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LHC@home is a volunteer computing project researching particle physics that uses the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. The project's computing power is utilized by physicists at CERN in support of the Large Hadron Collider and other experimental particle accelerators.
The project is run with the help of over 1,260 active volunteer users contributing more than 3,000 computers processing at a combined 52 teraFLOPS as of September 2024. The project is cross-platform, and runs on a variety of computer hardware configurations.
== Applications ==
The LHC@home project currently runs four applications—Atlas, CMS, SixTrack, and Test4Theory—which deal with different aspects of research conducted in LHC such as calculating particle beam stability and simulating proton collisions. Atlas, CMS, and Test4Theory use VirtualBox, an x86 virtualization software package.
=== Atlas ===
Atlas uses volunteer computing power to run simulations of the ATLAS experiment. It can be run in VirtualBox or natively on Linux.
=== Beauty ===
Beauty (LHCb) compared the decay of bottom quarks (b) and bottom antiquarks (b), which also known as beauty quarks. The participation of volunteers in the application was suspended indefinitely on 19 November 2018.
=== CMS ===
The CMS application (formerly a standalone project called CMS@Home) allows users to run simulations for the Compact Muon Solenoid experiment on their computers.
=== SixTrack ===
SixTrack was first introduced as a beta on 1 September 2004 and a record 1000 users signed up within 24 hours. The application went public, with a 5000 user limit, on September 29 to commemorate CERN's 50th anniversary. Currently there is no user limit and qualification.
SixTrack was developed by Frank Schmidt of the CERN Accelerators and Beams Department and produces results that are essential for verifying the long term stability of the high energy particles in the LHC. Lyn Evans, head of the LHC project, stated that "the results from SixTrack are really making a difference, providing us with new insights into how the LHC will perform".
=== Test4Theory ===
The Test4Theory application allows volunteers to run simulations of high energy particle collisions on their home computers. These simulations use theoretical models based on the Standard Model of particle physics, and are calculated using Monte Carlo methods. The theoretical models have adjustable parameters and the aim is that a given set of parameters (called a "tune") will fit the widest possible range of experimental results.
The Test4Theory results are therefore submitted to a database which contains a very wide set of experimental data from many accelerator experiments worldwide, including of course experiments at the Large Hadron Collider. The Theory Unit at CERN runs the MCPLots project, which run the database and the theoretical fitting process.
== See also ==
Citizen Cyberscience Centre
List of volunteer computing projects
Worldwide LHC Computing Grid
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Barranco, Javier; Cai, Yunhai; Cameron, David; Crouch, Matthew; Maria, Riccardo De; Field, Laurence; Giovannozzi, Massimo; Hermes, Pascal; Høimyr, Nils; Kaltchev, Dobrin; Karastathis, Nikos; Luzzi, Cinzia; Maclean, Ewen; McIntosh, Eric; Mereghetti, Alessio (29 December 2017). "LHC@Home: a BOINC-based volunteer computing infrastructure for physics studies at CERN". Open Engineering. 7 (1): 379–393. Bibcode:2017OEng....7...42B. doi:10.1515/eng-2017-0042. ISSN 2391-5439. S2CID 53469564.
== External links ==
=== Applications ===

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The Leo Szilard Lectureship Award (originally called the Leo Szilard Award) is given annually by the American Physical Society (APS) for "outstanding accomplishments by physicists in promoting the use of physics for the benefit of society". It is given internationally in commemoration of physicist Leo Szilard.
"In the year's of Szilard's life and activity it became clearer than ever before how great the responsibility of scientists is to the society. And, to a large extent, it is due to Szilard that this awareness began to spread in the scientific community." - Andrei Sakharov
It is often awarded to physicists early in their careers who are active in areas such as environmental issues, arms control, or science policy. As of 2015 the recipient is given $3,000 plus $2,000 travel expenses and is expected to lecture at an APS meeting and at educational or research laboratories, to promote awareness of their activities.
== Recipients ==
The award is given yearly and was first presented in 1974.
1974 David R. Inglis
1975 Bernard T. Feld
1976 Richard Garwin
1977 not awarded
1978 Matthew Meselson
1979 Sherwood Rowland
1980 Sidney Drell
1981 Henry Way Kendall, Hans Bethe
1982 Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky
1983 Andrei Sakharov
1984 Kosta Tsipis
1985 James B. Pollack, O. Brian Toon, Thomas P. Ackerman, Richard P. Turco, Carl Sagan, John W. Birks, Paul J. Crutzen
1986 Arthur Rosenfeld
1987 Thomas B. Cochran
1988 Robert H. Williams
1989 Anthony Nero
1990 Theodore Postol
1991 John H. Gibbons
1992 Kurt Gottfried
1993 Ray Kidder, Roy Woodruff
1994 Herbert York
1995 Evgeny Velikhov, Roald Sagdeev
1996 David Hafemeister
1997 Thomas L. Neff
1998 David Baird Goldstein, Howard Geller
1999 John Alexander Simpson
2000 Jeremiah David Sullivan
2001 John Harte
2002 Henry C. Kelly
2003 Robert H. Socolow
2004 Marc Ross
2005 David K. Barton, Roger Falcone, Daniel Kleppner, Frederick K. Lamb, Ming K. Lau, Harvey L. Lynch, David Moncton, David Montague, David E. Mosher, William Priedhorsky, Maury Tigner, David R. Vaughan
2006 Paul G. Richards
2007 James E. Hansen
2008 Anatoli Diyakov, Pavel Podvig
2009 Raymond Jeanloz
2010 Frank von Hippel
2011 John F. Ahearne
2012 Siegfried Hecker
2013 Geoffrey West
2014 M. V. Ramana, Ramamurti Rajaraman
2015 Ashok Gadgil
2016 Joel Primack
2017 James Timbie
2018 Edwin Stuart Lyman
2019 Zia Mian
2020 France A. Córdova
2021 Steve Fetter
2022 Michael E. Mann
2023 Laura Grego
== See also ==
David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics
List of physics awards
== References ==

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The Lincoln's Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (LBCDIF) was an antifascist organization of scientists founded by Franz Boas in 1938 to discredit the theories of race being forwarded by the Nazis in Germany.
In the 1930s Franz Boas was one of the first scientists to become aware of the immense prestige and influence of scientists in that era. Even at his advanced age Boas wanted to find a way to use the influence of scientists to promote human welfare. At Columbia University he collaborated with Ruth Benedict, Leslie Dunn, Robert Lynd, Walter Rautenstrauch, Harold Urey and other members of the University Federation for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom to find a unifying political position that would bring scientists of all disciplines together on a common front. He decided antifascism was such a position, and based on his collaborations wrote the Manifesto on Freedom in Science. In 1938 the Manifesto was released with 1,284 signatures of prominent scientists, including Roger Adams, Robert Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein (see: Einstein Letter to LBCDIF). Boas used the excitement generated by the Manifesto to launch the LBCDIF. Twenty-six meetings were organized to uphold the principles of the Manifesto, and the success of these meetings encouraged the organizers to expand the Birthday Committee to an ongoing group called the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (ACDIF).
== References ==
Kuznick, Peter J. (1987). Beyond the Laboratory. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-46583-7.
Wang, Jessica (1999). American Science in an Age of Anxiety. UNC Press. ISBN 0-8078-4749-6.
Hoddeson, Lillian (2004). No Boundaries. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02957-7.

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This is a List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe originally started as an initiative within the framework of the Astronet EU FP7 project.
== Scientific Institutions, Observatories, and National Scientific Societies ==
=== Scientific institutions and Observatories ===
List of astronomical observatories (not only outreach)
IAU Office for Astronomy Outreach
European Southern Observatory (ESO)
ESO Science Outreach Network (ESON)
European Space Agency (ESA)
CERN outreach Archived 2009-08-03 at the Wayback Machine
Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC, Spain)
Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (IAA-CSIC, Spain)
Spanish National Observatory
Centre of AstroBiology (CAB-CSIC, Spain)
University of La Rioja (Spain)
Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (Ireland)
Queen Mary Astronomical Observatory (UK)
University of Oxford Dept of Physics (UK)
Nottingham Trend University Observatory (UK)
University of Glasgow A&A group (UK)
Observatoire de Paris
Observatoire de Bordeaux
Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM)
GLObal Robotic-telescopes Intelligent Array (GLORIA Project)
EU-HOU network of demonstration radio telescopes
Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF)
Educational resources of INAF (work in progress)
Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari (Italy)
Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden)
=== National Astronomical Societies ===
List of astronomical societies
AstroWeb
Sociedad Española de Astronomía (SEA)
Royal Astronomical Society (UK)
Swedish Astronomical Society (Sweden)
== Science Museums and Planetaria ==
International Planetarium Society
Haus der Astronomie Heidelberg
CosmoCaixa Barcelona (Spain)
The Observatory (Greenwich) Science Centre (UK)
The Jodrell Bank Discovery Centre (UK)
NUI Galway Centre for Astronomy (UK)
University of Cambridge Centre for Astronomy (UK)
Herschel Museum of Astronomy (UK)
National Museums Scotland (UK)
Deutsches Museum (Germany)
Cité de l’Espace Toulouse
Tycho Brahe Planetarium (Denmark)
== Projects ==
Hands on Universe (EU-HoU)
EU Universe Awareness (UNAWE)
Europlanet
EuroVO AIDA project
Creative Space (UK)
== Amateur astronomy groups ==
List of Amateur astronomy groups in Europe
AstroWeb (2007)
List of Amateur astronomy groups in Spain
== Magazines, publications, and resources on the web ==
=== Publications ===
The ESO Messenger
Revista AstronomíA (Spain)
Astronomy Now (UK)
Astronomie Magazine (France)
Populär Astronomi (Sweden)
TUIMP "The Universe In My Pocket", free astronomy booklets in many languages
=== Blogs, social networks, and resources on the web ===
Space and Astronomy websites
UNAWE Space Scoop
Henrietta Leawitt (videos, Spanish)
SpaceWeather
Blogs in Spanish
Radioastronomy from Home
Beginners Guide to Astronomy
=== Campaigns ===
Globe at night
== Commercial companies, astronomical lodging, star parties ==
Astronomy events calendar
Turismo estelar (Spain)
European AstroFest 2015 (UK)
EducaCiencia.es (Spain)
== Other resources ==
IAU network of contact points for outreach
IAU directory
IAU “Why is Astronomy important?”
Astronomy resources in Europe
Map of astronomical resources in project Radionet FP7
== References ==

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malariacontrol.net was a volunteer computing project to simulate the transmission dynamics and health effects of malaria. It was part of the Africa@home project. The project was terminated on 21 June 2016.
== History ==
The malariacontrol.net domain name was first registered on 19 May 2005 under Swiss Tropical Institute. This project was under Africa@home where the latter was conceived and developed by European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). malariacontrol.net was the first to use volunteer computing to model diseases. The model simulates malaria infection in 50,000 to 100,000 people. Each work unit lasted for an hour in average personal computers and the results were returned to University of Geneva for evaluation by researchers. malariacontrol.net ran all the simulations by using stochastic simulation model.
Since 4 November 2010, using the financial support from Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Malariacontrol.net developed an open-source software named "Open Malaria" which can be used to simulate outcomes in various types of malaria transmission settings.
On 21 June 2016, malariacontrol.net announced that the project has been terminated due to financial constraints in upgrading their servers for further volunteer computing operations.
== Impact ==
Over 10 years, malariacontrol.net has produced 30 peer-reviewed articles.
In 2008, among the studies performed were the effectiveness of different types of Malaria vaccines in high and low malaria transmission settings, effectiveness of Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine in preventive treatment of malaria in infants, and using individual-based stochastic simulations in Plasmodium falciparum control.
In 2012, malariacontrol.net has studied the effectiveness of using RTS,S malaria vaccine in World Health Organization's Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) in different malarial transmission settings and reported that such programme only has modest benefits over 14 years period. The study suggested that the RTS,S vaccine should be used in targeted mass vaccination in low malarial transmission settings in order to get the most benefits out of it.
In 2013, malariacontrol.net had examined the effectiveness of Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDT) and other surveillance tools in detecting malaria infections among high and low Plasmodium falciparum transmissions. The project also recommended that screening the whole human population for malaria before treating them would be more cost effective when compared to indiscriminate treatment of the whole population with antimalarial drugs. Another study also revealed that both Pyrethroid-only mosquito nets and Piperonyl butoxide mosquito nets are cost effective in preventing malarial infections in both Pyrethroid-susceptible and Pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes.
== Reception ==
As of 2010, malariacontrol.net had about 10,000 active users with 37,002 registered members. Similar to the general BOINC users, malariacontrol.net mainly had a volunteer base of males ranged from 20 to 50 years old, mostly staying in European countries and North America. Most of them learned about this project through BOINC website and their main motivation was the satisfaction of doing something good for the betterment of humankind.
== See also ==
malariacontrol.net archive
malariacontrol.net screensaver video on YouTube
== References ==

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The March of Progress, originally titled The Road to Homo Sapiens, is an illustration that presents 25 million years of human evolution. It was created for the Early Man volume of the Life Nature Library, published in 1965, and drawn by the artist Rudolph Zallinger. It has been widely parodied and imitated to create images of progress of other kinds.
== Illustration ==
=== Context ===
The illustration is part of a section of text and images commissioned by Time-Life Books for the Early Man volume (1965) of the Life Nature Library, by F. Clark Howell.
The illustration is a foldout entitled "The Road to Homo Sapiens". It shows a sequence of figures, drawn by natural history painter and muralist Rudolph Zallinger (1919–1995). The 15 human evolutionary forebears are lined up as if they were marching in a parade from left to right. The first two sentences of the caption read "What were the stages of man's long march from apelike ancestors to sapiens? Beginning at right and progressing across four more pages are milestones of primate and human evolution as scientists know them today, pieced together from the fragmentary fossil evidence."
=== Sequence of species ===
The 15 primate figures in Zallinger's image, from left to right, are listed below. The datings follow the original graphic and may no longer reflect current scientific opinion.
Pliopithecus, 22–12 million years old "ancestor of the gibbon line"
Proconsul, 21–9 million years old primate which may or may not have qualified as an ape
Dryopithecus, 15–8 million years old fossil ape, the first such found (1856) and probable ancestor of modern apes
Oreopithecus, 15–8 million years old
Ramapithecus, 13–8 million years old ape and possible ancestor of modern orangutans (now considered a female Sivapithecus)
Australopithecus, 2–3 million years old; then considered the earliest "certain hominid"
Paranthropus, 1.8–0.8 million years old
Advanced Australopithecus (Homo habilis), 1.8–0.7 million years old
Homo erectus, 700,000–400,000 years old, then the earliest known member of the genus Homo
Early Homo sapiens, 300,000–200,000 years old; from Swanscombe, Steinheim and Montmaurin, then considered probably the earliest H. sapiens
Solo Man, 100,000–50,000 years old; described as an extinct Asian "race" of H. sapiens (now considered a sub-species of H. erectus)
Rhodesian Man, 50,000–30,000 years old; described as an extinct African "race" of H. sapiens (now considered either H. rhodesiensis or H. heidelbergensis and dated much earlier)
Neanderthal Man, 100,000–40,000 years old
Cro-Magnon Man, 40,000–5,000 years old
Modern Man, 40,000 years to the present
=== Intention ===
Contrary to appearances and some complaints, the original 1965 text of "The Road to Homo Sapiens" reveals an understanding of the fact that a linear presentation of a sequence of primate species, all in the direct line of human ancestors, would not be a correct interpretation. For example, the fourth of Zallinger's figures (Oreopithecus) is said to be "a likely side branch on man's family tree". Only the next figure (Ramapithecus) is described as "now thought by some experts to be the oldest of man's ancestors in a direct line" (something no longer considered likely). That implies that the first four primates are not to be considered actual human ancestors. Likewise, the seventh figure (Paranthropus) is said to be "an evolutionary dead end". In addition, the colored stripes, across the top of the figure, which indicate the age and duration of the various lineages clearly imply that there is no evidence of direct continuity between extinct and extant lineages and also, multiple lineages of the figured hominids occurred contemporaneously at several points in the history of the group.
== Reception ==
The image has frequently been copied, modified, and parodied.
It has also been criticized as "unintentionally and wrongly" implying that "evolution is progressive". The image has been described as having a "visual logic" of linear progression. The Lancet called it "proverbial, much quoted or adapted, familiar to multitudes who have never seen its original version or heard of its maker". The image has become better-known than the science behind it.
With regard to the way the illustration has been interpreted, the anthropologist and author of the section, F. Clark Howell, remarked:
The artist didn't intend to reduce the evolution of man to a linear sequence, but it was read that way by viewers. ... The graphic overwhelmed the text. It was so powerful and emotional.
Stephen Jay Gould (1941–2002) condemned the iconology of the image in several pages of his 1989 book, Wonderful Life, reproducing several advertisements and political cartoons that make use of the illustration to make their various points. In a chapter, "The Iconography of an Expectation", he asserted that
The march of progress is the canonical representation of evolution – the one picture immediately grasped and viscerally understood by all. ... The straitjacket of linear advance goes beyond iconography to the definition of evolution: the word itself becomes a synonym for progress. ... [But] life is a copiously branching bush, continually pruned by the grim reaper of extinction, not a ladder of predictable progress.
The intelligent design advocate Jonathan Wells wrote in Icons of Evolution: Science or Myth? (2002), "Although it is widely used to show that we are just animals, and that our very existence is a mere accident, the ultimate icon goes far beyond the evidence." The book likens a selection of evolution theory textbook topics to the cover illustration thus qualified.
Riley Black, writing for Scientific American, argues that the idea of a "march of progress", as depicted in the 1965 Time-Life illustration, dates back to the medieval great chain of being and the 19th century idea of the "missing link" in the fossil record. In her view, to understand life and evolution, "step one involves casting out types of imagery which constrain rather than enlighten." Writing in Wired, Black added that "There is perhaps no other illustration that is as immediately recognizable as representing evolution, but the tragedy of this is that it conveys a view of life that does not resemble our present understanding of life's history."

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== Parodies and adaptations ==
The March of Progress has often been imitated, parodied, or adapted for commercial or political purposes. The cover of the 1972 Doors album Full Circle references the March of Progress, as does the 1985 Supertramp album Brother Where You Bound, while the poster for the 1992 comedy film Encino Man shows an ape evolving into a skateboarder. The December 2005 issue of The Economist depicts hominids progressing up a flight of stairs to transform into a woman in a black dress holding a glass of champagne to illustrate "The Story of Man".
== Predecessors ==
Thomas Henry Huxley's frontispiece to his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature was intended simply to compare the skeletons of apes and humans, but its unintentional left-to-right progressionist sequence has according to the historian Jennifer Tucker "become an iconic and instantly recognizable visual shorthand for evolution".
An illustration, with the caption "Evolution", showing two sequences of four images, each illustrating a gradual transformation of an animal into a human, appeared in the 1889 edition of Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to March of Progress at Wikimedia Commons

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Material World was a weekly science magazine programme broadcast on Thursday afternoons on BBC Radio 4. Its regular presenter was Quentin Cooper, with contributions from scientists who were researching areas discussed in each programme.
== History ==
The programme began in April 1998 as The Material World, presented by Trevor Phillips. Phillips was a chemistry graduate of Imperial College, and also one of the few regular black broadcasters on Radio 4.
In September 2000, Phillips was told that his close links with the Labour Party conflicted with BBC impartiality rules and meant he could no longer present BBC programmes. He was replaced with Quentin Cooper, who presented the programme until its end in 2013.
From 5 April 2010 the programme was repeated on Monday evenings at 21.00, the former slot of Costing the Earth. For a short time, when programmes on 5 Live began webstreaming with video, Material World was also webcast.
On 14 June 2013 it was announced that the show was to be cancelled and replaced by a new show, Inside Science. The last programme presented by Quentin Cooper was broadcast on 20 June 2013 with the final episode airing a week later on 27 June 2013, presented by Gareth Mitchell.
Material World was one of the BBC's main conduits for up-to-date scientific news, along with Frontiers, Science in Action, and Bang Goes the Theory.
== Structure ==
A typical episode covered three or four topics, giving each 7–10 minutes. For many years the programme was divided into two sections of fifteen minutes on separate topics. It took the form of interviewing a guest scientist or engineer. Cooper often ended the programme with a terrible scientific pun.
Many past programmes are available for online listening via the programme's website. Some sequential sets of programmes were made in collaboration with the Open University.
== See also ==
Association of British Science Writers
== References ==
== External links ==
BBC Radio 4's Material World official site
BBC Radio 4's Material World Archive page
Co-operation with the Open University
Assistance with the Open University
So You Want To Be A Scientist?

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MilkyWay@home is a volunteer computing project in the astrophysics category, running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. Using spare computing power from over 38,000 computers run by over 27,000 active volunteers as of November 2011, the MilkyWay@home project aims to generate accurate three-dimensional dynamic models of stellar streams in the immediate vicinity of the Milky Way. With SETI@home and Einstein@home, it is the third computing project of this type that has the investigation of phenomena in interstellar space as its primary purpose. Its secondary objective is to develop and optimize algorithms for volunteer computing.
== Purpose and design ==
MilkyWay@home is a collaboration between the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's departments of Computer Science and Physics, Applied Physics and Astronomy and is supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation. It is operated by a team that includes astrophysicist Heidi Jo Newberg and computer scientists Malik Magdon-Ismail, Bolesław Szymański and Carlos A. Varela.
By mid-2009 the project's main astrophysical interest is in the Sagittarius Stream, an immense stellar stream emanating from the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy that wraps around the Milky Way. Mapping such interstellar streams and their dynamics with high accuracy may provide crucial clues for understanding the structure, formation, evolution, and gravitational potential distribution of the Milky Way and similar galaxies. It could also provide insight on the dark matter issue. As the project evolves, it might turn its attention to other star streams.
Using data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, MilkyWay@home divides starfields into wedges of about 2.5 deg. width and applies self-optimizing probabilistic separation techniques (i.e., evolutionary algorithms) to extract the optimized tidal streams. The program then attempts to create a new, uniformly dense wedge of stars from the input wedge by removing streams of data. Each stream removed is characterized by six parameters: percent of stars in the stream; the angular position in the stripe; the three spatial components (two angles, plus the radial distance from Earth) defining the removed cylinder; and a measure of width. For each search, the server application keeps track of a population of individual stars, each of which is attached to a possible model of the Milky Way.
== Project details and statistics ==
MilkyWay@home has been active since 2007, and optimized client applications for 32-bit and 64-bit operating systems became available in 2008. Its screensaver capability is limited to a revolving display of users' BOINC statistics, with no graphical component. Instead, animations of the best computer simulations are shared through YouTube.
The work units that are sent out to clients used to require only 2–4 hours of computation on modern CPUs, however, they were scheduled for completion with a short deadline (typically, three days). By early 2010, the project routinely sent much larger units that take 15–20 hours of computation time on the average processor core, and are valid for about a week from a download. This made the project less suitable for computers that are not in operation for periods of several days, or for user accounts that do not allow BOINC to compute in the background. As of 2018, many GPU-based tasks only require less than a minute to complete on a high-end graphics card.
The project's data throughput progress has been very dynamic recently. In mid-June 2009, the project had about 24,000 registered users and about 1,100 participating teams in 149 countries and was operating at 31.7 TeraFLOPS. As of 12 January 2010, these figures were at 44,900 users and 1,590 teams in 170 countries, but average computing power had jumped to 1,382 TFlops, which would rank MilkyWay@home second among the TOP500 list of supercomputers. MilkyWay@home is currently the 2nd largest volunteer computing project behind Folding@Home which crossed 5,000 TFlops in 2009.
That data throughput massively outpaced new user acquisition is mostly due to the deployment of client software that uses commonly available medium and high performance graphics processing units (GPUs) for numerical operations in Windows and Linux environments. MilkyWay@home CUDA code for a broad range of Nvidia GPUs was first released on the project's code release directory on June 11, 2009, following experimental releases in the MilkyWay@home (GPU) fork of the project. An OpenCL application for AMD Radeon GPUs is also available.
MilkyWay@home is a whitelisted gridcoin project. It is the second-largest manufacturer of gridcoins.
== Scientific results ==
Large parts of the MilkyWay@home project are created for Nathan Cole's thesis and there are also several other theses and scientific publications inspired by the resulting calculations of this projects applications.

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Mendelsohn, Eric J.; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Shelton, Siddhartha; Widrow, Lawrence M.; Thompson, Jeffery M.; Grillmair, Carl J. (1 February 2022). "Estimate of the Mass and Radial Profile of the Orphan–Chenab Stream's Dwarf-galaxy Progenitor Using MilkyWay@home". The Astrophysical Journal. 926 (2): 106. arXiv:2201.03637. Bibcode:2022ApJ...926..106M. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac498a. S2CID 245853837. Donlon, T.; Newberg, H.; Weiss, J.; Guffey, A.; Thompson, J. (2021-06-01). "A Trifurcated Sagittarius Stream in the South". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 53 (5): 403.03. Bibcode:2021DDA....5240303D. Mendelsohn, E. J.; Newberg, H. J.; Shelton, S.; Widrow, L.; Thompson, J.; Grillmair, C. (2021-06-01). "Estimate of the Mass and Radial Profile of the Orphan Stream's Dwarf Galaxy Progenitor Using MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 53 (5): 403.01. Bibcode:2021DDA....5240301M. Mendelsohn, E. J.; Newberg, H. J.; Donlon, T.; Thompson, J. M. (2020-08-01). "N-Body Simulations with MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 52 (4): 200.01. Bibcode:2020DDA....5120001M. Donlon, Thomas; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Sanderson, Robyn; Widrow, Lawrence M. (2020-10-01). "The Milky Way's Shell Structure Reveals the Time of a Radial Collision". The Astrophysical Journal. 902 (2): 119. arXiv:2006.08764. Bibcode:2020ApJ...902..119D. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb5f6. S2CID 219708644. Shelton, Siddhartha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Weiss, Jake; Bauer, Jacob S.; Arsenault, Matthew; Widrow, Larry; Rayment, Clayton; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Mendelsohn, Eric; Newby, Matthew; Rice, Colin; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Thompson, Jeffery M.; Varela, Carlos; Willett, Benjamin; Ulin, Steve; Newberg, Lee (14 February 2021). "An Algorithm for Reconstructing the Orphan Stream Progenitor with MilkyWay@home Volunteer Computing". arXiv:2102.07257. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Newberg, Heidi Jo; Shelton, Siddhartha; Mendelsohn, Eric; Weiss, Jake; Arsenault, Matthew; Bauer, Jacob S.; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Lee A.; Newby, Matthew; Rayment, Clayton; Rice, Colin; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Thompson, Jeffery M. (June 2019). "Streams and the Milky Way dark matter halo". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 14 (S353): 75–82. doi:10.1017/S174392131900855X. S2CID 208163330. Shelton, Siddhartha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Weiss, Jake; Bauer, Jacob S.; Arsenault, Matthew; Widrow, Larry; Rayment, Clayton; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Mendelsohn, Eric; Newby, Matthew; Rice, Colin; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Thompson, Jeffery M. (2021-02-14). "An Algorithm for Reconstructing the Orphan Stream Progenitor with MilkyWay@home Volunteer Computing". arXiv:2102.07257. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Weiss, Jake; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Desell, Travis (22 October 2018). "A Tangle of Stellar Streams in the North Galactic Cap". The Astrophysical Journal. 867 (1): L1. arXiv:1807.03754. Bibcode:2018ApJ...867L...1W. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aae5fc. S2CID 55047680. Shelton, Siddhartha (December 2018). Constraining dwarf galaxy properties using tidal streams (Thesis). Bibcode:2018PhDT.......235S. hdl:20.500.13015/2346. Weiss, Jake (2018). The Stellar Density of the Major Substructure in the Milky Way Halo (Thesis). ProQuest 2125438843. Weiss, Jake; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Newby, Matthew; Desell, Travis (27 September 2018). "Fitting the Density Substructure of the Stellar Halo with MilkyWay@home". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 238 (2): 17. arXiv:1808.06659. Bibcode:2018ApJS..238...17W. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aadb92. S2CID 119327847. Newberg, Heidi Jo; Shelton, Siddhartha; Weiss, Jake (2018-01-01). "Characterizing Milky Way Tidal Streams and Dark Matter with MilkyWay@home". American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts #231. 231: 212.07. Bibcode:2018AAS...23121207N. Newberg, Heidi; Shelton, Siddhartha (2018-04-01). "Reconstructing the Dwarf Galaxy Progenitor from Tidal Streams Using MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 49: 303.02. Bibcode:2018DDA....4930302N. Dumas, Julie; Newberg, Heidi J.; Niedzielski, Bethany; Susser, Adam; Thompson, Jeffery M.; Weiss, Jake; Lewis, Kim M. (16 September 2015). "Testing the Dark Matter Caustic Theory Against Observations in the Milky Way". The Astrophysical Journal. 811 (1): 36. arXiv:1508.04494. Bibcode:2015ApJ...811...36D. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/811/1/36. S2CID 62792604. Weiss, Jake; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Arsenault, Matthew; Bechtel, Torrin; Desell, Travis; Newby, Matthew; Thompson, Jeffery M. (2016-01-01). "Using A New Model for Main Sequence Turnoff Absolute Magnitudes to Measure Stellar Streams in the Milky Way Halo". American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts #227. 227: 341.19. Bibcode:2016AAS...22734119W. Shelton, Siddhartha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Arsenault, Matthew; Bauer, Jacob; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newby, Matthew; Rice, Colin; Thompson, Jeffrey; Ulin, Steve; Weiss, Jake; Widrow, Larry (2016-01-01). "Measuring Dark Matter With MilkyWay@home". American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts #227. 227: 139.11. Bibcode:2016AAS...22713911S. Xu, Yan; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Carlin, Jeffrey L.; Liu, Chao; Deng, Licai; Li, Jing; Schönrich, Ralph; Yanny, Brian (11 March 2015). "Rings and Radial Waves in the Disk of the Milky Way". The Astrophysical Journal. 801 (2): 105. arXiv:1503.00257. Bibcode:2015ApJ...801..105X. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/801/2/105. S2CID 119124338. Scibelli, Samantha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Carlin, Jeffrey L.; Yanny, Brian (2 December 2014). "Census of blue stars in SDSS DR8". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 215 (2): 24. arXiv:1411.5744. Bibcode:2014ApJS..215...24S. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/215/2/24. S2CID 8621834. Newberg, Heidi Jo (August 2012). "Determining distances to stars statistically from photometry". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 8 (S289): 74–81. arXiv:1411.5999. doi:10.1017/S174392131202114X. S2CID 119071864. Xu, Yan; Newberg, Heidi (May 2013). "Exploration of Galactic Structures beyond the Sun toward the anti-center of the Milky Way". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 9 (S298): 450. doi:10.1017/S1743921313007151. S2CID 123228241. Newberg, Heidi Jo; Newby, Matthew; Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (May 2013). "MilkyWay@home: Harnessing volunteer computers to constrain dark matter in the Milky Way". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 9 (S298): 98–104. arXiv:1411.6003. doi:10.1017/S1743921313006273. S2CID 8058974. Newby, Matthew (August 2013). The Sagittarius tidal stream and the shape of the galactic stellar halo (Thesis). Bibcode:2013PhDT........69N. hdl:20.500.13015/971. ProQuest 1466022697. Newby, Matthew; Cole, Nathan; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos; Willett, Benjamin; Yanny, Brian (13 May 2013). "A Spatial Characterization of the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy Tidal Tails". The Astronomical Journal. 145 (6): 163. arXiv:1304.1476. Bibcode:2013AJ....145..163N. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/6/163. Guevara, Gustavo; Desell, Travis; LaPorte, Jason; Varela, Carlos A. (1 April 2011). "Modular Visualization of Distributed Systems". CLEI Electronic Journal. 14 (1). doi:10.19153/cleiej.14.1.7. S2CID 4876137. Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Heidi; Newberg, Lee A.; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Varela, Carlos A. (2016-12-30). "A Robust Asynchronous Newton Method for Massive Scale Computing Systems". arXiv:1702.02204. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos A.; Willett, Benjamin A.; Arsenault, Matthew; Newberg, Heidi (2011). "Evolving N-Body Simulations to Determine the Origin and Structure of the Milky Way Galaxy's Halo Using Volunteer Computing". 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Processing Workshops and PhD Forum. pp. 1888–1895. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.731.7231. doi:10.1109/IPDPS.2011.346. ISBN 978-1-61284-425-1. S2CID 10643895. Desell, Travis; Anderson, David P.; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; New, Heidi; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Varela, Carlos A. (2010). "An analysis of massively distributed evolutionary algorithms". IEEE Congress on Evolutionary Computation. pp. 1–8. doi:10.1109/CEC.2010.5586073. ISBN 978-1-4244-6909-3. S2CID 581517. Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos A.; Newberg, Heidi; Anderson, David P. (2010). "Validating Evolutionary Algorithms on Volunteer Computing Grids". Distributed Applications and Interoperable Systems. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6115. pp. 29–41. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13645-0_3. ISBN 978-3-642-13644-3. Cole, Nate; Desell, Travis; Lombraña González, Daniel; Fernández De Vega, Francisco; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Heidi; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2010). "Evolutionary Algorithms on Volunteer Computing Platforms: The Milky Way@Home Project". Parallel and Distributed Computational Intelligence. Studies in Computational Intelligence. Vol. 269. pp. 63–90. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-10675-0_4. ISBN 978-3-642-10674-3. Desell, Travis (December 2009). Asynchronous global optimization for massive-scale computing (Thesis). hdl:20.500.13015/2902. OCLC 1150135368. Desell, Travis; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos; Newberg, Heidi; Cole, Nathan (2009). "Robust Asynchronous Optimization for Volunteer Computing Grids". 2009 Fifth IEEE International Conference on e-Science. pp. 263–270. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.158.8407. doi:10.1109/e-Science.2009.44. ISBN 978-1-4244-5340-5. S2CID 5214001. Desell, Travis; Waters, Anthony; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Varela, Carlos A.; Newby, Matthew; Newberg, Heidi; Przystawik, Andreas; Anderson, David (2010). "Accelerating the Milky Way@Home Volunteer Computing Project with GPUs". Parallel Processing and Applied Mathematics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 6067. pp. 276–288. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14390-8_29. ISBN 978-3-642-14389-2.

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Desell, Travis; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2008). "An asynchronous hybrid genetic-simplex search for modeling the Milky Way galaxy using volunteer computing". Proceedings of the 10th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation. pp. 921–928. doi:10.1145/1389095.1389273. ISBN 9781605581309. S2CID 10952453. Cole, Nathan; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Desell, Travis; Dawsey, Kristopher; Hayashi, Warren; Liu, Xinyang Fred; Purnell, Jonathan; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos; Willett, Benjamin; Wisniewski, James (20 August 2008). "Maximum Likelihood Fitting of Tidal Streams with Application to the Sagittarius Dwarf Tidal Tails". The Astrophysical Journal. 683 (2): 750–766. arXiv:0805.2121. Bibcode:2008ApJ...683..750C. doi:10.1086/589681. S2CID 1660060. Desell, Travis; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2008). "Asynchronous genetic search for scientific modeling on large-scale heterogeneous environments". 2008 IEEE International Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Processing. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1109/IPDPS.2008.4536169. ISBN 978-1-4244-1693-6. S2CID 1107218. Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Desell, Travis; Varela, Carlos (2008). "The Effects of Heterogeneity on Asynchronous Panmictic Genetic Search". Parallel Processing and Applied Mathematics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4967. pp. 457–468. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.78.2043. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-68111-3_48. ISBN 978-3-540-68105-2. Desell, Travis; Cole, Nathan; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Heidi; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2007). "Distributed and Generic Maximum Likelihood Evaluation". Third IEEE International Conference on e-Science and Grid Computing (E-Science 2007). pp. 337–344. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.65.4065. doi:10.1109/E-SCIENCE.2007.30. ISBN 978-0-7695-3064-2. S2CID 1043475.
== See also ==
List of volunteer computing projects
== External links ==
== References ==

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MindModeling@Home is an inactive non-profit, volunteer computing research project for the advancement of cognitive science. MindModeling@Home is hosted by Wright State University and the University of Dayton in Dayton, Ohio.
In BOINC, it is in the area of Cognitive Science and category called Cognitive science and artificial intelligence. It can only operate on a 64-bit operating system, preferably on a computer with multiple cores, running a Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, or Linux operating system. This project is not compatible with mobile devices, unlike other projects on BOINC.
== Research focus ==
N-2 Repetition: understanding how people have a harder time returning to a task from another one
Observing how people read through their eye movement for the purpose of helping people reduce eye strain and processing what they read better and faster.
Modeling decision-making: resolving around decisions made from visual processing (focus and filtering)
Integrated Learning Models (ILM) to create algorithms based on how people learn and make decisions
How the brain performs tasks sequentially and simultaneously by measuring its blood flow
== Problems ==
Its status is inactive. However, it is "not down or closed," as its servers are still running.
The projects are long; prolonged amounts of computing time can overheat a computer. The solution is to stop work on the project until the computer cools down.
It is subject to power outages, as seen on October 7, 2018
When the website will be out of beta mode is unknown, as it has been in beta since 2007
== Scientific results ==
Godwin H.J., Walenchok S. et al. Faster than the speed of rejection: Object identification processes during visual search for multiple targets. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 41–4, (2016).
Moore L. R., Gunzelmann G. An interpolation approach for fitting computationally intensive models. Cognitive Systems Research 19, (2014).
Moore L.R. Cognitive model exploration and optimization: a new challenge for computational science. Comput Math Organ Theory 17, 296–313. (2011).
Moore L.R., Kopala M., Mielke T. et al. Simultaneous performance exploration and optimized search with volunteer computing. 19th ACM International Symposium on High Performance Distributed Computing, (2010).
Harris J., Gluck K.A., Moore L.R. MindModeling@Home. . . and Anywhere Else You Have Idle Processors. 9th International Conference on Cognitive Modelling, (2009).
Gluck K., Scheutz M. Combinatorics meets processing power: Large-scale computational resources for BRIMS. 16th Conference on Behavior Representation in Modeling and Simulation, BRIMS. 1. 73–83. (2007).
== See also ==
List of volunteer computing projects
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
BOINC
Video of the MindModeling@Home trailer on YouTube
MindModeling@Home screensaver video on YouTube

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Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science, frequently described as helicopter research, parachute science or research, parasitic research, or safari study, is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country, collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with little or no involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-author.
Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research. Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as funded research centers) and the careers of local scientists. This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance colonialism—and critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to decolonize knowledge.
This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers may not ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues. The result of this approach is that local communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage. Ultimately, especially for fields dealing with global issues like conservation biology which rely on local communities to implement solutions, neo-colonial science prevents institutionalization of the findings in local communities in order to address issues being studied by scientists.
== Effects ==
The use of helicopter research has also led to a stigma of research within minority groups; some going so far as to deny research within their communities. Such safari studies lead to long-term negative effects for the scientific community and researchers, as distrust develops within peripheral communities.
=== Donor robbery ===
Funds for research in developing countries are often provided by bilateral and international academic and research programmes for sustainable development. Through 'donor robbery' a large proportion of such international funds may end up in the wealthier countries via consultancy fees, laboratory costs in rich universities, overhead or purchase of expensive equipment, hiring expatriates and running "enclave" research institutes, depending on international conglomerates.
=== Use of open data ===
The current tendency of freely availing research datasets may lead to exploitation of, and rapid publication of results based on data pertaining to developing countries by rich and well-equipped research institutes, without any further involvement and/or benefit to local communities; similarly to the historical open access to tropical forests that has led to the disappropriation ("Global Pillage") of plant genetic resources from developing countries.
=== Professional discourse ===
In certain fields of research, such as global public health, both the journals and professionals creating the field have defined much of their work under colonial structures and assumptions. This in turn prevents participation in the field from early in the process, even before authorship or credit is given during the publishing representation of editorial boards of journals publishing in environmental sciences and public health, with a vast majority of editors based in high-income countries despite the global scope of the journals' fields.
== Mitigation ==
Some journals and publishers are implementing policies that should mitigate the impact of parachute science. One of the conditions for publication set by the journal Global Health Action is that, "Articles reporting research involving primary data collection will normally include researchers and institutions from the countries concerned as authors, and include in-country ethical approval." Similarly The Lancet Global Health placed restriction encouraged submissions to review their practices for including local participants. Similarly in 2021, PLOS announced a policy that required changes in reporting for researchers working in other countries.
A number of research communities are putting protocols in place for indigenous health information. In the US, the Cherokee Nation established a specific Institutional Review Board, aiming at ensuring the protection of the rights and welfare of tribal members involved in research projects. The Cherokee Nation IRB does not allow helicopter research. The Human Heredity and Health in Africa (H3Africa) Initiative launched guidelines for working with genetic information from the continent in 2018.
An Ethiopian soil scientist, Mitiku Haile, suggests that such "free riding" should be "condemned by all partners and, if found, should be brought to the attention of the scientific community and the international and national funding agencies".
Also in Africa, since the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic in 2020, travel restrictions on international scholars tend to local scientists stepping up to lead research.
== Examples by field ==
Examples of neo-colonial approaches to science include:
In the medical world: "A popular term for a clinical or epidemiologic research project conducted by foreign scientists who use local contacts to gain access to a population group and obtain samples"
In anthropology, particularly when related to peripheral ethnic groups: "Any investigation within the community in which a researcher collects data, leaves to disseminate it, and never again has contact with the tribe."
In geosciences, a 2020 study found that 30% of studies about Africa contained an African author. (See also: Ubirajara jubatus.)
When scientists from a central, dominant ethnic or sociological group conduct research in areas where minority groups are living (often peripheral areas), there is also a risk for helicopter research, though it may not appear directly from the academic affiliation of the researchers. For instance, within the United States, it has been used primarily in the study of Native Americans.
=== Climate change ===

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An analysis of research money from 1990 to 2020 for climate change, found that 78% of research money for research on Climate change in Africa, was spent in European and North American institutions and more was spent for former British colonies than other countries. This in turn both prevents local researchers from doing groundbreaking work, because they don't have the funding for experimental activities and reduces investment in local researchers ideas and in topics important to the Global South, such as climate change adaptation.
=== Soil science ===
Soil scientists have qualified helicopter research as a perpetuation of "colonial" science. Typically researchers from rich countries would come to establish soil profile pits or collect soil and peat samples, which is often more easily done in poor countries given the availability of cheap labour and goodwill of villagers to dig a pit on their land against small payment. The profile will be described and samples taken with the help of local people, possibly also university staff. In case of helicopter research, the outcomes are then published such as discovery in tropical peatlands, sometimes in high-level journals without the involvement of local colleagues. "Overall, helicopter research tends to produce academic papers that further the career of scientists from developed countries, but provide little practical outcomes for nations where the studies are conducted, nor develop the careers of their local scientists."
=== Coral Reef research ===
A 2021 study in Current Biology quantified the amount of parachute research happening in coral reef studies and found such approaches to be the norm.
== Examples by region ==
=== Europe ===
The 2015 description of Tetrapodophis was performed by three European scientists. When the Brazilian newspaper Estadão – Brazil being the country where the fossil hails from – questioned lead researcher David M. Martill, he replied "It should be fossils for all. No countries existed when the animals were fossilized. [..] what difference would it make [partnering with Brazilian scientists]? I mean, do you want me also to have a black person on the team for ethnicity reasons, and a cripple and a woman, and maybe a homosexual too, just for a bit of all round balance? [..] Now I don't work in Brazil. But I still work on Brazilian fossils. There are hundreds of them in museums all over Europe, America and in Japan."
=== Central Africa ===
A 2009 study found that Europeans participated in 77% of regionally co-authored papers in Central African countries. Even though local authors are credited with the work, they aren't always given participatory roles in the final production of the research itself—instead playing roles in fieldwork.
=== Indonesia ===
In April 2018, a publication about Indonesia's Bajau people received great attention. These "sea nomads" had a genetic adaptation resulting in large spleens that supply additional oxygenated red blood cells. A month later this publication was criticised by Indonesian scientists. Their article in Science questioned the ethics of scientists from the United States and Denmark who took DNA samples of the Bajau people and analyzed them, without much involvement of Bajau or other Indonesian people.
== See also ==
== References ==