during reentry; this half faces forward during reentry. It is slowed initially by the atmosphere, then by a braking parachute, followed by the main parachute, which slows the craft for landing. At one meter above the ground, solid-fuel braking engines mounted behind the heat shield are fired to give a soft landing. One of the design requirements for the descent module was for it to have the highest possible volumetric efficiency (internal volume divided by hull area). The best shape for this is a sphere – as the Vostok spacecraft's descent module used – but such a shape can provide no lift, resulting in a purely ballistic reentry. Ballistic reentries are hard on the occupants due to high deceleration and cannot be steered beyond their initial deorbit burn. Thus it was decided to go with the "headlight" shape that the Soyuz uses – a hemispherical upper area joined by a barely angled (seven degrees) conical section to a classic spherical section heat shield. This shape allows a small amount of lift to be generated due to the unequal weight distribution. The nickname was thought up at a time when nearly every headlight was circular. The small dimensions of the descent module led to it having only two-man crews after the death of the Soyuz 11 crew. The later Soyuz-T spacecraft solved this issue. Internal volume of Soyuz SA is 4 m3 (140 cu ft); 2.5 m3 (88 cu ft) is usable for crew (living space). +The thermal protection system on the slightly conical side walls is stood off from the structure to also provide micrometeoroid protection in orbit. +The slightly curved heat shield on the bottom consists of "21mm to 28mm thick ablator (glass-phenolic composite) which +is held by brackets approximately 15mm from the 3.5mm thick aluminum AMg-6 substrate. VIM low-density silica fibrous insulation (8mm thick) is contained in the gap between the heat shield ablator and aluminum substrate." + +=== Service module === + +At the back of the vehicle is the service module (Russian: прибо́рно-агрега́тный отсе́к, romanized: pribórno-agregátny otsék). It has a pressurized container shaped like a bulging can (instrumentation compartment, priborniy otsek) that contains systems for temperature control, electric power supply, long-range radio communications, radio telemetry, and instruments for orientation and control. A non-pressurized part of the service module (propulsion compartment, agregatniy otsek) contains the main engine and a liquid-fuelled propulsion system, using N2O4 and UDMH, for maneuvering in orbit and initiating the descent back to Earth. The ship also has a system of low-thrust engines for orientation, attached to the intermediate compartment (perekhodnoi otsek). Outside the service module are the sensors for the orientation system and the solar array, which is oriented towards the Sun by rotating the ship. An incomplete separation between the service and reentry modules led to emergency situations during Soyuz 5, Soyuz TMA-10 and Soyuz TMA-11, which led to an incorrect reentry orientation (crew ingress hatch first). The failure of several explosive bolts did not cut the connection between the service and reentry modules on the later two flights. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b79614439 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz (spacecraft)" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:09.403714+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Reentry procedure === +The Soyuz uses a method similar to the 1970s-era United States Apollo command and service module to deorbit itself. The spacecraft is turned engine-forward, and the main engine is fired for deorbiting on the far side of Earth ahead of its planned landing site. This requires the least propellant for reentry; the spacecraft travels on an elliptical Hohmann transfer orbit to the entry interface point, where atmospheric drag slows it enough to fall out of orbit. +Early Soyuz spacecraft would then have the service and orbital modules detach simultaneously from the descent module. As they are connected by tubing and electrical cables to the descent module, this would aid in their separation and avoid having the descent module alter its orientation. Later Soyuz spacecraft detached the orbital module before firing the main engine, which saved propellant. Since the Soyuz TM-5 landing issue, the orbital module is once again detached only after the reentry firing, which led to (but did not cause) emergency situations of Soyuz TMA-10 and TMA-11. The orbital module cannot remain in orbit as an addition to a space station, as the airlock hatch between the orbital and reentry modules is a part of the reentry module, and the orbital module therefore depressurizes after separation. +Reentry firing is usually done on the "dawn" side of the Earth, so that the spacecraft can be seen by recovery helicopters as it descends in the evening twilight, illuminated by the Sun when it is above the shadow of the Earth. The Soyuz craft is designed to come down on land, usually somewhere in the deserts of Kazakhstan in Central Asia. This is in contrast to the early United States crewed spacecraft and the current SpaceX Crew Dragon, which splash down in the ocean. + +=== Spacecraft systems === + +Thermal control system: sistema obespecheniya teplovogo rezhima, SOTR +Life support system: kompleks sistem obespecheniya zhiznedeyatelnosti, KSOZh +Power supply system: sistema elektropitaniya, SEP +Communication and tracking systems: Rassvet (Dawn) radio communications system, onboard measurement system (SBI), Kvant-V spacecraft control, Klyost-M television system, orbit radio tracking (RKO) +Onboard complex control system: sistema upravleniya bortovym kompleksom, SUBK +Combined propulsion system: kompleksnaya dvigatelnaya ustanovka, KDU +Chaika-3 motion control system (SUD): +Optical/visual devices (OVP): VSK-4 (vizir spetsialniy kosmicheskiy-4), night vision device (VNUK-K, visir nochnogo upravleniya po kursu), docking light, pilot's sight (VP-1, vizir pilota-1), laser rangefinder (LPR-1, lazerniy dalnomer-1) +Kurs rendezvous system: +SSVP docking system: +TORU control mode: +Entry actuators system: sistema ispolnitelnikh organov spuska, SIO-S +Landing aids kit: kompleks sredstv prizemleniya, KSP +Portable survival kit: nosimiy avariyniy zapas, NAZ, containing a TP-82 or Makarov pistol +Launch escape system: sistema avariynogo spaseniya, SAS + +== Variants == + +The Soyuz spacecraft has been the subject of continuous evolution since the early 1960s. Thus several different versions, proposals and projects exist. + +=== Specifications === + +=== Soyuz 7K (part of the 7K-9K-11K circumlunar complex) (1963) === + +Sergei Korolev initially promoted the Soyuz A-B-V circumlunar complex (7K-9K-11K) concept (also known as L1) in which a two-man craft Soyuz 7K would rendezvous with other components (9K and 11K) in Earth orbit to assemble a lunar excursion vehicle, the components being delivered by the proven R-7 rocket. + +=== First generation === + +The crewed Soyuz spacecraft can be classified into design generations. Soyuz 1 through Soyuz 11 (1967–1971) were first-generation vehicles, carrying a crew of up to three without spacesuits and distinguished from those following by their bent solar panels and their use of the Igla automatic docking navigation system, which required special radar antennas. This first generation encompassed the original Soyuz 7K-OK and the Soyuz 7K-OKS for docking with the Salyut 1 space station. The probe and drogue docking system permitted internal transfer of cosmonauts from the Soyuz to the station. +The Soyuz 7K-L1 was designed to launch a crew from the Earth to circle the Moon, and was the primary hope for a Soviet circumlunar flight. It had several test flights in the Zond program from 1967–1970 (Zond 4 to Zond 8), which produced multiple failures in the 7K-L1's reentry systems. The remaining 7K-L1s were scrapped. The Soyuz 7K-L3 was designed and developed in parallel to the Soyuz 7K-L1, but was also scrapped. Soyuz 1 was plagued with technical issues, and cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov was killed when the spacecraft crashed during its return to Earth. This was the first in-flight fatality in the history of spaceflight. +The next crewed version of the Soyuz was the Soyuz 7K-OKS. It was designed for space station flights and had a docking port that allowed internal transfer between spacecraft. The Soyuz 7K-OKS had two crewed flights, both in 1971. Soyuz 11, the second flight, depressurized upon reentry, killing its three-man crew. + +=== Second generation === + +The second generation, called Soyuz Ferry or Soyuz 7K-T, comprised Soyuz 12 through Soyuz 40 (1973–1981). It did not have solar arrays. Two long, skinny antennas were put in the solar panels's place. It was developed out of the military Soyuz concepts studied in previous years and was capable of carrying 2 cosmonauts with Sokol space suits (after the Soyuz 11 accident). Several models were planned, but none actually flew in space. These versions were named Soyuz P, Soyuz PPK, Soyuz R, Soyuz 7K-VI, and Soyuz OIS (Orbital Research Station). +The Soyuz 7K-T/A9 version was used for the flights to the military Almaz space station. + +Soyuz 7K-TM was the spacecraft used in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975, which saw the first and only docking of a Soyuz spacecraft with an Apollo command and service module. It was also flown in 1976 for the Earth-science mission, Soyuz 22. Soyuz 7K-TM served as a technological bridge to the third generation. + +=== Third generation === + +The third generation Soyuz-T spacecraft, where the "T" stands for "transport" (Russian: транспортный, romanized: transportnyi), featured solar panels again, allowing longer missions, a revised Igla rendezvous system and new translation/attitude thruster system on the Service module. It could carry a crew of three, now wearing spacesuits. It was used from 1976 until 1986. + +=== Fourth generation === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e06d4928 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz (spacecraft)" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(spacecraft)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:09.403714+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Soyuz-TM (1986–2002) ==== + +The fourth generation Soyuz-TM spacecraft, where the "M" stands for "modified" (Russian: модифицированный, romanized: modifitsirovannyi), were used from 1986 to 2002 for ferry flights to Mir and the International Space Station (ISS). + +==== Soyuz TMA (2003–2012) ==== + +The Soyuz TMA spacecraft, where the "A" stands for "anthropometric" (Russian: антропометрический, romanized: antropometricheskii), featured several changes to accommodate requirements requested by NASA in order to service the International Space Station (ISS), including more latitude in the height and weight of the crew and improved parachute systems. It was also the first expendable vehicle to feature a digital control technology. Soyuz-TMA looked identical to a Soyuz-TM spacecraft on the outside, but interior differences allowed it to accommodate taller occupants with new adjustable crew couches. + +==== Soyuz TMA-M (2010–2016) ==== + +The Soyuz TMA-M was an upgrade of the Soyuz-TMA, using a new computer, digital interior displays, updated docking equipment, and the vehicle's total mass was reduced by 70 kilograms. The new version debuted on 7 October 2010 with the launch of Soyuz TMA-01M, carrying the ISS Expedition 25 crew. +The Soyuz TMA-08M mission set a new record for the fastest crewed docking with a space station. The mission used a new six-hour rendezvous, faster than the previous Soyuz launches, which had, since 1986, taken two days. + +==== Soyuz MS (since 2016) ==== + +Soyuz MS is the final planned upgrade of the Soyuz spacecraft. The "MS" stands for "modernized systems," reflecting upgrades primarily focused on the communications and navigation subsystems. Its maiden flight was in July 2016 with mission Soyuz MS-01. +Major changes include the new Kurs-NA rendezvous system, satellite navigation, re-arranged attitude control thrusters, an improved docking mechanism, a reusable black box, power system improvements, additional micro-meteoroid protection, and a digital camera system. + +== Related craft == +The uncrewed Progress spacecraft are derived from Soyuz and are used for servicing space stations. +In 1995, China signed an agreement with Russia to acquire space technologies. The deal included the transfer of Soyuz spacecraft, life support systems, docking systems, and space suits. Leveraging this equipment, China developed its own Shenzhou spacecraft. While the Shenzhou is not a direct derivative of the Soyuz, it incorporates significant technology and design elements from the spacecraft because of the collaboration. + +== Image gallery == + +== See also == + +Crew Space Transportation System (CSTS), study to develop a European-Russian successor to Soyuz. Was cancelled. +Orel, a Russian replacement for the Soyuz, first crewed flight scheduled for 2025. Influenced by CSTS. +Dragon 2 American commercial human spaceflight system +List of Soviet human spaceflight missions +List of Russian human spaceflight missions +Orbital Technologies Commercial Space Station +Sokol space suit +Space Shuttle orbiter, American re-usable spacecraft from 1981 to 2011 +Voskhod Spacecraft "Globus" IMP navigation instrument +Zarya (spacecraft) +List of Soyuz missions + +== References == + +== External links == + +News page Archived 12 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine from the Energia (corporation) which launches the Soyuz spacecraft +Soyuz at the Encyclopedia Astronautica +Soyuz TMA spacecraft details Archived 19 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine at nasa.gov +Mir Hardware Heritage +Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). Mir Hardware Heritage. NASA. Reference Publication 1357. Archived from the original on 6 April 2002. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. + The full text of Mir Hardware Heritage at Wikisource +Journey to ISS by the European Space Agency (ESA), a series of videos about Soyuz launch, docking and reentry +The short film Four in the Cosmos (1969) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_2A-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_2A-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..371c42bf2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_2A-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 2A" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_2A" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:10.588715+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz 2A is the unofficial designation for a cancelled space flight of a Soyuz spacecraft which would have used the 7K-OK No. 5 capsule, planned to rendezvous with the Soyuz 1 mission. The launch of the craft in April 1967 was cancelled due to thunderstorms, likely saving the three-person crew from the same design problems that also killed the one-person crew of Soyuz 1. +In the Soviet space program it was usual only for successful launches to gain official designations, so this mission did not receive an official designation and is informally named Soyuz 2A to distinguish it from the later official Soyuz 2 mission, which was launched in October 1968 as an uncrewed docking target for Soyuz 3. + + +== Background == +Over two years had passed since the previous crewed Soviet space flight. To introduce the new Soyuz spacecraft, the Soviets planned an ambitious double mission, which would see the two spacecraft dock and exchange passengers. This was despite the failure of uncrewed tests of the Soyuz spacecraft, which still contained flaws. Political pressure from the Soviet leadership meant the launch of Soyuz 1 went ahead in spite of these problems. + + +== Crew == +As with the Voshkod flights, the crew came from different departments, commanded by director of cosmonaut training Nikolai Kamanin, and Vasily Mishin, director of the design engineering department OKB-1. +Since 1965, Kamanin had eight cosmonauts in training for Soyuz missions. Four had already been in space: Yuri Gagarin, Andriyan Nikolayev, Valery Bykovsky, and Vladimir Komarov. Viktor Gorbatko and Yevgeny Khrunov had been with the program since 1960, and Anatoli Voronov and Pyotr Kolodin had been with the program since 1963, but none had flown into space. +Mishin decided to train suitable engineers in his own department as cosmonauts and then nominate them for Soyuz crews. In May 1966 Sergei Anokhin, Aleksei Yeliseyev, and Valeri Kubasov, along with five additional engineers, were added to the group of cosmonauts. A further candidate for mission commander was Georgi Beregovoi, who became a cosmonaut in 1964 due to the promotion of Marshal Rudenko into the group of cosmonauts. Furthermore, Beregovoi was an excellent test pilot, however, he was larger and heavier than the other cosmonauts and he also exceeded the maximum age. The crew assignments were frequently changed. Poor organization also played a role, for in the case of Anokhin there was no spacesuit available for him. +In August 1966 it was decided that Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 2 would be commanded by Komarov and Bykovsky respectively, with Gagarin and Nikolayev as their backups. Two additional crew members would be selected from Anokhin, Yeliseyev, Khrunov, and Gorbatko. This decision was not final, however. The decision regarding the crew escalated to the Central Committee, and in November they issued a dispatch stating that Soyuz 1 should be flown by Komorov, with Gagarin as backup. Soyuz 2 should be commanded by Bykovsky with Nikolayev as backup. Therefore, Beregovoi would not have a space flight until Soyuz 3. As for the two cosmonauts who would transfer after docking from Soyuz 2 to Soyuz 1, Khrunov and Yeliseyev where selected, with Gorbatko and Kubasov as their backups. That meant three of the four spots were taken by experienced cosmonauts, while the fourth was taken by an engineer, and Khrunov had already served as a backup for Alexei Leonov during the Voskhod 2 mission. + + +== Soyuz 1 problems == +Soyuz 1, with Komarov on board, was launched on 23 April 1967. Soyuz 2 (including the 7K-OK No. 5 capsule) was to be launched the following day, with both spacecraft spending four days in orbit. +Serious problems soon arose with Soyuz 1, however, particularly the failure of a solar panel to deploy, which caused the spacecraft's systems to become unstable. It was believed that the cosmonauts from Soyuz 2 could solve the Soyuz 1 solar panel problem via an EVA. However, the Soyuz 2 launch could not proceed due to thunderstorms at the launchpad which affected the booster's electrical system. The Soyuz 1 mission was then aborted and Komarov was able to re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. However both parachutes and the retro-rockets failed, and Komarov was killed on impact. +During the course of investigations afterward, it was determined that Soyuz 2 had the same parachute issues as Soyuz 1, and if it had been launched, Bykovsky, Khrunov, and Yeliseyev presumably would have been killed as well. + + +== Effects == +The Soyuz 1 disaster set the Soviet space program back 18 months. It was not until October 1968 that the next crewed Soyuz mission was launched, flown by Beregovoi. +Khrunov and Yeliseyev eventually flew on Soyuz 5, which along with Soyuz 4 achieved the objectives of their Soyuz 2 flight in January 1969. Meanwhile, Bykovsky prepared for a planned crewed Moon flight, which was never launched. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Soyuz 2A at Encyclopedia Astronautica \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-L1-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-L1-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..eb8181ba3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-L1-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-L1" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-L1" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:11.787606+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz 7K-L1 "Zond" spacecraft was designed to launch cosmonauts from the Earth to circle the Moon without going into lunar orbit in the context of the Soviet crewed Moon-flyby program in the Moon race. It was based on the Soyuz 7K-OK. Several modifications reduced vehicle mass and increased circumlunar capability. The most notable modifications were the replacement of the orbital module with a support cone and a high-gain parabolic antenna, the removal of a reserve parachute, and the addition of the gyro platform and star navigation sensors for the far space navigation. The spacecraft was capable of carrying two cosmonauts. At the start of flight testing, there were serious reliability problems with the new Proton rocket, the 7K-L1, and the Soyuz 7K-OK that the L1 was based on. + +== History == +Chief Designer Sergei Korolev had originally envisioned a crewed lunar spacecraft launched in pieces by R-7 boosters and assembled in Earth orbit. The development of Vladimir Chelomei's large UR-500 booster theoretically made it possible to do the job in a single launch. However, Chelomei also proposed his own, competing for lunar spacecraft, the LK-1, and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev gave his approval in August 1964. Two months later, Khrushchev was expelled from power and Chelomei lost his principal patron. At the end of the year, Korolev revived his proposal for the Soyuz spacecraft but concealed his true intentions by billing it as an Earth orbital vehicle for testing rendezvous and docking maneuvers. In October 1965, a mere three months before his death, Korolev was granted official approval for developing a crewed lunar spacecraft, which would be a modified Soyuz. This would be launched towards the Moon on a UR-500 topped with the Blok D stage under development by the OKB-1 Bureau. +Korolev originally intended to piece together the lunar Soyuz in Earth orbit because he did not believe the UR-500 was powerful enough to launch the full vehicle or that it wouldn't be safe for the crew. However, when he died in January 1966, his successor as head of OKB-1, Vasily Mishin, argued that it was definitely possible to strip down the Soyuz enough to launch it with the UR-500. +With the first four uncrewed test starts (see below) being partially successful or unsuccessful, including two under the common open name "Kosmos" as for any Soviet test spacecraft, the mission of 2–7 March 1968 and subsequent ones were the flights of the L1 spacecraft under the open designation "Zond" that were given by Soviets for test missions to far space. +After the successful United States Apollo 8 crewed flight around the Moon, the Soviet crewed Moon-flyby missions lost political motivation. The first crewed flight of the L1/Zond spacecraft with Alexei Leonov and Valery Bykovsky planned for the end of 1970 was cancelled. In addition, the Proton booster was far from being human-rated and its poor launch record made it undesirable for crewed flights. +All L1/Zond spacecraft made only uncrewed flights from 1967 to 1970, from (Zond 4 to Zond 8), and four of these five Zond flights suffered malfunctions. Test flights conducted around the Moon showed problems using their star sensors for navigation. These problems caused ballistic reentry due to failed guidance. One direct descent re-entry was performed on a steep ballistic trajectory with a deceleration of up to 20 Gs and splashed down in the Indian Ocean. Three others performed a maneuver known as "skip reentry" to shed velocity. One of those also performed an unsafe (for humans) descent of up to 20 Gs of deceleration, the other suffered main parachute failure, and only one flight - Zond 7 - would have been safe for cosmonauts. +Instrumentation flown on these missions gathered data on micrometeor flux, solar and cosmic rays, magnetic fields, radio emissions, and solar wind. Many photographs were taken and biological payloads were also flown. Zond 5 was the first spacecraft to carry a group of terrestrial creatures (tortoises being the most complex) on a circumlunar flight and return them relatively safely to Earth. Zond 5 splashed down in the Indian Ocean after descending steeply with a 20 G deceleration rate. Although unsafe for humans, these high Gs apparently didn't affect the tortoises' health, and they were reportedly able to breed afterward. +Two modifications of main Soyuz 7K-L1 "Zond" version was created: the powered (up to 7000 kg mass) Soyuz 7K-L1S "Zond-M" that were failed attempted to launch for Moon flyby on N1 rocket two times due to Soyuz 7K-LOK orbital ship-module of L3 lunar expedition complex was not ready; the Soyuz 7K-L1E "Zond-LOK" as dummy mockup of Soyuz 7K-LOK and were successfully launched on Low Earth Orbit on Proton rocket as Kosmos 382 and failed launched for Moon orbiting on third N1 rocket. +No official name for crewed Soyuz 7K-L1 "Zond" was adopted. According to Mishin's and Kamanin's memoirs, the names "Rodina" (motherland), "Ural" (Ural mountains), "Akademik Korolyov" (academician Korolyov). Also, "Zarya" (dawn) and "Znamya" (banner) were proposed for both lunar Soyuz 7K-L1 flyby and Soyuz 7K-LOK orbital ships. The information display systems (IDS) on the L1 was called "Saturn" and featured some differences from the standard 7K-OK "Sirius-7K" IDS. +Along with the remaining 7K-L1S, the Soviet Moon-flyby program was closed in 1970 without the achievement of its crewed primary goal. The intended crewed use of L1/Zond spacecraft was documented in official Soviet sources for the first time but from 1968 until 1989 this and the Moon-landing N1-L3 programs were classified and the Soviet government denied the existence of both. Near 1968 a rare open Soviet source (Big Soviet Encyclopedia's Yearbook, Kosmonavtika small encyclopedia) sporadically referred to Zonds as tests of space ships for lunar missions in contrast to the space apparate term used by the Soviets for spacecraft not capable of carrying a crew. + +== Planned schedule == + +As of 1967, the Soyuz 7K-L1 launch schedule was: +Mission \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-L1-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-L1-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e9c9fa87 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-L1-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,105 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-L1" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-L1" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:11.787606+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +2P - Develop Blok D stage - March 1967 +3P - Develop Blok D stage - March 1967 +4L - Uncrewed lunar flyby - May 1967 (actually launched on 27 September 1967, booster failure) +5L - Uncrewed lunar flyby - June 1967 (actually launched on 22 November 1967, booster failure) +6L - Crewed lunar flyby - June or July 1967 +7L and 8L - Crewed lunar flybys - August 1967 (7L actually launched on 23 April 1968, as Zond 1968A, booster failure; 8L actually launched on 21 July 1968, booster explosion) +9L and 10L - Crewed lunar flybys - September 1967 (10L planned to launch as Zond 9, cancelled) +11L and 12L - Crewed lunar flybys - October 1967 +13L - Reserve spacecraft (actually launched on 20 January 1969, as Zond 1969A, booster failure) +In July 1968, it was proposed that L1 spacecraft would be launched every month, and the first crewed mission would be in December 1968 or January 1969 after 3 or 4 successful uncrewed flights. In December 1968, dates for three crewed L1 missions were set to March, May, and July 1969. Finally, in September 1969 one crewed L1 mission was formally set for April 1970. + +== Built spacecraft == +Fifteen Soyuz 7K-L1 were built: + +s/n 1 - prototype not equipped with heat shield, intended to perfect orbital operation of the spacecraft without recovery of the capsule. +s/n 2 - prototype not equipped with heat shield, intended to perfect orbital operation of the spacecraft without recovery of the capsule. Launched on 10 March 1967 as Cosmos 146. +s/n 3 - launched on 8 April 1967 as Cosmos 154. +s/n 4 - launched on 27 September 1967, as Zond 1967A, booster failure. +s/n 5 - launched on 22 November 1967, as Zond 1967B, booster failure. +s/n 6 - launched on 2 March 1968 as Zond 4. +s/n 7 - launched on 23 April 1968, as Zond 1968A, destroyed. +s/n 8 - launched on 21 July 1968, destroyed. +s/n 9 - launched on 14 September 1968 as Zond 5. The return capsule is on display at the Energia Museum, in Russia. +s/n 10 - planned to launch as Zond 9, cancelled. +s/n 11 - launched as Zond 7. The return capsule is on display at Orevo, Russia. +s/n 12 - launched on 10 November 1968, as Zond 6, returned to Earth on 17 November 1968. +s/n 13 - launched on 20 January 1969, as Zond 1969A, failure, capsule recovered. +s/n 14 - launched on 20 October 1970, as Zond 8, returned to Earth on 27 October 1970. +s/n 15 - planned to launch as Zond 10, cancelled. + +== Test missions == + +Cosmos 146 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 1) +Launched on 10 March 1967 +Prototype Soyuz 7K-L1P launched by Proton into a planned highly elliptical Earth orbit. +Cosmos 154 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 3) +Launched on 8 April 1967 +Prototype Soyuz 7K-L1P launched by Proton and failed into a planned translunar trajectory. +Zond 1967A (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 4) +Launched on 27 September 1967 +First stage - 1 x RD-253 failed, resulting in at T+67 seconds in deviation from the flight path. +Zond 1967B (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 5) +Launched on 22 November 1967 +Second stage - 1 x RD-210 failure, shutoff of stage 4 seconds after ignition. Launcher crashed downrange. +Zond 4 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 6) +Launched on 2 March 1968 +Study of remote regions of circumterrestrial space, development of new on-board systems and units of space stations. +Returned to Earth on 7 March 1968 - Self-destruct system automatically blew up the capsule at 10 to 15 km altitude, 180–200 km off the African coast at Guinea. +Zond 1968A (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 7) +Launched on 23 April 1968 +Second stage failed 260 seconds after launch. +Attempted Lunar flyby. +Zond 1968B (Zond 7K-L1 s/n 8) +Launched on 21 July 1968 +Blok D stage exploded on the pad, killing three people. +Zond 5 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 5) +Launched on 15 September 1968 +Circumlunar on 18 September 1968. The first Moon mission to include animals. +Returned to on 21 Earth September 1968. +Zond 6 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 12) +Launched on 10 November 1968 +Circumlunar on 14 November 1968 +Returned to Earth on 17 November 1968 but crashed due to a parachute failure. +Zond 1969A (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 13) +Launched on 20 January 1969 (planned 8 December 1968) +Stage two shut down 25 seconds early. Automatic flight abort. The capsule was safely recovered. +Attempted Lunar flyby (planned first crewed flight before Apollo 8). +Zond-M 1 +Launched on 21 February 1969 +First stage failure. The capsule escape system fired 70 seconds after launch. The capsule was recovered. +Attempted Lunar orbiter and N1 rocket test. +Zond-M 2 +Launched on 3 July 1969 +First stage failure. The Zond capsule was recovered. +Attempted Lunar orbiter and N1 rocket test. +Zond 7 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 11) +Launched on 7 August 1969 +Lunar flyby on 11 August 1969 +Returned to Earth on 14 August 1969. +Zond 8 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 14) +Launched on 20 October 1970 +Lunar flyby on 24 October 1970 +Returned to Earth on 27 October 1970. +Zond 9 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 10) +Planned but cancelled. +Zond 10 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 15) +Planned but cancelled. + +== References == + +== External links == +Very detailed information about the Soyuz 7K-L1 used in Zond 4-8 +Radios in Zond spacecraft +Space mission timeline +Exploring the Moon: the Zond Missions \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-LOK-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-LOK-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0d37de74 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-LOK-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-LOK" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-LOK" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:13.056267+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz 7K-LOK, or simply LOK (Russian: Лунный Орбитальный Корабль, romanized: Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl meaning "Lunar Orbital Craft") was a Soviet crewed spacecraft designed to take humans from Earth to orbit the Moon, developed in parallel to the 7K-L1. The LOK would carry two cosmonauts, acting as a mother ship for the LK lander which would land one crew member to the surface. It was part of the N1-L3 programme which also included the LK lander and the N1 rocket. + + +== Design == +Like the 7K-OK model, the 7K-LOK was divided into three sections, an ellipsoid Orbital Module, the "headlight"-shaped Descent Module, and a cylindrical equipment module. Like the 7K-OK, the 7K-LOK was capable of physically docking with another spacecraft, but lacked the transfer tunnel used on the Apollo (spacecraft), thus forcing the cosmonaut to make a spacewalk from the 7K-LOK's orbital module to the LK Lander using the new Krechet space suit (the predecessor to the Orlan space suits used today on the International Space Station). +Another change to the 7K-LOK was the elimination of the solar panels used on the 7K-OK, replacing them with fuel cells similar to those found on the Apollo CSM. Additionally, a "cupola" located on the Orbital Module, allowed the cosmonaut in the 7K-LOK to perform the docking procedure with the LK Lander after lunar liftoff. Only the Descent Module from the 7K-L1, with a thicker, reinforced heatshield, is used on the 7K-LOK and like the 7K-L1, is capable of doing a "skip reentry" so that the Soyuz could be recovered in the Soviet Union. +The information display systems (IDS) on the LOK were different from those of the Soyuz-7K. +The Descent Module was equipped with the "Uran" control panel and the Orbital Module featured the "Orion" approach control panel. + + +== Flights == +Only three uncrewed 7K-LOKs were flown in the short lifespan of the failed Soviet lunar program. + +One of them was a dummy 7K-LOK as a Soyuz 7K-L1E modification of a Soyuz 7K-L1 "Zond" spacecraft and was successfully test launched into Low Earth orbit on a Proton rocket designated as Kosmos 382 (Soyuz 7K-L1E No.2) on December 2, 1970. +Two other unsuccessful launches of dummy 7K-LOK (Soyuz 7K-L1E No.1) and operational (Soyuz 7K-LOK No.1) with dummy LKs were fulfilled atop the N-1 rocket in its later flights on June 26, 1971 and November 23, 1972 intended for lunar flybys. Both spacecraft were pulled and saved by the launch escape system when those boosters failed. The two aborted flights later proved that the launch-escape system worked when a similar problem on a Soyuz-U forced the Soyuz T-10a to be jettisoned with its cosmonaut crew in 1983 before the booster exploded on the launchpad, destroying it. On two early flights of the N-1, both of them failures, another Soyuz 7K-L1S "Zond-M" modification of the 7K-L1 spacecraft instead of the 7K-LOK or 7K-L1E were used without the dummy LK, and they, along with the booster, were destroyed. +Subsequently, a complete L3 lunar expedition complex with an operational 7K-LOK and LK, LOK 2, for an uncrewed lunar flyby and landing mission (in preparation of a future crewed flight) was prepared for the fifth launch of a modified N1 rocket in August 1974. The N1-L3 program was cancelled in May 1974 and the Soviets decided to concentrate on the development of space stations, achieving several firsts in the process. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +LOK spacecraft article +Soyuz 7K-LOK article \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-MF6-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-MF6-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..75479ddb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-MF6-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-MF6" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-MF6" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:14.286900+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz 7K-MF6 is a version of the Soyuz spacecraft and was the second Soviet spacecraft designed for space station flight, a dedicated science mission. Its only crewed flight was conducted in 1976 with Soyuz 22 of the Soyuz programme. + + +== Design and flight == + +The one craft of the Soyuz 7K-MF6 was modified from the original Soyuz 7K-TM/Soyuz 7K-T with the addition of observatory platform. The Soyuz 7K-MF6 flew once on Soyuz 22. Soyuz 7K-MF6 propulsion was from a KTDU-35, liquid rocket engine. Soyuz 7K-MF6 was the second Soviet manned space observatory, the first was Soyuz 13/Soyuz 7K-T-AF. Soyuz 7K-MF6/Soyuz 2 housed the MKF-6 multi-spectral camera. The spectral camera was used for photography of Earth. The multi-spectral camera was manufactured by Carl Zeiss-Jena in East Germany. The universal docking port was removed and a multispectral camera was installed in its place. The observatory equipment was added to the top of nose cone of the spacecraft. Soyuz 7K-MF6 started as the back up spacecraft for the Apollo–Soyuz project, a Soyuz ASTP craft # 74. The Soyuz ASTP was modified in 1976 to become 7K-MF6, after it was not need for the Apollo–Soyuz project that ended in 1975, which used spacecraft Soyuz 19 and Apollo CSM-111. + + +== See also == +Comparison of crewed space vehicles + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Mir Hardware Heritage (wikisource) +Information on Soyuz spacecraft +OMWorld's ASTP Docking Trainer Page +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission - details \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-OK-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-OK-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cc53f2f66 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-OK-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-OK" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-OK" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:15.502573+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz 7K-OK was the first generation of Soyuz spacecraft and was flown between 1967 and 1971. The 7K-OK was used for the first ferry flights to the Salyut space station program, beginning a long history of space station service that continues with the International Space Station (ISS). +As of 2026, the 7K-OK was responsible for the only fatalities of the Soyuz programme, with Soyuz 1 in 1967 (sole crew-member killed by parachute failure) and Soyuz 11 in 1971 (three crew killed by depressurisation during reentry). +The first uncrewed automated docking in the history of spaceflight was achieved between 7K-OK spacecraft Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 in 1967. Additional firsts include the first docking between two crewed spacecraft (Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5), the longest crewed flight involving only one spacecraft (the 18-day flight of Soyuz 9 in 1970), and the first successful transfer of crew to the first space station in the history of space flight (Soyuz 11 and Salyut 1 in 1971). + + +== Description == +The Soyuz 7K-OK vehicles carried a crew of up to three without space suits. The craft can be distinguished from those following by their bent solar panels and their use of the Igla automatic docking navigation system, which required special radar antennas. +The 7K-OK was primarily intended as a variant of the 7K-LOK (the lunar mission Soyuz) for Earth orbital testing. Mostly the same vehicle, it lacked the larger antenna needed to communicate at lunar distance. The early Soyuz models also sported an external toroidal fuel tank surrounding the engines and meant to store extra propellant for lunar flights, but it was left empty on the first nine flights. After the spacecraft's purpose was changed to space station ferry duties, the tank was removed. +Soyuz 7K-OK spacecraft had a "probe and drogue" docking mechanism to connect with other spacecraft in orbit, in order to gather engineering data as a preparation for the Soviet space station program. There were two variants of Soyuz 7K-OK: Soyuz 7K-OK (active) featuring an active "probe" docking port, and Soyuz 7K-OK (passive) featuring a passive "drogue" docking target. The docking mechanisms of 7K-OK and 7K-LOK did not allow internal transfer (this feature was added on the Soyuz 7K-OKS version), thus cosmonauts had to spacewalk between docked modules. This procedure was conducted successfully on the joint Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 missions, where Aleksei Yeliseyev and Yevgeny Khrunov transferred from their Soyuz 5 to the Soyuz 4 craft. +The first uncrewed test of this version was Kosmos 133, launched on 28 November 1966. + + +== Soyuz 7K-OKS == + +The last two Soyuz space craft of this series were of the designation Soyuz 7K-OKS. The main modification was the addition of the new SSVP docking system that allowed internal crew transfer, which was performed for the first time on the Salyut 1 space station by Soyuz 11. The SSVP docking adapter is still in use today on the International Space Station (ISS). + + +== Uncrewed and test missions == +Kosmos 133 +Soyuz 7K-OK No.1 +Kosmos 140 +Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188, the first uncrewed automated docking in the history of spaceflight. +Kosmos 212 and Kosmos 213, uncrewed automated docking mission. +Kosmos 238 +Soyuz 2, intended docking target for the crewed Soyuz 3. + + +== Crewed missions == +Soyuz 1, the first crewed Soyuz flight, commander and sole crew-member killed on re-entry. +Soyuz 3 +Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5, the first crewed docking and first crew transfer in the history of spaceflight. +Soyuz 6 +Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 8: Intended docking, to be filmed by Soyuz 6 crew – docking failed due to malfunction. +Soyuz 9 +Soyuz 10 (Soyuz 7K-OKS), Salyut 1 ferry, the first docking attempt to a space station in the history of spaceflight. +Soyuz 11 (Soyuz 7K-OKS), Salyut 1 ferry, the first crewing of a space station in the history of spaceflight – crew killed on re-entry. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Mir Hardware Heritage (wikisource) +Information on Soyuz spacecraft +OMWorld's ASTP Docking Trainer Page +NASA - Russian Soyuz TMA Spacecraft Details +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission - details \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-OKS-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-OKS-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..595e48ad5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-OKS-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-OKS" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-OKS" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:16.741934+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz 7K-OKS (also known as Soyuz 7KT-OK) is a version of the Soyuz spacecraft and was the first spacecraft designed for space station flights. Its only crewed flights were conducted in 1971, with Soyuz 10 and Soyuz 11. + + +== Design == +The two craft of the Soyuz 7K-OKS generation were modified from the original Soyuz 7K-OK. The new "probe and drogue" docking mechanism, which was first used by these two missions, featured an internal docking hatch that allowed for the first time internal transfer between Soviet spacecraft. This "probe and drogue" docking mechanism introduced with Soyuz 7K-OKS is still in use today at the International Space Station (ISS). The external toroidal fuel tank, a holdover from the original lunar mission models of the Soyuz, was dropped from the 7K-OKS since it was unneeded for Earth orbital flights. + + +== Flights == +The Soyuz 7K-OKS flew only twice, Soyuz 10 and Soyuz 11. +On its maiden flight, the Soyuz 7K-OKS successfully launched into Earth orbit, but failed to dock completely with the Salyut 1 space station. Upon reentry, the spacecraft encountered problems with toxic fumes. +This generation of Soyuz spacecraft is notable for the first successful delivery of crew to the first space station Salyut 1 by Soyuz 11 – this success was however overshadowed by the death of the crew, who were killed when the capsule depressurised during the re-entry phase. + + +== Missions == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Mir Hardware Heritage (wikisource) +Information on Soyuz spacecraft +OMWorld's ASTP Docking Trainer Page +NASA - Russian Soyuz TMA Spacecraft Details +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission - details \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c708da71 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-T" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:18.076038+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The second generation of the Soyuz spacecraft, the Soyuz 7K-T, comprised Soyuz 12 through Soyuz 40 (1973–1981). + + +== History == +In the wake of the Soyuz 11 tragedy, the spacecraft was redesigned to accommodate two cosmonauts who would wear pressure suits at all times during launch, docking, undocking, and reentry. The place of the third cosmonaut was taken by extra life-support systems. Finally, the 7K-T, being intended purely as a space station ferry, had no solar panels, instead sporting two large whip antennas in their place. As a result, it relied on batteries which only provided enough power for two days of standalone flight. The idea was that the Soyuz would recharge while docked with a Salyut space station, but in the event of a docking or other mission failure (which ended up happening on several occasions), the crew was forced to power off everything except communications and life support systems until they could reenter. +Two test flights of the 7K-T were conducted prior to committing the redesigned Soyuz to a crewed mission. Kosmos 496 was launched on 26 June 1972 and spent a week in space, part of it in powered-down mode. Then on 2 September 1972, an attempted launch of a Zenit reconnaissance satellite failed to orbit due to a malfunction of the vernier engines on the Blok A stage. The existing stock of Soyuz boosters had to be modified to prevent a recurrence of this failure mode on a crewed mission, which delayed the next test until almost a year later when Kosmos 573 launched on 15 June 1973 and spent two days in space. With this done, the way was cleared for the first crewed test, Soyuz 12, in September 1972. +In addition, the standalone flights of Soyuz 13, Soyuz 16, Soyuz 19, and Soyuz 22 used a variant of the 7K-T with solar panels, and in the case of 13 and 22, special camera apparatus in place of the docking mechanism. A large Orion 2 astrophysical camera for imaging the sky and Earth were used on the former and an MKF-6 Zeiss camera on the latter. +Another modification was the Soyuz 7K-T/A9 used for the flights to the military Almaz space station. This featured the ability to remote control the space station and a new parachute system and other still classified and unknown changes. + + +== Missions == +Soyuz 12 +Soyuz 13 +Soyuz 14 +Soyuz 15 +Soyuz 17 +Soyuz 18 +Soyuz 21 +Soyuz 23 +Soyuz 24 +Soyuz 25 +Soyuz 26 +Soyuz 27 +Soyuz 28 +Soyuz 29 +Soyuz 30 +Soyuz 31 +Soyuz 32 +Soyuz 33 +Soyuz 34 +Soyuz 35 +Soyuz 36 +Soyuz 37 +Soyuz 38 +Soyuz 39 +Soyuz 40 + + +== Uncrewed tests == +Cosmos 496 +Cosmos 573 +Cosmos 613 +Cosmos 656 +Soyuz 20 + + +== External links == +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Mir Hardware Heritage (wikisource) +Soyuz 7K-T in Encyclopedia Astronautica +NASA - Russian Soyuz TMA Spacecraft Details +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission - details \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T-AF-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T-AF-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6670af40 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T-AF-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-T-AF" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-T-AF" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:19.352937+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz 7K-T-AF is a version of the Soyuz spacecraft and was the first spacecraft designed for space station flights, a dedicated science mission. Its only crewed flight was conducted in 1973 with Soyuz 13 of the Soyuz programme. + + +== Design and flight == + +The one craft of the Soyuz 7K-T-AF was modified from the original Soyuz 7K-T with the addition of observatory and solar arrays. This was the second test flight of the redesigned Soyuz 7K-T, the second generation of the Soyuz spacecraft. The Soyuz 7K-T-AF flew once on Soyuz 13. The Soyuz 7K-T-AF was in the 7K-TM Configuration. Soyuz 7K-T-AF propulsion was from a KTDU-35, two liquid rocket engines. Soyuz 13/7K-T-AF was the first manned space observatory. Soyuz 7K-T-AF/Soyuz 13 housed the Orion 2 Space Observatory, operated by crew member Valentin Lebedev. Orion 2 Space Observatory was an Ultraviolet (UV) Telescope. The first Soviet UV Telescope was Orion 1 used on orbital station Salyut 1. The other crew member was Pyotr Klimuk. +With the Orion 2 astrophysical telescope and camera, the crew made observations of stars in the ultraviolet light range. Also added to Soyuz 7K-T-AF was experiment that photographed spectrozonal areas of the earth's surface. Soyuz 7K-T-AF landed in snowstorm 200 kilometres (120 mi) Southwest Karaganda. The observatory equipment was added to the top of nose cone of the spacecraft. The observatory equipment was mounted were the docking port is mounted on the Soyuz 7K-OKS version. Soyuz 22/Soyuz 7K-MF6 spacecraft would be the next 7K-T with observatory equipment mounted at the craft's docking port. + + +== See also == +Comparison of crewed space vehicles + + +== References == + + +== External links == +RSC Energia: Concept Of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Mir Hardware Heritage (wikisource) +Information on Soyuz spacecraft +OMWorld's ASTP Docking Trainer Page +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission - details \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TK-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TK-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ef25dd4a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TK-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz 7K-TK" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TK" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:20.552983+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz 7K-TK (Russian: Союз 7К-ТК meaning Union 7K-TK) was a proposed Soviet spacecraft, which was designed for delivering cosmonauts to Soyuz R piloted military stations. This Soyuz version was equipped with both rendezvous and docking equipment was the basis for the Soyuz 7K-OKS space station ferry which flew two crewed flights in 1971. +Because Sergei Korolev, head of the OKB-1 bureau, had died in surgery in January 1966, the Soyuz 7K-R project was cancelled. Potential was still seen in the Soyuz 7K-TK, and so control of the project was handed over to Vladimir Chelomey's bureau to be developed as a transport spacecraft for the Almaz program. +Due to the delays in the Almaz program, further development of the 7K-TK was suspended in December 1966. It was expected that the first 7K-TK/Almaz complex would be tested uncrewed in 1968 and would fly crewed thereafter in 1969. However, due to further delays and the Chelomey's preference of the TKS spacecraft in June 1970, the Soyuz 7K-TK program was cancelled and never reached flight. + + +== See also == +Almaz +Soyuz programme +Soyuz (spacecraft) +TKS (spacecraft) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TM-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TM-0.md index 551739546..37558c4be 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TM-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TM-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_7K-TM" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T12:35:34.154239+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:21.833996+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5db8dbda3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz MS" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:24.327104+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz MS (Russian: Союз МС; GRAU: 11F732A48) is the latest version of the Russian Soyuz spacecraft series, first launched in 2016. The "MS" stands for "modernized systems," referring to improvements in navigation, communications, and onboard systems over the Soyuz TMA-M series. Developed and manufactured by Energia, it is operated by Roscosmos for human spaceflight missions to the International Space Station (ISS). +Soyuz MS-01, the first flight of the series, launched on 7 July 2016 and docked with the ISS two days later following a checkout phase to validate the new systems. The mission lasted 113 days, concluding with a landing on the Kazakh Steppe on 30 October 2016. +The Soyuz MS spacecraft has been involved in one in-flight abort. During the launch of Soyuz MS-10 in October 2018, a booster separation failure on the Soyuz-FG launch vehicle triggered the automated launch escape system. The spacecraft separated from the rocket and returned the crew safely to Earth under parachutes. The crew landed unharmed. Since April 2020, the spacecraft has been launched using the modernized Soyuz 2.1a rocket. + +== Design == + +Like earlier versions of the Soyuz, the MS spacecraft variant consists of three sections (from forward to aft in orbit, or top to bottom when mounted on a rocket): + +A spheroid orbital module +A small aerodynamic descent module +A cylindrical instrumentation and propulsion module +The orbital and descent modules are pressurized and habitable. By relocating much of the equipment and usable volume to the orbital module—which does not require heat shielding for atmospheric re-entry—the three-part Soyuz design is both larger and lighter than comparable two-part spacecraft. For comparison, the Apollo spacecraft's pressurized command module provided a crew of three with six cubic metres (210 cu ft) of living space and had a re-entry mass of approximately 5,000 kilograms (11,000 lb), while the Soyuz MS offers the same crew ten cubic metres (350 cu ft) of living space with a re-entry module mass of about 2,950 kilograms (6,500 lb). +The Soyuz MS can carry up to three crew members and supports free-flight missions lasting approximately 30 person-days. Its life support system provides a nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere similar to that of Earth, with air pressure equivalent to sea level. Oxygen is regenerated using potassium superoxide (KO2) canisters, which absorb most of the carbon dioxide (CO2) and water exhaled by the crew and release oxygen. Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) canisters are also used to absorb residual CO2. +In addition to the crew, Soyuz MS can carry up to 200 kilograms (440 lb) of payload to orbit and return up to 65 kilograms (143 lb) to Earth. +The spacecraft is protected during launch by a nose fairing with a launch escape system, which is jettisoned once the vehicle exits the dense layers of the atmosphere. Soyuz MS is highly automated; its Kurs system enables automatic rendezvous and docking with the ISS. Manual control is possible in the event of system failure. + +=== Orbital module === + +The forward-most section of the spacecraft is the orbital module (Russian: Бытовой отсек (БО), romanized: Bitovoy Otsek (BO), or habitation module). It provides more living space than the descent module and includes a toilet. +It has three hatches: a forward hatch for docking with the ISS, a side hatch for crew ingress and egress during ground operations, and an aft hatch connecting to the descent module. In principle, the side hatch could be used for spacewalks by sealing the other hatches and using the module as an airlock, although this capability has never been used on the MS variant due to the availability of larger dedicated airlocks on the ISS. +In microgravity, the orbital module's conceptual orientation differs from that of the reentry module, with crew members positioned with their heads toward the forward docking port. +The module has a small forward-facing window which can be used during manual docking if the automated system fails. A crew member observes the approach from this window and relays information to the commander, who pilots the spacecraft from the reentry module using a periscope mounted on the midsection of the spacecraft. +The module can accommodate over 100 kilograms (220 lb) of cargo at launch and is typically filled with up to 170 kilograms (370 lb) of waste before being jettisoned prior to re-entry where it will burn up in the atmosphere. +The orbital module can be customized for specific mission requirements without affecting the safety-critical systems of the descent module. Compared to earlier Soyuz versions, it incorporates additional anti-meteoroid shielding. + +=== Descent module === + +The central section is the descent module (Russian: Спускаемый аппарат (СА), romanized: Spuskaemiy Apparat (SA)), which houses the crew during launch and return. During re-entry it is shielded by a heat-resistant covering and slowed using atmospheric drag and parachutes. At one metre (3 ft 3 in) above ground, solid-fuel landing engines behind the heat shield fire to cushion the final impact. +The reentry module is designed for high volumetric efficiency (internal volume relative to hull surface area). A spherical shape would be optimal but offers no lift, resulting in a fully ballistic reentry, which is difficult to steer and subjects the crew to high g-forces. Instead, the Soyuz uses a compromise "headlight" shape: a hemispherical forward section, a shallow conical midsection, and a spherical heat shield, allowing limited lift and steering. The nickname derives from the resemblance to early sealed beam automotive headlights. + +=== Instrumentation/propulsion module === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fbdf587c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz MS" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:24.327104+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The aft section is the instrumentation/propulsion module (Russian: Приборно-Агрегатный Отсек [ПАО], romanized: Priborniy-Agregatniy Otsek [PAO]), also referred to as the service module or aggregate compartment. It consists of three parts: the instrumentation compartment (Russian: Приборно Отсек [ПО], romanized: Priborniy Otsek [PO]), the instrumentation compartment (Russian: Приборно Отсек [ПО], romanized: Priborniy Otsek [PO]), and the propulsion compartment (Russian: Агрегатный Отсек [АО], romanized: Agregatniy Otsek [AO]). +The instrumentation compartment is a pressurized container housing systems for power generation, thermal control, communications, telemetry, and attitude control. The propulsion compartment contains the main and backup liquid-fueled engines for orbital maneuvers and deorbiting. Low-thrust attitude control thrusters are mounted on the intermediate compartment. Solar panels and orientation sensors are mounted externally on the service module. + +=== Re-entry procedure === +The Soyuz spacecraft initiates its return to Earth with a deorbit burn approximately half an orbit, or 180 degrees, ahead of the designated landing site. The spacecraft is oriented tail-first, and the main engine fires for about five minutes to reduce velocity and lower the orbit. This maneuver typically takes place as the vehicle passes over the southern tip of South America at an altitude of about 422 kilometres (262 mi). +About 30 minutes after the deorbit burn, as the spacecraft passes over the Arabian Peninsula at an altitude of roughly 140 kilometres (87 mi), the three modules separate. Only the descent module, which carries the crew, is designed to survive reentry; the orbital and service modules burn up in the atmosphere. To ensure successful separation under all circumstances, the spacecraft uses a four-tiered backup system: two automated commands, a manual override, and an emergency thermal sensor triggered by rising reentry temperatures. +The descent module reenters the atmosphere at an angle of approximately 1.35°, generating some aerodynamic lift to reduce g-forces compared to a purely ballistic trajectory. In the event of flight control or attitude system failure, the capsule can revert to a ballistic descent, and crews are trained to withstand the higher loads associated with it. +At around 100 kilometres (62 mi) altitude, atmospheric drag rapidly decelerates the spacecraft, and reentry heating causes the ablative outer layers of the shield to burn away. Plasma forms around the capsule, temporarily interrupting communications with ground stations. The onboard flight control system can adjust the capsule’s roll to fine-tune its trajectory. +Parachute deployment begins at about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) altitude. Two pilot chutes deploy first, followed by a drogue chute that slows the spacecraft from 230 to 80 metres per second (830 to 290 km/h; 510 to 180 mph), followed by the main parachute which further reduces the descent rate to 7.2 metres per second (26 km/h; 16 mph). At approximately 5.8 kilometres (3.6 mi) altitude, the heat shield is jettisoned, exposing the soft-landing engines, an altimeter, and a beacon light. Cabin pressure is gradually equalized with the outside atmosphere. +At an altitude of about one metre (3 ft 3 in), the altimeter triggers the solid-fuel braking engines, reducing impact speed to under 2 metres per second (7.2 km/h; 4.5 mph). Each seat is equipped with shock absorbers and a liner custom molded to each crew member's body shape to cushion the final impact. In the rare case of a landing under a backup parachute, descent speeds may reach 10.5 metres per second (38 km/h; 23 mph), but the descent module and seating systems are designed to remain survivable. +After touchdown, the main parachute is released to prevent the capsule from being dragged by the wind. The module may land upright or on its side. Recovery beacons and transmitters activate automatically. If needed, the crew can manually deploy additional antennas. The spacecraft's autonomous navigation system (ASN-K) also transmits real-time position data via satellite to assist search and rescue operations. +Soyuz landings are conducted in flat, open areas without major obstacles. Thirteen designated landing zones in Kazakhstan meet these criteria. Mission planners typically schedule landings during the spacecraft’s first or second orbit of the day, as it moves from south to north. Most landings occur at twilight, allowing recovery teams to visually track the brightly lit capsule against the darkening sky. Since Soyuz began servicing the ISS, only a few missions have landed at night. +If the decent module lands far from recovery teams, it is equipped with a survival kit. This includes a satellite phone, cold-weather clothing, a medical kit, a strobe light, a handheld radio, a signal mirror, matches and a firestarter, a fishing kit, and a semi-automatic pistol intended for protection against wildlife such as wolves or bears. + +== Soyuz MS improvements == + +The Soyuz MS includes a number of upgrades over the earlier Soyuz TMA-M variant: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e209a31a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz MS" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_MS" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:24.327104+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Kurs-NA rendezvous system: The Kurs-NA (Russian: Курс-Новая Активная, romanized: Kurs-Novaya Aktivnaya, meaning "Course–New Active") is an automatic docking system developed and manufactured in Russia to replace the earlier Ukrainian-built Kurs system. The change was driven in part by the need to reduce reliance on Ukrainian hardware following the deterioration of relations and armed conflict between the two countries. It also modernizes the equipment with a higher degree of computerization and addresses the obsolescence of components in the original system. The Kurs-NA is about 25 kg (55 lb) lighter, 30% smaller, and consumes 25% less power than its predecessor. It employs a single phased-array antenna in place of four older antennas, while two narrow-angle antennas were retained but repositioned toward the rear. The system also replaces the halogen headlight used for docking assistance with a brighter, more energy-efficient LED lamp. +Unified Command and Telemetry System (EKTS, Russian: Единая Командно-Телеметрическая Система, romanized: Edinaya Komandno-Telemetricheskaya Sistema): Replaces earlier systems (BRTS, MBITS, Rassvet) with a single unit that supports satellite communications via Russia’s Luch relay network, covering up to 83% of each orbit. It incorporates the Apparatus for Satellite Navigation (ASN-K, Russian: Аппаратура Спутниковой Навигации [АСН-К], romanized: Apparatura Sputnikovoi Navigatsii), which replaces a ground-based tracking network of six stations across Russia that provided only partial orbital coverage. ASN-K uses GLONASS and GPS signals through four fixed antennas, delivering positional accuracy of 5 m (16 ft) and 0.5° attitude accuracy. The spacecraft also retains VHF and UHF radios, can interface with U.S. TDRSS and European EDRS networks, and carries a COSPAS-SARSAT transponder for real-time reentry tracking. +Reconfigured attitude control thrusters: The Integrated Propulsion System (Russian: Комбинированная Двигательная Установка, romanized: Kombinirovannaya Dvigatelnaya Ustanovka [KDU]) uses two redundant manifold loops to supply fuel and oxidizer to 14 pairs of thrusters. Each pair connects to separate loops for redundancy. The number of aft-facing thrusters is doubled to provide backup for the main engine. The avionics and EFIR fuel-tracking unit are also redesigned to improve reliability. +Docking mechanism enhancements: The SSVP docking system includes a backup electric drive mechanism. +SZI-M reusable flight recorder: A ruggedized black box, the SZI-M (Russian: Система Запоминания Информации [СЗИ-М], romanized: Sistema Zapominaniya Informatsii, lit. 'Information Storage System'), is located beneath the commander's seat. It records voice and data throughout the mission, with a 4 GB capacity. It withstands impacts up to 150 m/s (490 ft/s) and temperatures up to 700 °C (1,300 °F) for 30 minutes and is rated for 100,000 overwrite cycles and up to ten reuse missions. +Power system upgrades: A fifth battery with a capacity of 155 Ah is added to support increased power demands. Solar cell efficiency increases from 12% to 14%, and panel surface area increases by 1.1 m2 (12 sq ft). +Enhanced micrometeoroid protection: Additional shielding is installed on the orbital module, primarily at NASA’s request, to reduce vulnerability to space debris and micrometeoroid impacts. +Digital camera system: The analog video system is replaced with an MPEG-2-based digital video system, enabling space-to-space RF communication with the ISS and reducing signal interference. + +== List of flights == + +== References == + +== External links == + +www.russianspaceweb.com – The Soyuz MS spacecraft \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_P-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_P-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c31b8517b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_P-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz P" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_P" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:25.499394+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Soyuz P (Russian: Союз Перехватчик meaning Union Interceptor) also known as 11F71 or 7K-P, was a proposed Soviet crewed combat spacecraft and satellite interceptor. The Soyuz P was proposed in December 1962, along with other Soyuz variants to match the United States' Manned Orbiting Laboratory program. Active development of the Soyuz P began in 1964. +The Soyuz P was intended to rendezvous with the target, and would have been followed by an EVA by a cosmonaut to inspect the satellite. Depending on the results of the inspection or the objectives of the mission, the satellite would have either re-entered with the Soyuz P to be studied on Earth, or would have been neutralized. However, this would have been risky to the cosmonaut as some satellites are fitted with automated destruction systems to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. +In January 1964, the program was put on hold due to the military's growing interest in uncrewed anti-satellite systems. In early 1965, Soyuz P was cancelled in favor of the Istrebitel Sputnikov program, which had achieved two successful space flights at the time. Another factor in the cancellation was the potential risk to the cosmonaut. A revised design of the Soyuz P was the Soyuz PPK. + + +== See also == +Soyuz programme +Soyuz (spacecraft) +Soyuz PPK + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b7c8d3bb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz TMA" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:32.825350+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz-TMA (Russian: транспортный модифицированный антропометрический, romanized: Transportnyi Modifitsirovannyi Antropometricheskii, lit. 'Transport Modified Anthropometric') was a spacecraft built by Energia and used by Roscosmos for human spaceflight. It is a revision of the Soyuz spacecraft introduced in 2001 and was in use until 2012 after being superseded in 2010 by the Soyuz TMA-M. While it looks identical to the earlier Soyuz-TM on the outside, the spacecraft features several changes to accommodate requirements requested by NASA to better service the International Space Station. The most important difference are the anthropometric changes, primarily in the form of new adjustable crew couches that allowed shorter, taller, lighter and heavier passengers to ride in the spacecraft. The Soyuz also received improved parachute systems and a "glass cockpit," a first for an expendable vehicle. + +== Design == + +A Soyuz spacecraft consists of three parts (from front to back): + +A spheroid orbital module +A small aerodynamic reentry module +A cylindrical service module with solar panels attached +The first two portions are habitable living space. By moving as much as possible into the orbital module, which does not have to be shielded or decelerated during atmospheric re-entry, the Soyuz three-part craft is both larger and lighter than the two-part Apollo spacecraft's command module. The Apollo command module had six cubic meters of living space and a mass of 5000 kg; the three-part Soyuz provided the same crew with nine cubic meters of living space, an airlock, and a service module for the mass of the Apollo capsule alone. This does not consider the orbital module, that could be used instead of the Apollo Lunar Module. +Soyuz can carry up to three cosmonauts and provide life support for them for about 30 person days. The life support system provides a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere at sea level partial pressures. The atmosphere is regenerated through KO2 cylinders, which absorb most of the CO2 and water produced by the crew and regenerates the oxygen, and LiOH cylinders which absorb leftover CO2. +The vehicle is protected during launch by a nose fairing, which is jettisoned after passing through the atmosphere. It has an automatic docking system. The ship can be operated automatically, or by a pilot independently of ground control. + +=== Orbital Module (BO) === + +The forepart of the spacecraft is the orbital module ((in Russian): бытовой отсек (BO), Bitovoy otsek) also known as Habitation section. It houses all the equipment that will not be needed for reentry, such as experiments, cameras or cargo. Commonly, it is used as both eating area and lavatory. At its far end, it also contains the docking port. This module also contains a toilet, docking avionics and communications gear. On the latest Soyuz versions, a small window was introduced, providing the crew with a forward view. +A hatch between it and the descent module can be closed so as to isolate it to act as an airlock if needed, cosmonauts exiting through its side port (at the bottom of this picture, near the descent module) on the launch pad, they have entered the spacecraft through this port. +This separation also lets the orbital module be customized to the mission with less risk to the life-critical descent module. The convention of orientation in zero gravity differs from that of the descent module, as cosmonauts stand or sit with their heads to the docking port. + +=== Reentry Module (SA) === + +The reentry module ((in Russian): спускаемый аппарат (СА), Spuskaemiy apparat (SA)) is used for launch and the journey back to Earth. It is covered by a heat-resistant covering to protect it during re-entry. It is slowed initially by the atmosphere, then by a braking parachute, followed by the main parachute which slows the craft for landing. At one meter above the ground, solid-fuel braking engines mounted behind the heat shield are fired to give a soft landing. One of the design requirements for the reentry module was for it to have the highest possible volumetric efficiency (internal volume divided by hull area). The best shape for this is a sphere, but such a shape can provide no lift, which results in a purely ballistic reentry. Ballistic reentries are hard on the occupants due to high deceleration and can't be steered beyond their initial deorbit burn. That is why it was decided to go with the "headlight" shape that the Soyuz uses — a hemispherical forward area joined by a barely angled conical section (seven degrees) to a classic spherical section heat shield. This shape allows a small amount of lift to be generated due to the unequal weight distribution. The nickname was coined at a time when nearly every automobile headlight was a circular paraboloid. + +=== Service Module (PAO) === + +At the back of the vehicle is the service module ((in Russian): приборно-агрегатный отсек, Priborno-Agregatniy Otsek (PAO)). It has an instrumentation compartment ((in Russian): приборный отсек, Priborniy Otsek (PO)), a pressurized container shaped like a bulging can that contains systems for temperature control, electric power supply, long-range radio communications, radio telemetry, and instruments for orientation and control. The propulsion compartment ((in Russian): агрегатный отсек, Agregatniy Otsek (AO)), a non-pressurized part of the service module, contains the main engine and a spare: liquid-fuel propulsion systems for maneuvering in orbit and initiating the descent back to Earth. The ship also has a system of low-thrust engines for orientation, attached to the intermediate compartment ((in Russian): переходной отсек, Perekhodnoi Otsek (PkhO)). Outside the service module are the sensors for the orientation system and the solar array, which is oriented towards the Sun by rotating the ship. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..eefee47e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz TMA" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:32.825350+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Re-entry procedure === +Because its modular construction differs from that of previous designs, the Soyuz has an unusual sequence of events prior to re-entry. The spacecraft is turned engine-forward and the main engine is fired for de-orbiting fully 180° ahead of its planned landing site. This requires the least propellant for re-entry, the spacecraft traveling on an elliptical Hohmann orbit to a point where it will be low enough in the atmosphere to re-enter. +Early Soyuz spacecraft would then have the service and orbital modules detach simultaneously. As they are connected by tubing and electrical cables to the descent module, this would aid in their separation and avoid having the descent module alter its orientation. Later Soyuz spacecraft detach the orbital module before firing the main engine, which saves even more propellant, enabling the descent module to return more payload. In no case can the orbital module remain in orbit as an addition to a space station, for the hatch enabling it to function as an airlock is part of the descent module. +Re-entry firing is typically done on the "dawn" side of the Earth, so that the spacecraft can be seen by recovery helicopters as it descends in the evening twilight, illuminated by the sun when it is above the shadow of the Earth. Since the beginning of Soyuz missions to the ISS, only five have performed nighttime landings. + +=== Spacecraft systems === + +Thermal Control System – Sistema Obespecheniya Teplovogo Rezhima, SOTR - Cистема Обеспечения Теплового Режима, COTP +Life support system – Kompleks Sredstv Obespecheniya Zhiznideyatelnosti, KSOZh - Комплекс Средств Обеспечения Жизнедеятельности, KCOЖ +Power Supply System – Sistema Elektropitaniya, SEP - Система Электропитания, CЭП +Communication and Tracking Systems – Rassvet (Dawn) radio communications system, Onboard Measurement System (SBI), Kvant-V spacecraft control, Klyost-M television system, Orbit Radio Tracking (RKO) +Onboard Complex Control System – Sistema Upravleniya Bortovym Kompleksom, SUBK - Система Управления Бортовым Комплексом, СУБК +Combined Propulsion System – Kompleksnaya Dvigatelnaya Ustanovka, KDU - Комплексная Двигательная Установка, КДУ +Chaika-3 Motion Control System – Sistema Upravleniya Dvizheniem, SUD - Cистема Управления Движением, СУД +Optical/Visual Devices (OVP)- VSK-4 (Vizir Spetsialniy Kosmicheskiy-4 - Визир Специальный Космический-4), Night Vision Device (VNUK-K, Visir Nochnogo Upravleniya po Kursu - ВНУK-К, Визир Ночного Управления по Курсу), Docking light, Pilot's Sight (VP-1, Vizir Pilota-1 - ВП-1, Визир Пилота-1), Laser Range Finder (LPR-1, Lazerniy Dalnomer-1 - ЛПР-1, Лазерный Дальномер-1) +Kurs rendezvous system +Docking System – Sistema Stykovki i Vnutrennego Perekhoda, SSVP - Система Стыковки и Внутреннего Перехода, ССВП +Teleoperator Control Mode – Teleoperatorniy Rezhim Upravleniya, TORU - Телеоператорный Режим Управления, ТОРУ +Entry Actuators System – Sistema Ispolnitelnikh Organov Spuska, SIO-S - Система Исполнительных Органов Спуска, СИО-С +Landing Aids Kit – Kompleks Sredstv Prizemleniya, KSP - Комплекс Средств Приземления, КСП +Portable Survival Kit – Nosimiy Avariyniy Zapas, NAZ - Носимый Аварийный Запас, НАЗ +Soyuz launch escape system – Sistema Avariynogo Spaseniya, SAS - Система Аварийного Спасения, САС + +== Flights == + +== References == + +== External links == + +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Mir Hardware Heritage (wikisource) +OMWorld's ASTP Docking Trainer Page +NASA – Russian Soyuz TMA Spacecraft Details +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission – details +www.russianspaceweb.com – The Soyuz spacecraft \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-M-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-M-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c5b814dea --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-M-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz TMA-M" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TMA-M" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:34.041277+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz TMA-M was a spacecraft developed by Energia and operated by Roscosmos for human spaceflight. Introduced in 2010, it was a revision of the Soyuz spacecraft with modernizations (the 'M' in the name) over its predecessor, the Soyuz TMA, primarily to the main flight computer and avionics. It flew a total of 20 missions from 2010 to 2016, all carrying astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS). It was replaced by the Soyuz MS, which introduced further modernized systems. + + +== Design == +The primary difference between the Soyuz TMA-M and the earlier Soyuz TMA was the removal of several pieces of outdated equipment, many of which were no longer in production. These included the 70-kilogram (150 lb) main digital computer, called Argon, and its analogue avionics. They were replaced with a new digital computer, the TsVM-101 and digital avionics. +There were also changes to the spacecraft's structure, such as replacing the magnesium alloy used in the instrument module frame with an aluminium alloy, for easier manufacture. In combination, the changes reduced the vehicle's total mass by 70 kilograms (150 lb). Additionally, power consumption was reduced throughout the ship, improving its overall efficiency. + + +== Flights == + +Two development flights were launched: Soyuz TMA-01M on Oct 7, 2010 and Soyuz TMA-02M on Jun 7, 2011. NASA astronaut Scott Kelly, who flew on TMA-01M, praised the spacecraft's new digital displays, noting that they made flying easier and less demanding. +The third mission, Soyuz TMA-03M, launched on 21 December 2011 and was used for qualification tests. In addition to verifying the nominal operation of the spaceship, the testing included verification of off-nominal modes, such as manual attitude control, issuing of orbital manoeuvring pulses using four berthing and attitude thrusters, and flying around the ISS in manual control mode. +Thereafter the TMA-M entered regular service, where it was used for supply and crew rotation flights to the ISS. The TMA-M variant flew another 20 missions from 2012-16, at a cadence of four times a year, all to the ISS. At that time, the Soyuz TMA-M was the only spacecraft in service that was capable of flying humans to the ISS, so ride-share agreements were in place with other space agencies. All launches carried three astronauts – there were always one or two Russians (from Roscosmos) and one American (from NASA). Half the launches included one astronaut from Europe (ESA), Canada (CSA) or Japan (JAXA). + + +== Replacement == +Further development of the Soyuz capsule design led to the introduction of the Soyuz MS in 2016, which replaced the Soyuz TMA-M. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Mir Hardware Heritage +David S.F. Portree, Mir Hardware Heritage, NASA RP-1357, 1995 +Mir Hardware Heritage (wikisource) +OMWorld's ASTP Docking Trainer Page +NASA – Russian Soyuz TMA Spacecraft Details +Space Adventures circum-lunar mission – details +www.russianspaceweb.com – The Soyuz spacecraft \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_abort_modes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_abort_modes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0b3419621 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_abort_modes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz abort modes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_abort_modes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:23.070088+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the event of catastrophic failure, the Soyuz spacecraft has a series of automated and semi-automated abort modes (Rus. Система аварийного спасения (САС)) (literally - System for Emergency Rescue (SER)) to rescue the crew. The abort systems have been refined since the first piloted flights and all abort scenarios for the Soyuz MS are expected to be survivable for the crew. + + +== Launch abort modes == +The Soyuz abort systems are especially complicated because of the modular design of the vehicle; only the middle descent module is designed to survive reentry, so in an emergency, the orbital module and the descent module must be separated together (sometimes with the service module also attached) before the descent module can be separated and orient itself for reentry. Other Soviet spacecraft, like the TKS, attempted similar modular designs with a hatch through the heat shield to resolve this issue. The modular design also means that the Soyuz capsule is contained within a payload fairing for much of the flight and removing the fairing without collision in an emergency was another difficult issue that needed to be addressed. + + +=== Jettisonable emergency escape head section === + +The primary abort system for use early in the flight is the Jettisonable Emergency Escape Head Section, known by its Russian abbreviation OGB SAS or just SAS. It is a launch escape system designed by a team from OKB-1 under Sergei Korolev's leadership. The main SAS is a single solid rocket booster with several nozzles to control attitude, placed on top of the Soyuz capsule. +The SAS can be used to separate the Soyuz capsule from the launch vehicle up to about two and a half minutes into powered flight. The launch escape system can be triggered by onboard computers or by radio communication from ground crews. The onboard computers use instruments to detect several possible failures including premature separation of stages, loss of pressure in combustion chambers, and loss of control of the launch vehicle. Once triggered, struts are deployed to secure the descent module to the orbital module until after the escape motors are burnt out and jettisoned. After this, the descent module is separated, its heat shield is jettisoned, and its parachutes are deployed. +Beginning with the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, the Soyuz spacecraft also has a secondary set of four rocket motors at the top of the fairing that can propel the escape head section away from the rocket during the period between the jettisoning of the SAS at T+115s until fairing deployment at T+157s. In contrast to the SAS these rockets only move the escape head section a small distance away from the rocket, as at these altitudes there is enough time for the landing system to deploy. + + +=== Other abort procedures === +In early Soyuz models, there were two abort modes in the time ranging from the ejection of the launch escape system until orbit. One called for separation of only the upper two modules and a controlled descent and could be initiated before about T+522s, the other separated all three and underwent a ballistic descent after T+522. +Unlike the Space Shuttle, Soyuz cannot abort-to-orbit because its third stage has only a single engine and does not carry the reserve fuel necessary to achieve orbit with reduced thrust at a lower stage. + + +== Reliability == +An analysis of the overall reliability of the Soyuz capsule was published in the years leading up to the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2010 by individuals from NASA JSC and the ARES Corporation. The report concluded that the current crewed Soyuz capsule has not been on enough flights to reliably measure the probability of a loss of mission, but that the overall history of the program shows that it performed roughly as reliably as other contemporary systems and that, while the number could be improved, significant improvement of reliability was not feasible with current technology. +Following a malfunction in the central thrust chamber of the launch escape system when it was routinely jettisoned during the 2009 Soyuz TMA-15 launch, concerns were raised by officials with NASA and Russian organizations (including the Machine Building Central Research Institute) about the quality control and reliability of Soyuz emergency systems. + + +== Soyuz abort history == +Soyuz has experienced three launch aborts and one in-orbit abort. All crew members survived the aborts. + + +=== Launch aborts === + + +=== In-orbit aborts === + + +== See also == +Apollo abort modes +Space Shuttle abort modes +Orion abort modes + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_programme-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_programme-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8185de9d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_programme-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Soyuz programme" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_programme" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:46.385779+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Soyuz programme ( SOY-yooz, SAW-; Russian: Союз [sɐˈjus], meaning "Union") is a human spaceflight programme initiated by the Soviet Union in the early 1960s. The Soyuz spacecraft was originally part of a Moon landing project intended to put a Soviet cosmonaut on the Moon. It was the third Soviet human spaceflight programme after the Vostok (1961–1963) and Voskhod (1964–1965) programmes. +The programme consists of the Soyuz capsule and the Soyuz rocket and is now the responsibility of Roscosmos. After the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011, the Soyuz was the only way for humans to get to the International Space Station (ISS) until 30 May 2020 when Crew Dragon flew to the ISS for the first time with astronauts. + + +== Soyuz rocket == + +The launch vehicles used in the Soyuz expendable launch system are manufactured at the Progress State Research and Production Rocket Space Center (TsSKB-Progress) in Samara, Russia. As well as being used in the Soyuz programme as the launcher for the crewed Soyuz spacecraft, Soyuz launch vehicles are now also used to launch robotic Progress supply spacecraft to the International Space Station and commercial launches marketed and operated by TsSKB-Progress and the Starsem company. Currently Soyuz vehicles are launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan and the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in northwest Russia and, since 2011, Soyuz launch vehicles are also being launched from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana. The Spaceport's new Soyuz launch site has been handling Soyuz launches since 21 October 2011, the date of the first launch. As of December 2019, 19 Guiana Soyuz launches had been made from French Guiana Space Centre, all successful. +The Soyuz rocket family is one of the most dependable and widely utilized launch vehicles in the history of space travel. It has been in operation for nearly six decades, having been developed by the Soviet Union and presently run by Russia. The Soyuz rockets have played an important role in both crewed and uncrewed space missions, launching people to the International Space Station (ISS) and delivering satellites and scientific payloads. + + +== Soyuz spacecraft == + +The basic Soyuz spacecraft design was the basis for many projects, many of which were never developed. Its earliest form was intended to travel to the Moon without employing a huge booster like the Saturn V or the Soviet N-1 by repeatedly docking with upper stages that had been put in orbit using the same rocket as the Soyuz. This and the initial civilian designs were done under the Soviet Chief Designer Sergei Korolev, who did not live to see the craft take flight. Several military derivatives took precedence in the Soviet design process, though they never came to pass. +A Soyuz spacecraft consists of three parts (from front to back): + +a spheroid orbital module +a small aerodynamic reentry module +a cylindrical service module with solar panels attached +There have been many variants of the Soyuz spacecraft, including: + +Sever early crewed spacecraft proposal to replace Vostok (1959) +L1-1960 crewed circumlunar spacecraft proposal (1960); evolved into the Soyuz-A design +L4-1960 crewed lunar orbiter proposal (1960) +L1-1962 crewed lunar flyby spacecraft proposal (1962); early design led to Soyuz +OS-1962 space station proposal (1962) +Soyuz-A 7K-9K-11K circumlunar complex proposal (1963) +Soyuz 7K crewed spacecraft concept; cancelled in 1964 in favor of the LK-1 +Soyuz 9K proposed orbital tug; cancelled in 1964 when the Soyuz 7K and Soyuz P were cancelled +Soyuz 11K proposed fuel tanker; cancelled in 1964 when the Soyuz 7K and Soyuz P were cancelled +L3-1963 crewed lunar lander proposal (1963) +L4-1963 crewed lunar orbiter proposal; modified 7K (1963) +Soyuz 7K-OK (1967–1970) +Soyuz 7K-L1 Zond (1967–1970) +Soyuz 7K-L3 LOK (1971–1972) +Soyuz 7K-OKS (1971); also known as 7KT-OK +Soyuz 7K-T or "ferry" (1973–1981) +Soyuz 7K-T-AF (1973); 7K-T modified for space station flight with Orion 2 space telescope +Soyuz 7K-T/A9 (1974–1978); 7K-T modified for flights to military Almaz space stations +Soyuz 7K-TM (1974–1976) +7K-MF6 (1976); 7K-TM modified for space station flight with MKF-6 camera +Soyuz-T (1976–1986) +Zarya planned 'Super Soyuz' replacement for Soyuz and Progress (1985) +Alpha Lifeboat rescue spacecraft based on Zarya (1995); cancelled in favor of a modified Soyuz TM +Big Soyuz enlarged version of Soyuz reentry vehicle (2008) +Soyuz-TM (1986–2003) +Soyuz TMA (2003–2012) +Soyuz-ACTS (2006) +Soyuz TMA-M (2010–2016) +Soyuz MS (since 2016) +Military Soyuz (P, PPK, R, 7K-VI Zvezda, and OIS) +Soyuz P crewed satellite interceptor proposal (1962); cancelled in 1964 in favor of the Istrebitel Sputnikov program +Soyuz R command-reconnaissance spacecraft proposal (1962); cancelled in 1966 and replaced by Almaz +Soyuz 7K-TK transport spacecraft proposal for delivering cosmonauts to Soyuz R military stations (1966); cancelled in 1970 in favor of the TKS spacecraft +Soyuz PPK revised version of Soyuz P (1964) +Soyuz 7K-VI Zvezda space station proposal (1964) +Soyuz-VI crewed combat spacecraft proposal; cancelled in 1965 +Soyuz OIS (1967) +Soyuz OB-VI space station proposal (1967) +Soyuz 7K-S military transport proposal (1974) +Soyuz 7K-ST concept for Soyuz T and TM (1974) + + +== Derivatives == +The Zond spacecraft was designed to take a crew around the Moon, but never achieved the required degree of safety or political need. Zond 5 did circle the Moon in September 1968, with two tortoises and other life forms, and returned safely to Earth although in an atmospheric entry which probably would have killed human travelers. +The Progress series of robotic cargo ships for the Salyut, Mir, and ISS use the engine section, orbital module, automatic navigation, docking mechanism, and overall layout of the Soyuz spacecraft, but are incapable of reentry. +While not a direct derivative, the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft follows the basic template originally pioneered by Soyuz. + + +== Soyuz crewed flights == + +Soviet human spaceflight missions started in 1961 and ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. +The Russian human spaceflight missions program started in 1991 and continues to this day. Soyuz crewed missions were the only spacecraft visiting the International Space Station, starting from when the Space Shuttle program ended in 2011, until the launch of Crew Dragon Demo-2 on 30 May 2020. The International Space Station always has at least one Soyuz spacecraft docked at all times for use as an escape craft. + + +== Soyuz uncrewed flights == + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == + +Shenzhou, a Chinese spacecraft influenced by Soyuz +Space Shuttle +Buran (spacecraft) +List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..505ece0f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 1/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Space Shuttle is a retired, partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated from 1981 to 2011 by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was the Space Transportation System (STS), taken from the 1969 plan led by U.S. vice president Spiro Agnew for a system of reusable spacecraft where it was the only item funded for development. +The first (STS-1) of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights (STS-5) beginning in 1982. Five complete Space Shuttle orbiter vehicles were built and flown on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011. They launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. Operational missions launched numerous satellites, interplanetary probes, and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), conducted science experiments in orbit, participated in the Shuttle-Mir program with Russia, and participated in the construction and servicing of the International Space Station (ISS). The Space Shuttle fleet's total mission time was 1,323 days. +Space Shuttle components include the Orbiter Vehicle (OV) with three clustered Rocketdyne RS-25 main engines, a pair of recoverable solid rocket boosters (SRBs), and the expendable external tank (ET) containing liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The Space Shuttle was launched vertically, like a conventional rocket, with the two SRBs operating in parallel with the orbiter's three main engines, which were fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the vehicle reached orbit, while the main engines continued to operate, and the ET was jettisoned after main engine cutoff and just before orbit insertion, which used the orbiter's two Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engines. At the conclusion of the mission, the orbiter fired its OMS to deorbit and reenter the atmosphere. The orbiter was protected during reentry by its thermal protection system tiles, and it glided as a spaceplane to a runway landing, usually to the Shuttle Landing Facility at KSC, Florida, or to Rogers Dry Lake in Edwards Air Force Base, California. If the landing occurred at Edwards, the orbiter was flown back to the KSC atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA), a specially modified Boeing 747 designed to carry the shuttle above it. +The first orbiter, Enterprise, was built in 1976 and used in Approach and Landing Tests (ALT), but had no orbital capability. Four fully operational orbiters were initially built: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, two were lost in mission accidents: Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, with a total of 14 astronauts killed. A fifth operational (and sixth in total) orbiter, Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger. The three surviving operational vehicles were retired from service following Atlantis's final flight on July 21, 2011. The U.S. relied on the Russian Soyuz spacecraft to transport astronauts to the ISS from the last Shuttle flight until the launch of the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission in May 2020. + +== Design and development == + +=== Historical background === +In the late 1930s, the German government launched the "Amerikabomber" (English: America bomber) project, and Eugen Sänger's idea, together with mathematician Irene Bredt, was a winged rocket called the Silbervogel (German for "silver bird"). During the 1950s, the United States Air Force proposed using a reusable piloted glider to perform military operations such as reconnaissance, satellite attack, and air-to-ground weapons employment. In the late 1950s, the Air Force began developing the partially reusable X-20 Dyna-Soar. The Air Force collaborated with NASA on the Dyna-Soar and began training six pilots in June 1961. The rising costs of development and the prioritization of Project Gemini led to the cancellation of the Dyna-Soar program in December 1963. In addition to the Dyna-Soar, the Air Force had conducted a study in 1957 to test the feasibility of reusable boosters. This became the basis for the aerospaceplane, a fully reusable spacecraft that was never developed beyond the initial design phase in 1962–1963. +Beginning in the early 1950s, NASA and the Air Force collaborated on developing lifting bodies to test aircraft that primarily generated lift from their fuselages instead of wings, and tested the NASA M2-F1, Northrop M2-F2, Northrop M2-F3, Northrop HL-10, Martin Marietta X-24A, and the Martin Marietta X-24B. The program tested aerodynamic characteristics that would later be incorporated in design of the Space Shuttle, including unpowered landing from a high altitude and speed. + +=== Design process === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1347a8b18 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 2/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On September 24, 1966, as the Apollo space program neared its design completion, NASA and the Air Force released a joint study concluding that a new vehicle was required to satisfy their respective future demands and that a partially reusable system would be the most cost-effective solution. The head of the NASA Office of Manned Space Flight, George Mueller, announced the plan for a reusable shuttle on August 10, 1968. NASA issued a request for proposal (RFP) for designs of the Integral Launch and Reentry Vehicle (ILRV) on October 30, 1968. Rather than award a contract based upon initial proposals, NASA announced a phased approach for the Space Shuttle contracting and development; Phase A was a request for studies completed by competing aerospace companies, Phase B was a competition between two contractors for a specific contract, Phase C involved designing the details of the spacecraft components, and Phase D was the production of the spacecraft. +In December 1968, NASA created the Space Shuttle Task Group to determine the optimal design for a reusable spacecraft, and issued study contracts to General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and North American Rockwell. In July 1969, the Space Shuttle Task Group issued a report that determined the Shuttle would support short-duration crewed missions and space station, as well as the capabilities to launch, service, and retrieve satellites. The report also created three classes of a future reusable shuttle: Class I would have a reusable orbiter mounted on expendable boosters, Class II would use multiple expendable rocket engines and a single propellant tank (stage-and-a-half), and Class III would have both a reusable orbiter and a reusable booster. In September 1969, the Space Task Group, under the leadership of U.S. vice president Spiro Agnew, issued a report calling for the development of a space shuttle to bring people and cargo to low Earth orbit (LEO), as well as a space tug for transfers between orbits and the Moon, and a reusable nuclear upper stage for deep space travel. +After the release of the Space Shuttle Task Group report, many aerospace engineers favored the Class III, fully reusable design because of perceived savings in hardware costs. Max Faget, a NASA engineer who had worked to design the Mercury capsule, patented a design for a two-stage fully recoverable system with a straight-winged orbiter mounted on a larger straight-winged booster. The Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory argued that a straight-wing design would not be able to withstand the high thermal and aerodynamic stresses during reentry, and would not provide the required cross-range capability. Additionally, the Air Force required a larger payload capacity than Faget's design allowed. In January 1971, NASA and Air Force leadership decided that a reusable delta-wing orbiter mounted on an expendable propellant tank would be the optimal design for the Space Shuttle. +After they established the need for a reusable, heavy-lift spacecraft, NASA and the Air Force determined the design requirements of their respective services. The Air Force expected to use the Space Shuttle to launch large satellites, and required it to be capable of lifting 29,000 kg (65,000 lb) to an eastward LEO or 18,000 kg (40,000 lb) into a polar orbit. The satellite designs also required that the Space Shuttle have a 4.6 by 18 m (15 by 60 ft) payload bay. NASA evaluated the F-1 and J-2 engines from the Saturn rockets, and determined that they were insufficient for the requirements of the Space Shuttle; in July 1971, it issued a contract to Rocketdyne to begin development on the RS-25 engine. +NASA reviewed 29 potential designs for the Space Shuttle and determined that a design with two side boosters should be used, and the boosters should be reusable to reduce costs. NASA and the Air Force elected to use solid-propellant boosters because of the lower costs and the ease of refurbishing them for reuse after they landed in the ocean. In January 1972, President Richard Nixon approved the Shuttle, and NASA decided on its final design in March. The development of the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) remained the responsibility of Rocketdyne, and the contract was issued in July 1971, and updated SSME specifications were submitted to Rocketdyne that April. The following August, NASA awarded the contract to build the orbiter to North American Rockwell, which had by then constructed a full-scale mock-up, later named Inspiration. In August 1973, NASA awarded the external tank contract to Martin Marietta, and in November the solid-rocket booster contract to Morton Thiokol. + +=== Development === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f115506d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 11/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Space Shuttle flew from April 12, 1981, until July 21, 2011. Throughout the program, the Space Shuttle had 135 missions, of which 133 returned safely. Throughout its lifetime, the Space Shuttle was used to conduct scientific research, deploy commercial, military, and scientific payloads, and was involved in the construction and operation of Mir and the ISS. During its tenure, the Space Shuttle served as the only U.S. vehicle to launch astronauts, of which there was no replacement until the launch of Crew Dragon Demo-2 on May 30, 2020. + +=== Budget === +The overall NASA budget of the Space Shuttle program has been estimated to be $221 billion (in 2012 dollars). The developers of the Space Shuttle advocated for reusability as a cost-saving measure, which resulted in higher development costs for presumed lower costs-per-launch. During the design of the Space Shuttle, the Phase B proposals were not as cheap as the initial Phase A estimates indicated; Space Shuttle program manager Robert Thompson acknowledged that reducing cost-per-pound was not the primary objective of the further design phases, as other technical requirements could not be met with the reduced costs. Development estimates made in 1972 projected a per-pound cost of payload as low as $1,109 (in 2012) per pound, but the actual payload costs, not to include the costs for the research and development of the Space Shuttle, were $37,207 (in 2012) per pound. Per-launch costs varied throughout the program and were dependent on the rate of flights as well as research, development, and investigation proceedings throughout the Space Shuttle program. In 1982, NASA published an estimate of $260 million (in 2012) per flight, which was based on the prediction of 24 flights per year for a decade. The per-launch cost from 1995 to 2002, when the orbiters and ISS were not being constructed and there was no recovery work following a loss of crew, was $806 million. NASA published a study in 1999 that concluded that costs were $576 million (in 2012) if there were seven launches per year. In 2009, NASA determined that the cost of adding a single launch per year was $252 million (in 2012), which indicated that much of the Space Shuttle program costs are for year-round personnel and operations that continued regardless of the launch rate. Accounting for the entire Space Shuttle program budget, the per-launch cost was $1.642 billion (in 2012). + +=== Disasters === + +On January 28, 1986, STS-51-L disintegrated 73 seconds after launch, due to the failure of the right SRB, killing all seven astronauts on board Challenger. The disaster was caused by the low-temperature impairment of an O-ring, a mission-critical seal used between segments of the SRB casing. Failure of the O-ring allowed hot combustion gases to escape from between the booster sections and burn through the adjacent ET, leading to a sequence of catastrophic events which caused the orbiter to disintegrate. Repeated warnings from design engineers voicing concerns about the lack of evidence of the O-rings' safety when the temperature was below 53 °F (12 °C) had been ignored by NASA managers. + +On February 1, 2003, Columbia disintegrated during re-entry, killing all seven of the STS-107 crew, because of damage to the carbon-carbon leading edge of the wing caused during launch. Ground control engineers had made three separate requests for high-resolution images taken by the Department of Defense that would have provided an understanding of the extent of the damage, while NASA's chief TPS engineer requested that astronauts on board Columbia be allowed to leave the vehicle to inspect the damage. NASA managers intervened to stop the Department of Defense's imaging of the orbiter and refused the request for the spacewalk, and thus the feasibility of scenarios for astronaut repair or rescue by Atlantis were not considered by NASA management at the time. + +=== Criticism === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b0e1dceba --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 12/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The partial reusability of the Space Shuttle was one of the primary design requirements during its initial development. The technical decisions that dictated the orbiter's return and re-use reduced the per-launch payload capabilities. The original intention was to compensate for this lower payload by lowering the per-launch costs and a high launch frequency. However, the actual costs of a Space Shuttle launch were higher than initially predicted, and the Space Shuttle did not fly the intended 24 missions per year as initially predicted by NASA. +The Space Shuttle was originally intended as a launch vehicle to deploy satellites, which it was primarily used for on the missions prior to the Challenger disaster. NASA's pricing, which was below cost, was lower than expendable launch vehicles; the intention was that the high volume of Space Shuttle missions would compensate for early financial losses. The improvement of expendable launch vehicles and the transition away from commercial payloads on the Space Shuttle resulted in expendable launch vehicles becoming the primary deployment option for satellites. A key customer for the Space Shuttle was the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) responsible for spy satellites. The existence of NRO's connection was classified through 1993, and secret considerations of NRO payload requirements led to lack of transparency in the program. The proposed Shuttle-Centaur program, cancelled in the wake of the Challenger disaster, would have pushed the spacecraft beyond its operational capacity. +The fatal Challenger and Columbia disasters demonstrated the safety risks of the Space Shuttle that could result in the loss of the crew. The spaceplane design of the orbiter limited the abort options, as the abort scenarios required the controlled flight of the orbiter to a runway or to allow the crew to egress individually, rather than the abort escape options on the Apollo and Soyuz space capsules. Early safety analyses advertised by NASA engineers and management predicted the chance of a catastrophic failure resulting in the death of the crew as ranging from 1 in 100 launches to as rare as 1 in 100,000. Following the loss of two Space Shuttle missions, the risks for the initial missions were reevaluated, and the chance of a catastrophic loss of the vehicle and crew was found to be as high as 1 in 9. NASA management was criticized afterwards for accepting increased risk to the crew in exchange for higher mission rates. Both the Challenger and Columbia reports explained that NASA culture had failed to keep the crew safe by not objectively evaluating the potential risks of the missions. + +=== Retirement === + +The Space Shuttle retirement was announced in January 2004. President George W. Bush announced his Vision for Space Exploration, which called for the retirement of the Space Shuttle once it completed construction of the ISS. To ensure the ISS was properly assembled, the contributing partners determined the need for 16 remaining assembly missions in March 2006. One additional Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission was approved in October 2006. Originally, STS-134 was to be the final Space Shuttle mission. However, the Columbia disaster resulted in additional orbiters being prepared for launch on need in the event of a rescue mission. As Atlantis was prepared for the final launch-on-need mission, the decision was made in September 2010 that it would fly as STS-135 with a four-person crew that could remain at the ISS in the event of an emergency. STS-135 launched on July 8, 2011, and landed at the KSC on July 21, 2011, at 5:57 a.m. EDT (09:57 UTC). From then until the launch of Crew Dragon Demo-2 on May 30, 2020, the US launched its astronauts aboard Russian Soyuz spacecraft. +Following each orbiter's final flight, it was processed to make it safe for display. The OMS and RCS systems used presented the primary dangers due to their toxic hypergolic propellant, and most of their components were permanently removed to prevent any dangerous outgassing. Atlantis is on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida, Discovery is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia, Endeavour is on display at the California Science Center in Los Angeles, and Enterprise is displayed at the Intrepid Museum in New York. Components from the orbiters were transferred to the US Air Force, ISS program, and Russian and Canadian governments. The engines were removed to be used on the Space Launch System, and spare RS-25 nozzles were attached for display purposes. +For many Artemis program missions, the Space Launch System's two solid rocket boosters' engines and casings and four main engines and the Orion spacecraft's main engine will all be previously flown Space Shuttle main engines, solid rocket boosters, and Orbital Maneuvering System engines. They are refurbished legacy engines from the Space Shuttle program, some of which even date back to the early 1980s. For example, Artemis I had components that flew on 83 of the 135 Space Shuttle missions. From Artemis I to Artemis IV recycled Shuttle main engines will be used before manufacturing new engines. From Artemis I to Artemis III recycled Shuttle solid rocket boosters' engines and steel casings are to be used before building new ones. From Artemis I to Artemis VI the Orion main engine will use six previously flown Space Shuttle OMS engines. + +== See also == + +Aircraft in fiction § Space Shuttle orbiter +List of crewed spacecraft +List of Space Shuttle missions +Studied Space Shuttle variations and derivatives +Similar spacecraft + +Buran – Soviet reusable spaceplane +Dream Chaser +Space Rider +Hermes (cancelled) +Kliper (cancelled) + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == + +NSTS 1988 Reference manual +How The Space Shuttle Works +Orbiter Vehicles Archived February 9, 2021, at the Wayback Machine +The Space Shuttle Era: 1981–2011; interactive multimedia on the Space Shuttle orbiters +NASA Human Spaceflight – Shuttle +High resolution spherical panoramas over, under, around and through Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour +Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. TX-116, "Space Transportation System, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2101 NASA Parkway, Houston, Harris County, TX", 6 measured drawings, 728 data pages +"No Go-Around: You have only one chance to land the space shuttle" (simulator pilot report, detailed and illustrated), Barry Schiff, April 1999, AOPA Pilot, p. 85., at BarrySchiff.com +When We Were Shuttle, explores the Space Shuttle program through the eyes of those who worked to make it fly (PBS) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..203ee0c3f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 3/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On June 4, 1974, Rockwell began construction on the first orbiter, OV-101, dubbed Constitution, later to be renamed Enterprise. Enterprise was designed as a test vehicle, and did not include engines or heat shielding. Construction was completed on September 17, 1976, and Enterprise was moved to the Edwards Air Force Base to begin testing. Rockwell constructed the Main Propulsion Test Article (MPTA)-098, which was a structural truss mounted to the ET with three RS-25 engines attached. It was tested at the National Space Technology Laboratory (NSTL) to ensure that the engines could safely run through the launch profile. Rockwell conducted mechanical and thermal stress tests on Structural Test Article (STA)-099 to determine the effects of aerodynamic and thermal stresses during launch and reentry. +The beginning of the development of the RS-25 Space Shuttle Main Engine was delayed for nine months while Pratt & Whitney challenged the contract that had been issued to Rocketdyne. The first engine was completed in March 1975, after issues with developing the first throttleable, reusable engine. During engine testing, the RS-25 experienced multiple nozzle failures, as well as broken turbine blades. Despite the problems during testing, NASA ordered the nine RS-25 engines needed for its three orbiters under construction in May 1978. +NASA experienced significant delays in the development of the Space Shuttle's thermal protection system. Previous NASA spacecraft had used ablative heat shields, but those could not be reused. NASA chose to use ceramic tiles for thermal protection, as the shuttle could then be constructed of lightweight aluminum, and the tiles could be individually replaced as needed. Construction began on Columbia on March 27, 1975, and it was delivered to the KSC on March 25, 1979. At the time of its arrival at the KSC, Columbia still had 6,000 of its 30,000 tiles remaining to be installed. However, many of the tiles that had been originally installed had to be replaced, requiring two years of installation before Columbia could fly. +On January 5, 1979, NASA commissioned a second orbiter. Later that month, Rockwell began converting STA-099 to OV-099, later named Challenger. On January 29, 1979, NASA ordered two additional orbiters, OV-103 and OV-104, which were named Discovery and Atlantis. Construction of OV-105, later named Endeavour, began in February 1982, but NASA decided to limit the Space Shuttle fleet to four orbiters in 1983. After the loss of Challenger, NASA resumed production of Endeavour in September 1987. + +=== Testing === + +After it arrived at Edwards AFB, Enterprise underwent flight testing with the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, a Boeing 747 that had been modified to carry the orbiter. In February 1977, Enterprise began the Approach and Landing Tests (ALT) and underwent captive flights, where it remained attached to the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft for the duration of the flight. On August 12, 1977, Enterprise conducted its first glide test, where it detached from the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and landed at Edwards AFB. After four additional flights, Enterprise was moved to the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) on March 13, 1978. Enterprise underwent shake tests in the Mated Vertical Ground Vibration Test, where it was attached to an external tank and solid rocket boosters, and underwent vibrations to simulate the stresses of launch. In April 1979, Enterprise was taken to the KSC, where it was attached to an external tank and solid rocket boosters, and moved to LC-39. Once installed at the launch pad, the Space Shuttle was used to verify the proper positioning of the launch complex hardware. Enterprise was taken back to California in August 1979, and later served in the development of the SLC-6 at Vandenberg AFB in 1984. +On November 24, 1980, Columbia was mated with its external tank and solid-rocket boosters, and was moved to LC-39 on December 29. The first Space Shuttle mission, STS-1, would be the first time NASA performed a crewed first-flight of a spacecraft. On April 12, 1981, the Space Shuttle launched for the first time, and was piloted by John Young and Robert Crippen. During the two-day mission, Young and Crippen tested equipment on board the shuttle, and found several of the ceramic tiles had fallen off the top side of the Columbia. NASA coordinated with the Air Force to use satellites to image the underside of Columbia, and determined there was no damage. Columbia reentered the atmosphere and landed at Edwards AFB on April 14. +NASA conducted three additional test flights with Columbia in 1981 and 1982. On July 4, 1982, STS-4, flown by Ken Mattingly and Henry Hartsfield, landed on a concrete runway at Edwards AFB. President Ronald Reagan and his wife Nancy met the crew, and delivered a speech. After STS-4, NASA declared its Space Transportation System (STS) operational. + +== Description == +The Space Shuttle was the first operational orbital spacecraft designed for reuse. Each Space Shuttle orbiter was designed for a projected lifespan of 100 launches or ten years of operational life, although this was later extended. At launch, it consisted of the orbiter, which contained the crew and payload, the external tank (ET), and the two solid rocket boosters (SRBs). +Responsibility for the Space Shuttle components was spread among multiple NASA field centers. The KSC was responsible for launch, landing, and turnaround operations for equatorial orbits (the only orbit profile actually used in the program). The U.S. Air Force at the Vandenberg Air Force Base was responsible for launch, landing, and turnaround operations for polar orbits (though this was never used). The Johnson Space Center (JSC) served as the central point for all Shuttle operations and the MSFC was responsible for the main engines, external tank, and solid rocket boosters. The John C. Stennis Space Center handled main engine testing, and the Goddard Space Flight Center managed the global tracking network. + +=== Orbiter === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9261b76c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 4/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The orbiter had design elements and capabilities of both a rocket and an aircraft to allow it to launch vertically and then land as a glider. Its three-part fuselage provided support for the crew compartment, cargo bay, flight surfaces, and engines. The rear of the orbiter contained the Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME), which provided thrust during launch, as well as the Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS), which allowed the orbiter to achieve, alter, and exit its orbit once in space. Its double-delta wings were 18 m (60 ft) long, and were swept 81° at the inner leading edge and 45° at the outer leading edge. Each wing had an inboard and outboard elevon to provide flight control during reentry, along with a flap located between the wings, below the engines to control pitch. The orbiter's vertical stabilizer was swept backwards at 45° and contained a rudder that could split to act as a speed brake. The vertical stabilizer also contained a two-part drag parachute system to slow the orbiter after landing. The orbiter used retractable landing gear with a nose landing gear and two main landing gear, each containing two tires. The main landing gear contained two brake assemblies each, and the nose landing gear contained an electro-hydraulic steering mechanism. + +==== Crew ==== +The Space Shuttle crew varied per mission. They underwent rigorous testing and training to meet the qualification requirements for their roles. The crew was divided into three categories: Pilots, Mission Specialists, and Payload Specialists. Pilots were further divided into two roles: the Space Shuttle Commander, who would seat in the forward left seat and the Space Shuttle Pilot who would seat in the forward right seat. The test flights, STS-1 through STS-4 only had two members each, the commander and pilot. The commander and the pilot were both qualified to fly and land the orbiter. The on-orbit operations, such as experiments, payload deployment, and EVAs, were conducted primarily by the mission specialists who were specifically trained for their intended missions and systems. Early in the Space Shuttle program, NASA flew with payload specialists, who were typically systems specialists who worked for the company paying for the payload's deployment or operations. The final payload specialist, Gregory B. Jarvis, flew on STS-51-L, and future non-pilots were designated as mission specialists. An astronaut flew as a crewed spaceflight engineer on both STS-51-C and STS-51-J to serve as a military representative for a National Reconnaissance Office payload. A Space Shuttle crew typically had seven astronauts, with STS-61-A flying with eight. + +==== Crew compartment ==== +The crew compartment comprised three decks and was the pressurized, habitable area on all Space Shuttle missions. The flight deck consisted of two seats for the commander and pilot, as well as an additional two to four seats for crew members. The mid-deck was located below the flight deck and was where the galley and crew bunks were set up, as well as three or four crew member seats. The mid-deck contained the airlock, which could support two astronauts on an extravehicular activity (EVA), as well as access to pressurized research modules. An equipment bay was below the mid-deck, which stored environmental control and waste management systems. +On the first four Shuttle missions, astronauts wore modified U.S. Air Force high-altitude full-pressure suits, which included a full-pressure helmet during ascent and descent. From the fifth flight, STS-5, until the loss of Challenger, the crew wore one-piece light blue nomex flight suits and partial-pressure helmets. After the Challenger disaster, the crew members wore the Launch Entry Suit (LES), a partial-pressure version of the high-altitude pressure suits with a helmet. In 1994, the LES was replaced by the full-pressure Advanced Crew Escape Suit (ACES), which improved the safety of the astronauts in an emergency situation. Columbia originally had modified SR-71 zero-zero ejection seats installed for the ALT and first four missions, but these were disabled after STS-4 and removed after STS-9. + +The flight deck was the top level of the crew compartment and contained the flight controls for the orbiter. The commander sat in the front left seat, and the pilot sat in the front right seat, with two to four additional seats set up for additional crew members. The instrument panels contained over 2,100 displays and controls, and the commander and pilot were both equipped with a heads-up display (HUD) and a Rotational Hand Controller (RHC) to gimbal the engines during powered flight and fly the orbiter during unpowered flight. Both seats also had rudder controls, to allow rudder movement in flight and nose-wheel steering on the ground. The orbiter vehicles were originally installed with the Multifunction CRT Display System (MCDS) to display and control flight information. The MCDS displayed the flight information at the commander and pilot seats, as well as at the aft seating location, and also controlled the data on the HUD. In 1998, Atlantis was upgraded with the Multifunction Electronic Display System (MEDS), which was a glass cockpit upgrade to the flight instruments that replaced the eight MCDS display units with 11 multifunction colored digital screens. MEDS was flown for the first time in May 2000 on STS-101, and the other orbiter vehicles were upgraded to it. The aft section of the flight deck contained windows looking into the payload bay, as well as an RHC to control the Remote Manipulator System during cargo operations. Additionally, the aft flight deck had monitors for a closed-circuit television to view the cargo bay. +The mid-deck contained the crew equipment storage, sleeping area, galley, medical equipment, and hygiene stations for the crew. The crew used modular lockers to store equipment that could be scaled depending on their needs, as well as permanently installed floor compartments. The mid-deck contained a port-side hatch that the crew used for entry and exit while on Earth. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f27ea9d8e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 5/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Airlock ==== +The airlock is a structure installed to allow movement between two spaces with different gas components, conditions, or pressures. Continuing on the mid-deck structure, each orbiter was originally installed with an internal airlock in the mid-deck. The internal airlock was installed as an external airlock in the payload bay on Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour to improve docking with Mir and the ISS, along with the Orbiter Docking System. The airlock module can be fitted in the mid-bay, or connected to it but in the payload bay. With an internal cylindrical volume of 1.60 metres (5 feet 3 inches) diameter and 2.11 metres (6 feet 11 inches) in length, it can hold two suited astronauts. It has two D-shaped hatchways 1.02 m (40 in) long (diameter), and 0.91 m (36 in) wide. + +==== Flight systems ==== +The orbiter was equipped with an avionics system to provide information and control during atmospheric flight. Its avionics suite contained three microwave scanning beam landing systems, three gyroscopes, three TACANs, three accelerometers, two radar altimeters, two barometric altimeters, three attitude indicators, two Mach indicators, and two Mode C transponders. During reentry, the crew deployed two air data probes once they were traveling slower than Mach 5. The orbiter had three inertial measuring units (IMU) that it used for guidance and navigation during all phases of flight. The orbiter contains two star trackers to align the IMUs while in orbit. The star trackers are deployed while in orbit, and can automatically or manually align on a star. In 1991, NASA began upgrading the inertial measurement units with an inertial navigation system (INS), which provided more accurate location information. In 1993, NASA flew a GPS receiver for the first time aboard STS-51. In 1997, Honeywell began developing an integrated GPS/INS to replace the IMU, INS, and TACAN systems, which first flew on STS-118 in August 2007. +While in orbit, the crew primarily communicated using one of four S band radios, which provided both voice and data communications. Two of the S band radios were phase modulation transceivers, and could transmit and receive information. The other two S band radios were frequency modulation transmitters and were used to transmit data to NASA. As S band radios can operate only within their line of sight, NASA used the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System and the Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network ground stations to communicate with the orbiter throughout its orbit. Additionally, the orbiter deployed a high-bandwidth Ku band radio out of the cargo bay, which could also be utilized as a rendezvous radar. The orbiter was also equipped with two UHF radios for communications with air traffic control and astronauts conducting EVA. + +The Space Shuttle's fly-by-wire control system was entirely reliant on its main computer, the Data Processing System (DPS). The DPS controlled the flight controls and thrusters on the orbiter, as well as the ET and SRBs during launch. The DPS consisted of five general-purpose computers (GPC), two magnetic tape mass memory units (MMUs), and the associated sensors to monitor the Space Shuttle components. The original GPC used was the IBM AP-101B, which used a separate central processing unit (CPU) and input/output processor (IOP), and non-volatile solid-state memory. From 1991 to 1993, the orbiter vehicles were upgraded to the AP-101S, which improved the memory and processing capabilities, and reduced the volume and weight of the computers by combining the CPU and IOP into a single unit. Four of the GPCs were loaded with the Primary Avionics Software System (PASS), which was Space Shuttle-specific software that provided control through all phases of flight. During ascent, maneuvering, reentry, and landing, the four PASS GPCs functioned identically to produce quadruple redundancy and would error check their results. In case of a software error that would cause erroneous reports from the four PASS GPCs, a fifth GPC ran the Backup Flight System, which used a different program and could control the Space Shuttle through ascent, orbit, and reentry, but could not support an entire mission. The five GPCs were separated in three separate bays within the mid-deck to provide redundancy in the event of a cooling fan failure. After achieving orbit, the crew would switch some of the GPCs functions from guidance, navigation, and control (GNC) to systems management (SM) and payload (PL) to support the operational mission. The Space Shuttle was not launched if its flight would run from December to January, as its flight software would have required the orbiter vehicle's computers to be reset at the year change. In 2007, NASA engineers devised a solution so Space Shuttle flights could cross the year-end boundary. +Space Shuttle missions typically brought a portable general support computer (PGSC) that could integrate with the orbiter vehicle's computers and communication suite, as well as monitor scientific and payload data. Early missions brought the Grid Compass, one of the first laptop computers, as the PGSC, but later missions brought Apple and Intel laptops. + +==== Payload bay ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9197e63bd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 6/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The payload bay comprised most of the orbiter vehicle's fuselage, and provided the cargo-carrying space for the Space Shuttle's payloads. It was 18 m (60 ft) long and 4.6 m (15 ft) wide, and could accommodate cylindrical payloads up to 4.6 m (15 ft) in diameter. Two payload bay doors hinged on either side of the bay, and provided a relatively airtight seal to protect payloads from heating during launch and reentry. Payloads were secured in the payload bay to the attachment points on the longerons. The payload bay doors served an additional function as radiators for the orbiter vehicle's heat, and were opened upon reaching orbit for heat rejection. +The orbiter could be used in conjunction with a variety of add-on components depending on the mission. This included orbital laboratories, boosters for launching payloads farther into space, the Remote Manipulator System (RMS), and optionally the EDO pallet to extend the mission duration. To limit the fuel consumption while the orbiter was docked at the ISS, the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS) was developed to convert and transfer station power to the orbiter. The SSPTS was first used on STS-118, and was installed on Discovery and Endeavour. + +==== Remote Manipulator System ==== + +The Remote Manipulator System (RMS), also known as Canadarm, was a mechanical arm attached to the cargo bay. It could be used to grasp and manipulate payloads, as well as serve as a mobile platform for astronauts conducting an EVA. The RMS was built by the Canadian company Spar Aerospace and was controlled by an astronaut inside the orbiter's flight deck using their windows and closed-circuit television. The RMS allowed for six degrees of freedom and had six joints located at three points along the arm. The original RMS could deploy or retrieve payloads up to 29,000 kg (65,000 lb), which was later improved to 270,000 kg (586,000 lb). + +==== Spacelab ==== + +The Spacelab module was a European-funded pressurized laboratory that was carried within the payload bay and allowed for scientific research while in orbit. The Spacelab module contained two 2.7 m (9 ft) segments that were mounted in the aft end of the payload bay to maintain the center of gravity during flight. Astronauts entered the Spacelab module through a 2.7 or 5.8 m (8.72 or 18.88 ft) tunnel that connected to the airlock. The Spacelab equipment was primarily stored in pallets, which provided storage for both experiments as well as computer and power equipment. Spacelab hardware was flown on 28 missions through 1999 and studied subjects including astronomy, microgravity, radar, and life sciences. Spacelab hardware also supported missions such as Hubble Space Telescope (HST) servicing and space station resupply. The Spacelab module was tested on STS-2 and STS-3, and the first full mission was on STS-9. + +==== RS-25 engines ==== + +Three RS-25 engines, also known as the Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME), were mounted on the orbiter's aft fuselage in a triangular pattern. The engine nozzles could gimbal ±10.5° in pitch, and ±8.5° in yaw during ascent to change the direction of their thrust to steer the Shuttle. The titanium alloy reusable engines were independent of the orbiter vehicle and would be removed and replaced in between flights. The RS-25 is a staged-combustion cycle cryogenic engine that used liquid oxygen and hydrogen and had a higher chamber pressure than any previous liquid-fueled rocket. The original main combustion chamber operated at a maximum pressure of 226.5 bar (3,285 psi). The engine nozzle is 287 cm (113 in) tall and has an interior diameter of 229 cm (90.3 in). The nozzle is cooled by 1,080 interior lines carrying liquid hydrogen and is thermally protected by insulative and ablative material. +The RS-25 engines had several improvements to enhance reliability and power. During the development program, Rocketdyne determined that the engine was capable of safe reliable operation at 104% of the originally specified thrust. To keep the engine thrust values consistent with previous documentation and software, NASA kept the originally specified thrust at 100%, but had the RS-25 operate at higher thrust. RS-25 upgrade versions were denoted as Block I and Block II. 109% thrust level was achieved with the Block II engines in 2001, which reduced the chamber pressure to 207.5 bars (3,010 psi), as it had a larger throat area. The normal maximum throttle was 104 percent, with 106% or 109% used for mission aborts. + +==== Orbital Maneuvering System ==== + +The Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) consisted of two aft-mounted AJ10-190 engines and the associated propellant tanks. The AJ10 engines used monomethylhydrazine (MMH) oxidized by dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). The pods carried a maximum of 2,140 kg (4,718 lb) of MMH and 3,526 kg (7,773 lb) of N2O4. The OMS engines were used after main engine cut-off (MECO) for orbital insertion. Throughout the flight, they were used for orbit changes, as well as the deorbit burn prior to reentry. Each OMS engine produced 27,080 N (6,087 lbf) of thrust, and the entire system could provide 305 m/s (1,000 ft/s) of velocity change. + +==== Thermal protection system ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..baa974261 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 7/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The orbiter was protected from heat during reentry by the thermal protection system (TPS), a thermal soaking protective layer around the orbiter. In contrast with previous US spacecraft, which had used ablative heat shields, the reusability of the orbiter required a multi-use heat shield. During reentry, the TPS experienced temperatures up to 1,600 °C (3,000 °F), but had to keep the orbiter vehicle's aluminum skin temperature below 180 °C (350 °F). The TPS primarily consisted of four types of tiles. The nose cone and leading edges of the wings experienced temperatures above 1,300 °C (2,300 °F), and were protected by reinforced carbon-carbon tiles (RCC). Thicker RCC tiles were developed and installed in 1998 to prevent damage from micrometeoroid and orbital debris, and were further improved after RCC damage caused in the Columbia disaster. Beginning with STS-114, the orbiter vehicles were equipped with the wing leading edge impact detection system to alert the crew to any potential damage. The entire underside of the orbiter vehicle, as well as the other hottest surfaces, were protected with tiles of high-temperature reusable surface insulation, made of borosilicate glass-coated silica fibers that trapped heat in air pockets and redirected it out. Areas on the upper parts of the orbiter vehicle were coated in tiles of white low-temperature reusable surface insulation with similar composition, which provided protection for temperatures below 650 °C (1,200 °F). The payload bay doors and parts of the upper wing surfaces were coated in reusable Nomex felt surface insulation or in beta cloth, as the temperature there remained below 370 °C (700 °F). + +=== External tank === + +The Space Shuttle external tank (ET) carried the propellant for the Space Shuttle Main Engines, and connected the orbiter vehicle with the solid rocket boosters. The ET was 47 m (153.8 ft) tall and 8.4 m (27.6 ft) in diameter, and contained separate tanks for liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. The liquid oxygen tank was housed in the nose of the ET, and was 15 m (49.3 ft) tall. The liquid hydrogen tank comprised the bulk of the ET, and was 29 m (96.7 ft) tall. The orbiter vehicle was attached to the ET at two umbilical plates, which contained five propellant and two electrical umbilicals, and forward and aft structural attachments. The exterior of the ET was covered in orange spray-on foam to allow it to survive the heat of ascent. +The ET provided propellant to the Space Shuttle Main Engines from liftoff until main engine cutoff. The ET separated from the orbiter vehicle 18 seconds after engine cutoff and could be triggered automatically or manually. At the time of separation, the orbiter vehicle retracted its umbilical plates, and the umbilical cords were sealed to prevent excess propellant from venting into the orbiter vehicle. After the bolts attached at the structural attachments were sheared, the ET separated from the orbiter vehicle. At the time of separation, gaseous oxygen was vented from the nose to cause the ET to tumble, ensuring that it would break up upon reentry. The ET was the only major component of the Space Shuttle system that was not reused, and it would travel along a ballistic trajectory into the Indian or Pacific Ocean. +For the first two missions, STS-1 and STS-2, the ET was covered in 270 kg (595 lb) of white fire-retardant latex paint to provide protection against damage from ultraviolet radiation. Further research determined that the orange foam itself was sufficiently protected, and the ET was no longer covered in latex paint beginning on STS-3. A lightweight tank (LWT) was first flown on STS-6, which reduced tank weight by 4,700 kg (10,300 lb). The LWT's weight was reduced by removing components from the hydrogen tank and reducing the thickness of some skin panels. In 1998, a super lightweight ET (SLWT) first flew on STS-91. The SLWT used the 2195 aluminum-lithium alloy, which was 40% stronger and 10% less dense than its predecessor, 2219 aluminum-lithium alloy. The SLWT weighed 3,400 kg (7,500 lb) less than the LWT, which allowed the Space Shuttle to deliver heavy elements to ISS's high inclination orbit. + +=== Solid Rocket Boosters === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01d84ff34 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 8/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB) provided 71.4% of the Space Shuttle's thrust during liftoff and ascent, and were the largest solid-propellant motors ever flown. Each SRB was 45 m (149.2 ft) tall and 3.7 m (12.2 ft) wide, weighed 68,000 kg (150,000 lb), and had a steel exterior approximately 13 mm (.5 in) thick. The SRB's subcomponents were the solid-propellant motor, nose cone, and rocket nozzle. The solid-propellant motor comprised the majority of the SRB's structure. Its casing consisted of 11 steel sections which made up its four main segments. The nose cone housed the forward separation motors and the parachute systems that were used during recovery. The rocket nozzles could gimbal up to 8° to allow for in-flight adjustments. +The rocket motors were each filled with a total 500,000 kg (1,106,640 lb) of solid rocket propellant (APCP+PBAN), and joined in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) at KSC. In addition to providing thrust during the first stage of launch, the SRBs provided structural support for the orbiter vehicle and ET, as they were the only system that was connected to the mobile launcher platform (MLP). At the time of launch, the SRBs were armed at T−5 minutes, and could only be electrically ignited once the RS-25 engines had ignited and were without issue. They each provided 12,500 kN (2,800,000 lbf) of thrust, which was later improved to 13,300 kN (3,000,000 lbf) beginning on STS-8. After expending their fuel, the SRBs were jettisoned approximately two minutes after launch at an altitude of approximately 46 km (150,000 ft). Following separation, they deployed drogue and main parachutes, landed in the ocean, and were recovered by the crews aboard the ships MV Freedom Star and MV Liberty Star. Once they were returned to Cape Canaveral, they were cleaned and disassembled. The rocket motor, igniter, and nozzle were then shipped to Thiokol to be refurbished and reused on subsequent flights. +The SRBs underwent several redesigns throughout the program's lifetime. STS-6 and STS-7 used SRBs 2,300 kg (5,000 lb) lighter due to walls that were 0.10 mm (.004 in) thinner, but were determined to be too thin to fly safely. Subsequent flights until STS-26 used cases that were 0.076 mm (.003 in) thinner than the standard-weight cases, which reduced 1,800 kg (4,000 lb). After the Challenger disaster as a result of an O-ring failing at low temperature, the SRBs were redesigned to provide a constant seal regardless of the ambient temperature. + +=== Support vehicles === + +The Space Shuttle's operations were supported by vehicles and infrastructure that facilitated its transportation, construction, and crew access. The crawler-transporters carried the MLP and the Space Shuttle from the VAB to the launch site. The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) were two modified Boeing 747s that could carry an orbiter on its back. The original SCA (N905NA) was first flown in 1975, and was used for the ALT and ferrying the orbiter from Edwards AFB to the KSC on all missions prior to 1991. A second SCA (N911NA) was acquired in 1988, and was first used to transport Endeavour from the factory to the KSC. Following the retirement of the Space Shuttle, N905NA was put on display at the JSC, and N911NA was put on display at the Joe Davies Heritage Airpark in Palmdale, California. The Crew Transport Vehicle (CTV) was a modified airport jet bridge that was used to assist astronauts to egress from the orbiter after landing, where they would undergo their post-mission medical checkups. The Astrovan transported astronauts from the crew quarters in the Operations and Checkout Building to the launch pad on launch day. The NASA Railroad comprised three locomotives that transported SRB segments from the Florida East Coast Railway in Titusville to the KSC. + +== Mission profile == + +=== Launch preparation === + +The Space Shuttle was prepared for launch primarily in the VAB at the KSC. The SRBs were assembled and attached to the external tank on the MLP. The orbiter vehicle was prepared at the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) and transferred to the VAB, where a crane was used to rotate it to the vertical orientation and mate it to the external tank. Once the entire stack was assembled, the MLP was carried for 5.6 km (3.5 mi) to Launch Complex 39 by one of the crawler-transporters. After the Space Shuttle arrived at one of the two launchpads, it would connect to the Fixed and Rotation Service Structures, which provided servicing capabilities, payload insertion, and crew transportation. The crew was transported to the launch pad at T−3 hours and entered the orbiter vehicle, which was closed at T−2 hours. Liquid oxygen and hydrogen were loaded into the external tank via umbilicals that attached to the orbiter vehicle, which began at T−5 hours 35 minutes. At T−3 hours 45 minutes, the hydrogen fast-fill was complete, followed 15 minutes later by the oxygen tank fill. Both tanks were slowly filled up until the launch as the oxygen and hydrogen evaporated. +The launch commit criteria considered precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity. The Space Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by lightning, as its exhaust plume could have triggered lightning by providing a current path to ground after launch, which occurred on Apollo 12. The NASA Anvil Rule for a Shuttle launch stated that an anvil cloud could not appear within a distance of 19 km (10 nmi). The Shuttle Launch Weather Officer monitored conditions until the final decision to scrub a launch was announced. In addition to the weather at the launch site, conditions had to be acceptable at one of the Transatlantic Abort Landing sites and the SRB recovery area. + +=== Launch === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e748fc892 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 9/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The mission crew and the Launch Control Center (LCC) personnel completed systems checks throughout the countdown. Two built-in holds at T−20 minutes and T−9 minutes provided scheduled breaks to address any issues and additional preparation. After the built-in hold at T−9 minutes, the countdown was automatically controlled by the Ground Launch Sequencer (GLS) at the LCC, which stopped the countdown if it sensed a critical problem with any of the Space Shuttle's onboard systems. At T−3 minutes 45 seconds, the engines began conducting gimbal tests, which were concluded at T−2 minutes 15 seconds. The ground Launch Processing System handed off the control to the orbiter vehicle's GPCs at T−31 seconds. At T−16 seconds, the GPCs armed the SRBs, the sound suppression system (SPS) began to drench the MLP and SRB trenches with 1,100,000 L (300,000 U.S. gal) of water to protect the orbiter vehicle from damage by acoustical energy and rocket exhaust reflected from the flame trench and MLP during lift-off. At T−10 seconds, hydrogen igniters were activated under each engine bell to quell the stagnant gas inside the cones before ignition. Failure to burn these gases could trip the onboard sensors and create the possibility of an overpressure and explosion of the vehicle during the firing phase. The hydrogen tank's prevalves were opened at T−9.5 seconds in preparation for engine start. + +Beginning at T−6.6 seconds, the main engines were ignited sequentially at 120-millisecond intervals. All three RS-25 engines were required to reach 90% rated thrust by T−3 seconds, otherwise the GPCs would initiate an RSLS abort. If all three engines indicated nominal performance by T−3 seconds, they were commanded to gimbal to liftoff configuration and the command would be issued to arm the SRBs for ignition at T−0. Between T−6.6 seconds and T−3 seconds, while the RS-25 engines were firing but the SRBs were still bolted to the pad, the offset thrust would cause the Space Shuttle to pitch down 650 mm (25.5 in) measured at the tip of the external tank; the 3-second delay allowed the stack to return to nearly vertical before SRB ignition. This movement was nicknamed the "twang." At T−0, the eight frangible nuts holding the SRBs to the pad were detonated, the final umbilicals were disconnected, the SSMEs were commanded to 100% throttle, and the SRBs were ignited. By T+0.23 seconds, the SRBs built up enough thrust for liftoff to commence, and reached maximum chamber pressure by T+0.6 seconds. At T−0, the JSC Mission Control Center assumed control of the flight from the LCC. + +At T+4 seconds, when the Space Shuttle reached an altitude of 22 meters (73 ft), the RS-25 engines were throttled up to 104.5%. At approximately T+7 seconds, the Space Shuttle rolled to a heads-down orientation at an altitude of 110 meters (350 ft), which reduced aerodynamic stress and provided an improved communication and navigation orientation. Approximately 20–30 seconds into ascent and an altitude of 2,700 meters (9,000 ft), the RS-25 engines were throttled down to 65–72% to reduce the maximum aerodynamic forces at Max Q. Additionally, the shape of the SRB propellant was designed to cause thrust to decrease at the time of Max Q. The GPCs could dynamically control the throttle of the RS-25 engines based upon the performance of the SRBs. + +At approximately T+123 seconds and an altitude of 46,000 meters (150,000 ft), pyrotechnic fasteners released the SRBs, which reached an apogee of 67,000 meters (220,000 ft) before parachuting into the Atlantic Ocean. The Space Shuttle continued its ascent using only the RS-25 engines. On earlier missions, the Space Shuttle remained in the heads-down orientation to maintain communications with the tracking station in Bermuda, but later missions, beginning with STS-87, rolled to a heads-up orientation at T+6 minutes for communication with the tracking and data relay satellite constellation. The RS-25 engines were throttled at T+7 minutes 30 seconds to limit vehicle acceleration to 3 g. At 6 seconds prior to main engine cutoff (MECO), which occurred at T+8 minutes 30 seconds, the RS-25 engines were throttled down to 67%. The GPCs controlled ET separation and dumped the remaining liquid oxygen and hydrogen to prevent outgassing while in orbit. The ET continued on a ballistic trajectory and broke up during reentry, with some small pieces landing in the Indian or Pacific Ocean. +Early missions used two firings of the OMS to achieve orbit; the first firing raised the apogee while the second circularized the orbit. Missions after STS-38 used the RS-25 engines to achieve the optimal apogee, and used the OMS engines to circularize the orbit. The orbital altitude and inclination were mission-dependent, and the Space Shuttle's orbits varied from 220 to 620 km (120 to 335 nmi). + +=== In orbit === + +The type of mission the Space Shuttle was assigned dictated the type of orbit that it entered. The initial design of the reusable Space Shuttle envisioned an increasingly cheap launch platform to deploy commercial and government satellites. Early missions routinely ferried satellites, which determined the type of orbit that the orbiter vehicle would enter. Following the Challenger disaster, many commercial payloads were moved to expendable commercial rockets, such as the Delta II. While later missions still launched commercial payloads, Space Shuttle assignments were routinely directed towards scientific payloads, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, Spacelab, and the Galileo spacecraft. Beginning with STS-71, the orbiter vehicle conducted dockings with the Mir space station. In its final decade of operation, the Space Shuttle was used for the construction of the International Space Station. Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to two weeks, although longer missions were possible with the Extended Duration Orbiter pallet. The 17 day 15 hour STS-80 mission was the longest Space Shuttle mission duration. + +=== Re-entry and landing === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f01898dad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle" +chunk: 10/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:44.030797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Approximately four hours prior to deorbit, the crew began preparing the orbiter vehicle for reentry by closing the payload doors, radiating excess heat, and retracting the Ku band antenna. The orbiter vehicle maneuvered to an upside-down, tail-first orientation and began a 2–4 minute OMS burn approximately 20 minutes before it reentered the atmosphere. The orbiter vehicle reoriented itself to a nose-forward position with a 40° angle-of-attack, and the forward reaction control system (RCS) jets were emptied of fuel and disabled prior to reentry. The orbiter vehicle's reentry was defined as starting at an altitude of 120 km (400,000 ft), when it was traveling at approximately Mach 25. The orbiter vehicle's reentry was controlled by the GPCs, which followed a preset angle-of-attack plan to prevent unsafe heating of the TPS. During reentry, the orbiter's speed was regulated by altering the amount of drag produced, which was controlled by means of angle of attack, as well as bank angle. The latter could be used to control drag without changing the angle of attack. A series of roll reversals were performed to control azimuth while banking. The orbiter vehicle's aft RCS jets were disabled as its ailerons, elevators, and rudder became effective in the lower atmosphere. At an altitude of 46 km (150,000 ft), the orbiter vehicle opened its speed brake on the vertical stabilizer. At 8 minutes 44 seconds prior to landing, the crew deployed the air data probes, and began lowering the angle-of-attack to 36°. The orbiter's maximum glide ratio/lift-to-drag ratio varied considerably with speed, ranging from 1.3 at hypersonic speeds to 4.9 at subsonic speeds. The orbiter vehicle flew to one of the two Heading Alignment Cones, located 48 km (30 mi) away from each end of the runway's centerline, where it made its final turns to dissipate excess energy prior to its approach and landing. Once the orbiter vehicle was traveling subsonically, the crew took over manual control of the flight. + +The approach and landing phase began when the orbiter vehicle was at an altitude of 3,000 m (10,000 ft) and traveling at 150 m/s (300 kn). The orbiter followed either a -20° or -18° glideslope and descended at approximately 51 m/s (167 ft/s). The speed brake was used to keep a continuous speed, and crew initiated a pre-flare maneuver to a -1.5° glideslope at an altitude of 610 m (2,000 ft). The landing gear was deployed 10 seconds prior to touchdown, when the orbiter was at an altitude of 91 m (300 ft) and traveling 150 m/s (288 kn). A final flare maneuver reduced the orbiter vehicle's descent rate to 0.9 m/s (3 ft/s), with touchdown occurring at 100–150 m/s (195–295 kn), depending on the weight of the orbiter vehicle. After the landing gear touched down, the crew deployed a drag chute out of the vertical stabilizer, and began wheel braking when the orbiter was traveling slower than 72 m/s (140 kn). After the orbiter's wheels stopped, the crew deactivated the flight components and prepared to exit. + +==== Landing sites ==== + +The primary Space Shuttle landing site was the Shuttle Landing Facility at KSC, where 78 of the 133 successful landings occurred. In the event of unfavorable landing conditions, the Shuttle could delay its landing or land at an alternate location. The primary alternate was Edwards AFB, which was used for 54 landings. STS-3 landed at the White Sands Space Harbor in New Mexico and required extensive post-processing after exposure to the gypsum-rich sand, some of which was found in Columbia debris after STS-107. Landings at alternate airfields required the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft to transport the orbiter back to Cape Canaveral. +In addition to the pre-planned landing airfields, there were 85 agreed-upon emergency landing sites to be used in different abort scenarios, with 58 located in other countries. The landing locations were chosen based upon political relationships, favorable weather, a runway at least 2,300 m (7,500 ft) long, and TACAN or DME equipment. Additionally, as the orbiter vehicle only had UHF radios, international sites with only VHF radios would have been unable to communicate directly with the crew. Facilities on the east coast of the US were planned for East Coast Abort Landings, while several sites in Europe and Africa were planned in the event of a Transoceanic Abort Landing. The facilities were prepared with equipment and personnel in the event of an emergency shuttle landing but were never used. + +=== Post-landing processing === + +After the landing, ground crews approached the orbiter to conduct safety checks. Teams wearing self-contained breathing gear tested for the presence of hydrogen, hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine, nitrogen tetroxide, and ammonia to ensure the landing area was safe. Air conditioning and Freon lines were connected to cool the crew and equipment and dissipate excess heat from reentry. A flight surgeon boarded the orbiter and performed medical checks of the crew before they disembarked. +Once the orbiter was secured, it was towed to the OPF to be inspected, repaired, and prepared for the next mission. The processing included: + +removal and installation of mission-specific items and payloads +draining of waste and leftover consumables, and refilling of new consumables +inspection and (if necessary) repair of the thermal protection system +checkout and servicing of main engines (done in the Main Engine Processing Facility to facilitate easier access, necessitating their removal from the orbiter) +if necessary, removal of the Orbital Maneuvering System and Reaction Control System pods for maintenance at the Hypergol Maintenance Facility +installation of any mid-life upgrades and modifications + +== Space Shuttle program == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b973c876a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle abort modes" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:46.452786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Space Shuttle abort modes were procedures by which the nominal launch of the NASA Space Shuttle could be terminated. A pad abort occurred after ignition of the shuttle's main engines but prior to liftoff. An abort during ascent that would result in the orbiter returning to a runway or to an orbit lower than planned was called an "intact abort", while an abort in which the orbiter would be unable to reach a runway, or any abort involving the failure of more than one main engine, was called a "contingency abort". Crew bailout was still possible in some situations in which the orbiter could not land on a runway. + +== Redundant set launch sequencer abort == +The three Space Shuttle main engines (SSMEs) were ignited roughly 6.6 seconds before liftoff, and computers monitored their performance as they increased thrust. If an anomaly was detected, the engines would be shut down automatically and the countdown terminated before ignition of the solid rocket boosters (SRBs) at T = 0 seconds. This was called a "redundant set launch sequencer (RSLS) abort", and occurred five times: STS-41-D, STS-51-F, STS-55, STS-51, and STS-68. + +== Ascent abort modes == +Once the shuttle's SRBs were ignited, the vehicle was committed to liftoff. If an event requiring an abort happened after SRB ignition, it was not possible to begin the abort until after SRB burnout and separation, about two minutes after launch. There were five abort modes available during ascent, divided into the categories of intact aborts and contingency aborts. +The choice of abort mode depended on how urgent the situation was and what emergency landing site could be reached. +The abort modes covered a wide range of potential problems, but the most commonly expected problem was a main engine failure, causing the vehicle to have insufficient thrust to achieve its planned orbit. Other possible failures not involving the engines but necessitating an abort included a multiple auxiliary power unit (APU) failure, a progressive hydraulic failure, a cabin leak, and an external tank leak. + +=== Intact abort modes === + +There were four intact abort modes for the Space Shuttle. Intact aborts were designed to provide a safe return of the orbiter to a planned landing site or to a lower orbit than that which had been planned for the mission. + +==== Return to launch site ==== +Return to launch site (RTLS) was the first abort mode available and could be selected just after SRB jettison. The shuttle would continue downrange to burn excess propellant, as well as pitch up to maintain vertical speed in aborts with a main-engine failure. After burning sufficient propellant, the vehicle would be pitched all the way around and begin thrusting back towards the launch site. This maneuver was called the "powered pitcharound" (PPA) and was timed to ensure that less than 2% propellant remained in the external tank by the time the shuttle's trajectory brought it back to the Kennedy Space Center. Additionally, the shuttle's OMS and reaction control system (RCS) motors would continuously thrust to burn off excess OMS propellant to reduce landing weight and adjust the orbiter's center of gravity. +Just before main engine cutoff, the orbiter would be commanded to pitch nose-down to ensure proper orientation for external tank jettison, since aerodynamic forces would otherwise cause the tank to collide with the orbiter. The main engines would cut off, and the tank would be jettisoned, as the orbiter used its RCS to increase separation. +Cutoff and separation would occur effectively inside the upper atmosphere at an altitude of about 230,000 ft (70,000 m), high enough to avoid subjecting the external tank to excessive aerodynamic stress and heating. The cutoff velocity would depend on the distance still to be traveled to reach the landing site and would increase based on the distance of the orbiter at cutoff. In any case, the orbiter would be flying too slowly to glide gently at such high altitude, and would start descending rapidly. A series of maneuvers in quick succession would pitch the orbiter's nose up to level off the orbiter once it reached thicker air, while at the same time ensuring that the structural limits of the vehicle were not exceeded (the operational load limit was set to 2.5 g, and at 4.4 g the OMS pods were expected to be torn off the orbiter). +Once this phase was complete, the orbiter would be about 150 nmi (300 km) from the landing site and in a stable glide, proceeding to make a normal landing about 25 minutes after liftoff. +If a second main engine failed at any point during PPA, the shuttle would not be able to reach the runway at KSC, and the crew would have to bail out. A failure of a third engine during PPA would lead to loss of control and subsequent loss of crew and vehicle (LOCV). Failure of all three engines as horizontal velocity approached zero or just before external tank jettison would also result in LOCV. +The capsule communicator would call out the point in the ascent at which an RTLS was no longer possible as "negative return", approximately four minutes after liftoff, at which point the vehicle would be unable to safely bleed off the velocity that it had gained in the distance between its position downrange and the launch site. +The RTLS abort mode was never needed in the history of the shuttle program. It was considered the most difficult and dangerous abort, but also among the most unlikely to occur as only a very narrow range of probable failures existed that were survivable but nevertheless so time-critical as to rule out more time-consuming abort modes. Astronaut Mike Mullane referred to the RTLS abort as an "unnatural act of physics", and many pilot astronauts hoped that they would not have to perform such an abort because of its difficulty. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c1cd04a97 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle abort modes" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:46.452786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Transoceanic abort landing ==== +A transoceanic abort landing (TAL) involved landing at a predetermined location in Africa, Western Europe, or the Atlantic Ocean (at Lajes Field in the Azores) about 25 to 30 minutes after liftoff. It was to be used when velocity, altitude, and distance downrange did not allow return to the launch point by Return To Launch Site (RTLS). It was also to be used when a less time-critical failure did not require the faster but more dangerous RTLS abort. +For performance issues such as engine failure(s), a TAL abort would have been declared between roughly T+2:30 (2 minutes 30 seconds after liftoff) and about T+5:00 (five minutes after liftoff), after which the abort mode changed to Abort Once Around (AOA) followed by Abort To Orbit (ATO). However, in the event of a time-critical failure, or one that would jeopardize crew safety such as a cabin leak or cooling failure, TAL could be called until shortly before main engine cutoff (MECO) or even after MECO for severe underspeed conditions. The shuttle would then have landed at a predesignated airstrip across the Atlantic. The last four TAL sites were Istres Air Base in France, Zaragoza and Morón air bases in Spain, and RAF Fairford in England. Prior to a shuttle launch, two sites would be selected based on the flight plan and were staffed with standby personnel in case they were used. The list of TAL sites changed over time because of geopolitical factors. The exact sites were determined from launch to launch depending on orbital inclination. +Preparations of TAL sites took four to five days and began one week before launch, with the majority of personnel from NASA, the Department of Defense and contractors arriving 48 hours before launch. Additionally, two C-130 aircraft from the space flight support office from the adjacent Patrick Space Force Base (then known as Patrick Air Force Base) would deliver eight crew members, nine pararescuemen, two flight surgeons, a nurse and medical technician, and 2,500 pounds (1,100 kg) of medical equipment to Zaragoza, Istres, or both. One or more C-21S or C-12S aircraft would also be deployed to provide weather reconnaissance in the event of an abort with a TALCOM, or astronaut flight controller aboard for communications with the shuttle pilot and commander. +This abort mode was never used during the entire history of the Space Shuttle program. + +==== Abort once around ==== +An abort once around (AOA) was available if the shuttle was unable to reach a stable orbit but had sufficient velocity to circle Earth once and land at around 90 minutes after liftoff. Around five minutes after liftoff, the shuttle reaches a velocity and altitude sufficient for a single orbit around Earth. The orbiter would then proceed into re-entry; NASA could choose to have the orbiter land at Edwards Air Force Base, White Sands Space Harbor, or Kennedy Space Center. The time window for using the AOA abort was very short, just a few seconds between the TAL and ATO abort opportunities. Therefore, taking this option because of a technical malfunction (such as an engine failure) was very unlikely, although a medical emergency on board could have necessitated an AOA abort. +This abort mode was never needed during the entire history of the Space Shuttle program. + +==== Abort to orbit ==== +An abort to orbit (ATO) was available when the intended orbit could not be reached but a lower stable orbit above 120 miles (190 km) above Earth's surface was possible. The moment at which an ATO became possible was referred to as the "press to ATO" moment. In an ATO situation, the spacecraft commander rotated the cockpit abort mode switch to the ATO position and depressed the abort push button. This initiated the flight-control software routines that handled the abort. In the event of a loss of communication, the spacecraft commander could have made the abort decision and taken action independently. +This occurred during mission STS-51-F in 1985, when Challenger's center engine failed 5 minutes and 46 seconds after liftoff. The Mission Control Center at Johnson Space Center observed an SSME failure and called "Challenger, Houston, abort ATO." The engine failure was later determined to be an inadvertent engine shutdown caused by faulty temperature sensors. An orbit near the craft's planned orbit was established, and the mission continued despite the abort to a lower orbit. +A hydrogen fuel leak in one of the SSMEs during the STS-93 mission in 1999 resulted in a slight underspeed at main engine cutoff (MECO) but did not necessitate an ATO, and Columbia achieved its planned orbit; if the leak had been more severe, it might have necessitated one of the earlier abort options. + +=== Preferences === +There was an order of preference for abort modes: + +ATO was the preferred abort option whenever possible. +TAL was the preferred abort option if the vehicle had not yet reached a speed permitting the ATO option. +AOA would have been only used in the brief window between TAL and ATO options, or if a time-critical emergency (such as a medical emergency on board) developed after the end of the TAL window. +RTLS resulted in the quickest landing of all abort options, but was considered the riskiest abort. Therefore, it would have been selected only in cases in which the developing emergency was so time-critical that the other aborts were not feasible, or in cases in which the vehicle had insufficient energy to perform the other aborts. +Unlike with all other United States orbit-capable crewed vehicles (both previous and subsequent, as of 2024), the shuttle was never flown without astronauts aboard. To provide an incremental non-orbital test, NASA considered making the first mission an RTLS abort. However, STS-1 commander John Young declined, saying, "let's not practice Russian roulette" and "RTLS requires continuous miracles interspersed with acts of God to be successful." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..035534497 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle abort modes" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:46.452786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Contingency aborts === +Contingency aborts involved failure of more than one SSME and would generally have left the orbiter unable to reach a runway. These aborts were intended to ensure the survival of the orbiter long enough for the crew to bail out. Loss of two engines would have generally been survivable by using the remaining engine to optimize the orbiter's trajectory so as to not exceed structural limits during reentry. Loss of three engines could have been survivable outside of certain "black zones" where the orbiter would have failed before bailout was possible. These contingency aborts were added after the destruction of Challenger. + +== Post-Challenger abort enhancements == + +Before the Challenger disaster during STS-51-L, ascent abort options involving failure of more than one SSME were very limited. While failure of a single SSME was survivable throughout ascent, failure of a second SSME prior to about 350 seconds (the point at which the orbiter would have sufficient downrange velocity to reach a TAL site on just one engine) would mean an LOCV, since no bailout option existed. Studies showed that an ocean ditching was not survivable. Furthermore, the loss of a second SSME during an RTLS abort would have caused an LOCV except for the period of time just prior to MECO (during which the orbiter would be able to reach KSC by prolonging the burn time of the remaining engine), as would a triple SSME failure at any point during an RTLS abort. +After the loss of Challenger in STS-51-L, numerous abort enhancements were added. With those enhancements, the loss of two SSMEs was now survivable for the crew throughout the entire ascent, and the vehicle could survive and land for large portions of the ascent. The struts attaching the orbiter to the external tank were strengthened to better endure a multiple SSME failure during SRB flight. Loss of three SSMEs was survivable for the crew for most of the ascent, although survival in the event of three failed SSMEs before T+90 seconds was unlikely because of design loads that would be exceeded on the forward orbiter/ET and SRB/ET attach points, and still problematic at any time during SRB flight because of controllability during staging. +A particularly significant enhancement was bailout capability. Unlike the ejection seat in a fighter plane, the shuttle had an inflight crew escape system (ICES). The vehicle was put in a stable glide on autopilot, the hatch was blown, and the crew slid out on a pole to clear the orbiter's left wing. They would then parachute to earth or the sea. While this at first appeared only usable under rare conditions, there were many failure modes where reaching an emergency landing site was not possible yet the vehicle was still intact and under control. Before the Challenger disaster, this almost happened on STS-51-F, when a single SSME failed at about T+345 seconds. The orbiter in that case was also Challenger. A second SSME almost failed because of a spurious temperature reading; however, the engine shutdown was inhibited by a quick-thinking flight controller. If the second SSME had failed within about 69 seconds of the first, there would have been insufficient energy to cross the Atlantic. Without bailout capability, the entire crew would have been killed. After the loss of Challenger, those types of failures were made survivable. To facilitate high-altitude bailouts, the crew began wearing the Launch Entry Suit and later the Advanced Crew Escape Suit during ascent and descent. Before the Challenger disaster, crews for operational missions wore only fabric flight suits. +Another post-Challenger enhancement was the addition of East Coast/Bermuda abort landings (ECAL/BDA). High-inclination launches (including all ISS missions) would have been able to reach an emergency runway on the East Coast of North America under certain conditions. Most lower-inclination launches would have landed in Bermuda (although this option was not available for the very lowest-inclination launches—those to an orbital inclination of 28.5°—which launched due east from KSC and passed far to the south of Bermuda). +An ECAL/BDA abort was similar to RTLS, but instead of landing at the Kennedy Space Center, the orbiter would attempt to land at another site along the east coast of North America (in the case of ECAL) or Bermuda (in the case of BDA). Various potential ECAL landing sites extended from South Carolina into Newfoundland, Canada. The designated landing site in Bermuda was Naval Air Station Bermuda (a United States Navy facility). ECAL/BDA was a contingency abort that was less desirable than an intact abort, primarily because there was so little time to choose the landing site and prepare for the orbiter's arrival. All of the pre-designated sites were either military airfields or joint civil/military facilities. ECAL emergency sites were not as well equipped to accommodate an orbiter landing as those prepared for RTLS and TAL aborts. The sites were not staffed with NASA employees or contractors and the staff working there were given no special training to handle a shuttle landing. If they were ever needed, the shuttle pilots would have had to rely on regular air traffic control personnel using procedures similar to those used to land a gliding aircraft that has suffered complete engine failure. +Numerous other abort refinements were added, mainly involving improved software for managing vehicle energy in various abort scenarios. These enabled a greater chance of reaching an emergency runway for various SSME failure scenarios. + +== Ejection escape systems == +An ejection escape system, sometimes called a "launch escape system", had been discussed many times for the shuttle. After the Challenger and Columbia losses, great interest was expressed in this. All previous and subsequent US crewed space vehicles have launch escape systems, although as of 2025 none have ever been used for an American crewed flight. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..66059393b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle abort modes" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:46.452786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Ejection seat === +The first two shuttles, Enterprise and Columbia, were built with ejection seats. These two vehicles were intended to be part of the shuttle test program and would fly with a crew of two test pilots or astronauts. Subsequent shuttles Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour were built for operational missions with a crew of more than two, including seats in the lower deck, and ejection seat options were deemed to be infeasible. The type used on the first two shuttles were modified versions of the Lockheed SR-71 seat. The approach and landing tests flown by Enterprise had these as an escape option, and the first four flights of Columbia had this as a crew abort option as well. With STS-5 marking the end of Columbia's test flight program, and as an operational mission with four crew members, the two cockpit ejection seats had their rocket motors removed for the flight. Columbia's next flight (STS-9) was likewise flown with the seats disabled in this manner. By the time Columbia flew again (STS-61-C, launched on January 12, 1986), it had been through a full maintenance overhaul at Palmdale and the ejection seats (along with the explosive hatches) had been fully removed. Ejection seats were not further developed for the shuttle for several reasons: + +Very difficult to eject seven crew members when three or four were on the middeck (roughly the center of the forward fuselage), surrounded by substantial vehicle structure. +Limited ejection envelope. Ejection seats only work up to about 3,400 miles per hour (3,000 kn; 5,500 km/h) and 130,000 feet (40,000 m). That constituted a very limited portion of the shuttle's operating envelope, about the first 100 seconds of the 510 seconds powered ascent. +No help during a Columbia-type reentry accident. Ejecting during an atmospheric reentry accident would have been fatal because of the high temperatures and wind blast at high speeds. +Astronauts were skeptical of the ejection seats' usefulness. STS-1 pilot Robert Crippen stated:...in truth, if you had to use them while the solids were there, I don't believe you would [survive]—if you popped out and then went down through the fire trail that's behind the solids, that you would have ever survived, or if you did, you wouldn't have a parachute, because it would have been burned up in the process. But by the time the solids had burned out, you were up to too high an altitude to use it. ... So I personally didn't feel that the ejection seats were really going to help us out if we really ran into a contingency. +The Soviet shuttle Buran was planned to be fitted with the crew emergency escape system, which would have included K-36RB (K-36M-11F35) seats and the Strizh full-pressure suit, qualified for altitudes up to 30,000 metres (98,000 ft) and speeds up to Mach three. Buran flew only once in fully automated mode without a crew; thus, the seats were never installed and were never tested in real human space flight. + +=== Ejection capsule === + +An alternative to ejection seats was an escape crew capsule or cabin escape system where the crew ejected in protective capsules, or the entire cabin is ejected. Such systems have been used on several military aircraft. The B-58 Hustler and XB-70 Valkyrie used capsule ejection, while the General Dynamics F-111 and early prototypes of the Rockwell B-1 Lancer used cabin ejection. +Like ejection seats, capsule ejection for the shuttle would have been difficult because no easy way existed to exit the vehicle. Several crewmembers sat in the middeck, surrounded by substantial vehicle structure. +Cabin ejection would work for a much larger portion of the flight envelope than ejection seats, as the crew would be protected from temperature, wind blast, and lack of oxygen or vacuum. In theory an ejection cabin could have been designed to withstand reentry, although that would entail additional cost, weight and complexity. Cabin ejection was not pursued for several reasons: + +Major modifications required to shuttle, likely taking several years. During much of the period, the vehicle would be unavailable. +Cabin ejection systems are heavy, thus incurring a significant payload penalty. +Cabin ejection systems are much more complex than are ejection seats. They require devices to cut cables and conduits connecting the cabin and fuselage. The cabin must have aerodynamic stabilization devices to avoid tumbling after ejection. The large cabin weight mandates a very large parachute, with a more complex extraction sequence. Air bags must deploy beneath the cabin to cushion impact or provide flotation. To make on-the-pad ejections feasible, the separation rockets would have to be quite large. In short, many complex things must happen in a specific timed sequence for cabin ejection to be successful, and in a situation where the vehicle might be disintegrating. If the airframe twisted or warped, thus preventing cabin separation, or debris damaged the landing airbags, stabilization, or any other cabin system, the occupants would likely not survive. +Added risk due to many large pyrotechnic devices. Even if not needed, the many explosive devices needed to separate the cabin entail some risk of premature or uncommanded detonation. +Cabin ejection is much more difficult, expensive and risky to retrofit on a vehicle not initially designed for it. Had the shuttle been initially designed with a cabin escape system, adding one might have been more feasible. +Cabin/capsule ejection systems have a patchy success record. Al White suffered a crushed arm when ejecting from the XB-70 mid-air collision, while the other failed to deploy, leading to the death of a crew member. + +== Space Shuttle abort history == +Source: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3ee734cdc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,175 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle abort modes" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_abort_modes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:46.452786+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Emergency landing sites == +Predetermined emergency landing sites for the orbiter were chosen on a mission-by-mission basis according to the mission profile, weather and regional political situations. Emergency landing sites during the shuttle program included: +An orbiter has landed at three sites that are also designated as emergency landing sites: Edwards Air Force Base, Kennedy Space Center, and White Sands Space Harbor. However, none of the landings at these three sites have been emergency landings. These sites are listed in bold below. +Algeria + +Aguenar – Hadj Bey Akhamok Airport, Tamanrasset +Australia + +Kingsford-Smith International Airport, Sydney, New South Wales (until 1986) +RAAF Base Amberley, Ipswich, Queensland +RAAF Base Darwin, Darwin, Northern Territory +RAAF Base Pearce, Perth, Western Australia +Bahamas + +Lynden Pindling International Airport, Nassau +Barbados + +Sir Grantley Adams International Airport, Bridgetown +Canada + +CFB Goose Bay, Goose Bay, Labrador +CFB Namao, Edmonton, Alberta (until 1994) +Gander International Airport, Gander, Newfoundland +Stephenville International Airport, Stephenville, Newfoundland +St. John's International Airport, St. John's, Newfoundland +Halifax Stanfield International Airport, Halifax, Nova Scotia +Cape Verde + +Amílcar Cabral International Airport, Sal Island +Chile + +Mataveri International Airport, Easter Island +France + +Istres-Le Tubé Air Base near Istres, France +Hao Airport, Hao, French Polynesia +The Gambia + +Yundum International Airport, Banjul +Germany + +Köln Bonn Airport, Cologne +Greece + +Souda Air Base, Souda Bay, Crete +Iceland + +Keflavík International Airport, Keflavík +Ireland + +Shannon Airport, Shannon, County Clare +Jamaica + +Vernam Field, Clarendon +Liberia + +Roberts International Airport, Monrovia (until 1989) +Morocco + +Ben Guerir Air Base, Morocco (1988-2002) +Mohammed V International Airport, Morocco (until 1986) +New Zealand + +Auckland Airport, Auckland +RNZAF Base Ohakea, Bulls +Portugal + +Lajes Field, Lajes +Beja Airbase, Beja +Saudi Arabia + +King Khalid International Airport, Riyadh +Spain + +Zaragoza Air Base +Morón Air Base +Gran Canaria Airport, Gran Canaria +Somalia + +Berbera Airport, Berbera (inactive since 1991) +South Africa + +Air Force Base Hoedspruit +Sweden + +Arlanda Airport, Stockholm +Turkey + +Esenboğa International Airport, Ankara +United Kingdom + +RAF Greenham Common, Berkshire, England (from 1981) +RAF Brize Norton, Oxfordshire, England +RAF Fairford, Gloucestershire, England +RAF Finningley, South Yorkshire, England (until 1996) +RAF Machrihanish, Campbeltown, Scotland +RAF Mildenhall, Suffolk, England +RAF Upper Heyford, Oxfordshire, England (until 1993) +British Overseas Territories + +NAS Bermuda, St David's Island, Bermuda +Naval Support Facility Diego Garcia, Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territory +United States + +Andersen Air Force Base, Guam +Atlantic City International Airport, Pomona, New Jersey +Bangor International Airport, Bangor, Maine +Bradley International Airport, Windsor Locks, Connecticut +MCAS Cherry Point, Havelock, North Carolina +Naval Air Station Oceana, Virginia Beach, Virginia +Columbus Air Force Base, Columbus, Mississippi +Dover Air Force Base, Dover, Delaware +Dyess Air Force Base, Abilene, Texas +East Texas Regional Airport, Longview, Texas +Edwards Air Force Base, California +Ellsworth Air Force Base, Rapid City, South Dakota +Elmendorf Air Force Base, Anchorage, Alaska +Fort Huachuca, Arizona, Sierra Vista, Arizona +Francis S. Gabreski Airport, Long Island, New York +Grant County International Airport, Moses Lake, Washington +Grand Forks Air Force Base, Grand Forks, North Dakota +Griffiss International Airport, Rome, New York +Grissom Air Force Base, Bunker Hill, Indiana +Hickam Air Force Base, Honolulu, Hawaii +John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York, New York +Kennedy Space Center, Merritt Island, Florida +Lehigh Valley International Airport, Allentown, Pennsylvania +Lincoln Airport, Lincoln, Nebraska +Mountain Home Air Force Base, Mountain Home, Idaho +Myrtle Beach International Airport, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina +Orlando International Airport, Orlando, Florida +Otis Air National Guard Base, Falmouth, Massachusetts +Pease Air Force Base, Portsmouth, New Hampshire +Plattsburgh Air Force Base, Plattsburgh, New York +Portsmouth International Airport, Portsmouth, New Hampshire +Stewart Air National Guard Base, Newburgh, New York +Westover Air Force Base, Chicopee, Massachusetts +White Sands Space Harbor, White Sands, New Mexico +Wilmington International Airport, Wilmington, North Carolina +Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio +Democratic Republic of the Congo + +N'djili Airport, Kinshasa (until 1997) +Other locations +In the event of an emergency deorbit that would bring the orbiter down in an area not within range of a designated emergency landing site, the orbiter was theoretically capable of landing on any paved runway that was at least 3 km (9,800 ft) long, which included the majority of large commercial airports. In practice, a US or allied military airfield would have been preferred for reasons of security arrangements and minimizing the disruption of commercial air traffic. + +== In popular culture == +A launch abort to Easter Island sets off the events of Lee Correy's 1981 novel Shuttle Down. +A detailed RTLS maneuver is depicted in astronaut Mike Mullane's 1993 technothriller novel Red Sky: A Novel of Love, Space, & War. +The use of the inflight crew escape system (ICES) was depicted in the 2000 sci-fi film Space Cowboys. + +== See also == +Apollo abort modes +Launch escape system +NASA Space Shuttle decision +Orion abort modes +Space Shuttle Challenger disaster +Space Shuttle Columbia disaster +Space Shuttle program +Soyuz abort modes + +== References == + +== External links == +Volume 1, chapter 9 of the Rogers commission report \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c32eb646 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle design process" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:03.819085+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Before the Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969, NASA began studies of Space Shuttle designs as early as October 1968. The early studies were denoted "Phase A", and in June 1970, "Phase B", which were more detailed and specific. The primary intended use of the Phase A Space Shuttle was supporting the future space station, ferrying a minimum crew of four and about 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) of cargo, and being able to be rapidly turned around for future flights, with larger payloads like space station modules being lifted by the Saturn V. +Two designs emerged as front-runners. One was designed by engineers at the Manned Spaceflight Center, and championed especially by George Mueller. This was a two-stage system with delta-winged spacecraft, and generally complex. An attempt to re-simplify was made in the form of the DC-3, designed by Maxime Faget, who had designed the Mercury capsule among other vehicles. Numerous offerings from a variety of commercial companies were also considered but generally fell by the wayside as each NASA lab pushed for its own version. +All of this was taking place in the midst of other NASA teams proposing a wide variety of post-Apollo missions, a number of which would cost as much as Apollo or more. As each of these projects fought for funding, the NASA budget was at the same time being severely constrained. Three were eventually presented to United States Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1969. The shuttle project rose to the top, largely due to tireless campaigning by its supporters. By 1970 the shuttle had been selected as the one major project for the short-term post-Apollo time frame. +When funding for the program came into question, there were concerns that the project might be canceled. This became especially pressing as it became clear that the Saturn V would no longer be produced, which meant that the payload to orbit needed to be increased in both mass - all the way to 60,600 pounds (27,500 kg) - and size to supplement its heavy-lift capabilities, necessary for planned interplanetary probes and space station modules, which meant a bigger and costlier vehicle was needed during Phase B. Therefore, NASA tried to interest the US Air Force and a variety of other customers in using the shuttle for their missions as well. To lower the development costs of the proposed designs, boosters were added, a throw-away fuel tank was adopted, and many other changes were made that greatly lowered the reusability and greatly added to the vehicle and operational costs. + +== Decision-making process == +In 1969, United States Vice President Spiro Agnew chaired the National Aeronautics and Space Council, which discussed post-Apollo options for human space activities. The recommendations of the Council would heavily influence the decisions of the administration. The Council considered four major options: + +A human mission to Mars +Follow-on lunar program +A low Earth orbital infrastructure program +Discontinuing human space activities +Based on the advice of the Space Council, President Nixon made the decision to pursue the low Earth orbital infrastructure option. This program mainly consisted of the construction of a space station, along with the development of a Space Shuttle. Funding restrictions precluded pursuing the development of both programs simultaneously, however. NASA chose to develop the Space Shuttle program first, and then planned to use the shuttle in order to construct and service a space station. + +== Shuttle design debate == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..44c6e7721 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle design process" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:03.819085+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +During the early shuttle studies, there was a debate over the optimal shuttle design that best-balanced capability, development cost, and operational cost. Initially, a fully reusable design was preferred. This involved a very large winged crewed booster which would carry a smaller winged crewed orbiter. The booster vehicle would lift the orbiter to a certain altitude and speed, then separate. The booster would return and land horizontally, while the orbiter continued into low Earth orbit. After completing its mission, the winged orbiter would re-enter and land horizontally on a runway. The idea was that full reusability would promote lower operating costs. +However, further studies showed a huge booster was needed to lift an orbiter with the desired payload capability. In space and aviation systems, the cost is closely related to mass, so this meant the overall vehicle cost would be very high. Both booster and orbiter would have rocket engines plus jet engines for use within the atmosphere, plus separate fuel and control systems for each propulsion mode. In addition, there were concurrent discussions about how much funding would be available to develop the program. +Another competing approach was maintaining the Saturn V production line and using its large payload capacity to launch a space station in a few payloads rather than many smaller shuttle payloads. A related concept was servicing the space station using the Air Force Titan III-M to launch a larger Gemini capsule, called "Big Gemini", or a smaller "glider" version of the shuttle with no main engines and a 15 ft × 30 ft (4.6 m × 9.1 m) payload bay. +The shuttle supporters answered that given enough launches, a reusable system would have lower overall costs than disposable rockets. If dividing total program costs over a given number of launches, a high shuttle launch rate would result in lower pre-launch costs. This in turn would make the shuttle cost-competitive with or superior to expendable launchers. Some theoretical studies mentioned 55 shuttle launches per year; however, the final design chosen did not support that launch rate. In particular, the maximum external tank production rate was limited to 24 tanks per year at NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility. +The combined space station and Air Force payload requirements were not sufficient to reach desired shuttle launch rates. Therefore, the plan was for all future U.S. space launches—space stations, Air Force, commercial satellites, and scientific research—to use only the Space Shuttle. Most other expendable boosters would be phased out. +The reusable booster was eventually abandoned due to several factors: high price (combined with limited funding), technical complexity, and development risk. Instead, a partially (not fully) reusable design was selected, where an external propellant tank was discarded for each launch, and the booster rockets and shuttle orbiter were refurbished for reuse. +Initially, the orbiter was to carry its own liquid propellant. However, studies showed carrying the propellant in an external tank allowed a larger payload bay in an otherwise much smaller craft. It also meant throwing away the tank after each launch, but this was a relatively small portion of operating costs. +Earlier designs assumed the winged orbiter would also have jet engines to assist maneuvering in the atmosphere after re-entering. However NASA ultimately chose a gliding orbiter, based partially on experience from previous rocket-then-glide vehicles such as the X-15 and lifting bodies. Omitting the jet engines and their fuel would reduce complexity and increase payload. +Another decision was the size of the crew. Some said that the shuttle should not carry more than four, the most that could use ejection seats. A commander, pilot, mission specialist, and payload specialist were sufficient for any mission. NASA expected to carry more space flight participants as payload specialists, so designed the vehicle to carry more. +The last remaining debate was over the nature of the boosters. NASA examined four solutions to this problem: development of the existing Saturn lower stage, simple pressure-fed liquid-fuel engines of a new design, a large single solid rocket, or two (or more) smaller ones. Engineers at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center (where the Saturn V development was managed) were particularly concerned about solid rocket reliability for crewed missions. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a3d58d57 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle design process" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_design_process" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:03.819085+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Air Force involvement == +During the mid-1960s the United States Air Force had both of its major piloted space projects, X-20 Dyna-Soar and Manned Orbiting Laboratory, canceled. This demonstrated its need to cooperate with NASA to place military astronauts and payloads in orbit. The Air Force launched more than 200 satellite reconnaissance missions between 1959 and 1970, and the military's large volume of payloads would be valuable in making the shuttle more economical. In turn, by serving Air Force needs, the Shuttle became a truly national system, carrying all military as well as civilian payloads. +NASA sought Air Force support for the shuttle. After the Six-Day War and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia exposed limitations in the United States satellite reconnaissance network, Air Force involvement emphasized the ability to launch spy satellites southward into polar orbit from Vandenberg AFB. This required higher energies than for lower inclination orbits. However, to be able to return to Earth after one orbit, despite the Earth rotating 1,000 miles beneath the orbital track, required a larger delta wing size than the earlier simple "DC-3" shuttle. In addition, the straight-wing configuration favored by Max Faget would've required the vehicle to fly in a stall for most of the reentry and had issues during launch aborts, a situation disliked by NASA. It is a common misconception that the delta wing was solely by demand of the USAF, however that is merely a myth. +Despite the potential benefits for the Air Force, the military was satisfied with its expendable boosters, and had less need for the shuttle than NASA. Because the space agency needed outside support, the Defense Department (DoD) and the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) gained primary control over the design process. For example, NASA planned a 40-by-15-foot (12.2 by 4.6 m) cargo bay, but NRO specified a 60-by-15-foot (18.3 by 4.6 m) bay because it expected future intelligence satellites to become larger. When Faget again proposed a 12 ft (3.7 m) wide payload bay, the military almost immediately insisted on retaining the 15 ft (4.6 m) width. The Air Force also gained the equivalent of the use of one of the shuttles for free despite not paying for the shuttle's development or construction. In exchange for the NASA concessions, the Air Force testified to the Senate Space Committee on the shuttle's behalf in March 1971. +As another incentive for the military to use the shuttle, Congress reportedly told DoD that it would not pay for any satellites not designed to fit into the shuttle cargo bay. Although NRO did not redesign existing satellites for the shuttle, the vehicle retained the ability to retrieve large cargos such as the KH-9 HEXAGON from orbit for refurbishment, and the agency studied resupplying the satellite in space. +Potential military use of the shuttle—including the possibility of using it to verify Soviet compliance with the SALT II treaty—probably caused President Jimmy Carter to not cancel the shuttle in 1979 and 1980, when the program was years behind schedule and hundreds of millions of dollars over budget. The Air Force planned on having its own fleet of shuttles and re-built a separate launch facility originally derived from the canceled Manned Orbiting Laboratory program at Vandenberg called Space Launch Complex Six (SLC-6). However, for various reasons, due in large part to the loss of Space Shuttle Challenger on January 28, 1986, work on SLC-6 was eventually discontinued and no shuttle launches from that location ever took place. SLC-6 was eventually used for launching the Lockheed Martin-built Athena expendable launch vehicles, which included the successful IKONOS commercial Earth observation satellite in September 1999 before being reconfigured once again to handle the new generation of Boeing Delta IV's. The first launch of the Delta IV heavy from SLC-6 occurred in June 2006, launching NROL-22, a classified satellite for the U.S. National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). + +== Final design == + +While NASA would likely have chosen liquid boosters had it had complete control over the design, the Office of Management and Budget insisted on less expensive solid boosters due to their lower projected development costs. While a liquid-fueled booster design provided better performance, lower per-flight costs, less environmental impact and less developmental risk, solid boosters were seen as requiring less funding to develop at a time when the Shuttle program had many different elements competing for limited development funds. The final design which was selected was a winged orbiter with three liquid-fueled engines, a large expendable external tank which held liquid propellant for these engines, and two reusable solid rocket boosters. +In the spring of 1972 Lockheed Aircraft, McDonnell Douglas, Grumman, and North American Rockwell submitted proposals to build the shuttle. The NASA selection group thought that Lockheed's shuttle was too complex and too expensive, and the company had no experience with building crewed spacecraft. McDonnell Douglas's was too expensive and had technical issues. Grumman had an excellent design which also seemed too expensive. North American's shuttle had the lowest cost and most realistic cost projections, its design was the easiest for ongoing maintenance, and the Apollo 13 accident involving North American's command and service module demonstrated its experience with electrical system failures. NASA announced its choice of North American on July 26, 1972. +The Space Shuttle program used the HAL/S programming language. The first microprocessor used was the 8088 and later the 80386. The Space Shuttle orbiter avionics computer was the IBM AP-101. + +== Retrospection == + +Opinions differ on the lessons of the Shuttle. It was developed with the original development cost and time estimates given to President Richard M. Nixon in 1971, at a cost of $6.744 billion in 1971 dollars (equivalent to $39.9 billion in 2024) versus an original $5.15 billion estimate. The operational costs, flight rate, payload capacity, and reliability were different than anticipated, however. + +== See also == +Buran (spacecraft) +Single-stage-to-orbit +Space Shuttle abort modes +Space Shuttle program +SpaceX Starship design process +Studied Space Shuttle designs + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Dr. Wernher Von Braun – "The Spaceplane that can put YOU in orbit" (Popular Science, July 1970) + +== External links == +Astronautix Space Shuttle article +NASA: The Space Shuttle Decision +INTRODUCTION TO FUTURE LAUNCH VEHICLE PLANS [1963–2001], M. Lindroos +10 Space Shuttles which never flew (Lockheed Starclipper, Chrysler SERV, Phase B Shuttles, Rockwell C-1057, Shuttle C, Air Launched Sortie Vehicle (ALSV), Hermes, Buran, Shuttle II, Lockheed Martin VentureStar) Archived March 10, 2019, at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..410d3cb0e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle external tank" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:10.021667+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Space Shuttle external tank (ET) was the component of the Space Shuttle launch vehicle that contained the liquid hydrogen fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer. During lift-off and ascent it supplied the fuel and oxidizer under pressure to the three RS-25 main engines in the orbiter. The ET was jettisoned just over 10 seconds after main engine cut-off (MECO) and it re-entered the Earth's atmosphere. Unlike the Solid Rocket Boosters, external tanks were not re-used. They broke up before impact in the Indian Ocean (or Pacific Ocean in the case of direct-insertion launch trajectories), away from shipping lanes and were not recovered. + +== Overview == + +The ET was the largest element of the Space Shuttle, and when loaded, it was also the heaviest. It consisted of three major components: + +the forward liquid oxygen (LOX) tank +an unpressurized intertank that contains most of the electrical components +the aft liquid hydrogen (LH2) tank; this was the largest part, but it was relatively light, due to liquid hydrogen's very low density. +The ET was the "backbone" of the shuttle during launch, providing structural support for attachment with the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) and orbiter. The tank was connected to each SRB at one forward attachment point (using a crossbeam through the intertank) and one aft bracket, and it was connected to the orbiter at one forward attachment bipod and two aft bipods. In the aft attachment area, there were also umbilicals that carried fluids, gases, electrical signals and electrical power between the tank and the orbiter. Electrical signals and controls between the orbiter and the two solid rocket boosters were also routed through those umbilicals. +Although the external tanks were always discarded, it may have been possible to re-use them in orbit. Plans for re-use ranged from incorporation into a space station as extra living or research space, as rocket fuel tanks for interplanetary missions (e.g. Mars), to raw materials for orbiting factories. +Another concept was to use the ET as a cargo carrier for bulky payloads. One proposal was for the primary mirror of a 7-meter aperture telescope to be carried with the tank. Another concept was the Aft Cargo Carrier (ACC). + +== Versions == +Over the years, NASA worked to reduce the weight of the ET to increase overall efficiency. The weight reduced from the ET resulted in an almost equal increase of the cargo-carrying capability of the Space Shuttle. + +=== Orange color === +The external tank's orange color is the color of the spray-on foam insulation. The first two tanks, used for STS-1 and STS-2, were painted white to protect the tanks from ultraviolet light during the extended time that the shuttle spent on the launch pad prior to launch. NASA engineer Farouk Huneidi told the agency that the paint did not actually protect the foam. Martin Marietta (now part of Lockheed Martin) reduced weight by leaving the rust-colored spray-on insulation unpainted beginning with STS-3, saving approximately 272 kg (600 lb). + +=== Standard Weight Tank === +The original ET is informally known as the Standard Weight Tank (SWT) and was fabricated from 2219 aluminum alloy, a high-strength aluminum-copper alloy used for many aerospace applications. +After STS-4, several hundred pounds were eliminated by deleting the anti-geyser line. This line paralleled the oxygen feed line, providing a circulation path for liquid oxygen. This reduces accumulation of gaseous oxygen in the feed line during prelaunch tanking (loading of the LOX). After propellant loading data from ground tests and the first few Space Shuttle missions were assessed, the anti-geyser line was removed for subsequent missions. The total length and diameter of the ET remain unchanged. The last SWT, flown on STS-7, weighed approximately 77,000 pounds (35,000 kg) inert. + +=== Lightweight Tank === + +Beginning with the STS-6 mission, a lightweight ET (LWT), was introduced. This tank was used for the majority of the Shuttle flights, and was last used during the launch of the ill-fated STS-107 mission. Although tanks vary slightly in weight, each weighed approximately 66,000 pounds (30,000 kg) inert. +The weight reduction from the SWT was accomplished by eliminating portions of stringers (structural stiffeners running the length of the hydrogen tank), using fewer stiffener rings and by modifying major frames in the hydrogen tank. Also, significant portions of the tank were milled differently so as to reduce thickness, and the weight of the ET's aft solid rocket booster attachments was reduced by using a stronger, yet lighter and less expensive titanium alloy. + +=== Super Lightweight Tank === +The Super Lightweight Tank (SLWT) was first flown in 1998 on STS-91 and was used for all subsequent missions with two exceptions (STS-99 and STS-107). The SLWT had basically the same design as the LWT except that it used an aluminium-lithium alloy (Al 2195) for a large part of the tank structure. This alloy provided a significant reduction in tank weight (about 7,000 pounds or 3,175 kg) over the LWT. Manufacture also included friction stir welding technology. Although all ETs produced after the introduction of the SLWT were of this configuration, one LWT remained in inventory to be used if requested until the end of the shuttle era. The SLWT provided 50% of the performance increase required for the shuttle to reach the International Space Station. The reduction in weight allowed the Orbiter to carry more payload to the highly inclined orbit of the ISS. + +=== Technical specifications === +SLWT specifications + +Length: 153.8 ft (46.9 m) +Diameter: 27.6 ft (8.4 m) +Empty weight: 58,500 lb (26,500 kg) +Gross liftoff weight: 1,680,000 lb (760,000 kg) +LOX tank + +Length: 54.6 ft (16.6 m) +Diameter: 27.6 ft (8.4 m) +Volume (at 22 psig): 19,541.66 cu ft (146,181.8 US gal; 553,358 L) +LOX mass (at 22 psig): 1,387,457 lb (629,340 kg) +Operation pressure: 34.7–36.7 psi (239–253 kPa) (absolute) +Intertank + +Length: 22.6 ft (6.9 m) +Diameter: 27.6 ft (8.4 m) +LH2 tank \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..65c2b30db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle external tank" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:10.021667+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Length: 97.0 ft (29.6 m) +Diameter: 27.6 ft (8.4 m) +Volume (at 29.3 psig): 52,881.61 cu ft (395,581.9 US gal; 1,497,440 L) +LH2 mass (at 29.3 psig): 234,265 lb (106,261 kg) +Operation pressure: 32–34 psi (220–230 kPa) (absolute) +Operation temperature: −423 °F (−253 °C) + +== Contractor == +The contractor for the external tank was Lockheed Martin (previously Martin Marietta), New Orleans, Louisiana. The tank was manufactured at the Michoud Assembly Facility, New Orleans, and was transported to Kennedy Space Center by barge. + +== Components == +The ET has three primary structures: an LOX tank, an intertank, and an LH2 tank. Both tanks are constructed of aluminium alloy skins with support or stability frames as required. The intertank aluminium structure utilizes skin stringers with stabilizing frames. The primary aluminium materials used for all three structures are 2195 and 2090 alloys. AL 2195 is an Al-Li alloy designed by Lockheed Martin and Reynolds for storage of cryogenics (and used for the SLW version of the ET - earlier versions used Al 2219). Al 2090 is a commercially available Al-Li alloy. + +=== Liquid oxygen tank === +The LOX tank is located at the top of the ET and has an ogive shape to reduce aerodynamic drag and aerothermodynamic heating. The ogive nose section is capped by a flat removable cover plate and a nose cone. The nose cone consists of a removable conical assembly that serves as an aerodynamic fairing for the propulsion and electrical system components. The foremost element of the nose cone functions as a cast aluminium lightning rod. The LOX tank volume is 19,744 cu ft (559.1 m3) at 22 psi (150 kPa) and −297 °F (90.4 K; −182.8 °C) (cryogenic). +The tank feeds into a 17 in (430 mm) diameter feed line that conveys the liquid oxygen through the intertank, then outside the ET to the aft right-hand ET/orbiter disconnect umbilical. The 17 in (430 mm) diameter feed line permits liquid oxygen to flow at approximately 2,787 lb/s (75,800 kg/min) with the RS-25s operating at 104% or permits a maximum flow of 17,592 US gal/min (1.1099 m3/s). +All loads except aerodynamic loads are transferred from the LOX tank at a bolted, flange-joint interface with the intertank. +The LOX tank also includes an internal slosh baffle and a vortex baffle to dampen fluid slosh. The vortex baffle is mounted over the LOX feed outlet to reduce fluid swirl resulting from slosh and to prevent entrapment of gases in the delivered LOX. + +=== Intertank === +The intertank is the ET structural connection between the LOX and LH2 tanks. Its primary functions are to receive and distribute all thrust loads from the SRBs and transfer loads between the tanks. +The two SRB forward attach fittings are located 180° apart on the intertank structure. A beam is extended across the intertank structure and is mechanically fastened to the attach fittings. When the SRBs are firing, the beam will flex due to high stress loads. These loads will be transferred to the fittings. +Adjoining the SRB attach fittings is a major ring frame. The loads are transferred from the fittings to the major ring frame which then distributes the tangential loads to the intertank skin. Two panels of the intertank skin, called the thrust panels, distribute the concentrated axial SRB thrust loads to the LOX and LH2 tanks and to adjacent intertank skin panels. These adjacent panels are made up of six stringer-stiffened panels. +The intertank also functions as a protective compartment for housing the operational instrumentation. + +=== Liquid hydrogen tank === + +The LH2 tank is the bottom portion of the ET. The tank is constructed of four cylindrical barrel sections, a forward dome, and an aft dome. The barrel sections are joined by five major ring frames. These ring frames receive and distribute loads. The forward dome-to-barrel frame distributes the loads applied through the intertank structure and is also the flange for attaching the LH2 tank to the intertank. The aft major ring receives orbiter-induced loads from the aft orbiter support struts and SRB-induced loads from the aft SRB support struts. The remaining three ring frames distribute orbiter thrust loads and LOX feedline support loads. Loads from the frames are then distributed through the barrel skin panels. The LH2 tank has a volume of 53,488 cubic feet (1,514.6 m3) at 29.3 psi (202 kPa) and −423 °F (−252.8 °C) (cryogenic). + +The forward and aft domes have the same modified ellipsoidal shape. For the forward dome, mounting provisions are incorporated for the LH2 vent valve, the LH2 pressurization line fitting, and the electrical feed-through fitting. The aft dome has a manhole fitting for access to the LH2 feedline screen and a support fitting for the LH2 feedline. +The LH2 tank also has a vortex baffle to reduce swirl resulting from slosh and to prevent entrapment of gases in the delivered LH2. The baffle is located at the siphon outlet just above the aft dome of the LH2 tank. This outlet transmits the liquid hydrogen from the tank through a 17 inches (430 mm) line to the left aft umbilical. The liquid hydrogen feed line flow rate is 465 lb/s (12,700 kg/min) with the main engines at 104% or a maximum flow of 47,365 US gal/min (2.9883 m3/s). + +=== Thermal protection system === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dafe11533 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle external tank" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:10.021667+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The ET thermal protection system consists primarily of spray-on foam insulation (SOFI), plus preformed foam pieces and premolded ablator materials. The system also includes the use of phenolic thermal insulators to preclude air liquefaction. Thermal isolators are required for liquid hydrogen tank attachments to preclude the liquefaction of air on exposed metal, and to reduce heat flow into the liquid hydrogen. While the warmer liquid oxygen results in fewer thermal requirements, the aluminum of the liquid oxygen tank forward areas require protection from aeroheating. Meanwhile, insulation on the aft surfaces prevents liquified air from pooling in the intertank. The middle cylinder of the oxygen tank, and the propellant lines, could withstand the expected depths of frost accumulation condensed from humidity, but the orbiter could not take the damage from ice breaking free. The thermal protection system weighs 4,823 lb (2,188 kg). +Development of the ETs thermal protection system was problematic. Anomalies in foam application were so frequent that they were treated as variances, not safety incidents. NASA had difficulty preventing fragments of foam from detaching during flight for the entire history of the program: + +STS-1 Columbia, 1981: Crew reports white material streaming past windows during orbiter-external-tank flight. Crew estimated sizes from 1⁄4 inch (6 mm) to fist-sized. Post-landing report describes probable foam loss of unknown location, and 300 tiles needing outright replacement due to various causes. +STS-4 Columbia, 1982: PAL ramp loss; 40 tiles require outright replacement. +STS-5 Columbia, 1982: Continued high rate of tile loss. +STS-7 Challenger, 1983: 50 by 30 cm (20 by 12 in) Bipod ramp loss photographed, dozens of spot losses. +STS-27 Atlantis, 1988: One large loss of uncertain origin, causing one total tile loss. Hundreds of small losses. +STS-32 Columbia, 1990: Bipod ramp loss photographed; five spot losses up to 70 cm in diameter, plus tile damages. +STS-50 Columbia, 1992: Bipod ramp loss. 20×10×1 cm tile damage. +STS-52 Columbia, 1992: Portion of bipod ramp, jackpad lost. 290 total tile marks, 16 greater than an inch. +STS-62 Columbia, 1994: Portion of bipod ramp lost. +In 1995, chlorofluorocarbon-11 (CFC-11) began to be withdrawn from large-area, machine-sprayed foams in compliance with an Environmental Protection Agency ban on CFCs under section 610 of the Clean Air Act. In its place, a hydrochlorofluorocarbon known as HCFC-141b was certified for use and phased into the shuttle program. Remaining foams, particularly detail pieces sprayed by hand, continued to use CFC-11 through the end of the program. These areas include the problematic bipod and PAL ramps, as well as some fittings and interfaces. For the bipod ramp in particular, "the process of applying foam to that part of the tank had not changed since 1993." The "new" foam containing HCFC 141b was first used on the aft dome portion of ET-82 during the flight of STS-79 in 1996. Use of HCFC 141b was expanded to the ETs area, or larger portions of the tank, starting with ET-88, which flew on STS-86 in 1997. +During the lift-off of STS-107 on January 16, 2003, a piece of foam insulation detached from one of the tank's bipod ramps and struck the leading edge of Space Shuttle Columbia's wing at a few hundred miles per hour. The impact is believed to have damaged one comparatively large reinforced carbon-carbon panel on the leading edge of the left wing, believed to be about the size of a basketball which then allowed super-heated gas to enter the wing superstructure several days later during re-entry. This resulted in the destruction of Columbia and the loss of its crew. The report determined that the external fuel tank, ET-93, "had been constructed with BX-250", a closeout foam whose blowing agent was CFC-11 and not the newer HCFC 141b. +In 2005, the problem of foam shed had not been fully cured; on STS-114, additional cameras mounted on the tank recorded a piece of foam separated from one of its Protuberance Air Load (PAL) ramps, which are designed to prevent unsteady air flow underneath the tank's cable trays and pressurization lines during ascent. The PAL ramps consist of manually sprayed layers of foam, and are more likely to become a source of debris. That piece of foam did not impact the orbiter. +Reports published concurrent with the STS-114 mission suggest that excessive handling of the ET during modification and upgrade may have contributed to the foam loss on Discovery's Return to Flight mission. However, three shuttle missions (STS-121, STS-115, and STS-116) were later conducted, all with "acceptable" levels of foam loss. However, on STS-118 a piece of foam (and/or ice) about 3.9 in (100 mm) in diameter separated from a feedline attachment bracket on the tank, ricocheted off one of the aft struts and struck the underside of the wing, damaging two tiles. The damage was not considered dangerous. + +=== Hardware === + +The external hardware, ET–orbiter attachment fittings, umbilical fittings, and electrical and range safety system weigh 9,100 pounds (4,100 kg). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..03cb724bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle external tank" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:10.021667+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Vents and relief valves ==== +Each propellant tank has a vent and relief valve at its forward end. This dual-function valve can be opened by ground support equipment for the vent function during prelaunch and can open during flight when the ullage (empty space) pressure of the liquid hydrogen tank reaches 38 psi (260 kPa) or the ullage pressure of the liquid oxygen tank reaches 25 psi (170 kPa). +On early flights, the liquid oxygen tank contained a separate, pyrotechnically operated, propulsive tumble vent valve at its forward end. At separation, the liquid oxygen tumble vent valve was opened, providing impulse to assist in the separation maneuver and more positive control of the entry aerodynamics of the ET. The last flight with the tumble valve active was STS-36. +Each of the two aft external tank umbilical plates mate with a corresponding plate on the orbiter. The plates help maintain alignment among the umbilicals. Physical strength at the umbilical plates is provided by bolting corresponding umbilical plates together. When the orbiter GPCs command external tank separation, the bolts are severed by pyrotechnic devices. +The ET has five propellant umbilical valves that interface with orbiter umbilicals: two for the liquid oxygen tank and three for the liquid hydrogen tank. One of the liquid oxygen tank umbilical valves is for liquid oxygen, the other for gaseous oxygen. The liquid hydrogen tank umbilical has two valves for liquid and one for gas. The intermediate-diameter liquid hydrogen umbilical is a recirculation umbilical used only during the liquid hydrogen chill-down sequence during prelaunch. + +As the ET is filled, excess gaseous hydrogen is vented through umbilical connections over a large diameter pipe on an arm extended from the fixed service structure. The connection for this pipe between the ET and service structure is made at the ground umbilical carrier plate (GUCP). Sensors are also installed at the GUCP to measure hydrogen levels. Countdowns of STS-80, STS-119, STS-127 and STS-133 have been halted and resulted in several week delays in the later cases due to hydrogen leaks at this connection. This requires complete draining of the tanks and removal of all hydrogen via helium gas purge, a 20-hour process, before technicians can inspect and repair problems. +A cap mounted to the swing-arm on the fixed service structure covers the oxygen tank vent on top of the ET during the countdown and is retracted about two minutes before lift-off. The cap siphons off oxygen vapor that threatens to form large ice accumulations on the ET, thus protecting the orbiter's thermal protection system during launch. + +==== Sensors ==== + +There are eight propellant-depletion sensors, four each for fuel and oxidizer. The fuel-depletion sensors are located in the bottom of the fuel tank. The oxidizer sensors are mounted in the orbiter liquid oxygen feed line manifold downstream of the feed line disconnect. During RS-25 thrusting, the orbiter general-purpose computers constantly compute the instantaneous mass of the vehicle due to the usage of the propellants. Normally, main engine cutoff is based on a predetermined velocity; however, if any two of the fuel or oxidizer sensors sense a dry condition, the engines will be shut down. +The locations of the liquid oxygen sensors allow the maximum amount of oxidizer to be consumed in the engines, while allowing sufficient time to shut down the engines before the oxidizer pumps cavitate (run dry). In addition, 1,100 lb (500 kg) of liquid hydrogen are loaded over and above that required by the 6:1 oxidizer–fuel engine mixture ratio. This assures that cutoff from the depletion sensors is fuel-rich; oxidizer-rich engine shutdowns can cause burning and severe erosion of engine components, potentially leading to loss of the vehicle and crew. +Unexplained, erroneous readings from fuel depletion sensors have delayed several shuttle launch attempts, most notably STS-122. On December 18, 2007, a tanking test determined the cause of the errors to be a fault in a wiring connector, rather than a failure of the sensors themselves. +Four pressure transducers located at the top of the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks monitor the ullage pressures. +The ET also has two electrical umbilicals that carry electrical power from the orbiter to the tank and the two SRBs and provide information from the SRBs and ET to the orbiter. +The ET has external cameras mounted in the brackets attached to the shuttle along with transmitters that can continue to send video data long after the shuttle and the ET have separated. + +=== Range safety system === +Earlier tanks incorporated a range safety system to disperse tank propellants if necessary. It included a battery power source, a receiver/decoder, antennas and ordnance. Starting with STS-79 this system was disabled, and was completely removed for STS-88 and all subsequent flights. + +== Future use == +In 1990, it was suggested that the external tank would be used as a lunar habitat or as an orbital station. These proposals did not come to fruition. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..264fdfef9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle external tank" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_external_tank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:21:10.021667+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== As basis for Ares in Constellation === +With the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011, NASA, with its canceled Constellation program, which featured the Orion spacecraft, would also have featured the debut of two Shuttle-derived launch vehicles, the human-rated Ares I crew-launch vehicle and the heavy-lift Ares V cargo-launch vehicle. +While both the Ares I and Ares V would have utilized a modified five-segment Solid Rocket Booster for its first stage, the ET would have served as a baseline technology for the first stage of the Ares V and the second stage of the Ares I; as a comparison, the Ares I second stage would have held approximately 26,000 US gal (98,000 L) of LOX, versus the ET holding 146,000 US gal (550,000 L), more than 5 times that amount. +The Ares V first stage, which would have been fitted with five RS-68 rocket engines (the same engine used on the Delta IV rocket), would be 33 feet (10 m) in diameter, as wide as the S-IC and S-II stages on the Saturn V rocket. It would have utilized the same internal ET configuration (separate LH2 and LOX tanks separated with an intertank structure), but would have been configured to directly accept LH2 and LOX fill and drain, along with LOX venting on a retractable arm like that used on the Shuttle for LH2. + +The Ares I second stage, on the other hand, would have only used the spray-on insulation foam currently used on the current ET. Originally configured like that of the Ares V and the Shuttle ET, NASA, upon completing its design review in 2006, decided, in order to save weight and costs, to reconfigure the internal structure of the second stage by using a combined LH2/LOX tank with the propellants separated by a common bulkhead, a configuration successfully used on the S-II and S-IVB stages of the Saturn V rocket. Unlike the Ares V, which would have used the same fill/drain/vent configuration used on the Shuttle, the Ares I system would have utilized a traditional fill/drain/vent system used on the Saturn IB and Saturn V rockets, but with quick-retracting arms due to the "leap frog" speed the Ares I would expect upon SRB ignition. +As originally envisioned, both the Ares I and Ares V would have used a modified "throw away" version of the RS-25 engine, but in due course, because of the need to keep R&D costs down and to maintain a schedule set by NASA Administration Michael D. Griffin to launch the Ares and Orion by 2011, NASA decided (after the 2006 review) to switch to the cheaper RS-68 engine for the Ares V and to an uprated J-2 engine for the Ares I. Because of the switch to the less efficient RS-68, the Ares V was widened from 28.6 to 33 feet (8.72 to 10.06 m) to accommodate the additional propellant required, while the Ares I was reconfigured to incorporate a fifth solid-rocket segment with the J-2X upper stage, as the new engine has less thrust than the original RS-25. Because of the trade-off, NASA would save an estimated USD $35 million by using simplified, higher thrust RS-68 engines (reconfigured to fire and perform like the SSME), while at the same time, eliminate the costly tests needed for an air-startable RS-25 for the Ares I. + +=== Proposed for DIRECT === +The DIRECT project, a proposed alternative shuttle-derived vehicle, would have used a modified, standard diameter, external tank with three RS-25 engines, with two standard SRBM, as a Crew Launch Vehicle. The same vehicle, with one extra RS-25, and an EDS upper stage, would have served as the Cargo Launch Vehicle. It was planned to save $16 billion, eliminate NASA job losses, and reduce the post-shuttle, crewed spaceflight gap from five plus years to two or less. + +=== Core stage of Space Launch System === +The Space Launch System (SLS) is a US super heavy-lift expendable launch vehicle, which first flew on Artemis 1 in November 2022. +The core stage of the rocket is 8.4 meters (28 ft) in diameter and mount a Main Propulsion System (MPS) incorporating four RS-25 engines. The core stage is structurally similar to the Space Shuttle external tank, and initial flights will use modified RS-25D engines left over from the Space Shuttle program. Later flights will switch to a cheaper version of the engine not intended for reuse. + +=== Un-flown hardware === + +MPTA-ET is on display with the Space Shuttle Pathfinder at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama. +ET-94 (older version LWT) is in Los Angeles and in 2019 was scheduled to be displayed with Space Shuttle Endeavour at the California Science Center when the Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center opened. On January 15, 2024, it was announced in a press release that ET-94, 2 solid rocket boosters, and the Space Shuttle Endeavour had been linked together and expected them to be moved by the end of the month to their new exhibit location. +Three other external tanks were in preparation when the manufacturing stopped. ET-139 is at advanced stage of manufacturing; ET-140 and ET-141 are in early stages of manufacturing. + +== See also == +Space Launch System (a super heavy-lift launch vehicle used for the Artemis program) +DIRECT (a proposed heavy launch system) +MPTA-ET (external tank test for STS) +List of reentering space debris +List of heaviest spacecraft + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Further reading == +"External Tank Thermal Protection System" Archived February 9, 2021, at the Wayback Machine NASA Facts Return to Flight Focus Area, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama (Pub 8-40392, FS2005-4-10-MSFC, April 2005) +National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Booster Systems Briefs. Basic, Rev F, PCN 1. April 27, 2005. +National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Shuttle Systems Design Criteria. Volume I: Shuttle Performance Assessment Databook. NSTS 08209, Volume I, Revision B. March 16, 1999. + +== External links == + +Space Shuttle Propulsion and External Tank Photo Gallery Archived February 24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine +"STS-115 Launch as seen from ET Camera" on YouTube +Columbia Accident Investigation Board Report, Volume 1, Chapter 3, "Accident Analysis," August 2003 +"STS-125 View of the External Tank Jettisoned and in decaying orbit as viewed from the Shuttle Atlantis" on YouTube +"Space Shuttle External Tank Used as a Space Station - Study Project Perun" Award-winning student paper from 1979 about building a space station from the External Tank +"External Tank". California Science Center. +Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. TX-116-J, "Space Transportation System, External Tank, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2101 NASA Parkway, Houston, Harris County, TX", 3 measured drawings \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..03908ddf7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle orbiter" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:45.246491+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Space Shuttle orbiter is the spaceplane component of the Space Shuttle, a partially reusable orbital spacecraft system that was part of the discontinued Space Shuttle program. Operated from 1981 to 2011 by NASA, the U.S. space agency, this vehicle could carry astronauts and payloads into low Earth orbit, perform in-space operations, then re-enter the atmosphere and land as a glider, returning its crew and any on-board payload to the Earth. +Six orbiters were built for flight: Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. All were built in Palmdale, California, by the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania-based Rockwell International company's North American Aircraft Operations branch. The first orbiter, Enterprise, made its maiden flight in 1977. An unpowered glider, it was carried by a modified Boeing 747 airliner called the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and released for a series of atmospheric test flights and landings. Enterprise was partially disassembled and retired after completion of critical testing. The remaining orbiters were fully operational spacecraft, and were launched vertically as part of the Space Shuttle stack. +Columbia was the first space-worthy orbiter; it made its inaugural flight in 1981. Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis followed in 1983, 1984, and 1985, respectively. In 1986, Challenger was destroyed in a disaster shortly after its 10th launch, killing all seven crew members. Endeavour was built as Challenger's successor, and was first launched in 1992. In 2003, Columbia was destroyed during re-entry, leaving just three remaining orbiters. Discovery completed its final flight on March 9, 2011, and Endeavour completed its final flight on June 1, 2011. Atlantis completed the final Shuttle flight, STS-135, on July 21, 2011. +In addition to their crews and payloads, the reusable orbiter carried most of the Space Shuttle's liquid-propellant rocket system, but both the liquid hydrogen fuel and the liquid oxygen oxidizer for its three main rocket engines were fed from an external cryogenic propellant tank. Additionally, two reusable solid rocket boosters (SRBs) provided additional thrust for approximately the first two minutes of launch. The orbiters themselves did carry hypergolic propellants for their Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters and Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engines. + +== Description == +About the size of a McDonnell Douglas DC-9, the Space Shuttle orbiter resembled an airplane in its design, with a standard-looking fuselage and two double delta wings, both swept wings at an angle of 81 degrees at their inner leading edges and 45 degrees at their outer leading edges. The vertical stabilizer of the orbiter had a leading edge that was swept back at a 45-degree angle. There were four elevons mounted at the trailing edges of the delta wings, and the combination rudder and speed brake was attached at the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. These, along with a movable body flap located underneath the main engines, controlled the orbiter during later stages of reentry. +The prime contractor for the orbiter was Rockwell International, which built the pressurized cabin, thermal protection, forward attitude control system, and forward and aft fuselage in its Downey, California factory, the payload bay doors in its Tulsa, Oklahoma factory, and the body flap in its Columbus, Ohio factory. Subcontractors included Convair in San Diego for the midsection, Fairchild Aircraft in Farmingdale, New York for the vertical stabilizer, Grumman in Bethpage, New York for the wings, Marquardt Corporation in Van Nuys, California for the attitude control propulsion, Aerojet in Rancho Cordova, California for the orbital insertion and deorbit propulsion, McDonnell Douglas for the surrounding pods, and Rocketdyne in Canoga Park, Los Angeles for the launch and ascent propulsion. 12,000 Rockwell workers were assigned to orbiter construction at the program's peak in the Downey plant. Final assembly was carried out at United States Air Force Plant 42 near Palmdale, California. + +=== Attitude control system === + +The Reaction Control System (RCS) was composed of 44 small liquid-fueled rocket thrusters and their very sophisticated fly-by-wire flight control system, which utilized computationally intensive digital Kalman filtering. This control system carried out the usual attitude control along the pitch, roll, and yaw axes during all of the flight phases of launching, orbiting, and re-entry. This system also executed any needed orbital maneuvers, including all changes in the orbit's altitude, orbital plane, and eccentricity. These were all operations that required more thrust and impulse than mere attitude control. +The forward rockets of the Reaction Control System, located near the nose of the Space Shuttle orbiter, included 14 primary and two vernier RCS rockets. The aft RCS engines were located in the two Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) pods at the rear of the orbiter, and these included 12 primary (PRCS) and two vernier (VRCS) engines in each pod. The PRCS system provided the pointing control of the Orbiter, and the VRCS was used for fine maneuvering during the rendezvous, docking, and undocking maneuvers with the International Space Station, or formerly with the Russian Mir space station. The RCS also controlled the attitude of the orbiter during most of its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere – until the air became dense enough that the rudder, elevons and body flap became effective. +The orbiter's OMS and RCS fuel is monomethyl hydrazine (CH3NHNH2), and the oxidizer is dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). This particular propellant combination is extremely reactive and spontaneously ignites on contact (hypergolic) with each other. This chemical reaction (4CH3NHNH2 + 5N2O4 → 9N2 + 4CO2 + 12H2O) occurs within the engine's combustion chamber. The reaction products are then expanded and accelerated in the engine bell to provide thrust. Due to their hypergolic characteristics these two chemicals are easily started and restarted without an ignition source, which makes them ideal for spacecraft maneuvering systems. +During the early design process of the orbiter, the forward RCS thrusters were to be hidden underneath retractable doors, which would open once the orbiter reached space. These were omitted in favor of flush-mounted thrusters for fear that the RCS doors would remain stuck open and endanger the crew and orbiter during re-entry. + +=== Pressurized cabin === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a72ab4082 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle orbiter" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:45.246491+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The orbiter's flight deck or cockpit originally had 2,214 controls and displays, about three times as many as the Apollo command module. The crew cabin consisted of the flight deck, the mid-deck, and the utility area. The uppermost of these was the flight deck, in which sat the Space Shuttle's commander and pilot in permanently fixed seats with up to two mission specialists seated behind them in stowable seats. The mission specialist in seat four (located behind and between commander and pilot) served as the flight engineer during ascent and landing, tracking information from CAPCOM and calling out milestones. +The mid-deck, which was below the flight deck, was normally equipped with up to three additional stowable seats, depending on the crew requirements of the mission. One mission carried four seats (STS-61-A) and NASA drew up plans that were never used to carry up to seven seats in the case of an emergency rescue (STS-400). +The galley, toilet, sleep locations, storage lockers, and the side hatch for entering and exiting the orbiter were also located on the mid-deck, as well as the airlock. The airlock had an additional hatch into the payload bay. This airlock allowed two or three astronauts, wearing their Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) space suits, to depressurize before a walk in space (EVA), and also to repressurize and re-enter the orbiter at the conclusion of the EVA. +The utility area was located under the floor of the mid-deck and contained air and water tanks in addition to the carbon dioxide scrubbing system. + +=== Propulsion === + +Three Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) were mounted on the orbiter's aft fuselage in the pattern of an equilateral triangle. These three liquid-fueled engines could be swiveled 10.5 degrees vertically and 8.5 degrees horizontally during the rocket-powered ascent of the orbiter in order to change the direction of their thrust. Hence, they steered the entire Space Shuttle, as well as providing rocket thrust towards orbit. The aft fuselage also housed three auxiliary power units (APU). The APUs chemically converted hydrazine fuel from a liquid state to a gas state, powering a hydraulic pump which supplied pressure for all of the hydraulic system, including the hydraulic sub-system that pointed the three main liquid-fueled rocket engines, under computerized flight control. The hydraulic pressure generated was also used to control all of the orbiter's flight control surfaces (the elevons, rudder, speed brake, etc.), to deploy the landing gear of the orbiter, and to retract the umbilical hose connection doors located near the rear landing gear, which supplied the orbiter's SSMEs with liquid hydrogen and oxygen from the external tank. +Two Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) thrusters were mounted in two separate removable pods on the orbiter's aft fuselage, located between the SSMEs and the vertical stabilizer. The OMS engines provided significant thrust for course orbital maneuvers, including insertion, circularization, transfer, rendezvous, deorbit, abort to orbit, and to abort once around. At lift-off, two solid rocket boosters (SRBs) were used to take the vehicle to an altitude of roughly 140,000 feet. + +=== Electrical power === +Electric power for the orbiter's subsystems was provided by a set of three hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells which produced 28 volt DC power and was also converted into 115 volt 400 Hz AC three-phase electric power (for systems that used AC power). These provided power to the entire Shuttle stack (including the SRBs and ET) from T-minus 3m30s up through the end of the mission. The hydrogen and oxygen for the fuel cells was kept in pairs of cryogenic storage tanks in the mid-fuselage underneath the payload bay liner, and a variable number of such tank sets could be installed (up to five pairs) depending on the requirements of the mission. The three fuel cells were capable of generating 21 kilowatts of power continuously (or a 15-minute peak of 36 kilowatts) with the orbiter consuming an average of about 14 kilowatts of that power (leaving 7 kilowatts for the payload). +Additionally, the fuel cells provided potable water for the crew during the mission. + +=== Computer systems === +The orbiter's computer system consisted of five identical IBM AP-101 avionics computers, which redundantly controlled the vehicle's on-board systems. The specialized HAL/S programming language was used for orbiter systems. + +=== Thermal protection === + +The orbiters were protected by Thermal Protection System (TPS) materials (developed by Rockwell Space Systems) inside and out, from the orbiter's outer surface to the payload bay. The TPS protected it from the cold soak of −121 °C (−186 °F) in space to the 1,649 °C (3,000 °F) heat of re-entry. The tile materials comprising much of the orbiter's outermost layer were mostly air held within near-pure silica fibers, which made it efficient at refractory insulation that absorbed and redirected heat back out into the air, and covered in silicon borides and borosilicate glass, with blacker tiles covering the lower surface, and whiter tiles covering the tail, parts of the upper wing and crew cabin surfaces, and the outsides of the payload bay doors. The nose cap, nose landing gear doors, and leading edges were made of reinforced carbon–carbon, which is rayon impregnated with graphite-filled resins and coated in silicon carbide. The upper, white materials that were not in tiles were mostly made of either Nomex felt coated in silicon-rich elastomer or beta cloth, woven silica fibers covered in Teflon. This was especially true in the interior of the payload bay. + +=== Structure === +The orbiter's structure was made primarily from aluminum alloy, although the engine thrust structure was made from titanium alloy. The later orbiters (Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour) substituted graphite epoxy for aluminum in some structural elements in order to reduce weight. The windows were made of aluminum silicate glass and fused silica glass, and comprised an internal pressure pane, a 1.3-inch-thick (33 mm) optical pane, and an external thermal pane. The windows were tinted with the same ink used to make American banknotes. + +=== Landing gear === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a5a1b1f65 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle orbiter" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:45.246491+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Space Shuttle orbiter had three sets of landing gear which emerged downwards through doors in the heat shield. As a weight-saving measure, the gear could not be retracted once deployed. Since any premature extension of the landing gear would very likely have been catastrophic (as it opened through the heat shield layers), the landing gear could only be lowered by manual controls, and not by any automatic system. +Similarly, since the Shuttle landed at high speed and could not abort its landing attempt, the gear had to deploy reliably on the first try every time. The gear were unlocked and deployed by triple redundant hydraulics, with the gear doors actuated by mechanical linkages to the gear strut. If all three hydraulic systems failed to release the landing gear uplocks within one second of the release command, pyrotechnic charges automatically cut the lock hooks and a set of springs deployed the gear. +During landing, the Shuttle nose wheel could be steered with the rudder pedals in the cockpit. During the construction of Space Shuttle Endeavour, an improved nose wheel steering system was developed which allowed easier and more effective nose wheel steering. After Endeavour's roll-out, the system was installed on the other shuttles during their overhauls in the early 1990s. + +=== Lack of navigational lights === +The Space Shuttle orbiter did not carry anti-collision lights, navigational lights, or landing lights, because the orbiter always landed in areas that had been specially cleared by both the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the U.S. Air Force. The orbiter always landed at either Edwards Air Force Base, California or at the Kennedy Space Center Shuttle Landing Facility, Florida, except STS-3 at the White Sands Space Harbor in New Mexico. Similar special clearances (no-fly zones) were also in effect at potential emergency landing sites, such as in Spain and in West Africa during all launches. +When an orbiter landing was carried out at night, the runway was always strongly illuminated with light from floodlights and spotlights on the ground, making landing lights on the orbiter unnecessary and also an unneeded spaceflight weight load. A total of 26 landings took place at night, the first being STS-8 in September 1983. + +=== Markings and insignia === + +The typeface used on the Space Shuttle orbiter was Helvetica. +The prototype orbiter Enterprise originally had a flag of the United States on the upper surface of the left wing and the letters "USA" in black on the right wing. The name "Enterprise" in black was painted on the payload bay doors just above the forwardmost hinge and behind the crew module; on the aft end of the payload bay doors was the NASA "worm" logotype in gray. Underneath the rear of the payload bay doors on the side of the fuselage just above the wing was the text "United States" in black with a flag of the United States ahead of it. +The first operational orbiter, Columbia, originally had the same markings as Enterprise, although the letters "USA" on the right wing were slightly larger and spaced farther apart. Columbia also had black tiles which Enterprise lacked on its forward RCS module, around the cockpit windows, and on its vertical stabilizer. Columbia also had distinctive black chines on the forward part of its upper wing surfaces, which none of the other orbiters had. + +Challenger established a modified marking scheme for the shuttle fleet that would be matched by Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour. The letters "USA" in black above an American flag were displayed on the left wing, with the NASA "worm" logotype in gray centered above the name of the orbiter in black on the right wing. Also, the name of the orbiter was inscribed not on the payload bay doors, but on the forward fuselage just below and behind the cockpit windows. This would make the name visible when the orbiter was photographed in orbit with the doors open. Challenger also had black tiles on the tip of its vertical stabilizer much like Columbia, which the other orbiters lacked. +In 1983, Enterprise had its wing markings changed to match Challenger, and the NASA "worm" logotype on the aft end of the payload bay doors was changed from gray to black. Some black markings were added to the nose, cockpit windows and vertical tail to more closely resemble the flight vehicles, but the name "Enterprise" remained on the payload bay doors as there was never any need to open them. Columbia had its name moved to the forward fuselage to match the other flight vehicles after STS-61-C, during the 1986–1988 hiatus when the shuttle fleet was grounded following the loss of Challenger, but retained its original wing markings until its last overhaul (after STS-93), and its unique black chines for the remainder of its operational life. + +Beginning in STS-95 (1998), the flight vehicles' markings were modified to incorporate the NASA "meatball" insignia. The "worm" logotype, which the agency had phased out, was removed from the payload bay doors and the "meatball" insignia was added aft of the "United States" text on the lower aft fuselage. The "meatball" insignia was also displayed on the left wing, with the American flag above the orbiter's name, left-justified rather than centered, on the right wing. The three surviving flight vehicles, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour, still bear these markings as museum displays. Enterprise became the property of the Smithsonian Institution in 1985 and was no longer under NASA's control when these changes were made, hence the prototype orbiter still has its 1983 markings and still has its name on the payload bay doors. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d29d7bb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle orbiter" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:45.246491+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Retirement === +With the end of the Shuttle program, plans were made to place the three remaining Space Shuttle orbiters on permanent display. NASA Administrator Charles F. Bolden Jr. announced the disposition location of the orbiters on April 12, 2011, the 50th anniversary of the first human space flight and the 30th anniversary of the first flight of Columbia. +Discovery went to the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, replacing Enterprise which was moved to the Intrepid Museum in New York City. Endeavour went to the California Science Center in Los Angeles arriving on October 14, 2012. Atlantis went to the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Merritt Island on November 2, 2012. Hundreds of other shuttle artifacts were put on display at various other museums and educational institutions around the U.S. +One of the Crew Compartment Trainer Flight and mid-deck training hardware is on display at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force, while the other is on display at the JSC. The Full Fuselage Trainer, which includes the payload bay and aft section but no wings, is on display at the Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington. The Mission Simulation and Training Facility's Shuttle Mission Simulator Fixed Base Simulator originally went to the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, Illinois but was later transferred to the Stafford Air & Space Museum in Weatherford, Oklahoma. The Motion Base Simulator was transferred to the Texas A&M Aerospace Engineering Department in College Station, Texas, and the Guidance and Navigation Simulator went to the Wings of Dreams Aviation Museum in Starke, Florida. NASA also made approximately 7,000 TPS tiles available to schools and universities. + +== Shuttle Orbiter Specifications (OV-105) == + +Data from General characteristics +Crew: 2 (commander and pilot) +Capacity: 6 passengers (up to three mission and up to three payload specialists) or 25,060 kg (55,250 lb) +Length: 122 ft 2.0 in (37.237 m) +Wingspan: 78 ft 1 in (23.79 m) +Height: 58 ft 7 in (17.86 m) +Wing area: 2,690 sq ft (249.9 m2) +Empty weight: 171,961 lb (78,000 kg) +Max takeoff weight: 242,508 lb (110,000 kg) +Payload to LEO: 24,310 kg (53,590 lb) +Cargo bay dimensions: 60 × 15 ft (18.3 × 4.6 m) +Powerplant: 3 × Rocketdyne Block 2-A RS-25 liquid-fuelled rocket engine, 418,000 lbf (1,860 kN) thrust each +Powerplant: 2 × Aerojet AJ10-190 liquid-fuelled rocket engine, 6,000 lbf (26.7 kN) thrust each +Performance + +Maximum speed: 17,320 mph (27,870 km/h, 15,050 kn) +Range: 120–600 mi (190–960 km, 100–520 nmi) +Service ceiling: 607,000–2,110,000 ft (185,000–643,000 m) +Maximum glide ratio: Variable with speed, 1:1 at hypersonic speed - 2:1 at supersonic speed - 4.5:1 at subsonic speed +The cargo bay is 60 ft (18 m) by 15 ft (4.6 m), and could transport 24,400 kg (53,800 lb) to 204 km (127 mi), or 12,500 kg (27,600 lb) to the ISS at 407 km (253 mi). The most massive payload launched by the Space Shuttle was the Chandra X-ray Observatory in 1999 at 50,162 lb (22,753 kg), including its Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) and support equipment. The Shuttle was capable of returning approximately 16,000 kg (35,000 lb) of cargo to Earth. +The orbiter's maximum glide ratio / lift-to-drag ratio varied considerably with speed, ranging from 1:1 at hypersonic speeds, 2:1 at supersonic speeds, and reaching 4.5:1 at subsonic speeds during approach and landing. + +== Fleet == + +Individual Space Shuttle orbiters were named in honor of antique sailing ships of the navies of the world (though the test orbiter Enterprise, originally to be named "Constitution", had its name changed after the Star Trek starship, itself named after a series of US Navy ships), and they were also numbered using the NASA Orbiter Vehicle designation system. Three of the names had also been given to Apollo spacecraft between 1969 and 1972: Apollo 11 Command Module Columbia, Apollo 15 Command Module Endeavour, and Apollo 17 Lunar Module Challenger. +While all of the orbiters were externally practically identical, they had minor differences in their interiors. New equipment for the Orbiters was installed in the same order that they underwent maintenance work, and the newer orbiters were constructed by Rockwell International, under NASA supervision, with some more advanced, lighter in weight, structural elements. Thus, the newer orbiters (Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour) had slightly more cargo capacity than Columbia or Challenger. +The Space Shuttle orbiters were assembled at Rockwell's assembly facility in Palmdale, California, at the federally owned Plant 42 complex. + +=== Orbiter Vehicle Designation === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..169b38493 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle orbiter" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_orbiter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:45.246491+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Each NASA Space Shuttle designation was composed of a prefix and suffix separated by a dash. The prefix for operational shuttles is OV, for Orbiter Vehicle. The suffix is composed of two parts: the series and the vehicle number; "0" was used for non-flight ready orbiters, and "1" was used for flight-ready orbiters. The vehicle number is sequentially assigned within the series, beginning with 1. Therefore, there can never be an OV-100 as it would read "Orbiter Vehicle Series 1 Vehicle 0". Many proposals to build a second generation of orbiters, externally compatible with the current system but internally new, refer to them as "OV-200" or "OV-2xx" in order to differentiate them from the "first generation", the OV-100s. This terminology is informal, and it is unlikely that any Shuttle-derived vehicle built will be given such designation. Challenger was originally intended to be used as a Structural Test Article (STA), rather than a flight-capable orbiter; as such, the numbering was changed when it was rebuilt. Enterprise, on the other hand, was intended to be rebuilt into a flight-capable orbiter; it was found to be cheaper to rebuild STA-099 than OV-101, so it remained unflown. The designations were not altered, despite these changes in plans. An "OV-106" designation was given to the set of structural components manufactured to replace those used in the construction of Endeavour; however, the contract for these was canceled shortly afterwards, and they were never completed. The "096" and "097" designators were given to structural test articles that were canceled, but while they exist in some NASA records, the NASA History Office has no official record of STA-096 and STA-097. + +=== Operational orbiters === + +Columbia was first launched on April 12, 1981. On February 1, 2003, Columbia disintegrated during re-entry on its 28th spaceflight. +Challenger was first launched on April 4, 1983. On January 28, 1986, it disintegrated 73 seconds after launch on its 10th mission. +Discovery was first launched on August 30, 1984. It flew 39 missions, and was NASA's "Return to Flight" vehicle, following the accidental destructions of Challenger and Columbia. Discovery completed its last mission, STS-133, in March 2011. It is currently on display at the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, near Dulles International Airport. +Atlantis was first launched on October 3, 1985. It flew 33 spaceflights including the final Space Shuttle mission, STS-135, in July 2011. +Endeavour was first launched on May 7, 1992. It flew 25 spaceflights, the final being STS-134, launched May 16, 2011. + +=== Test articles === + +=== Mockups === +In addition to the operational orbiters and test articles produced for use in the Shuttle program, there are also various mockup replicas on display throughout the United States: + +== Flight statistics == + +=== Flight history timeline === + +== See also == +Space Shuttle for program history and description of operations +Buran program (USSR's reusable shuttle program) +Dream Chaser +SpaceX Starship (spacecraft) + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == + +Orbiter Vehicles Archived February 9, 2021, at the Wayback Machine +Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) documentation, filed under Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2101 NASA Parkway, Houston, Harris County, TX: +HAER No. TX-116-A, "Space Transportation System, Orbiter Discovery (OV-103)", 121 photos, 14 measured drawings, 28 photo caption pages +HAER No. TX-116-B, "Space Transportation System, Orbiter Atlantis (OV-104)", 24 photos, 5 photo caption pages +HAER No. TX-116-C, "Space Transportation System, Orbiter Endeavour (OV-105)", 22 photos, 5 photo caption pages +HAER No. TX-116-I, "Space Transportation System, Space Shuttle Main Engine", 20 photos, 2 measured drawings, 8 photo caption pages \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..91fd2fe72 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle program" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:42.764729+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Space Shuttle program was the fourth human spaceflight program carried out by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which accomplished routine transportation for Earth-to-orbit crew and cargo from 1981 to 2011. Its official program name was carried over from the 1969 plan for the Space Transportation System (STS) of reusable spacecraft. Only the shuttle and supporting rockets were funded for development; a proposed nuclear lunar shuttle in the plan was canceled in 1972. It flew 135 missions and carried 355 astronauts from 16 countries, many on multiple trips. +The Space Shuttle, composed of an orbiter launched with two reusable solid rocket boosters and a disposable external fuel tank, carried up to eight astronauts and up to 50,000 lb (23,000 kg) of payload into low Earth orbit (LEO). When its mission was complete, the orbiter would reenter the Earth's atmosphere and land like a glider at either the Kennedy Space Center or Edwards Air Force Base. +The Shuttle is the only winged crewed spacecraft to have achieved orbit and landing, and the first reusable crewed space vehicle that made multiple flights into orbit. Its missions involved carrying large payloads to various orbits including the International Space Station (ISS), providing crew rotation for the space station, and performing service missions on the Hubble Space Telescope. The orbiter also recovered satellites and other payloads (e.g., from the ISS) from orbit and returned them to Earth, though its use in this capacity was rare. Each vehicle was designed with a projected lifespan of 100 launches, or 10 years' operational life. Original selling points on the shuttles were over 150 launches over a 15-year operational span with a 'launch per month' expected at the peak of the program, but extensive delays in the development of the International Space Station never created such a peak demand for frequent flights. + +== Background == +Various shuttle concepts had been explored since the late 1960s. The program formally commenced in 1972, becoming the sole focus of NASA's human spaceflight operations after the Apollo, Skylab, and Apollo–Soyuz programs in 1975. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public in 1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low Earth orbit during the 1980s and then be replaced by a new vehicle by the early 1990s. The stalled plans for a U.S. space station evolved into the International Space Station and were formally initiated in 1983 by President Ronald Reagan, but the ISS suffered from long delays, design changes and cost over-runs and forced the service life of the Space Shuttle to be extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired—serving twice as long as it was originally designed to do. In 2004, according to President George W. Bush's Vision for Space Exploration, use of the Space Shuttle was to be focused almost exclusively on completing assembly of the ISS, which was far behind schedule at that point. +The first experimental orbiter, Enterprise, was a high-altitude glider, launched from the back of a specially modified Boeing 747, only for initial atmospheric landing tests (ALT). Enterprise's first test flight was on February 18, 1977, only five years after the Shuttle program was formally initiated; leading to the launch of the first space-worthy shuttle Columbia on April 12, 1981, on STS-1. The Space Shuttle program finished with its last mission, STS-135 flown by Atlantis, in July 2011, retiring the final Shuttle in the fleet. The Space Shuttle program formally ended on August 31, 2011. + +== Conception and development == + +== Program history == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..da79440d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle program" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:42.764729+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +All Space Shuttle missions were launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. Some civilian and military circumpolar Space Shuttle missions were planned for Vandenberg AFB in California. However, the use of Vandenberg AFB for Space Shuttle missions was canceled after the Challenger disaster in 1986. The weather criteria used for launch included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity. The Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by lightning. +The first fully functional orbiter was Columbia (designated OV-102), built in Palmdale, California. It was delivered to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on March 25, 1979, and was first launched on April 12, 1981—the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's space flight—with a crew of two. +Challenger (OV-099) was delivered to KSC in July 1982, Discovery (OV-103) in November 1983, Atlantis (OV-104) in April 1985 and Endeavour (OV-105) in May 1991. Challenger was originally built and used as a Structural Test Article (STA-099), but was converted to a complete orbiter when this was found to be less expensive than converting Enterprise from its Approach and Landing Test configuration into a spaceworthy vehicle. +On April 24, 1990, Discovery carried the Hubble Space Telescope into space during STS-31. +In the course of 135 missions flown, two orbiters (Columbia and Challenger) suffered catastrophic accidents, with the loss of all crew members, totaling 14 astronauts. +The accidents led to national level inquiries, detailed analysis of why the accidents occurred, and significant pauses where changes were made before the Shuttles returned to flight. After the Challenger disaster in January 1986, there was a delay of 32 months before the next Shuttle launch. A similar delay of 29 months occurred after the Columbia disaster in February 2003. +The longest Shuttle mission was STS-80 lasting 17 days, 15 hours. The final flight of the Space Shuttle program was STS-135 on July 8, 2011. +Since the Shuttle's retirement in 2011, many of its original duties are performed by an assortment of government and private vessels. The European ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle supplied the ISS between 2008 and 2015. Classified military missions are being flown by the US Air Force's uncrewed spaceplane, the X-37B. By 2012, cargo to the International Space Station was already being delivered commercially under NASA's Commercial Resupply Services by SpaceX's partially reusable Dragon spacecraft, followed by Orbital Sciences' Cygnus spacecraft in late 2013. Crew service to the ISS is currently provided by the Russian Soyuz and, since 2020, the SpaceX Dragon 2 crew capsule, launched on the company's reusable Falcon 9 rocket as part of NASA's Commercial Crew Development program. Boeing's Starliner capsule is scheduled to start ISS crew service from 2025. For missions beyond low Earth orbit, NASA is building the Space Launch System and the Orion spacecraft, part of the Artemis program. + +== Accomplishments == + +Space Shuttle missions have included: + +Spacelab missions Including: +Science +Astronomy +Crystal growth +Space physics +Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) +Crew rotation and servicing of Mir and the International Space Station (ISS) +Servicing missions, such as to repair the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and orbiting satellites +Human experiments in low Earth orbit (LEO) +Carried to low Earth orbit (LEO): +The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) +Components of the International Space Station (ISS) +Supplies in Spacehab modules or Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules +The Long Duration Exposure Facility +The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite +The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory +The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite +The Mir Shuttle Docking Node +Carried satellites with a booster, such as the Payload Assist Module (PAM-D) or the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), to the point where the booster sends the satellite to: +A higher Earth orbit; these have included: +Chandra X-ray Observatory +The first six TDRS satellites +Two DSCS-III (Defense Satellite Communications System) communications satellites in one mission +A Defense Support Program satellite +An interplanetary mission; these have included: +Magellan +Galileo +Ulysses + +== Budget == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0513c7f45 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle program" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:42.764729+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Early during development of the Space Shuttle, NASA had estimated that the program would cost $7.45 billion ($43 billion in 2011 dollars, adjusting for inflation) in development/non-recurring costs, and $9.3M ($54M in 2011 dollars) per flight. Early estimates for the cost to deliver payload to low-Earth orbit were as low as $118 per pound ($260/kg) of payload ($635/lb or $1,400/kg in 2011 dollars), based on marginal or incremental launch costs, and assuming a 65,000 pound (30 000 kg) payload capacity and 50 launches per year. A more realistic projection of 12 flights per year for the 15-year service life combined with the initial development costs would have resulted in a total cost projection for the program of roughly $54 billion (in 2011 dollars). +The total cost of the actual 30-year service life of the Shuttle program through 2011, adjusted for inflation, was $196 billion. In 2010, the incremental cost per flight of the Space Shuttle was $409 million, or $14,186 per kilogram ($6,435 per pound) to low Earth orbit (LEO). In contrast, the comparable Proton launch vehicle cost was $141 million, or $6,721 per kilogram ($3,049 per pound) to LEO and the Soyuz 2.1 was $55 million, or $6,665 per kilogram ($3,023 per pound), despite these launch vehicles not being reusable. +NASA's budget for 2005 allocated 30%, or $5 billion, to Space Shuttle operations; this was decreased in 2006 to a request of $4.3 billion. Non-launch costs account for a significant part of the program budget: for example, during fiscal years 2004 to 2006, NASA spent around $13 billion on the Space Shuttle program, even though the fleet was grounded in the aftermath of the Columbia disaster and there were a total of three launches during this period of time. In fiscal year 2009, NASA budget allocated $2.98 billion for 5 launches to the program, including $490 million for "program integration", $1.03 billion for "flight and ground operations", and $1.46 billion for "flight hardware" (which includes maintenance of orbiters, engines, and the external tank between flights.) +Per-launch costs can be measured by dividing the total cost over the life of the program (including buildings, facilities, training, salaries, etc.) by the number of launches. With 135 missions, and the total cost of US$192 billion (in 2010 dollars), this gives approximately $1.5 billion per launch over the life of the Shuttle program. A 2017 study found that carrying one kilogram of cargo to the ISS on the Shuttle cost $272,000 in 2017 dollars, twice the cost of Cygnus and three times that of Dragon. +NASA used a management philosophy known as success-oriented management during the Space Shuttle program which historian Alex Roland described in the aftermath of the Columbia disaster as "hoping for the best". Success-oriented management has since been studied by several analysts in the area. + +== Disasters == +In the course of 135 missions flown, two orbiters were destroyed, with loss of crew totalling 14 astronauts: + +Challenger – lost 73 seconds after liftoff, STS-51-L, January 28, 1986 +Columbia – lost approximately 16 minutes before its expected landing, STS-107, February 1, 2003 +There was also one abort-to-orbit and some fatal accidents on the ground during launch preparations. + +=== STS-51-L (Challenger, 1986) === + +Close-up video footage of Challenger during its final launch on January 28, 1986, clearly shows that the problems began due to an O-ring failure on the right solid rocket booster (SRB). The hot plume of gas leaking from the failed joint caused the collapse of the external tank, which then resulted in the orbiter's disintegration due to high aerodynamic stress. The accident resulted in the loss of all seven astronauts on board. Endeavour (OV-105) was built to replace Challenger (using structural spare parts originally intended for the other orbiters) and delivered in May 1991; it was first launched a year later. +After the loss of Challenger, NASA grounded the Space Shuttle program for over two years, making numerous safety changes recommended by the Rogers Commission Report, which included a redesign of the SRB joint that failed in the Challenger accident. Other safety changes included a new escape system for use when the orbiter was in controlled flight, improved landing gear tires and brakes, and the reintroduction of pressure suits for Shuttle astronauts (these had been discontinued after STS-4; astronauts wore only coveralls and oxygen helmets from that point on until the Challenger accident). The Shuttle program continued in September 1988 with the launch of Discovery on STS-26. +The accidents did not just affect the technical design of the orbiter, but also NASA. +Quoting some recommendations made by the post-Challenger Rogers commission: + +=== STS-107 (Columbia, 2003) === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4ce1fe81 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle program" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:42.764729+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Shuttle program operated accident-free for seventeen years and 88 missions after the Challenger disaster, until Columbia broke up on reentry, killing all seven crew members, on February 1, 2003. The ultimate cause of the accident was a piece of foam separating from the external tank moments after liftoff and striking the leading edge of the orbiter's left wing, puncturing one of the reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC) panels that covered the wing edge and protected it during reentry. As Columbia reentered the atmosphere at the end of an otherwise normal mission, hot gas penetrated the wing and destroyed it from the inside out, causing the orbiter to lose control and disintegrate. +After the Columbia disaster, the International Space Station operated on a skeleton crew of two for more than two years and was serviced primarily by Russian spacecraft. While the "Return to Flight" mission STS-114 in 2005 was successful, a similar piece of foam from a different portion of the tank was shed. Although the debris did not strike Discovery, the program was grounded once again for this reason. +The second "Return to Flight" mission, STS-121 launched on July 4, 2006, at 14:37 (EDT). Two previous launches were scrubbed because of lingering thunderstorms and high winds around the launch pad, and the launch took place despite objections from its chief engineer and safety head. A five-inch (13 cm) crack in the foam insulation of the external tank gave cause for concern; however, the Mission Management Team gave the go for launch. This mission increased the ISS crew to three. Discovery touched down successfully on July 17, 2006, at 09:14 (EDT) on Runway 15 at Kennedy Space Center. +Following the success of STS-121, all subsequent missions were completed without major foam problems, and the construction of the ISS was completed (during the STS-118 mission in August 2007, the orbiter was again struck by a foam fragment on liftoff, but this damage was minimal compared to the damage sustained by Columbia). +The Columbia Accident Investigation Board, in its report, noted the reduced risk to the crew when a Shuttle flew to the International Space Station (ISS), as the station could be used as a safe haven for the crew awaiting rescue in the event that damage to the orbiter on ascent made it unsafe for reentry. The board recommended that for the remaining flights, the Shuttle always orbit with the station. Prior to STS-114, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe declared that all future flights of the Space Shuttle would go to the ISS, precluding the possibility of executing the final Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission which had been scheduled before the Columbia accident, despite the fact that millions of dollars' worth of upgrade equipment for Hubble were ready and waiting in NASA warehouses. Many dissenters, including astronauts , asked NASA management to reconsider allowing the mission, but initially the director stood firm. On October 31, 2006, NASA announced approval of the launch of Atlantis for the fifth and final shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope, scheduled for August 28, 2008. However SM4/STS-125 eventually launched in May 2009. +One impact of Columbia was that future crewed launch vehicles, namely the Ares I, had a special emphasis on crew safety compared to other considerations. + +== Retirement == + +== Preservation == + +Out of the five fully functional shuttle orbiters built, three remain. Enterprise, which was used for atmospheric test flights but not for orbital flight, had many parts taken out for use on the other orbiters. It was later visually restored and was on display at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center until April 19, 2012. Enterprise was moved to New York City in April 2012 to be displayed at the Intrepid Museum, whose Space Shuttle Pavilion opened on July 19, 2012. Discovery replaced Enterprise at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Atlantis formed part of the Space Shuttle Exhibit at the Kennedy Space Center visitor complex and has been on display there since June 29, 2013, following its refurbishment. +On October 14, 2012, Endeavour completed an unprecedented 12 mi (19 km) drive on city streets from Los Angeles International Airport to the California Science Center, where it was put on display later that year. The transport from the airport took two days and required major street closures, the removal of over 400 city trees, and extensive work to raise power lines, level the street, and temporarily remove street signs, lamp posts, and other obstacles. Hundreds of volunteers, and fire and police personnel, helped with the transport. Large crowds of spectators waited on the streets to see the shuttle as it passed through the city. Endeavour was initially on display at the Science Center's temporary Samuel Oschin Pavilion (in a horizontal orientation) starting with its arrival in late 2012 until December 31, 2023, when it closed for the construction of its permanent home in the Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center (a planned addition to the California Science Center). Once moved, it will be displayed in launch configuration, along with genuine solid rocket boosters and the last flight-qualified external tank (ET-94). As of April 2026, construction on the new facility has finished, though a reopening date has yet to be announced. + +== Crew modules == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b3e544b5b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle program" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:42.764729+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +One area of Space Shuttle applications is an expanded crew. Crews of up to eight have been flown in the Orbiter, but it could have held at least a crew of ten. Various proposals for filling the payload bay with additional passengers were also made as early as 1979. One proposal by Rockwell provided seating for 74 passengers in the Orbiter payload bay, with support for three days in Earth orbit. With a smaller 64 seat orbiter, costs for the late 1980s would be around US$1.5 million per seat per launch. The Rockwell passenger module had two decks, four seats across on top and two on the bottom, including a 25-inch (63.5 cm) wide aisle and extra storage space. +Another design was Space Habitation Design Associates 1983 proposal for 72 passengers in the Space Shuttle Payload bay. Passengers were located in 6 sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp at launch, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the payload bay in addition to those in the cockpit area. +There were some efforts to analyze commercial operation of STS. Using the NASA figure for average cost to launch a Space Shuttle as of 2011 at about $450 million per mission, a cost per seat for a 74 seat module envisioned by Rockwell came to less than $6 million, not including the regular crew. Some passenger modules used hardware similar to existing equipment, such as the tunnel, which was also needed for Spacehab and Spacelab + +== Successors == +During the three decades of operation, various follow-on and replacements for the STS Space Shuttle were partially developed but not finished. +Examples of possible future space vehicles to supplement or supplant STS: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..05f99c8d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle program" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:42.764729+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Advanced Crewed Earth-to-Orbit Vehicle +Shuttle II, Johnson Space Center concept for a follow-on, with 2 boosters and 2 tanks mounted on its wings. +National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) +Rockwell X-30 (not funded) +VentureStar, SSTO spacelane concept using an aerospike engine. +Lockheed Martin X-33 (cancelled 2001) +Ares I (ended with Constellation cancellation) +Orbital Space Plane Program +One effort in the direction of space transportation was the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) program, initiated in 1994 by NASA. This led to work on the X-33 and X-34 vehicles. NASA spent about US$1 billion on developing the X-33 hoping for it be in operation by 2005. Another program around the turn of the millennium was the Space Launch Initiative, which was a next generation launch initiative. +The Space Launch Initiative program was started in 2001, and in late 2002 it was evolved into two programs, the Orbital Space Plane Program and the Next Generation Launch Technology program. OSP was oriented towards provided access to the International Space Station. +Other vehicles that would have taken over some of the Shuttles responsibilities were the HL-20 Personnel Launch System or the NASA X-38 of the Crew Return Vehicle program, which were primarily for getting people down from ISS. The X-38 was cancelled in 2002, and the HL-20 was cancelled in 1993. Several other programs in this existed such as the Station Crew Return Alternative Module (SCRAM) and Assured Crew Return Vehicle (ACRV) +According to the 2004 Vision for Space Exploration, the next human NASA program was to be Constellation program with its Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles and the Orion spacecraft; however, the Constellation program was never fully funded, and in early 2010 the Obama administration asked Congress to instead endorse a plan with heavy reliance on the private sector for delivering cargo and crew to LEO. +The Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program began in 2006 with the purpose of creating commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS. The first of these vehicles, SpaceX Dragon 1, became operational in 2012, and the second, Orbital Sciences's Cygnus did so in 2014. +The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth. These spacecraft, like SpaceX's Dragon 2 and Boeing CST-100 Starliner were expected to become operational around 2020. On the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission, SpaceX's Dragon 2 sent astronauts to the ISS, restoring America's human launch capability. The first operational SpaceX mission launched on November 15, 2020, at 7:27:17 p.m. ET, carrying four astronauts to the ISS. +Although the Constellation program was canceled, it has been replaced with a very similar Artemis program. The Orion spacecraft has been left virtually unchanged from its previous design. The planned Ares V rocket has been replaced with the smaller Space Launch System (SLS), which is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware. Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1), an uncrewed test flight of the Orion spacecraft, launched on December 5, 2014, on a Delta IV Heavy rocket. +Artemis 1 is the first flight of the SLS and was launched as a test of the completed Orion and SLS system. During the mission, an uncrewed Orion capsule spent 10 days in a 57,000-kilometer (31,000-nautical-mile) distant retrograde orbit around the Moon before returning to Earth. Artemis 2, the first crewed mission of the program, will launch four astronauts in 2024 on a free-return flyby of the Moon at a distance of 8,520 kilometers (4,600 nautical miles). After Artemis 2, the Power and Propulsion Element of the Lunar Gateway and three components of an expendable lunar lander are planned to be delivered on multiple launches from commercial launch service providers. Artemis 3 is planned to launch in 2025 aboard a SLS Block 1 rocket and will use the minimalist Gateway and expendable lander to achieve the first crewed lunar landing of the program. The flight is planned to touch down on the lunar south pole region, with two astronauts staying there for about one week. +For many Artemis missions, the Space Launch System's two solid rocket boosters' engines and casings and four main engines and the Orion spacecraft's main engine will all be previously flown Space Shuttle main engines, solid rocket boosters, and Orbital Maneuvering System engines. They are refurbished legacy engines from the Space Shuttle program, some of which even date back to the early 1980s. For example, Artemis I had components that flew on 83 of the 135 Space Shuttle missions. From Artemis I to Artemis IV recycled Shuttle main engines will be used before manufacturing new engines. From Artemis I to Artemis III recycled Shuttle solid rocket boosters' engines and steel casings will be used before manufacturing new ones. From Artemis I to Artemis VI the Orion main engine will use six previously flown Space Shuttle OMS engines. + +=== Gallery === + +== Assets and transition plan == + +The Space Shuttle program occupied over 654 facilities, used over 1.2 million line items of equipment, and employed over 5,000 people. The total value of equipment was over $12 billion. Shuttle-related facilities represented over a quarter of NASA's inventory. There were over 1,200 active suppliers to the program throughout the United States. NASA's transition plan had the program operating through 2010 with a transition and retirement phase lasting through 2015. During this time, the Ares I and Orion as well as the Altair Lunar Lander were to be under development, although these programs have since been canceled. +In the 2010s, two major programs for human spaceflight are Commercial Crew Program and the Artemis program. Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A is, for example, used to launch Falcon Heavy and Falcon 9. + +== Criticism == + +== Support vehicles == +Many other vehicles were used in support of the Space Shuttle program, mainly terrestrial transportation vehicles. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6c7df9e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "Space Shuttle program" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:42.764729+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The crawler-transporter carried the mobile launcher platform and the Space Shuttle from the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) to Launch Complex 39, originally built for Project Apollo. +The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) were two modified Boeing 747s. Either could fly an orbiter from alternative landing sites back to the Kennedy Space Center. These aircraft were retired to the Joe Davies Heritage Airpark at the Armstrong Flight Research Center and Space Center Houston. +A 36-wheeled transport trailer, the Orbiter Transfer System, originally built for the U.S. Air Force's launch facility at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California (since then converted for Delta IV rockets) would transport the orbiter from the landing facility to the launch pad, which allowed both "stacking" and launch without utilizing a separate VAB-style building and crawler-transporter roadway. Prior to the closing of the Vandenberg facility, orbiters were transported from the OPF to the VAB on their undercarriages, only to be raised when the orbiter was being lifted for attachment to the SRB/ET stack. The trailer allowed the transportation of the orbiter from the OPF to either the SCA "Mate-Demate" stand or the VAB without placing any additional stress on the undercarriage. +The Crew Transport Vehicle (CTV), a modified airport jet bridge, was used to assist astronauts to egress from the orbiter after landing. Upon entering the CTV, astronauts could take off their launch and reentry suits then proceed to chairs and beds for medical checks before being transported back to the crew quarters in the Operations and Checkout Building. Originally built for Project Apollo. +The Astrovan was used to transport astronauts from the crew quarters in the Operations and Checkout Building to the launch pad on launch day. It was also used to transport astronauts back again from the Crew Transport Vehicle at the Shuttle Landing Facility. +The three locomotives serving the NASA Railroad, used to transport segments of the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, were determined to be no longer needed for day-to-day operation at the Kennedy Space Center. In April 2015, locomotive No. 1 was sent to Natchitoches Parish Port and No. 3 sent to the Madison Railroad. Locomotive No. 2 was sent to the Gold Coast Railroad Museum in 2014. + +== See also == + +== References == +Footnotes + +Citations + + This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. + +== Further reading == +Shuttle Reference manual +Orbiter Vehicles Archived February 9, 2021, at the Wayback Machine +Shuttle Program Funding 1992 – 2002 +NASA Space Shuttle News Reference – 1981 (PDF document) +R. A. Pielke, "Space Shuttle Value open to Interpretation", Aviation Week, issue 26. July 1993, p. 57 (.pdf) + +== External links == + +Official NASA Mission Site +NASA Johnson Space Center Space Shuttle Site +Official Space Shuttle Mission Archives +NASA Space Shuttle Multimedia Gallery & Archives +Shuttle audio, video, and images – searchable archives from STS-67 (1995) to present +Kennedy Space Center Media Gallery – searchable video/audio/photo gallery +Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding the Space Shuttle +U.S. Space Flight History: Space Shuttle Program +Weather criteria for Shuttle launch +Consolidated Launch Manifest: Space Shuttle Flights and ISS Assembly Sequence Archived March 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine +USENET posting – Unofficial Space FAQ by Jon Leech \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8d002d5b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "T-26 variants" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:36.393640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +More than 50 different modifications and experimental vehicles based on the T-26 light infantry tank chassis were developed in the USSR in the 1930s, with 23 modifications going into series production. The majority were armoured combat vehicles: flame tanks, artillery tractors, radio-controlled tanks (teletanks), military engineering vehicles, self-propelled guns and armoured personnel carriers. They were developed at the Leningrad Factory of Experimental Mechanical Engineering (from 1935 known as the Factory No. 185 named after S.M. Kirov) by talented Soviet engineers P.N. Syachentov, S.A. Ginzburg, L.S. Troyanov, N.V. Tseits, B.A. Andryhevich, M.P. Zigel and others. Many Soviet tank engineers were declared "enemies of the nation" and repressed during Stalin's Great Purge from the middle of the 1930s. As a result, work on self-propelled guns and armoured carriers ceased in the USSR during that time. T-26 light tanks were also modified into armoured combat vehicles in the field during wartime. + +== Flame-throwing (chemical) tanks == + +Flame-throwing tanks formed around 12 per cent of the series production of T-26 light tanks. It should be mentioned that the abbreviation "OT" (Ognemetniy Tank which stands for Flame-throwing Tank) appeared only in post-war literature; these tanks were originally called "KhT" (Khimicheskiy Tank which stands for Chemical Tank), or BKhM (Boevaya Khimicheskaya Mashina; Fighting Chemical Vehicle) in the documents of the 1930s. All chemical (flame-throwing) tanks based on the T-26 chassis (KhT-26, KhT-130, KhT-133) were designated BKhM-3. The vehicles were intended for area chemical contamination, smoke screens and for flame-throwing. + +The TKhP-3 chemical equipment for smoke screens and chemical contamination was developed in 1932. This equipment could be easily installed on any T-26 light tank and was produced by the "Compressor" Factory, (introduced for smoke screening as the TDP-3 from summer 1934; 1,503 such sets were produced to the end of 1936). + +KhT-26 (OT-26) — Flamethrower variant developed in 1933. Based on the twin-turreted T-26 mod. 1931 tank but using a single turret armed with a flamethrower, the second turret was removed. +KhT-130 (OT-130) — Flamethrower variant of model 1933, using a larger 45 mm gun turret (main gun was replaced with a flamethrower). +KhT-133 (OT-133) — Flamethrower variant of model 1939 (main gun was replaced with a flamethrower). +KhT-134 (OT-134) — Flamethrower variant of model 1939, with 45 mm gun intact and hull-mounted flamethrower. Prototype only. + +== Combat engineer vehicles == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..692db5efc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "T-26 variants" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:36.393640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +ST-26 (ST stands for saperniy tank or "engineer tank") — engineer tank; a bridge-laying tank based on the twin-turreted T-26 mod. 1931 chassis. According to the "System of armoured engineering armament of the Red Army", the ST-26 was developed by designers from the Academy of Military Engineering (chief engineer of the project - Gutman) in the beginning of 1932. The ST-26 had only one shortened turret in the middle of the hull armed with a DT tank machine gun with 1,008 rounds; arc of fire was 211°. Special equipment consisted of a metal tracked bridge 7.35 m (24.1 ft) long and weighing 1,100 kg (2,400 lb), supports for the bridge (a front frame with two forks and two guiding rollers, lower forks with a hoisting mechanism and a roller, a rear frame with mounts and two rollers) and a cable winch (driven by the tank engine with the use of the reversing gear) inside the vehicle. The ST-26 was intended to provide for crossing of trenches and streams 6–6.5 m (20–21 ft) wide and barriers up to 2 m (6.6 ft) high by T-27, T-26 and BT light tanks: the bridge had a maximum load rating of 14 tonnes (15 short tons). The bridge could be laid with the help of the cable winch in 25–40 seconds without crew exit; the raising operation took 2-3 min and a commander needed to come out from the vehicle in order to control the process. The ST-26 with its cable system for bridge laying was tested in the summer of 1932. +Additional variants of the ST-26 (with a sliding system of bridge laying and with a tipping system of bridge laying) were also tested from 1932. The first had a massive guide frame and a special boom (the bridge could be laid in 3 min 20 sec, the raise operation took 6-7 min), while the second was equipped with a special swinging-boom with a rack-and-pinion drive. All three variants of the ST-26 participated in military maneuvers of the Leningrad Military District in the summer of 1933; subsequently series production of the ST-26 with a cable system of bridge laying was begun as it proved to be more reliable and less complicated to maintain. The Defence Committee of the USSR ordered the production of 100 ST-26 to the end of 1933, but only 44 vehicles were assembled by the Factory No. 174 by 1934, and 20 in 1935. The delay was attributed to the manufacture of the metal bridges, carried out by the Gipstalmost Factory and several workshops using semi-handicraft techniques. +Specifications: weight - 9.5–10 tonnes (10.5–11.0 short tons); crew - 2 men (commander and driver); speed - 28 km/h (17 mph); range - 120 km (75 mi). +The Armoured Engineering Section of the Red Army's Research Institute of Engineer Equipment (NIIIT RKKA) in co-operation with the Gipstalmost Factory developed an improved engineer tank at the end of 1936, with a lever hydraulic system of bridge laying (similar to the UST-26, see below) and a small turret of new design. The bridge could be laid in 45 sec and the raise operation took 1.5 min (both processes did not require crew exit). The vehicle was assembled by the Podolsk Machine Factory named after S. Ordzhonikidze in July 1937, and was successfully tested at the NIIIT Proving Ground (85 bridge layings were performed and 70 light tanks passed over the bridge). This ST-26 prototype was also tested at the Kubinka Tank Proving Ground, and participated in military exercises of the Leningrad Military District in 1938. A decision was made in 1939 to produce a batch of engineer tanks with the lever hydraulic system, but the Podolsk Machine Factory could assemble only one. The Stalingrad Tractor Factory probably also produced two such vehicles the same year. +An experimental multispan bridge was developed in 1934 which allowed for the coupling together of three or more ST-26 bridges, using special automatic grips in the end of each bridge section. The multispan bridge employed 250 kg metal columns 2.5 m (8.2 ft) high and was intended for crossings by T-26 and BT light tanks of water obstacles up to 20–50 m (66–164 ft) wide and 3 m (9.8 ft) deep. The launching of each bridge section took 20-30 min. The bridge had no development after testing. +Engineer Alexandrov from the Research and Technology Division of the Red Army's Engineer Directorate (NTO UNI RKKA) developed a wooden tracked bridge 6.5 m (21 ft) long. The bridge was mounted on standard T-26 light tanks as well as on ST-26 engineer tanks and could be laid in 30-60 sec without crew exit. Trials carried out in July–August 1934 were successful and 20 such bridges were issued to the armed forces. +Seventy-one ST-26 engineer tanks were produced in 1932–1939, including experimental vehicles: 65 ST-26 with a cable-laid bridge system, 1 ST-26 with a sliding bridge, 1 ST-26 with a tipping bridge, 2 UST-26 and 2 ST-26 with a levered bridge-laying system. +Ten ST-26 engineer tanks were used on the Karelian Isthmus during the Winter War (9 with a cable system and 1 with a lever system); they were included in engineer groups for obstacle clearing that were established in each tank brigade during the war. Three ST-26 tanks of the 35th Light Tank Brigade had the most success (in particular they launched two bridges over a trench and then an antitank ditch for a tank battalion during an assault on the fortified High Point 65.5 (Hottinen area) of the Mannerheim Line on February 18, 1940). The ST-26 with the lever system of bridge laying demonstrated good results and that vehicle was used quite actively during the Winter War, while tanks with the cable system were less reliable and had limited use. There were no losses of ST-26 engineer tanks during the Winter War. +Tank units of the Red Army had 57 ST-26 engineer tanks on June 1, 1941: 9 in the Far Eastern Front, 26 in the Moscow Military District, 2 in the Leningrad Military District, 2 in the Kiev Special Military District, 8 in the Western Special Military District, 1 in the Volga Military District, and 9 vehicles were in military supply depots. From those ST-26 engineer tanks only 12 were in good order, the others required repair. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b22099deb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "T-26 variants" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:36.393640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +UST-26 (UST stands for usovershenstvovanniy saperniy tank or "improved engineer tank") - mod. 1936 was an improved version of the ST-26. Operation of the ST-26 engineer tanks had demonstrated their low reliability (frequent breaking of wire cables and bending of bridge supporting mounts), so the improved UST-26 was developed in 1936. The vehicle designers were the Red Army's Research Institute of Engineer Equipment (NIIIT RKKA) and the Gipstalmost Factory (engineers Vayson, Nemets and Markov). The UST-26 used a lever system of bridge laying with two levers and a hydraulic cylinder. The Factory No. 174 in co-operation with the Podolsk Machine Factory assembled two UST-26 in 1936. Trials performed in March 1936 showed the UST-26 was an improvement on the series-produced ST-26 (for example, the bridge raise operation did not require crew exit). Nevertheless, the UST-26 had its own disadvantages. + +== Remotely controlled tanks == +TT-26 — Teletank + +== Self-propelled guns == + +SU-1 — Self-propelled gun armed with 76.2 mm regimental gun mod. 1927. The single fully armoured vehicle was built and tested in 1931. +AT-1 — Artillery tank (tank of artillery support) armed with 76.2 mm PS-3 or L-7 tank gun. Two fully armoured vehicles were built and tested in 1935, 10 AT-1 artillery tanks were planned to be built in 1936 but were cancelled (Izhora Works produced 8 armoured hulls for the program). +SU-5-1 — Self-propelled gun armed with the 76 mm divisional gun M1902/30 (open-top type, the single vehicle was built in 1934). +SU-5-2 — Self-propelled gun armed with 122 mm howitzer M1910/30 (open-top type; a single vehicle was built in 1934 and a further 30 vehicles in 1936). +SU-5-3 — Self-propelled gun armed with 152.4 mm divisional mortar mod. 1931 (open-top type, a single vehicle was built in 1934). +SU-6 — Self-propelled gun armed with 76.2 mm 3K anti-aircraft gun (open-top type, a single vehicle was built in 1935 and 4 more vehicles armed with 37 mm anti-aircraft automatic gun were planned to be produced in 1936). +SU-T-26 (SU-26, later SU-76P) — Self-propelled gun of an open-top design armed with a 37 mm gun or a 76.2mm regimental gun mod. 1927. The Factory of Hoisting-and-Conveying Machinery named after S.M. Kirov (in Leningrad) built 14 vehicles in 1941: probably 2 with a 37 mm gun and 12 with a 76 mm gun. + +== Armoured transport vehicles == +TR-4 — Armoured personnel carrier +TR-26 — Armoured personnel carrier +TR4-1 — Ammunition transportation vehicle +TB-26 — Ammunition transportation vehicle +T-26Ts — Fuel transportation vehicle +TTs-26 — Fuel transportation vehicle + +== Reconnaissance vehicles == + +TN (TN stands for tank nablyudeniya or "observation tank") +an experimental observation version based on the T-26T artillery tractor chassis and intended for reconnaissance of front lines and enemy firing-points; also for correction of artillery fire. Developed by the Design Office of the Military Supply Depot No. 37 in Moscow in September 1934. The single vehicle was built by the Factory No. 185 named after S.M. Kirov in Leningrad and tested with some success in 1935 (nevertheless, the further work was stopped). The TN had an armoured cabin instead of a tank turret, armed with a bow DT tank machine gun (4,980 rds.). Equipment consisted of a 71-TK-1 radio station with a hand-rail antenna around the cabin, a Zeiss optical rangefinder (with a 500 mm base length), a PTK tank commander panoramic sight, gyrocompass, course plotter, field dead-reckoning analyzer, predictor, map-board, SPVO signalling lamp and two UNAF telephones with a cable spool. +Specifications: weight - 8.1 tonnes (8.9 short tons); crew - 3 men; armour - 6–15 mm (0.24–0.59 in); speed - 28 km/h (17 mph); range - 130 km (81 mi). +BSNP +The TN, stored at the Factory No. 185, was subsequently rebuilt as the BSNP (bronirovanniy samokhodniy nablyudatel'niy punkt - "armoured self-propelled observation post"), developed by the Artillery Advanced Courses for Command Staff and the Research Institute No. 22 in 1939. The BSNP was equipped with a 71-TK radio station, an Invert optical rangefinder (with 700 mm base length), PTK tank commander panoramic sight, tank magnetic compass, PDN retractable periscope of long-range observation (with 10x optical magnification and 5° angle), two field telephones with two cable spools and a real-time course plotter developed by the Research Institute No. 22. The vehicle was tested in summer 1939 at the Luga Artillery Proving Ground. The inspection commission came to the conclusion that the BSNP was a very useful vehicle for artillery general-purpose reconnaissance and for co-ordination of artillery with tank and infantry units on the battlefield, but that the quality of equipment and its installation was not a successful use of the vehicle. It was recommended to improve the vehicle but all further work was stopped. +T-26FT (FT stands for foto tank or "photo tank") +An experimental reconnaissance vehicle based on the T-26 mod. 1933 tank chassis, the T-26FT was intended for filming and photography of enemy defensive positions (both at a halt and while on the move). The T-26FT had the usual cylindrical tank turret with a hand-rail antenna, but the 45 mm gun was removed (replaced with a dummy wooden gun); armament consisted of the DT tank machine gun (441 rds.) only. On the left side of the turret two small holes (80 mm in diameter) with electrically driven armoured lids were fitted for camera lenses. There were two special compartments inside the vehicle: one for filming and photography (equipped with a Kinamo heavy semi-automatic photographic camera, a motion-picture camera, a periscope synchronized with both cameras and a radio station), and one for photographic development (equipped with an Anschütz gyrocompass navigation device, magnifier and developing apparatus). The crew consisted of 3 men (a driver and two camera operators). The single vehicle was built by the Military Supply Depot No. 37 in Moscow in 1937 and tested at the Kubinka Tank Proving Ground in January–February 1938. The vehicle had no further development. + +== Artillery tractors == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a30ce1459 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "T-26 variants" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:36.393640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +T-26T (T stands for tyagach or "prime mover", "tractor") — armoured artillery tractor based on the T-26 chassis. Two unarmed variants were developed in 1932 according to the "Program of tank, tractor and armoured car armament of the RKKA": one with a canvas cover designed by the Artillery Design Office of the Bolshevik Factory (some sources mention this vehicle as the T-26T2) and one with an armoured cabin designed by the Artillery Academy. The canvas cover had celluloid windows along the perimeter. The armoured cabin had a double-wing driver hatch in the front, two hatches on the roof and lookout hatches on the sides and rear (some vehicles did not have the rear hatches). T-26T artillery tractors had riveted or welded hulls (late models). The vehicle was equipped with a special towing device for towing 76.2 mm divisional guns, 122–152 mm howitzers and trailers up to 7 tonnes (7.7 short tons) weight. +Specifications: weight - 7.77–8.1 tonnes (8.56–8.93 short tons); crew - 1 (driver) + 4-5 (gun crew or landing party); armour - 6–15 mm (0.24–0.59 in); speed - 28 km/h (17 mph), 15 km/h (9.3 mph) with a 5-t trailer; range - 120 km (75 mi) with a 5-t trailer. +One hundred and eighty three T-26T were produced in 1933. Fourteen more with a high-powered engine and improved towing device were produced in 1936 (including 10 with an armoured cabin). The manufacturer was the Factory No. 174 named after K.E. Voroshilov in Leningrad (a plan to produce 200 T-26T with a canvas cover and 150 T-26T with an armoured cabin annually was not carried out due to increases in tank production). Tests and army service showed that T-26T artillery tractors were underpowered for cross-country towing of trailers weighing more than 5 tonnes (5.5 short tons), so these vehicles had no further development. Also around 20 T-26 light tanks of early models were converted into artillery tractors by army units in 1937–1939. A transfer of overhauled old twin-turreted T-26 tanks (without turrets and armament) from some tank units of western military districts for use as artillery tractors for anti-tank and regimental guns in mechanized corps began in May 1941. +Tank and mechanized infantry units of the Red Army had 211 artillery tractors based on the T-26 chassis on June 1, 1941. Almost all T-26T artillery tractors of border and some inner military districts were lost during the first weeks of the Great Patriotic War. A few remained in front-line service until 1942 at least (for example, the 150th Tank Brigade of the Bryansk Front had a T-26T with an armoured cabin on May 15, 1942, which was used as a command vehicle). +No less than 50 old twin-turreted T-26 tanks of the Transbaikal Military District were converted into artillery tractors from 1941; these vehicles participated in combat with the Japanese Kwantung Army in August 1945. + +== Armoured carriers == + +TR-1. In early 1933, a prototype of armoured personnel carrier for mechanized units based on the T-26 chassis was manufactured according to the "Program of tank, tractor and armoured car armament of the RKKA". The TR-1 armoured personnel carrier was developed by students of the Military Academy of Mechanization and Motorization named after I. Stalin, and produced at the Leningrad Factory of Experimental Mechanical Engineering. An engine (90 hp (67 kW) Hercules) and transmission were located at the front of the vehicle, and an armoured cabin for infantrymen, equipped with a rear door and six portholes in side walls, was located in the rear. The TR-1 was an unarmed vehicle. In August–October 1933 this armoured personnel carrier has passed extensive tests at Kubinka proving ground. +Specifications: full weight - 9.445 tonnes (10.411 short tons); crew - 2 (driver and commander) + 14 men (landing party); armour - 4–10 mm (0.16–0.39 in). + +== Series production == +Around 1,701 armoured combat vehicles based on the T-26 chassis were produced in the USSR from 1932 till 1941. + +1Delivered to customer in 1933 +2Prototypes +3Teletanks and control tanks of all types +4Prototypes of SU-5-1, SU-5-2, SU-5-3 +5Produced in Leningrad at the "Factory of Carrying-and-conveying Machines named after S. Kirov" + +== Vehicle-mounted engineer equipment == +Many different attached implements for the T-26 light tank were developed in the USSR in the 1930s. Among these were mine sweeps, equipment for swimming, snorkels for deep fording, wooden and brushwood fascines for trench crossing, special extra-wide swamp tracks and mats, wire cutters, dozer blades and many others. All of them were tested but despite often excellent test results none (except some mine sweeps) passed into army service. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..132144419 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "T-26 variants" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-26_variants" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:36.393640+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Tank mine sweeps. Several mine sweeps of different designs for the T-26 and ST-26 (minus its bridge) tanks were developed in the USSR, but none of them were passed into army service. Three models of mine plows (suspended from a front frame, operated with a hand cable winch and with special blades) were tested in 1932–1934. Trials showed very poor performance of such types of mine-sweep on compacted soil or scrubby land. The much more successful KMT-26 mine roller (weight 1.55 t, mine-sweeping speed 6–8 km/h, able to absorb up to 3 anti-tank mine explosions) was developed and tested in July 1934; three such mine-exploding rollers were produced. An experimental mine flail was tested in August–September 1939 also. Mine sweeps could be mounted on T-26 or ST-26 tanks in 1.5 hours and jettisoned without crew exit if necessary. +Design work started again when the Winter War began: Leningrad factories Kirov Factory, Factory No. 185 and Factory No. 174 developed new models of mine sweeps for the T-26 and T-28 tanks in December 1939. Kirov Factory produced 93 new mine sweeps and Factory No. 174 produced an additional 49. These disc mine sweeps (metal discs 700–900 mm in diameter with a thickness of 10–25 mm on a common axis; the weight of the whole construction was 1,800-3,000 kg) were issued to army field forces in February and March 1940. Despite low explosion resistance (the discs would bend after the first mine explosion), these mine sweeps were used successfully by the 35th tank brigade and tank battalions of the 8th Army during the Winter War. + +Fascines. Three types of remotely released large fascines (brushwood, wooden and a canvas bag stuffed with straw) for trench crossing were developed for the T-26 and the ST-26 in 1937–1939. These fascines made possible the crossing of trenches and antitank ditches 3.5 m wide and 1.2 m deep. Only ten sets of wooden fascines were produced. The fascines somewhat restricted the field of fire of the main gun. +Wire cutters. Factory No. 174 developed special wire cutters for T-26 tanks in 1940. The automatically operated TN-3 tank wire cutters were intended for breaching enemy wire obstacles. They were located on the rear of the vehicle over the tank tracks, cutting off wire caught in the tracks. Trials performed in October 1940 in Kubinka proving ground demonstrated that the design needed improvement. +Snowplow. The ST-26 engineer tank with a mounted snowplow from the Ya-5 truck was tested in Kubinka proving ground in 1933. In 1935 a special tank snowplow for the ST-26 was developed for clearing roads of 3 m width, in snow up to 1.2 m deep. The snowplow could be mounted on the ST-26 in 15 min. It was officially passed into army service but follow-up trials indicated that it could not clear even 0.6-0.8 m deep snow. +Other equipment. Between 1934 and 1940 the following equipment for the T-26 tank was developed and tested: brushwood mats and wooden planks for swamp crossing, special water/bog tracks (of 520 mm width), automatic coupling equipment for two tanks intended for crossing trenches of 3.8-4.2 m width, an implement for destroying antitank teeth and road-blocks, a magnetic mine detector, different track grousers. + +== References == + +=== Citations === + +=== Bibliography === +Zaloga, Steven J.; Grandsen, James (1984). Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two. London: Arms and Armour Press. ISBN 0-85368-606-8. +Svirin, Mikhail; Kolomiets Maxim (2000). Legkiy tank T-26 (Light Tank T-26) ARMADA No. 20 (in Russian). Moscow: Exprint. p. 58. ISBN 5-94038-003-4. +Baryatinsky, Mikhail (2003). Legkiy tank T-26 (Light Tank T-26). Modelist-Konstruktor. Special Issue No. 2 (in Russian). Moscow: Modelist-Konstruktor. p. 64. Subscription index in the Rospechat Catalogue 73474.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link) +Kolomiets, Maxim; Svirin Mikhail (2003). T-26: mashiny na ego base (T-26: The Vehicles on its Base). Frontline Illustration No. 4) (in Russian). Moscow: Strategiya KM. p. 80. ISBN 5-901266-01-3. +Baryatinsky, Mikhail (2006). Light Tanks: T-27, T-38, BT, T-26, T-40, T-50, T-60, T-70. Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allan. p. 96. ISBN 0-7110-3163-0. +Baryatinsky, Mikhail (2006). Sovetskie tanki v boyu. Ot T-26 do IS-2 (Soviet tanks in action. From T-26 to IS-2) (in Russian). Moscow: YAUZA, EKSMO. p. 352. ISBN 5-699-18740-5. +Kolomiets, Maxim (2007). T-26. Tyazhelaya sud'ba legkogo tanka (T-26. The Heavy Fate of the Light Tank) (in Russian). Moscow: Yauza, Strategiya KM, EKSMO. p. 128. ISBN 978-5-699-21871-4. +Solyankin, Alexander; Pavlov Ivan; Pavlov Mikhail; Zheltov Igor (2002). Otechestvennye bronirovannye mashiny. XX vek. Tom 1: 1905–1941 (Native Armoured Vehicles. 20th century. Vol. 1: 1905–1941) (in Russian). Moscow: Exprint. p. 344. ISBN 5-94038-030-1. + +=== Additional sources === +Pasholok, Yuri (29 September 2017). Samsonov, Peter (ed.). "SU-26: Blockade Long-Liver". tankarchives.com. + +== External links == + +T-26T prime movers Archived 2009-03-02 at the Wayback Machine, photos of T-26T artillery tractors +ST-26 engineer tanks, photos of ST-26 engineer tanks (bridge-laying tanks) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletank-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletank-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4803eed75 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletank-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Teletank" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletank" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:37.546375+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Teletanks were a series of experimental wireless remotely controlled unmanned tanks produced in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and early 1940s so as to reduce combat risk to soldiers. A teletank is controlled by radio from a control tank at a distance of 500–1,500 metres (0.31–0.93 mi), the two constituting a telemechanical group. +While never in common use, the teletanks were used by the Soviet Red Army in the Winter War against Finland, with at least two teletank battalions at the beginning of the Eastern Front campaign in the Second World War. + + +== Design == +Teletanks were equipped with DT machine guns, flamethrowers, smoke canisters, and sometimes a special 200–700 kg time bomb in an armoured box, dropped by the tank near the enemy's fortifications and used to destroy bunkers up to four levels below ground. Teletanks were also designed to be capable of using chemical weapons, although they were not used in combat. Each teletank, depending on model, was able to recognize sixteen to twenty-four different commands sent via radio on two possible frequencies to avoid interference and jamming. Teletanks were built based on T-18, T-26, T-38, BT-5 and BT-7 light tanks. +Standard tactics were for the TU control tank (with radio transmitter and operator) to stay back as far as practicable while the teletank (TT) approached the enemy. The control tank would provide fire support as well as protection for the radio control operator. If the enemy was successful at seizing the teletank, the control tank crew was instructed to destroy it with its main gun. When not in combat, the teletank was driven manually. +In addition to teletanks, there were also remotely controlled telecutters and teleplanes in the Red Army. + + +== See also == +Telerobotics +Teleoperation +Goliath tracked mine +List of Russian inventions + + +== References == + + +== External links == +What is teletank? (in Russian) +All about teletank (in Russian) +Means of communication in battlefield (in Russian) +First Soviet tanks (in Russian) +Light amphibious tank T-38 (in Russian) +70 years jubilee of Ulianovsk Higher Engineering School Archived 2012-04-19 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomka_gas_test_site-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomka_gas_test_site-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..37bd4ffd4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomka_gas_test_site-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Tomka gas test site" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomka_gas_test_site" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:38.745972+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Tomka gas test site (German: Gas-Testgelände Tomka) was a secret chemical weapons testing facility near a place codenamed Volsk-18 (Wolsk, in German literature), 20 km off Volsk, now Shikhany, Saratov Oblast, Russia created within the framework of German-Soviet military cooperation to circumvent the demilitarization provisions of the post-World War I Treaty of Versailles. It was co-directed by Yakov Moiseevich Fishman (начальник воен­но-химического управления Красной Армии), and German chemists Alexander von Grundherr and Ludwig von Sicherer. It operated (according to an agreement undersigned by fictitious joint stock companies) during 1926-1933. +After 1933 the area was used by the Red Army and expanded under the name "Volsk-18" or "Schichany-2" to Russia's most important center for the development of chemical warfare agents and protective measures against NBC weapons. +Another chemical site was established by the settlement of Ukhtomsky, Moscow Region. + + +== See also == +Kama tank school +Lipetsk fighter-pilot school + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2aabdeb94 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "VR (nerve agent)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VR_(nerve_agent)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:41.215596+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +VR (Russian VX, VXr, Soviet V-gas, GOSNIIOKhT substance No. 33, Agent "November") is a "V-series" unitary +nerve agent closely related (it is an isomer) to the better-known VX nerve agent. It became a prototype for the series of Novichok agents. According to chemical weapons expert Jonathan Tucker, the first binary formulation developed under the Soviet Foliant program was used to make Substance 33, differing from VX only in the alkyl substituents on its nitrogen and oxygen atoms. "This weapon was given the code name Novichok." + + +== History == +The development of VR started in 1957, after the Soviet Union obtained information about detection of high level of toxicity in phos­phoryl­thio­cholines (the same year Lars-Erik Tammelin published his first articles on fluoro­phos­phoryl­cholines and phos­phoryl­thio­cholines in Acta Chemica Scandinavica) by a team from the Soviet Union's Scientific Research Institute No. 42 (NII-42). Sergei Zotovich Ivin, Leonid Soborovsky, and Iya Danilovna Shilakova jointly developed this analogue of VX. They completed their work in 1963 and were later awarded the Lenin Prize for their achievement. A binary weapon comprising two less toxic precursors which mixed during flight to form Substance 33 was later developed by a team led by Nikolai Kuznetsov. +In 1972 the Soviets opened Cheboksary Khimprom, a manufacturing plant for VR in Novocheboksarsk. All facilities in USSR produced 15,557 tons of VR according to their declaration to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), although most if not all of this has now been destroyed under disarmament treaties. + + +== Comparison to VX == +VR has similar lethal dose levels to VX (10 – 50 mg), as well as being similar in appearance. However, due to usage of diethyl­amino radicals instead of diiso­propyl­amino it is more prone to decomposition. The former are worse at sterically protecting the nitrogen atom from attacking either phosphorus or the α-carbon atom adjacent to sulfur than the latter. According to UK Defence Science and Technology Laboratory Detection Department scientists Robin M. Black and John M. Harrison, chemical stability was an important factor why of all the similarly toxic phos­phoryl­thio­cholines, ethyl N-2-diiso­propyl­amino­ethyl methyl­phos­phono­thiolate in particular (now known as VX), was weaponized in the West. +According to Russian CW developer Vil Mirzayanov, in the late 1980s a group of GosNIIOKhT chemists led by Georgiy Drozd prepared a scientific report that Substance 33 had much lower shelf life than VX. The report, writes Mirzayanov, caused 'panic' in the institute top management and the military representative office, and later was met with administrative resistance. This finding was independently verified by another chemist Igor Revelskiy but his report was not approved either. +Following the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, former head of the GosNIIOKhT security department Nikolay Volodin said in an interview to Novaya Gazeta that Substance 33 was decomposing too quickly in combat conditions, and implied that this fact may have influenced the decision to continue research on the Novichok program. + + +== Toxicity == +Both agents have similar symptoms and method of action to other nerve agents that act on cholin­esterase, and treatment remains the same. However, the window for effectively treating second generation V series seizures is shorter, as they rapidly denature the acetyl­cholin­esterase protein in a similar manner to soman, making treatment with the standard nerve gas antidote pralidoxime ineffective unless it is given very soon after exposure. Pre-treatment with pyrido­stigmine prior to exposure, and treatment with other drugs such as atropine and diazepam after exposure, will reduce symptoms of nerve agent toxicity but may not be sufficient to prevent death if a large dose of nerve agent has been absorbed. In addition to the standard seizures, some of the second generation V series agents are known to cause comas. + + +== See also == +A-234 (nerve agent) +Novichok agent + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yastreb-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yastreb-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9f7d57303 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yastreb-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Yastreb" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yastreb" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:40.039553+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Yastreb (Russian: Ястреб, hawk) is a Soviet space suit that was specially developed for early Soyuz space vehicle missions and for extra-vehicular activity. This model of space suit allowed the cosmonaut to spacewalk from the orbital module of Soyuz. +Design and development of the suit took place in 1966 by the Zvezda Company with input from Alexei Leonov. The Berkut suit that Leonov had used on the Voskhod 2 space walk had ballooned at the joints making movement very difficult. The Yastreb design was a much more stable in sizes using a system of pulleys and lines to regulate movement. The backpack containing life support was mounted in a metal box that could be attached to the chest or to the leg to ease access through the small Soyuz hatch. The suit was to be worn only in the Orbital module of the Soyuz spacecraft and needed two people to put it on. The suit's mobility performance was limited, so during the planned Soviet Moon landing the movements of the cosmonauts would be restricted. +The Yastreb suit was only used once, this was during the Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 docking and crew exchange. The suit was not worn during launch or reentry. During the mission both cosmonauts experienced problems with the suit. + + +== Specifications == +Name: Yastreb Spacesuit +Manufacturer: NPP Zvezda +Missions: Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 +Function: Orbital Extra-vehicular activity (EVA) +Operating Pressure: 400 hPa (5.8 psi) +Suit Weight: 20 kg (44 lb) +Backpack Weight: 21 kg (46 lb) +Total Weight: 41 kg (90 lb) +Primary Life Support: 2.5 hours (150 minutes) + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Photo of Yastreb space suit at Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics in Moscow +Astronautix Yastreb page \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..937e7aa01 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Yellow rain" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:42.414289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Yellow rain was a 1981 political incident in which the United States secretary of state Alexander Haig accused the Soviet Union of supplying T-2 mycotoxin to the communist states in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia for use in counterinsurgency warfare. Refugees described many different forms of "attacks", including a sticky yellow liquid falling from planes or helicopters, which was dubbed "yellow rain". The U.S. government alleged that over ten thousand people had been killed in attacks using these supposed chemical weapons. The Soviets denied these claims and an initial United Nations investigation was inconclusive. +Samples of the supposed chemical agent that were supplied to a group of independent scientists turned out to be honeybee feces, suggesting that the "yellow rain" was due to mass defecation of digested pollen grains from large swarms of bees. Although the majority of the scientific literature on this topic now regards the hypothesis that yellow rain was a Soviet chemical weapon as disproved, the U.S. government has not retracted its allegations, arguing that the issue has not been fully resolved. Many of the U.S. documents relating to this incident remain classified. + +== Allegations == + +The charges stemmed from events in Laos and North Vietnam beginning in 1975, when the two governments, which were allied with and supported by the Soviet Union, fought against Hmong tribes, peoples who had sided with the United States and South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. Refugees described events that they believed to be chemical warfare attacks by low-flying aircraft or helicopters; several of the reports were of a yellow, oily liquid that was dubbed "yellow rain". Those exposed claimed neurological and physical symptoms including seizures, blindness, and bleeding. Similar reports came from the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1978. +A 1997 textbook produced by the U.S. Army Medical Department asserted that over ten thousand people were killed in attacks using chemical weapons in Laos, Cambodia and Afghanistan. The descriptions of the attacks were diverse and included air-dropped canisters and sprays, booby traps, artillery shells, rockets and grenades that produced droplets of liquid, dust, powders, smoke or "insect-like" materials of a yellow, red, green, white or brown color. +Secretary of State Alexander Haig announced in September 1981 that: + +For some time now, the international community has been alarmed by continuing reports that the Soviet Union and its allies have been using lethal chemical weapons in Laos, Kampuchea, and Afghanistan. ... We have now found physical evidence from Southeast Asia which has been analyzed and found to contain abnormally high levels of three potent mycotoxins—poisonous substances not indigenous to the region and which are highly toxic to man and animals. +The Soviet Union described these accusations as a "big lie" and said that the US government used chemical weapons during the Vietnam War and supplied them to Afghan rebels and Salvadoran troops. The American accusations prompted a United Nations investigation in Pakistan and Thailand. This involved five doctors and scientists who interviewed alleged witnesses and collected samples that were purported to come from Afghanistan and Cambodia. However, the interviews produced conflicting testimony and the analyses of the samples were inconclusive. The UN experts also examined two refugees who claimed to be suffering from the after-effects of a chemical attack, but the refugees were instead diagnosed as having fungal skin infections. The team reported that they were unable to verify that chemical weapons had been used but noted that circumstantial evidence "suggestive of the possible use of some sort of toxic chemical substance in some instances." +The US mycotoxin analyses were reported in the scientific literature in 1983 and 1984 and reported small amounts of mycotoxins called trichothecenes, ranging from the parts per million to traces in the parts per billion range. The lowest possible limit of detection in these mycotoxin analyses is in the parts per billion range. However, several inconsistencies in these reports caused a "prolonged, and at times acrimonious, debate on the validity of the analyses". A 2003 medical review notes that this debate may have been exacerbated since "Although analytical methods were in their infancy during the controversy, they were still sensitive enough to pick up low levels of environmental trichothecene contamination." + +== Initial investigation == +C. J. Mirocha at the University of Minnesota conducted a biochemical investigation, looking for the presence of trichothecene mycotoxins, including T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), and deoxynivalenol (DON). This included chemical analyses of blood, urine, and tissue of alleged victims of chemical attacks in February 1982 in Laos and Kampuchea. "The finding of T-2, HT-2, and DAS toxins in blood, urine, and body tissues of alleged victims of chemical warfare in Southeast Asia provides compelling proof of the use of trichothecenes as nonconventional warfare agents. ... Additional significant findings lie in the trichothecenes found in the leaf samples (T-2, DON, nivalenol) and yellow powder (T-2, DAS). ... The most compelling evidence is the presence of T-2 and DAS in the yellow powder. Both toxins are infrequently found in nature and rarely occur together. In our experience, copious producers of T-2 toxin (F. tricinctum) do not produce DAS, and conversely, good producers of DAS (F. roseum 'Gibbosum') do not produce T-2." + +== Explanation == + +=== Honeybee hypothesis === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..24500cf52 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Yellow rain" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:42.414289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 1983, these charges were disputed by Harvard biologist and biological weapons opponent Matthew Meselson and his team, who traveled to Laos and conducted a separate investigation. Meselson's team noted that trichothecene mycotoxins occur naturally in the region and questioned the witness testimony. He suggested an alternate hypothesis that the yellow rain was the harmless fecal matter of honeybees. The Meselson team offered the following as evidence: separate "yellow rain drops" which occurred on the same leaf, and which were "accepted as authentic", consisted largely of pollen; each drop contained a different mix of pollen grains, as one would expect if they came from different bees, and the grains showed properties characteristic of pollen digested by bees (the protein inside the pollen grain was gone, while the outer indigestible shell remained). Further, the pollen mix came from plant species typical of the area where a drop was collected. +The US government responded to these findings by arguing that the pollen was added deliberately, in order to make a substance that could be easily inhaled and "ensure the retention of toxins in the human body". Meselson responded to this idea by stating that it was rather far-fetched to imagine that somebody would produce a chemical weapon by "gathering pollen predigested by honeybees." The fact that the pollen originated in Southeast Asia meant that the Soviet Union could not have manufactured the substance domestically, and would have had to import tons of pollen from Vietnam. Meselson's work was described in an independent medical review as providing "compelling evidence that yellow rain might have a benign natural explanation". +After the honeybee hypothesis was made public, a literature search turned up an earlier Chinese paper on the phenomenon of yellow droppings in Jiangsu Province in September 1976. Strikingly, the Chinese villagers had also used the term "yellow rain" to describe this phenomenon. Many villagers believed that the yellow droppings were portents of imminent earthquake activity. Others believed that the droppings were chemical weapons sprayed by the Soviet Union or Taiwan. However, the Chinese scientists also concluded that the droppings came from bees. + +=== Mycotoxins === +Analyses of putative "yellow rain" samples by the British, French and Swedish governments confirmed the presence of pollen and failed to find any trace of mycotoxins. Toxicology studies questioned the reliability of reports stating that mycotoxins had been detected in alleged victims up to two months after exposure, since these compounds are unstable in the body and are cleared from the blood in just a few hours. An autopsy on a Khmer Rouge fighter named Chan Mann, a victim of a putative yellow rain attack in 1982, turned up traces of mycotoxins, but also aflatoxin, Blackwater fever, and malaria. +Surveys also showed that both mycotoxin-producing fungi and mycotoxin contamination were common in Southeast Asia, casting doubt on the assertion that detecting these compounds was an unusual occurrence. For example, a Canadian military laboratory found mycotoxins in the blood of five people from the area who had never been exposed to yellow rain, out of 270 tested, but none in the blood of ten alleged victims, and a 1988 paper reported that illnesses from mycotoxin exposure may pose a serious threat to public health in Malaysia. It is now recognized that mycotoxin contamination of foods such as wheat and maize is a common problem, particularly in temperate regions of the world. As noted in a 2003 medical review, "The government research highlighted, if nothing else, that natural mycotoxicoses were an important health hazard in Southeast Asia." + +=== Reliability of eyewitness accounts === +In 1987, The New York Times reported that Freedom of Information requests showed that field investigations in 1983–85 by US government teams had produced no evidence to substantiate the initial allegations and instead cast doubt on the reliability of the initial reports, but these critical reports were not released to the public. A 1989 analysis of the initial reports gathered from Hmong refugees that was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association noted "marked inconsistencies that greatly compromised the validity of the testimony" and criticized the methods used in interviews by the US Army medical team that gathered this information. These issues included the US Army team only interviewing those people who claimed to have knowledge of attacks with chemical weapons and the investigators asking leading questions during interviews. The authors noted that individuals' stories changed over time, were inconsistent with other accounts, and that the people who claimed to have been eyewitnesses when first interviewed later stated that they had been relaying the accounts of others. +In 1982, Meselson had visited a Hmong refugee camp with samples of bee droppings that he had collected in Thailand. Most of the Hmong he interviewed claimed that these were samples of the chemical weapons that they had been attacked with. One man accurately identified them as insect droppings, but switched to the chemical weapons story after discussion with fellow Hmong. +Australian military scientist Rod Barton visited Thailand in 1984, and discovered that Thai villagers were blaming yellow rain for a variety of ailments, including scabies. An American doctor in Bangkok explained that the United States had been taking a special interest in yellow rain, and was providing medical care to alleged victims. + +=== Possible U.S. origin === +A CIA report from the 1960s reported allegations by the Cambodian government that their forces had been attacked with chemical weapons, leaving behind a yellow powder. The Cambodians blamed the United States for these alleged chemical attacks. Some of the samples of "yellow rain" collected from Cambodia in 1983 tested positive for CS, which the United States had used during the Vietnam War. CS is a form of tear gas and is not acutely toxic, but may account for some of the milder symptoms reported by the Hmong villagers. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6c35471ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Yellow rain" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_rain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:42.414289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Scientific conclusions and US claims == +Most of the scientific community sees these allegations as supported by insufficient evidence, or as having been completely refuted. For instance, a 1992 review published in Politics and the Life Sciences described the idea of yellow rain as a biological agent as conclusively disproved and called for an assessment by the US government of the mistakes made in this episode, stating that "the present approach of sweeping the matter under the rug and hoping people will forget about it could be counterproductive." Similarly, a 1997 review of the history of biological warfare published in the Journal of the American Medical Association stated that the yellow rain allegations are "widely regarded as erroneous", a 2001 review in the Annual Reviews in Microbiology described them as "unsubstantiated for many reasons", and a 2003 article in Annual Review of Phytopathology described them as "largely discredited". A 2003 review of the history of biological warfare described these allegations as one of many cases where states have produced propaganda containing false or unsubstantiated accusations of the use of biological weapons by their enemies. +In contrast, as of 1997 the U.S. Army maintains that some experts believe that "trichothecenes were used as biological weapons in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan" although they write that "it has not been possible for the United States to prove unequivocally that trichothecene mycotoxins were used as biological weapons." They argued that presence of pollen in yellow rain samples is best explained by the idea that "during biological warfare attacks, dispersed trichothecenes landed in pollen-containing areas." (Essentially the same position is taken in a subsequent volume in the same series of U.S. Army textbooks published in 2007.) Similarly, the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency argues that the controversy has not been resolved and states that a CIA report indicated the Soviet Union did possess weapons based on T-2 mycotoxin, although the agency states that "no trace of a trichothecene-containing weapon was ever found in the areas affected by yellow rain" and concludes that the use of such weapons "may never be unequivocally proved." A 2007 review published in Politics and the Life Sciences concluded that the balance of evidence strongly supported the hypothesis that some type of chemical or biological weapon was used in Southeast Asia in the late 1970s and early 1980s, but noted that they found no definitive proof of this hypothesis and that the evidence could not "identify the specific agents used, the intent, or the root source or sources of the attacks." The Vietnamese and the Soviets have also reportedly used other chemical weapons in conflict, in Cambodia and Afghanistan, respectively. + +== Later events == + +=== India === +An episode of mass pollen release from bees in 2002 in Sangrampur, India, prompted unfounded fears of a chemical weapons attack, although this was in fact due to a mass migration of giant Asian honeybees. This event revived memories of what New Scientist described as "cold war paranoia", and the article noted that The Wall Street Journal had covered these 1980s yellow rain allegations in particular detail. Indeed, the Wall Street Journal continues to assert that the Soviet Union used yellow rain as a chemical weapon in the 1980s and in 2003 accused Matthew Meselson of "excusing away evidence of Soviet violations." + +=== Iraq === +In the build-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq the Wall Street Journal alleged that Saddam Hussein possessed a chemical weapon called "yellow rain". The Iraqis appear to have investigated trichothecene mycotoxins in 1990, but only purified a total of 20 ml of the agent from fungal cultures and did not manage to scale up the purification or produce any weapons containing these compounds. Although these toxins are not generally regarded as practical tactical weapons, the T-2 toxin might be a usable weapon since it can be absorbed through the skin, although it would be very difficult to manufacture it in any reasonable quantity. +Henry Wilde, a retired US Foreign Service Officer, has drawn parallels between the use of yellow rain allegations by the US government against the Soviet Union and the later exaggerated allegations on the topic of Iraq and weapons of mass destruction. Wilde considers it likely that states may again "use rumors and false or planted intelligence of such weapons use for propaganda purposes." and calls for the establishment of a more rigorous inspection process to deal with such claims. Similar concerns were expressed in a 2006 review published by the World Organisation for Animal Health, which compared the American yellow rain accusations to other Cold War-era accusations from the Soviet Union and Cuba, as well as to more recent mistaken intelligence on Iraqi weapons capabilities, concluding that such unjustified accusations have encouraged the development of biological weapons and increased the risk that they might be used, as they have discredited arms-control efforts. + +=== Radiolab interview === +In 2012 the science-themed show Radiolab aired an interview with Hmong refugee Eng Yang and his niece, author Kao Kalia Yang, to discuss Eng Yang's experience with yellow rain. The hosts took the position that yellow rain was unlikely to have been a chemical agent. The episode prompted a backlash among some listeners, who criticized Robert Krulwich for insensitivity, racism, and their disregard for Yang's personal and professional experience with the region in question. The negative response prompted host Krulwich to issue an apology for his handling of the interview. + +=== Bulgaria === +On 23 May 2015, just before the national holiday of 24 May (the day of Bulgarian writing and culture), yellow rain fell in Sofia, Bulgaria. Suspicions were raised because the Bulgarian government was criticizing Russian actions in Ukraine at the time. The Bulgarian national academy BAN explained the event as flower pollen. + +=== Mai Der Vang's Yellow Rain === + +American Hmong poet Mai Der Vang published Yellow Rain (Graywolf Press, 2021) to critical acclaim and was a 2022 Finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in Poetry. The book explores yellow rain in Southeast Asia through the use of documentary poetics. + +== See also == +Atrocity propaganda +Agent Orange +Red rain in Kerala +Sverdlovsk anthrax leak +Aral smallpox incident +Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Evans, Grant (1983). The yellow rainmakers: are chemical weapons being used in Southeast Asia?. London: Verso. ISBN 978-0-86091-068-8. +Martin, Susan Boyles; Anne Clunan; Lavoy, Peter R. (2008). Terrorism, war, or disease?: unraveling the use of biological weapons. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5977-9. + +== External links == +The Yellow Rain Affair Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine Matthew Meselson and Julian Robinson +A Note from History: Yellow Rain Defense Treaty Ready Inspection Readiness Program \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIL-2906-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIL-2906-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..25f0e0734 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIL-2906-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "ZIL-2906" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIL-2906" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:20:41.204520+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The ZIL-2906 (Russian: ЗИЛ-2906) is a screw-driven amphibious craft manufactured in Soviet Union from 1975 to 1979 by ZiL. The ZIL-2906 was produced from July 1975 to 1979, five manufactured in total. In 1980, it was succeeded by the ZIL-29061, produced until 1991. +These vehicles are notable for being Screw-propelled vehicles (in Russian: шнекохо́д), allowing it to traverse inhospitable terrains. The vehicle was designed to recover re-entered Soyuz space capsules from difficult terrain. It was equipped with heaters for the front seats, transponder and radio and stretchers. +The ZIL-2906 was carried on the back of a ZIL-4906 "Bluebird" (which had a top speed of 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph)) until it reached terrain impassable for the latter. At this point the ZIL-2906 would be unloaded and resume the search. Dismounting from the Bluebird took about half an hour. + + +== Specifications == +Mass +2,000 kilograms (4,400 lb; 2.0 t) +Maximum speed +Water - 16 kilometres per hour (9.9 mph) (8.6 kn) +Swamp - 20 kilometres per hour (12 mph) (11 kn) +Snow - 45 kilometres per hour (28 mph) (24 kn) +Dimensions +Length - 4,900 millimetres (190 in) +Width - 2,400 millimetres (94 in) +Height - 2,200 millimetres (87 in) + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +ZIL-2906 on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhaslyk_(airfield)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhaslyk_(airfield)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9330dcd23 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhaslyk_(airfield)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Zhaslyk (airfield)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhaslyk_(airfield)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:43.608358+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Zhaslyk was an airfield of the Soviet Armed Forces located 9 km north-east of Zhaslyk in the Republic of Karakalpakstan, in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union. In English-language sources it is designated Beleuli North. +It was built in the mid-1980s to serve the “Eighth Chemical Defense Station” located near Zhaslyk, intended for testing chemical weapons and means of protection against them. The test site was operated by military personnel from units stationed in Nukus: a chemical testing regiment (Military Unit Number (V/ch) 44105) and a center for the development of means of protection against chemical weapons (military unit 26382). For aviation support of the test site, the 287th separate test aviation squadron (Antonov An-26 aircraft, Mi-8 helicopters), based at the Nukus Airport, was used. + + +== References == + +"DAILY SNAP MAY 5 1992 | CIA FOIA (foia.cia.gov)". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2024-06-10. +Buryukov, V; Karpov, V; Chemical-Defense Facility's Safety Precautions Defended, "Trud," April 15, 1992 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_arsenide-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_arsenide-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e71980689 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_arsenide-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Zinc arsenide" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_arsenide" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T13:19:44.829140+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Zinc arsenide (Zn3As2) is a binary compound of zinc with arsenic which forms gray tetragonal crystals. It is an inorganic semiconductor with a band gap of 1.0 eV. + + +== Synthesis and reactions == +Zinc arsenide can be prepared by the reaction of zinc with arsenic + +3 Zn + 2 As → Zn3As2 + + +== Structure == +Zn3As2 has a room-temperature tetragonal form that converts to a different tetragonal phase at 190 °C and to a third phase at 651 °C. In the room-temperature form, the zinc atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated and the arsenic atoms are surrounded by six zinc atoms at the vertices of a distorted cube. The crystalline structure of zinc arsenide is very similar to that of cadmium arsenide (Cd3As2), zinc phosphide (Zn3P2) and cadmium phosphide (Cd3P2). These compounds of the Zn-Cd-P-As quaternary system exhibit full continuous solid-solution. + + +== Electronic structure == +Its lowest direct and indirect bandgaps are within 30 meV of each other. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file

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