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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1821_in_archaeology-0.md
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title: "1821 in archaeology"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1821_in_archaeology"
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The year 1821 in archaeology involved some significant events.
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== Explorations ==
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October - John Gardner Wilkinson begins a twelve-year stay in Egypt, surveying historical sites.
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== Finds ==
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'Gallagh Man', an Iron Age bog body, is found in County Galway, Ireland.
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== Miscellaneous ==
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"Egyptian Hall" in London displays artifacts from Ancient Egypt brought to the United Kingdom by Giovanni Battista Belzoni. The Philae obelisk is landed in England in December.
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While not specifically the year 1821, this time period is when one of the most significant categorical discoveries of archaeology was named. Christian Thomsen, a Danish archaeologist, developed the three age system to date objects in museums. These three ages were the "Stone Age," "Bronze Age," and "Iron Age."
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While not specifically the year 1821, this time period is when one of the most significant findings regarding time and dating archaeological findings was discovered. Boucher de Perthes established a much deeper sense of time than what James Usher had previously established. Perthes determined that the world was significantly older than 4004 BC and thus gave archaeology a deeper, more realistic time frame to work with.
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== Births ==
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June 21, 1821- The birth of Ephraim George Squier, co-author of "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley" along with Edwin Hamilton Davis.
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== See also ==
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Ancient Egypt / Egyptology
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== References ==
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Stone-0.md
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title: "3rd Stone"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_Stone"
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category: "reference"
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3rd Stone is a defunct British magazine devoted to "archaeology, folklore and myth" and dealing with Earth mysteries.
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== History and profile ==
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The magazine was originally published under the title of Gloucestershire Earth Mysteries (G.E.M.) magazine, founded by Danny Sullivan in the mid-1980s, and the name was changed to 3rd Stone magazine in 1986. The magazine was based in Cheltenham. Neil Mortimer took over as editor in 1995, and edited the magazine until its closure in 2003.
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3rd Stone absorbed At the Edge magazine in 1998 before itself ceasing publication in 2003. Aubrey Burl, Ed Krupp, John Michell, Paul Devereux, Jeremy Harte, Rodney Castleden and Stan Beckensall are among the authors who contributed to the magazine.
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Timothy Darvill, in reviewing The Modern Antiquarian, mentioned that The 3rd Stone followed "much the same path [as that book], and [had] a rapidly increasing subscription base and considerable public following" and that it carried "articles by a wide range of authors and gives each equal weight."
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3rd Stone ceased publication with issue 47 published in 2003.
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== See also ==
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List of magazines of anomalous phenomena
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== References ==
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== External links ==
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Many issues of 3rd Stone are available for free PDF download here
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4Q119-0.md
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4Q119 (also 4QLXXLeva; TM 62293; LDAB 3454) designates the remnants of a Greek manuscript of the Book of Leviticus written on parchment. It was found at Qumran cave 4 and is dated to the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE. It got the no. 801 according to the system of Alfred Rahlfs. The manuscript is stored in Rockefeller Museum at Jerusalem (Mus. Inv. Gr. 1004).
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== Bibliography ==
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Patrick Skehan, Eugene C. Ulrich, Judith E. Sanderson: 119. 4QLXXLeviticusa. Qumran Cave 4.IV (Discoveries in the Judaean Desert 9). Clarendon Press, Oxford 1992. ISBN 0-19-826328-7, pp. 161–165, plate XXXVIII.
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== External links ==
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"Skehan e.a., Qumran cave 4.4 (Discoveries in the Judaean desert 9)". Trismegistos. Retrieved 2012-12-14.
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4Q240-0.md
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4Q240 ( or 4QCanta) is believed to be a commentary (or pesher) on the Song of Songs, also known as 'Canticles'. Written in Hebrew, it was found in Cave 4 at Qumran in the Judean Desert and comprises part of the Dead Sea Scrolls. From its palaeography (script) it has been identified as being early-Herodian.
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== Location ==
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Included in Milik's original list, but this fragment has never been located.
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== See also ==
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List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts
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Dead Sea Scrolls
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4Q106
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4Q107
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4Q108
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4QMMT
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6Q6
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Tanakh at Qumran
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== References ==
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== External links ==
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"The Dead Sea Scrolls and Why They Matter" – 4Q240 in Biblical Archaeology Review
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title: "AWM-SIAM Sonia Kovalevsky Lecture"
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The AWM-SIAM Sonia Kovalevsky Lecture is an award and lecture series that "highlights significant contributions of women to applied or computational mathematics." The Association for Women in Mathematics (AWM) and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM) planned the award and lecture series in 2002 and first awarded it in 2003. The lecture is normally given each year at the SIAM Annual Meeting. Award winners receive a signed certificate from the AWM and SIAM presidents.
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The lectures are named after Sonia Kovalevsky (1850–1891), a well-known Russian mathematician of the late 19th century. Karl Weierstrass regarded Kovalevsky as his most talented student. In 1874, she received her Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Göttingen under the supervision of Weierstrass. She was granted privatdozentin status and taught at the Stockholm University in 1883; she became an ordinary professor (the equivalent of full professor) at this institution in 1889. She was also an editor of the journal Acta Mathematica. Kovalevsky did her important work in the theory of partial differential equations and the rotation of a solid around a fixed point.
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== Recipients ==
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The Kovalevky Lecturers have been:
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2003 Linda R. Petzold, University of California, Santa Barbara, “Towards the Multiscale Simulation of Biochemical Networks”
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2004 Joyce R. McLaughlin, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, “Interior Elastodynamics Inverse Problems: Creating Shear Wave Speed Images of Tissue”
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2005 Ingrid Daubechies, Princeton University, “Superfast and (Super)sparse Algorithms”
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2006 Irene Fonseca, Carnegie Mellon University, “New Challenges in the Calculus of Variations”
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2007 Lai-Sang Young, Courant Institute, “Shear-Induced Chaos”
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2008 Dianne P. O'Leary, University of Maryland, “A Noisy Adiabatic Theorem: Wilkinson Meets Schrödinger’s Cat”
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2009 Andrea Bertozzi, University of California, Los Angeles
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2010 Suzanne Lenhart, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, “Mixing it up: Discrete and Continuous Optimal Control for Biological Models”
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2011 Susanne C. Brenner, Louisiana State University, “A Cautionary Tale in Numerical PDEs”
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2012 Barbara Keyfitz, Ohio State University, “The Role of Characteristics in Conservation Laws”
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2013 Margaret Cheney, Colorado State University, “Introduction to Radar Imaging”
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2014 Irene M. Gamba, University of Texas at Austin, “The evolution of complex interactions in non-linear kinetic systems”
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2015 Linda J. S. Allen, Texas Tech University, “Predicting Population Extinction”
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2016 Lisa J. Fauci, Tulane University, “Biofluids of Reproduction: Oscillators, Viscoelastic Networks and Sticky Situations”
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2017 Liliana Borcea, University of Michigan, “Mitigating Uncertainty in Inverse Wave Scattering”
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2018 Eva Tardos, Cornell University, “Learning and Efficiency of Outcomes in Games”
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2019 Catherine Sulem, University of Toronto, “The Dynamics of Ocean Waves”
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2020 Bonnie Berger, MIT, “Compressive genomics: leveraging the geometry of biological data”
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2021 Vivette Girault, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, "From linear poroelasticity to nonlinear implicit elastic and related models"
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2022 Anne Greenbaum, University of Washington, "Two of my Favorite Problems”
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2023 Annalisa Buffa, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), "Simulation of PDEs on Geometries Obtained via Boolean Operations"
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2024 Sunčica Čanić, University of California at Berkeley, "Mathematics for Bioartificial Organ Design"
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2025 Yongjie Jessica Zhang, Carnegie Mellon University, TBD
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2026 Fioralba Cakoni, Rutgers University, TBD
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== See also ==
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Falconer Lecture
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Noether Lecture
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List of mathematics awards
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== References ==
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== External links ==
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"Kovalevsky Lectures – Association for Women in Mathematics (AWM)". awm-math.org. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
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"Prizes, Awards, and Honors for Women Mathematicians". agnesscott.edu. Retrieved 1 January 2021.
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title: "AWM–Microsoft Research Prize in Algebra and Number Theory"
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The AWM–Microsoft Research Prize in Algebra and Number Theory and is a prize given every other year by the Association for Women in Mathematics to an outstanding young female researcher in algebra or number theory. It was funded in 2012 by Microsoft Research and first issued in 2014.
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== Winners ==
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Sophie Morel (2014), for her research in number theory, particularly her contributions to the Langlands program, an application of her results on weighted cohomology, and a new proof of Brenti's combinatorial formula for Kazhdan-Lusztig polynomials.
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Lauren Williams (2016), for her research in algebraic combinatorics, particularly her contributions on the totally nonnegative Grassmannian, her work on cluster algebras, and her proof (with Musiker and Schiffler) of the famous Laurent positivity conjecture.
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Melanie Wood (2018), for her research in number theory and algebraic geometry, particularly her contributions in arithmetic statistics and tropical geometry, as well as her work with Ravi Vakil on the limiting behavior of natural families of varieties.
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Melody Chan (2020), in recognition of her advances at the interface between algebraic geometry and combinatorics.
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Jennifer Balakrishnan (2022), in recognition of her advances in computing rational points on algebraic curves over number fields.
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Yunqing Tang (2024), for "work in arithmetic geometry, including results on the Grothendieck–Katz
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p
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{\displaystyle p}
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-curvature conjecture, a conjecture of Ogus on algebraicity of cycles, arithmetic intersection theory, and the unbounded denominators conjecture of Atkin and Swinnerton-Dyer"
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== See also ==
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List of awards honoring women
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List of mathematics awards
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== References ==
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== External links ==
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AWM–Microsoft Research Prize, Association for Women in Mathematics
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Byron_Award-0.md
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The Ada Byron Award for Women in Technology (Premio Ada Byron a la Mujer Tecnóloga) is an honor given annually by the University of Deusto to recognize the careers of women in technology. It seeks out women scientists and technologists who have contributed to various scientific disciplines, such as Ada Byron, for whom the award is named.
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== History ==
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The Ada Byron Award for Women in Technology was established at the University of Deusto in October 2013.
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Its first edition was presented on 11 April 2014, during the "Women and Technology" session at Forotech 2014, which was held as part of Deusto Engineering and Technology Week. The winner received a cash prize of €3,000.
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In 2019 it expanded to Mexico, and in 2020 it reached Argentina through the Catholic University of Córdoba and the National Technological University.
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In 2021 it arrived in Uruguay with the support of the Catholic University of Uruguay, and in Colombia with the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana.
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Continuing with the internationalization of the award, in 2022, it was expanded to Chile, with the support of the Andrés Bello National University.
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In 2023, the Ada Byron Award celebrated its tenth edition. To commemorate this milestone, a video was produced, featuring the winners from all previous editions.
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== Goals ==
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The award aims to:
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Give visibility to women within the world of technology by recognizing their important work, which is insufficiently known in society as a whole
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Enrich society with technology dissemination events, providing female role models for new generations
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Promote technological vocations by making technological work accessible to teenagers, highlighting the positive aspects, especially in female vocations
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Raise social awareness of the importance of technology for economic growth and as a future value for society
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Contribute to the realization of the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 5: "Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls"
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== Administrators and jurors ==
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Nerea Aranguren – director of innovation at Danobat and manager at Ideko
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Guillermo Dorronsoro – management board advisor, Zabala Innovation Consulting
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Miren Elgarresta – director of Emakunde-Basque Institute for Women
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Lorena Fernández Álvarez – director of digital communication at the University of Deusto
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Cristina Giménez Elorriaga – member of the Scientific-Technological Committee at the University of Deusto
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Sara Gómez Martín – director of the Women and Engineering Project at the Royal Academy of Engineering
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Mari Luz Guenaga Gómez – member of the Scientific-Technological Committee at the University of Deusto
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Teresa Laespada – deputy for employment, cohesion and equality in the General Assemblies of Biscay
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Idoia Maguregui Villalain – advisory board member, CIOnet
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Eva Ortega Paíno – Secretary General of Research at the Ministry of Science
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Manuel Salaverria – president of Innobasque
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María Cora Urdaneta Ponte – member of the Scientific-Technological Committee at the University of Deusto
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== Winners ==
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== See also ==
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Ada Lovelace Award
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BCS Lovelace Medal
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== References ==
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== External links ==
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Official website
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Liturgical_Quire-0.md
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title: "Afghan Liturgical Quire"
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The Afghan Liturgical Quire (ALQ), also known as the Afghan Siddur, is a quire from the Afghan Geniza in Bamyan, Afghanistan. It is the oldest Hebrew codex ever discovered, and contains Hebrew liturgical texts, including prayers, blessings, and piyyuṭ. The manuscript was written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Judeo-Persian. The book is currently a part of the collection at the Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C.
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For an unknown reason, a portion of the Passover haggadah is upside-down in the book.
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== History ==
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The manuscript was originally believed to have come from the Cairo Geniza in Egypt with an estimated origin from the 900s CE. In 2016, a photograph of the book in Afghanistan from 1997 was discovered, which led to radiometric dating tests on four parts of the manuscript. These parts of the manuscript were dated to c. 780 CE in 2019.
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The book was found by a Hazara man, who gave it to a local Afghan leader. In 2013, the manuscript was purchased by Steve Green, president of Hobby Lobby and founder of the Museum of the Bible. It was later donated to the museum, which opened in 2017.
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== See also ==
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Leningrad Codex
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== References ==
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---
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title: "African Union Kwame Nkrumah Award for Scientific Excellence"
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The African Union Kwame Nkrumah Award for Scientific Excellence was established by the African Union (AU) to recognize and honor outstanding scientific achievements in Africa. These awards were named after Kwame Nkrumah, the first President of Ghana and a prominent Pan-Africanist, who strongly believed in the importance of science and technology for the development of Africa. It is the highest recognition for science in Africa.
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The awards aim to recognize and celebrate scientific achievements, promote science and innovation in Africa and inspire the next generation of African scientists. They were established in September 2008.
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The Kwame Nkrumah Awards are awarded in two categories: Life and Earth Sciences and Basic Science, Technology and Innovation.
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Nominees are typically selected based on their achievements in advancing scientific knowledge, addressing African challenges, and their contributions to the scientific community at large. The awardees are often recognized during AU summits, where they are presented with both a monetary award and a certificate of recognition.
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The awards aim to showcase the talent and intellectual contributions of African scientists and play a role in the continent's development by encouraging continued advancements in science and technology.
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There are 3 types of awards: At the continental level for general scientists, at the regional level for women scientists and at the national level for young scientists.
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The highest level is the Continental award which consists of a cash Prize of USD $100,000, a medal and a certificate.
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== Award recipients at the continental level ==
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=== Basic Science, Technology and Innovation ===
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2011: Oluwole Daniel Makinde (Nigeria)
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2012: Nabil A. Ibrahim (Egypt)
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2014: Timoleon Crepin Kofane (Cameroon)
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2015: Tebello Nyokong (South Africa)
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2016: Ali Ali Hebeish (Egypt)
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2017: Malik Maaza (Algeria)
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2018: Obada Abdel Shafy (Egypt)
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2019: Ahmed Mohammed Alsabagh (Egypt)
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2020: Salah Obaya (Egypt)
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||||
=== Life and Earth Sciences ===
|
||||
2012: Michael John Wingfield (South Africa)
|
||||
2014: Salim Abdool Karim (South Africa)
|
||||
2015: Umezuruike Linus Opara (Nigeria)
|
||||
2016: Felix Dapare Dakora (Ghana)
|
||||
2017: Robert Peter Millar (South Africa)
|
||||
2018: David Mark Richardson (South Africa)
|
||||
2019: Chedly Abdelly (Tunisia)
|
||||
2020: Abraham Aseffa (Ethiopia)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Award recipients at the regional level ==
|
||||
This level is awarded to scientist women only.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Life and Earth Sciences category ===
|
||||
2010: Salimata Wade (Senegal)
|
||||
2011: Mireille Dosso (Comoros / Ivory Coast)
|
||||
2012: Matilda Steiner-Asiedu (Ghana)
|
||||
2013: Adolé Glitho-Akueson (Togo)
|
||||
2014: Isabella Akyinbah Quakyi (Ghana)
|
||||
2015: Northern Region: Hafida Merzouk (Algeria)
|
||||
2020:
|
||||
Western Region: Philippa C. Ojimelukwe (Nigeria)
|
||||
Eastern Region: Hulda Swai (Tanzania)
|
||||
Northern Region: Elham Mahmoud (Egypt)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Basic Science, Technology and Innovation category ===
|
||||
2010: Geneviève Barro (Burkina Faso)
|
||||
2011: Rita Kakou-Yao (Ivory Coast)
|
||||
2013:
|
||||
Quarraisha Abdool Karim (South Africa)
|
||||
Yvonne Bonzi-Coulibaly (Burkina Faso)
|
||||
2015: Eastern Region: Yalemtsehay Mekonnen (Ethiopia)
|
||||
2020:
|
||||
Northern Region: Fakiha Heakal (Egypt)
|
||||
Western Region: Ibiyinka A. Fuwape (Nigeria)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of general science and technology awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Agnes Fay Morgan Research Award"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes_Fay_Morgan_Research_Award"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:58.620407+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Agnes Fay Morgan Research Award was established in 1951 by the Iota Sigma Pi honorary society for women in chemistry. The award is given for research achievement in chemistry or biochemistry to a woman not over forty years of age at the time of her nomination. Individual chapters, Iota Sigma Pi members, chemists, and groups of chemists may nominate eligible chemists for the prize.
|
||||
The award was named for Agnes Fay Morgan (1884–1968), biochemist and nutritionist, born in Peoria, Illinois, USA. She studied at the University of Chicago (BS, MS, PhD), and taught at the University of California, Berkeley (1915–54), where she helped organize (1919) what was to become a nationally outstanding home economics department. A founder of the science of nutrition, her research focused on the analysis of nutrients in foods, the stability of vitamins and proteins during food processing, and the physiological effects of vitamin deficiencies. Especially noteworthy was her discovery of the role of pantothenic acid in adrenal function and pigmentation. Her work for government and private agencies included the development of improved methods of dehydrating foods.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Award recipients ==
|
||||
Source: Iota Sigma Pi Archived 2019-03-23 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of chemistry awards
|
||||
List of science and technology awards for women
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khawdh-0.md
Normal file
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khawdh-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Al-Khawdh"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khawdh"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:40.225824+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Al-Khawdh (الخوض) (25°35'N; 58°10'E, altitude 40–50 m) contains several archaeological sites and lies in the Muscat Governorate, Oman, where Early Iron Age and Late Iron Age sites have been under study in recent years.
|
||||
Major finds include a large cemetery of the Early Iron Age i.e. the Lizq-Rumaylah period. and a hoard of over 300 implements made of copper alloy This cemetery lies 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) south-east of the hoard site.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Archaeology of Oman
|
||||
Oman
|
||||
Pre-Islamic recent period
|
||||
List of archaeological sites by country
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Sources ==
|
||||
Paul Yule, Cross-roads – Early and Late Iron Age South-eastern Arabia, Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 30, Wiesbaden, 2014, ISBN 978-3-447-10127-1; E-Book: ISBN 978-3-447-19287-3.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
14
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoldean-0.md
Normal file
14
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoldean-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Alfoldean"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoldean"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:41.414734+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Alfoldean was a Roman settlement founded in the Roman province of Britannia as a mansio on Stane Street where the road crosses the River Arun. Its remains are now near the village of Slinfold in West Sussex. They have been investigated by archaeologists including Samuel Edward Winbolt and Time Team.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_11-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_11-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Amarna letter EA 11"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_11"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:44.970354+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Amarna letter EA11 is a letter of correspondence to Akhenaten of Egypt from the king of Babylon, Burna-Buriash II.
|
||||
The tablet onto which letter EA11 is inscribed is badly damaged.
|
||||
The letter content suggests of the place Amarna having experienced an epidemic of some kind of plague.
|
||||
The letter (together with letter EA10) seems to undoubtedly indicate that Akhenaten married his daughters Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten at a time when they were both 11 or 12 years of age. Meritaten is described as the mistress of the royal house within the text.
|
||||
The letter is part of a series of correspondences from Babylonia to Egypt, which run from EA2 to EA4 and EA6 to EA14. EA1 and EA5 are from Egypt to Babylonia.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Amarna letters: EA 1, EA 2, EA 3, EA 4, EA 5, EA 6, EA 7, EA 8, EA 9, EA 10
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
29
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_12-0.md
Normal file
29
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_12-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Amarna letter EA 12"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_12"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:46.166570+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Amarna letter EA12 is a correspondence written to the King of Egypt by a princess of Babylonia.
|
||||
A scribe named Kidin-Adad is mentioned within the letter.
|
||||
This letter is part of a series of correspondences from Babylonia to Egypt, which run from EA2 to EA4 and EA6 to EA14. EA1 and EA5 are from Egypt to Babylonia.
|
||||
During 1888 the Vorderasiatisches Museum received part of the tablet as part of a group of artifacts given to the museum by J.Simon. A second part of EA12 was given to the museum by Felix von Niemeyer.
|
||||
The letter, translated by W.L. Moran, reads:
|
||||
|
||||
(1–6) Speak to my lord; thus the princess: To you, your ch[ariot]s, the [m]en and [your house] may it be well.
|
||||
(7–12) May the gods of Burraburiash go with you. Go safely and in peace go forward, see your house.
|
||||
(12–22) In the pre[sence of my lord], thu[s,] I [prostrate myself], saying, “Since G[...] my envoy has brought colored cloth, to your cities and your house, may it be ‹w›ell. Do not murmur in your heart and impose darkness on me.”
|
||||
Your servant, Kidin-Adad, is located with me(?), as the substitute of my lord, I would verily go.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Amarna
|
||||
Amarna letters: EA1, EA2, EA3, EA4, EA5, EA6, EA7, EA8, EA9, EA10, EA11
|
||||
Chronology of the ancient Near East
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
48
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_248-0.md
Normal file
48
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_248-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Amarna letter EA 248"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_248"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:48.539019+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In Ancient Egypt, the Amarna Period (c. 1350 BC) saw diplomatic correspondence sent to the city of Akhetaten (Amarna), providing valuable insights into the political situations at the time.
|
||||
The Amarna Letter EA 248 (EA 248) is a fragmented letter by Yashdata, a displaced ruler, to the Pharaoh, also mentioning Biridiya of Megiddo.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Translated Text ==
|
||||
Say [to] the king, my lord, Sun and god: Message of Ya(shd)ata, the loyal servant of the king and the dirt at the feet of the king. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, Sun and god, 7 times and 7 times.
|
||||
[9-22] May the king, my lord, know that everything the king, my [l]ord, gave to [his] servant, the men of Than[ak]a [have m]ade off with; they have slaughtered my oxen and driven me away. So I am now with Biridiya. May the King, my lord, take cognizance of his servant.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Akkadian Text ==
|
||||
EA 248
|
||||
248:001 [a-na ]m.LUGAL-ri EN-ia
|
||||
248:002 u d.UTU u DINGIR.MEß-ia
|
||||
248:003 qí-bí-ma um-ma m.ya-a[$-d]a-ta
|
||||
248:004 ÌR ki-it-ti LUGAL-ri
|
||||
248:005 ù ip-ri GÌR.MEß LUGAL-ri
|
||||
248:006 a-na GÌR.MEß LUGAL-ri
|
||||
248:007 EN-ia u d.UTU u DINGIR.MEß-ia
|
||||
248:008 7-$u u 7-ta-a-an am-qut
|
||||
248:÷÷÷÷÷
|
||||
248:009 li-di-mi LUGAL-ru EN-ia
|
||||
248:010 i-nu-ma gáb-bi mi-im-mì
|
||||
248:$011 a yi-id-din LUGAL-[r]u
|
||||
248:012 [E]N-ia a-[n]a ÌR[-$u]
|
||||
248:013 n[a]m-$u-mi
|
||||
248:014 L[Ú.M]Eß URU ta-ah-[na-k]a
|
||||
248:015 [u] na-ak-$u-mì
|
||||
248:016 GU4.MEß-ia ù
|
||||
248:017 du-ub-bu-ru-ni
|
||||
248:018 u a-nu-um-ma it-ti
|
||||
248:019 m.bi-ri-di-ya
|
||||
248:020 i-ba-a$-$a10-ku ù
|
||||
248:021 li-di-mi LUGAL-ru
|
||||
248:022 EN-ia a-na ÌR-$u
|
||||
248:÷÷÷÷÷
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_27-0.md
Normal file
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_27-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Amarna letter EA 27"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_27"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:47.378642+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Amarna letter EA 27 is a letter addressed to Amenhotep IV and concerns "The Missing Gold Statues Again".
|
||||
|
||||
The letter is dated to a period within the very beginning of the second regnal year of the pharaoh, and was written by Tushratta, who was living at Washukanni. At the time the pharaoh was located at Thebes.
|
||||
The letter is thought to contain a reference to a royal funeral.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of Amarna letters by size
|
||||
Amarna letter EA 5, EA 9, EA 15, EA 19, EA 26, EA 27, EA 35, EA 38
|
||||
EA 153, EA 161, EA 288, EA 364, EA 365, EA 367
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
32
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_369-0.md
Normal file
32
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_369-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Amarna letter EA 369"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_369"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:49.750582+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Amarna letter EA 369 is a letter written on a clay tablet from the pharaoh to Milkilu of Gezer. The tablet is now housed in the Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire, in Brussels.
|
||||
The letter is one of a small number of the Amarna Letters that were written in Egypt, and sent out from the pharaoh to vassals. Other Amarna letters sent to vassals included EA 99, 162, 163, 190, 367, and 370.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== The letter ==
|
||||
The letter details the king sending female cupbearers, silver, linen garments, carnelian, precious stones, an ebony chair, with a total value of 160 deben. It also states that he is sending forty female cupbearers, which are recorded as 40 silver each. Some linguistic features of the letter indicate that the scribe also may have been of Gezer origin.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Translation ==
|
||||
The letter has been translated by Dossin (1934), Rainey (2014) and Moran (1992). Moran's (1992) translation is below:
|
||||
|
||||
To Milkilu, the ruler of Gazru: Thus the king. He herewith dispatches to you this tablet, saying to you, He herewith sends to you Hanya, the stable <overseer> of the archers, along with everything for the acquisition of beautiful female cupbearers:
|
||||
9—14 silver, gold, linen garments : ma-al-ba-si, carnelian, all sorts of (precious) stones, an ebony chair; all alike, fine things. Total (value): 160 diban. Total: 40 female cupbearers, 40 (shekels of) silver being the price of a female cupbearer.
|
||||
15—23 Send extremely beautiful female cupbearers in whom there is no defect, so the king, your lord, will say to you, “This is excellent, in accordance with the order he sent to you.”
|
||||
|
||||
24—32 And know that the king is hale like the Sun. For his troops, his ch[ariot]s, his horses, all goes very well. Aman has indeed put the Upper Land, the Lower Land, where the sun rises, where the sun sets, under the feet of the king.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_5-0.md
Normal file
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_5-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Amarna letter EA 5"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_5"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:42.606197+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Amarna Letter EA5, one of the Amarna letters (cited with the abbreviation EA, for "El Amarna"), is a correspondence between Kadašman-Enlil I and Amenhotep III.
|
||||
The letter exists as two artifacts, one at the British Museum (BM29787) and one in the Cairo Museum (C12195).
|
||||
The letter is part of a series of correspondences from Babylonia to Egypt, which run from EA2 to EA4 and EA6 to EA14. EA1 and EA5 are from Egypt to Babylonia.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== The letter ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== EA 5: Gifts of Egyptian Furniture for the Babylonian Palace ===
|
||||
EA 5, letter five of five, Pharaoh to Kadashman-Enlil. (Not a linear, line-by-line translation.)
|
||||
Obverse: (see British Museum)
|
||||
|
||||
Paragraph 1
|
||||
(Lines 1-12)--[Thus Nibmuar]ey[a1 Great King, the king of Egypt. Say to] Kadašman-Enlil, the king of Karadunniyaš,2 my brother: For m]e all goes (well). For you may all go well. For you]r [household, your] wives, [your sons, yo]ur [magnates], yo[ur] troops, [yo]ur [horses], your [chariots], and i[n your countries, may all go] well. [For me al]l goes well. For my household, [my] wives, [my sons], my magnates, my ma[ny] troops, my [horses], my chariots, and in [m]y [countries] all goes very, very well.
|
||||
Paragraph 2
|
||||
(Lines 13-33)--I have [just]3 heard that you have built some n[ew] quarters.4 I am sending herewith some furnishings for your house. Indeed I shall be preparing everything possible5 before the arrival of your messenger who is bringing your daughter. When6 your messenger returns, I will send (them) to [yo]u. I herewith send you, in the charge of Šutti, a greeting-gift of things for the new house: 1 bed7 of ebony, overlaid with ivory and gold; 3 beds of ebony, overlaid with gold; 1 uruššu of ebony, overlaid with gold; 1 lar[ge] chair [o]f ebo[ny], overlaid with gold.8 These things, the weight of all the gold: 7 minas, 9 shekels, of silver9 (In addition), 10 footrests of ebony; [ . . . ] of ebony, overlaid with gold; [ . . . ] footrests of ivory, overlaid with gold; [ . . . ] . . . of gold. [Total10 x] minas, 10 and 7 shekels, of gold.--(complete, lacunas throughout, lines 1-33)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Chronology of the ancient Near East
|
||||
Amarna letters: EA 1, EA 2, EA 3, EA 4, EA 6, EA 7, EA 8, EA 9, EA 10, EA 11
|
||||
List of Amarna letters by size
|
||||
EA 5, EA 9, EA 15, EA 19, EA 26, EA 27, EA 35, EA 38
|
||||
EA 153, EA 161, EA 288, EA 364, EA 365, EA 367
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Photo EA 5, Obverse, (British Museum piece: BM 29787)
|
||||
Photo EA 5, Reverse, (British Museum piece: BM 29787) (note: line 17 from Obverse extends across the entire Reverse (upside down cuneiform))
|
||||
British Museum page for Amarna letter EA 5
|
||||
CDLI entry of EA 5 ( Chicago Digital Library Initiative )
|
||||
CDLI listing of all EA Amarna letters, 1-382
|
||||
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_6-0.md
Normal file
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_6-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Amarna letter EA 6"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letter_EA_6"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:43.764917+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Amarna Letter EA6 is a correspondence from Burra-Buriyaš to Nimmuwarea(Amenhotep III) the king of Egypt.
|
||||
According to one source, this letter concerns gifts between two kings.
|
||||
The letter is part of a series of correspondences from Babylonia to Egypt, which run from EA2 to EA4 and EA6 to EA14. EA1 and EA5 are from Egypt to Babylonia.
|
||||
The inscription is translated as follows:
|
||||
|
||||
Say to Nimmuwarea the king of Egypt my brother Thus Burra-Buriyaš the king of Karaduniyaš your brother For me all goes well For you your household your wives your sons your country your magnates your horses your chariots may all go well.
|
||||
Just as previously you and my father were friendly to one another you and I should be friendly to one another Between us anything else what-so-ever is not to be mentioned.Write to me for what you want from my country so that it may be taken to you and I will write to you of what I want from your country so that it may be taken to me...I will trust you...Write to me so that it may be taken to you, And as your greeting gift... and 1 ... I send you
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Amarna letters: EA 1, EA 2, EA 3, EA 4, EA 5, EA 7, EA 8, EA 9, EA 10, EA 11
|
||||
Bi (cuneiform)
|
||||
De Beneficiis
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
19
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amathus_sarcophagus-0.md
Normal file
19
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amathus_sarcophagus-0.md
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@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Amathus sarcophagus"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amathus_sarcophagus"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:50.931128+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Amathus sarcophagus is a Cypriot sarcophagus that likely held a king of Amathus. Its sides show procession scenes and typify Cypriot, Greek and Phoenician-Near Eastern styles of the mid-fifth century BCE. The sarcophagus was excavated by Luigi Palma di Cesnola and is currently located at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== General references ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Media related to Amathus sarcophagus at Wikimedia Commons
|
||||
Amathus sarcophagus in the Metropolitan Museum of Art site
|
||||
20
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt_(magazine)-0.md
Normal file
20
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt_(magazine)-0.md
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@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Ancient Egypt (magazine)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt_(magazine)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:52.094402+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Ancient Egypt is a magazine that deals with the subject of Egyptology. It is published bi-monthly. Ancient Egypt magazine is pitched somewhere between an academic journal and a travel magazine – bringing the spectacular sights of the ancient world together with the latest archaeological discoveries and theories from the world's leading authorities on the subject, illustrated with numerous photographs.
|
||||
The magazine has been published bi-monthly in the UK since April 2000. The contents concentrate mainly on a wide range of subjects related to ancient Egypt, though it does occasionally include items on Coptic or Islamic Egypt and also items of interest to visitors to Egypt. Edited by Peter Phillips, Ancient Egypt seeks to explain the mysteries of this ancient civilisation in a concise manner. One of the former editors was Robert Bernard Partridge who served in the post from 2004 to 2011.
|
||||
The magazine does not just deal with the past, but has a correspondent in Cairo who provides updates on the latest travel information and assesses the impact Egyptology has on modern Egypt.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Warfare_(magazine)-0.md
Normal file
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Warfare_(magazine)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Ancient Warfare (magazine)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Warfare_(magazine)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:53.275823+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Ancient Warfare is a glossy Dutch bi-monthly military history magazine.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History and profile ==
|
||||
Ancient Warfare was started in 2007. It is published in Rotterdam by the Dutch publishing company Karwansaray. The magazine was founded by Jasper Oorthuys, who now serves as managing director and editor-in-chief.
|
||||
Most of the magazine's feature articles focus on a central theme per issue. These include articles on a specific general, campaign or more abstract phenomenon such as sieges. Each issue usually starts off with a historical introduction to the theme. The introduction is usually followed by an article that delves into relevant sources for the theme, such as a historical narrative or an archaeological source. The theme is then fleshed out by articles on warriors, battles and generals that fit that issue's theme. Among the authors are well-known specialists like Bob Bennett, Duncan B. Campbell, Ross Cowan, Lukas de Blois, Stephen English, Adrian Murdoch, Joseph Pietrykowski, Jona Lendering, and Mike Roberts.
|
||||
The magazine also includes news and letters from readers, as well as reviews of relevant books, games, models, and museums. The illustrations include original artwork, maps and photographs of artifacts. Online free features of the magazine include the editor's blog and a podcast which is published to coincide with the magazine themes.
|
||||
Other spin-offs were specials on the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest and the nature of the Roman centuria. Since 2012, the yearly special is published in the form of a hardcover book. The first was Edge of Empire (2012), a reworked English translation of an originally Dutch book by Jona Lendering and Arjan Bosman on the Roman occupation of the Low Countries. The second was Henchmen of Ares: Warriors and Warfare in Early Greece (2013) written by then-editor Josho Brouwers and based on his PhD dissertation on Early Greek warfare.
|
||||
The magazine is registered as ISSN 1874-7019.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Andriivka, Sheptytskyi Raion, Lviv Oblast"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andriivka,_Sheptytskyi_Raion,_Lviv_Oblast"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:54.475772+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Andriivka (Ukrainian: Андрі́ївка) is a village in Sheptytskyi Raion, Lviv Oblast, Western Ukraine. It belongs to Radekhiv urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine.
|
||||
Andriivka is the site of an ancient mega-settlement dating to 4000–3600 B.C. belonging to the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture. The settlement was for the time very large, covering an area of 80 hectares. This proto-city is just one of 2440 Cucuteni-Trypillia settlements discovered so far in Moldova and Ukraine. 194 (8%) of these settlements had an area of more than 10 hectares between 5000–2700 B.C. and more than 29 settlements had an area in the range 100–300–450 hectares.
|
||||
Until 18 July 2020, Andriivka belonged to Radekhiv Raion. The raion was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Lviv Oblast to seven. The area of Radekhiv Raion was merged into Sheptytskyi Raion, which was then known as Chervonohrad Raion.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
|
||||
Danube civilization
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angamuco-0.md
Normal file
16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angamuco-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Angamuco"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angamuco"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:55.645287+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Angamuco is the name given to a major urban settlement of the Purépecha civilization, (Tarascan) now in ruins hidden under vegetation, in the Lake Pátzcuaro Basin of Michoacán, Mexico, and discovered in 2007. In 2012, using LiDAR technology, archaeologist Christopher Fisher and team detected more than 40,000 foundations at the site, roughly the same as Manhattan, on a territory of approximately 25 square kilometres (9.7 sq mi) (less than half of Manhattan's 59 square kilometres (23 sq mi).
|
||||
Analyzing architectural data Fisher found 60 distinctive, standardized, and recurrent architectural forms throughout the site, including commoner and elite buildings, altars, pyramids, storage facilities, ball courts, and a hierarchical road system. The most common types of structures are living spaces for both commoners and elites, including small platforms for houses and rectangular and circular walled rooms. The second most common features are structures for public or ritual activities, such as pyramids, plazas, and a ball court. Finally, a small part are structures associated with agriculture activities such as patios or terraces. The diverse range of structures at Angamuco suggests a large, active, and organized population embedded within an extensive human modified landscape.
|
||||
Fisher believes the settlement was founded around 900 CE and reached peak importance from around 1000 to around 1350 CE with a population of over 100,000 – making it the most populous city in western Mexico at the time, and spanning a wider area than the Purépecha capital, Tzintzuntzan.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
44
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bennett_Prize-0.md
Normal file
44
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bennett_Prize-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Anne Bennett Prize"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bennett_Prize"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:22.666190+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Anne Bennett Prize and Senior Anne Bennett Prize are awards given by the London Mathematical Society.
|
||||
In every third year, the society offers the Senior Anne Bennett prize to a mathematician normally based in the United Kingdom for work in, influence on or service to mathematics, particularly in relation to advancing the careers of women in mathematics.
|
||||
In the two years out of three in which the Senior Anne Bennett Prize is not awarded, the society offers the Anne Bennett Prize to a mathematician within ten years of their doctorate for work in and influence on mathematics, particularly acting as an inspiration for women mathematicians.
|
||||
Both prizes are awarded in memory of Anne Bennett, an administrator for the London Mathematical Society who died in 2012. The prize was established in 2013 and first given in 2014.
|
||||
The Anne Bennett Prizes should be distinguished from the Anne Bennett Memorial Award for Distinguished Service of the Royal Society of Chemistry, for which Anne Bennett also worked.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Anne Bennett Prize Winners ==
|
||||
The winners of the Anne Bennett Prize have been:
|
||||
|
||||
2015 Apala Majumdar, in recognition of her outstanding contributions to the mathematics of liquid crystals and to the liquid crystal community.
|
||||
2016 Julia Wolf, in recognition of her outstanding contributions to additive number theory, combinatorics and harmonic analysis and to the mathematical community.
|
||||
2018 Lotte Hollands, in recognition of her outstanding research at the interface between quantum theory and geometry and of her leadership in mathematical outreach activities.
|
||||
2019 Eva-Maria Graefe, in recognition of her outstanding research in quantum theory and the inspirational role she has played among female students and early career researchers in mathematics and physics.
|
||||
2021 Viveka Erlandsson, "for her outstanding achievements in geometry and topology and her inspirational active role in promoting women mathematicians".
|
||||
2022 Asma Hassannezhad, "for her outstanding work in spectral geometry and her substantial contributions toward the advancement of women in mathematics."
|
||||
2024 Ana Ros Camacho, "for her ground-breaking work on categorical proofs of the Landau–Ginzburg/Conformal Field Theory correspondence and her tireless dedication to the advancement of women in mathematical physics"
|
||||
2025 Henna Koivusalo, "for her work on cut-and-project sets, dynamical systems and fractals and her dedication to the advancement of women in mathematics."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Senior Anne Bennett Prize Winners ==
|
||||
The winners of the Senior Anne Bennett Prize have been:
|
||||
|
||||
2014 Caroline Series, in recognition of her leading contributions to hyperbolic geometry and symbolic dynamics, and of the major impact of her numerous initiatives towards the advancement of women in mathematics.
|
||||
2017 Alison Etheridge, in recognition of her outstanding research on measure-valued stochastic processes and applications to population biology; and for her impressive leadership and service to the profession.
|
||||
2020 Peter Clarkson, "in recognition of his tireless work to support gender equality in UK mathematics, and particularly for his leadership in developing good practice among departments of mathematical sciences".
|
||||
2023 Eugénie Hunsicker, "for her outstanding work to improve equality and diversity in the mathematical community and for the depth of her mathematical achievements across an impressive range of areas, from L2 Hodge theory to data science."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of mathematics awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon_Award_in_Astronomy"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:28.559868+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy is awarded annually by the American Astronomical Society (AAS) to a woman resident of North America, who is within five years of receipt of a PhD, for distinguished contributions to astronomy or for similar contributions in related sciences which have immediate application to astronomy. The awardee is invited to give a talk at an AAS meeting and is given a $1,500 honorarium. The award is named in honor of American astronomer Annie Jump Cannon.
|
||||
Margaret Burbidge was due to be given the 1972 award, but she refused it on the grounds of gender discrimination, stating: "It is high time that discrimination in favor of, as well as against, women in professional life be removed". This prompted the AAS to set up its first committee on the status of women in astronomy and they ceased issuing the award directly. From 1973 to 2004 the American Association of University Women issued the awards, on advice from the AAS. The AAS resumed direct issuing of the award in 2005.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of winners ==
|
||||
Source: American Astronomical Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of astronomy awards
|
||||
List of women astronomers
|
||||
List of prizes, medals, and awards for women in science
|
||||
Prizes named after people
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Antiquities Trafficking and Heritage Anthropology Research Project"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquities_Trafficking_and_Heritage_Anthropology_Research_Project"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:58.031946+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Antiquities Trafficking and Heritage Anthropology Research Project (ATHAR) consists of a group of experts that conduct research on the looting and trafficking of antiquities.
|
||||
The Arab Spring and the ensuing wars created opportunities for traffickers in the Middle East to loot archeological sites with impunity. Social media allowed anyone with a smart phone to sell the looted antiquities. Much of the trade takes place on Facebook.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
ATHAR Project
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Recording_Kit"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:10:39.716591+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:59.288235+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Archaeological Society of Alexandria"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Society_of_Alexandria"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:01.828406+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Archaeological Society of Alexandria (formerly the Royal Archaeological Society of Alexandria) was established in 7 April 1893 in Alexandria, Egypt to ensure the archaeological monuments and remains of the old city of Alexandria were preserved and to raise awareness through high-quality research of the city's archaeological past.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Founding ==
|
||||
Its first president was Ambrose Rally and the first general secretary was Georgios Gousios. Among its members were prominent Greeks like, Sir John Antoniades, Emmanouil Benakis, Michael Salvagos, Eustathios Glymenopoulos, Mikes Synadinos.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Work ==
|
||||
In 1938 the Society supervised the second edition of E. M. Forster’s Alexandria: A History and a Guide.
|
||||
The Archaeological Society of Alexandria with funds from the A. G. Leventis foundation and permission and supervision of the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities initiated the Alexandria Necropolis Project (2020–2023) that restored the Hellenistic necropolis at Shatby.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Publications ==
|
||||
Bulletin de la Société Royale d'Archéologie d'Alexandrie
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Graeco-Roman Museum
|
||||
Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale
|
||||
Egyptian Institute
|
||||
Egypt Exploration Society
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
The Archaeological Society of Alexandria, documentary on the history of the Archaeological Society of Alexandria, by CEAlex.
|
||||
15
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_site_of_Shisr-0.md
Normal file
15
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_site_of_Shisr-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Archaeological site of Shisr"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_site_of_Shisr"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:00.601518+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The archaeological site of Shisr is located next to the village of Ash Shiṣr in Dhofar, Oman. The settlement was an inland trading post and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site Land of Frankincense since 2000. It used to be an oasis.
|
||||
Some considered it to be the legendary lost city of Ubar or Iram. This is not always accepted by scholars. There is a probability that it might have been in the land of Ubar which was a historical region rather than a city. The site might have inspired the legend of the lost city of Ubar when the spring dried up and the settlement was abandoned.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_(magazine)-0.md
Normal file
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_(magazine)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Archaeology (magazine)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_(magazine)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:04.305606+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Archaeology is a bimonthly magazine for the general public, published by the Archaeological Institute of America. The institute also publishes the professional American Journal of Archaeology. Its first issue was published in the spring of 1948. The editor-in-chief was Peter Young until 2011 when he was replaced by Claudia Valentino. Jarrett A. Lobell assumed the editorship from Valentino in November 2018.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeopress-0.md
Normal file
25
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeopress-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Archaeopress"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeopress"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:05.466466+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Archaeopress is an academic publisher specialising in archaeology, based in Bicester, Oxfordshire. The company publishes multiple series of books and academic journals, including Archaeopress Archaeology, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies (PSAS), and Antiguo Oriente.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
In the early 1990s, David Davison and Rajka Makjanic worked at Tempvs Reparatvm, involved with publishing archaeological titles. Archaeopress was founded in 1997, with Davison leading the editing process whilst Makjanic managed production of the books.
|
||||
Archaeopress, with John and Erica Hedges, succeeded Tempvs Reparatvm as the publisher of the British Archaeological Reports series, though in 2015 began concentrating their own range of imprints.
|
||||
In September 2024 Archaeopress relocated its headquarters north of Oxford to Bicester.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
"About Us". archaeopress.com. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
42
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoseismology-0.md
Normal file
42
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoseismology-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Archaeoseismology"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoseismology"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:06.660442+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Archaeoseismology is the study of ancient earthquakes by analysis of archaeological sites before Robert Mallet's protomodern seismology in the mid-19th century. Such analyses reveal information about seismic events that was not historically recorded before the advent of seismometers in the late 19th century. Such data can also help to document seismic risk in areas subject to brutally destructive earthquakes. In 1991, an international conference in Athens marked the beginning of modern research in the field of archaeoseismology, described as a "study of ancient earthquakes, and their social, cultural, historical and natural effects".
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== The main idea ==
|
||||
Earthquakes in the distant past may provide important information for a regional seismic risk assessment. We have quantitative data concerning past earthquakes only from the beginning of the 20th century (as the seismograph was invented only at the end of the 19th century), but humanity has had to deal with earthquakes throughout its existence. Thus we have extremely limited historical information about seismic risks. A methodology for reconstruction of historical earthquakes was held during the 20th century, but with very limited results, especially for archaic earthquakes. Thus research in archaeological sites is needed to try to identify damage and destruction from ancient earthquakes.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Archaeological record ==
|
||||
The archaeological record can carry three different types of evidence of seismic activity:
|
||||
|
||||
The archaeological remains are displaced due to the movement of an active fault.
|
||||
The remains and artefacts contained in destruction deposits, associated with the decline of soil or seismic vibration, can be used in the dating of earthquake damage. Other archaeological evidence, such as repairs, abandonment of an archaeological site or architectural changes, can help in identifying ancient earthquakes.
|
||||
Αncient buildings and other man-made structures can be studied for signs of ancient seismic disaster, often associated with soil vibration.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notable events ==
|
||||
A key example of an ancient earthquake is the 226 BC Rhodes earthquake, which toppled one the seven wonders of the world at the time, the Colossus of Rhodes. It is also noted that damage to the city and harbor were evident. The Greek historian Strabo discussed the collapse of the colossus in the 1st century BC.
|
||||
A more studied example is The Great Chilean Earthquake of 1960, which was the most powerful earthquake in recorded history, at 9.6 on the moment magnitude scale.
|
||||
The first recorded earthquake was the Mount Tai earthquake in China in 1831 BC.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Paleoseismology
|
||||
Historical earthquakes
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
"Archaeoseismology". Academia.edu. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
|
||||
"Quantitative Methods in Archaeoseismology" (PDF). 1 st INQUA - IGCP - 567 International Workshop on Earthquake Archaeology and Palaeoseismology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeo_(magazine)-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeo_(magazine)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Archeo (magazine)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeo_(magazine)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:07.842400+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Archeo is a monthly archeology magazine based in Rome, Italy. The magazine was first published in March 1985. It features articles on archaeological news. As of 2011, Andreas Steiner was the editor of the magazine.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of magazines in Italy
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueología_Mexicana-0.md
Normal file
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueología_Mexicana-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Arqueología Mexicana"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueología_Mexicana"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:09.048326+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Arqueología Mexicana (Mexican Archaeology) is a bimonthly journal published by Editorial Raíces and the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History). The first issue, devoted to Teotihuacán, was published in April–May in 1993.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Content ==
|
||||
Arqueología Mexicana contains articles by scholars, a wide selection of photographs on the diverse Mesoamerican cultures, as well as maps and timelines that provide a modern understanding of the Mesoamerican legacy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website (in Spanish)
|
||||
WorldCat record
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:13:44.126821+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:00.259019+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:13:44.126821+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:00.259019+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:13:44.126821+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:00.259019+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:13:44.126821+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:00.259019+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At-Tschapar-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At-Tschapar-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "At-Tschapar"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At-Tschapar"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:10.204691+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
At-Tschapar is an archaeological site in the north of Afghanistan.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Description ==
|
||||
The At-Tschapar tower was built in the middle of the first millennium BCE. It has a diameter of about 100 metres (330 ft). The interior of the structure is completely undeveloped. One of the outer walls of the tower has an inside corridor and on the outside of it there are a series of semicircular towers that are accessible from the corridor through the doors. Along the exterior facades there are loopholes. From the corridor there are passages that go into a large, undeveloped inside courtyard. During the excavation pottery was found from the Achaemenid period. The function of the tower is unclear. It may have been a fortress or a sanctuary, or the construction may never have been completed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Literature ==
|
||||
Viktor Sarianidi: The Art of Old Afghanistan, Leipzig 1986, pp. 75–78 ISBN 3-527-17561-X
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_Vase_Inscriptions-0.md
Normal file
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_Vase_Inscriptions-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Attic Vase Inscriptions"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_Vase_Inscriptions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:11.393141+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Attic Vase Inscriptions (AVI) is a web-based epigraphic database of ancient Attic vase inscriptions maintained by the AVI project at the University of Basel. It is an extension of Henry R. Immerwahr's CAVI (Corpus of Attic Vase Inscriptions).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
CAVI pdf
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baaz_Rockshelter-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baaz_Rockshelter-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Baaz Rockshelter"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baaz_Rockshelter"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:12.586275+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Baaz Rockshelter is a prehistoric archaeological site in Syria. Located in the foothills of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains about 50 kilometres (31 mi) northeast of Damascus, the site consists of a small (6 by 10 metres or 20 by 33 feet) rock shelter overlooking the nearby plains and springs.
|
||||
Excavations have revealed that it was intermittently occupied during the Upper Palaeolithic (c. 34,000 to 32,000 years ago and 23,000 to 21,000 years ago), Late Epipalaeolithic (c. 11,200 to 10,200 years ago), and Pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic.
|
||||
The site was discovered in 1999 and excavated by a team from the University of Tübingen between 1999 and 2004.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
"The 1999 Excavation at Baaz Rockshelter," Tubingen-Damascus Excavation and Survey Project, Conrad, Kandel, Dyab, 2006
|
||||
"The 2000 Excavation at Baaz Rockshelter," Tubingen-Damascus Excavation and Survey Project, Conrad, Kandel, Dyab, 2006
|
||||
"The 2004 Excavation at Baaz Rockshelter," Tubingen-Damascus Excavation and Survey Project, Conrad, Kandel, Dyab, 2006
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Beersheba fragment with menorah depiction"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beersheba_fragment_with_menorah_depiction"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:13.741702+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The 'Oil Lamp Fragment' is an old remnant of a Jewish oil lamp.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Discovery ==
|
||||
The fragment of an ancient jewish oil lamp was found unearthed the Beersheba Settlement in the Negev Desert. It was discovered during excavations beneath destroyed buildings that date back to the time of the Judaea Province. The settlement and the oil lamp itself were destroyed during the Jewish-Roman wars.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== The fragment ==
|
||||
The oil lamp fragment decorated with a nine-branched menorah.
|
||||
|
||||
According to the Israel Antiquities Authority This is probably one of the earliest artistic depictions of a nine-branched menorah yet discovered. Of the few oil lamps discovered which depict menorahs, none of them have the traditional seven branches. This is because of a ruling in the Babylonian Talmud which stated that only the temple menorah itself could have seven branches. Because of this, lamps used in domestic settings commonly had between eight to eleven branches.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Bar Kokhba Revolt
|
||||
Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage
|
||||
Simon bar Kokhba
|
||||
Judaea Province
|
||||
Archaeology of Israel
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinwil_am_See–Ägelmoos-0.md
Normal file
18
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinwil_am_See–Ägelmoos-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Beinwil am See–Ägelmoos"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinwil_am_See–Ägelmoos"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:14.890611+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Beinwil am See–Ägelmoos is an archaeological site in Beinwil am See in the Swiss canton of Aargau. It is a lakeside settlement (also known as a pile dwelling village or palafitte) that was probably inhabited during the Neolithic, Early Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age, i.e. between 4500 BC and 850 BC. Today (2019), the remains of the settlement lie completely submerged in Lake Hallwil. As a protective measure, they were covered with a layer of geotextile and gravel in 2017. Since 2011, the site has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Prehistoric Pile Dwellings around the Alps.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Media related to Beinwil am See–Ägelmoos at Wikimedia Commons
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benaiah_inscription-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benaiah_inscription-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Benaiah inscription"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benaiah_inscription"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:16.055743+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Benaiah inscription is an ancient pottery sherd found in Israel that dates back to the 7th century BCE. The artifact is currently in the care of the Israel Antiquities Authority.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== The inscription ==
|
||||
The sherd bears a Hebrew inscription dating back to the 7th century BCE. It reads "ryhu bn bnh", which resembles the name "Zechariah son of Benaiah", a figure named in 2 Chronicles 10:24. The bowl likely originated between the reigns of Hezekiah and Zedekiah.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology
|
||||
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boncuklu_Höyük-0.md
Normal file
26
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boncuklu_Höyük-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Boncuklu Höyük"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boncuklu_Höyük"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:17.319633+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Boncuklu Höyük is a Neolithic archaeological site in Central Anatolia, Turkey, situated around 9 km from the more famous Çatalhöyük site. The tell is made up of the remains of one of the world's oldest villages, occupied between around 8300 to 7800 BCE. The buildings are small and oval shaped with walls constructed of mudbricks. The remains of burials of human bodies were found below the floors of the buildings. The earliest known ceramics of Anatolia have been discovered there.
|
||||
The site was first recorded by Douglas Baird of the University of Liverpool in 2001. He has directed excavations there since 2006.
|
||||
The site of Boncuklu is characterized by some of the first appearance of agriculture in the Anatolian plateau, through the introduction of small-scale agricultural projects. It is considered as a precussor of the large-scale agricultural developments of Çatalhöyük from 7100 BCE.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Çatalhöyük
|
||||
Aşıklı Höyük
|
||||
Gobekli Tepe
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Boncuklu Project website
|
||||
40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borden_System-0.md
Normal file
40
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borden_System-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Borden System"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borden_System"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:18.515175+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Borden System is an archaeological numbering system used throughout Canada and by the Canadian Museum System to track archaeological sites and the artefacts that come from them. Canada is one of a few countries that use a national system to identify archaeological sites.
|
||||
It was created by Charles Edward Borden in 1952 at the University of British Columbia.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== How it Works ==
|
||||
The system divides Canada into a grid of blocks based on latitude and longitude. There are two divisions: major and minor blocks.
|
||||
AaBb-11:1234
|
||||
A is the Major South-North Locator - Each block represents 2 degrees of Latitude from south to north (A - U)
|
||||
a is the Minor South-North Locator - Each block represents 10 minutes of Latitude from south to north (a - l)
|
||||
B is the Major East-West Locator - Each block represents 4 degrees of Longitude from east to west (A - W)
|
||||
(north of 62 degrees each major block represents 8 degrees of longitude)
|
||||
b is the Minor East-West Locator - Each block represents 10 minutes of Longitude from east to west (a - x)
|
||||
(north of 62 degrees each minor block represents 20 minutes of longitude)
|
||||
Therefore, a full designation: AaBb-16 represents a roughly 16 km x 16 km area and the 16th site found within that area.
|
||||
Since the number that follows is the number of the site within an area, assigned when the site is discovered, the whole number really only narrows the area to approximately a 16 km square. But it allows archaeologists to designate a site and to label every artefact from the site.
|
||||
The number after the colon is the artefact number: e.g., AaBb-16:0123
|
||||
Because the distance between lines of longitude get smaller with increasing latitude, the Borden System changes at 64 degrees north latitude, from a width of 4 degrees of longitude to a width of 8 degrees in order to keep the area within each designate roughly the same.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Use ==
|
||||
In Alberta, there are 3,438 minor and 17 major blocks. Of the minor blocks, 44 percent do not have any sites recorded.
|
||||
Block EgPN covers the west site of Calgary and has 766 sites-the most sites in a block in the country (This is old data - check with local authorities for up to date numbers).
|
||||
Borden numbers have only been applied to archaeological sites that have been encountered and recorded, and are subject to survey and testing bias, as well as the rates of development in some areas. The actual number of cultural sites is much higher.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
"Archaeology Survey of Canada: The Borden System of Site Identification". Oracles. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
|
||||
17
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosing_(archaeology)-0.md
Normal file
17
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosing_(archaeology)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Bosing (archaeology)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosing_(archaeology)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:19.703729+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Bosing is an unsophisticated method for the discovery of buried archaeological features such as pits and ditches dug into a thin substratum of rock, such as limestone or chalk. The technique involves hitting a block of wood laid over the ground surface with a weighty hammer and assessing the sound given out. For example, if the wood gave out a heavy thudding sound, then this would indicate that the underlying bedrock had been disturbed while undisturbed bedrock would emit a thinner and sharper tone. Methodically repeating the process across an area and noting the sound pattern will reveal the extent of the underground features.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Sources ==
|
||||
15
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnt_layer-0.md
Normal file
15
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnt_layer-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Burnt layer"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnt_layer"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:17:20.884330+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A burnt layer or burned layer in archaeology is a stratum of earth that was formed primarily by the burning of objects or buildings. The extent of the layer is irrelevant. It can be the remains of a campfire as well as the remains of a burned down settlement.
|
||||
Burnt layers are recorded in event stratigraphy, a sub-area of stratigraphy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Chronology protection conjecture"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_protection_conjecture"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:01.429196+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The chronology protection conjecture is a hypothesis first proposed by Stephen Hawking that laws of physics beyond those of standard general relativity prevent time travel— even when the latter theory states that it should be possible (such as in scenarios where faster than light travel is allowed). The permissibility of time travel is represented mathematically by the existence of closed timelike curves in some solutions to the field equations of general relativity. The chronology protection conjecture should be distinguished from chronological censorship under which every closed timelike curve passes through an event horizon, which might prevent an observer from detecting the causal violation (also known as chronology violation).
|
||||
|
||||
== Etymology ==
|
||||
In a 1992 paper, Hawking uses the metaphorical device of a "Chronology Protection Agency" as a personification of the aspects of physics that make time travel impossible at macroscopic scales, thus apparently preventing temporal paradoxes. He says:
|
||||
|
||||
It seems that there is a Chronology Protection Agency which prevents the appearance of closed timelike curves and so makes the universe safe for historians.
|
||||
The idea of the Chronology Protection Agency appears to be drawn playfully from the Time Patrol or Time Police concept, which has been used in many works of science fiction such as Poul Anderson's series of Time Patrol stories or Isaac Asimov's novel The End of Eternity, or in the television series Doctor Who. "The Chronology Protection Case" by Paul Levinson, published after Hawking's paper, posits a universe that goes so far as to murder any scientists who are close to inventing any means of time travel. Larry Niven, in his short story ‘Rotating Cylinders and the possibility of Global Causality Violation’ expands this concept so that the universe causes environmental catastrophe, or global civil war, or the local sun going nova, to any civilisation which shows any sign of successful construction.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Chronology protection conjecture"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_protection_conjecture"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:01.429196+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== General relativity and quantum corrections ==
|
||||
Many attempts to generate scenarios for closed timelike curves have been suggested, and the theory of general relativity does allow them in certain circumstances. Some theoretical solutions in general relativity that contain closed timelike curves would require an infinite universe with certain features that our universe does not appear to have, such as the universal rotation of the Gödel metric or the rotating cylinder of infinite length known as a Tipler cylinder. However, some solutions allow for the creation of closed timelike curves in a bounded region of spacetime, with the Cauchy horizon being the boundary between the region of spacetime where closed timelike curves can exist and the rest of spacetime where they cannot. One of the first such bounded time travel solutions found was constructed from a traversable wormhole, based on the idea of taking one of the two "mouths" of the wormhole on a round-trip journey at relativistic speed to create a time difference between it and the other mouth (see the discussion at Wormhole#Time travel).
|
||||
General relativity does not include quantum effects on its own, and a full integration of general relativity and quantum mechanics would require a theory of quantum gravity, but there is an approximate method for modeling quantum fields in the curved spacetime of general relativity, known as semiclassical gravity. Initial attempts to apply semiclassical gravity to the traversable wormhole time machine indicated that at exactly the moment that wormhole would first allow for closed timelike curves, quantum vacuum fluctuations build up and drive the energy density to infinity in the region of the wormholes. This occurs when the two wormhole mouths, call them A and B, have been moved in such a way that it becomes possible for a particle or wave moving at the speed of light to enter mouth B at some time T2 and exit through mouth A at an earlier time T1, then travel back towards mouth B through ordinary space, and arrive at mouth B at the same time T2 that it entered B on the previous loop; in this way the same particle or wave can make a potentially infinite number of loops through the same regions of spacetime, piling up on itself. Calculations showed that this effect would not occur for an ordinary beam of radiation, because it would be "defocused" by the wormhole so that most of a beam emerging from mouth A would spread out and miss mouth B. But when the calculation was done for vacuum fluctuations, it was found that they would spontaneously refocus on the trip between the mouths, indicating that the pileup effect might become large enough to destroy the wormhole in this case.
|
||||
Uncertainty about this conclusion remained, because the semiclassical calculations indicated that the pileup would only drive the energy density to infinity for an infinitesimal moment of time, after which the energy density would die down. But semiclassical gravity is considered unreliable for large energy densities or short time periods that reach the Planck scale; at these scales, a complete theory of quantum gravity is needed for accurate predictions. So, it remains uncertain whether quantum-gravitational effects might prevent the energy density from growing large enough to destroy the wormhole. Stephen Hawking conjectured that not only would the pileup of vacuum fluctuations still succeed in destroying the wormhole in quantum gravity, but also that the laws of physics would ultimately prevent any type of time machine from forming; this is the chronology protection conjecture.
|
||||
Subsequent works in semiclassical gravity provided examples of spacetimes with closed timelike curves where the energy density due to vacuum fluctuations does not approach infinity in the region of spacetime outside the Cauchy horizon. However, in 1997 a general proof was found demonstrating that according to semiclassical gravity, the energy of the quantum field (more precisely, the expectation value of the quantum stress-energy tensor) must always be either infinite or undefined on the horizon itself. Both cases indicate that semiclassical methods become unreliable at the horizon and quantum gravity effects would be important there, consistent with the possibility that such effects would always intervene to prevent time machines from forming.
|
||||
A definite theoretical decision on the status of the chronology protection conjecture would require a full theory of quantum gravity as opposed to semiclassical methods. There are also some arguments from string theory that seem to support chronology protection, but string theory is not yet a complete theory of quantum gravity. Experimental observation of closed timelike curves would of course demonstrate this conjecture to be false, but short of that, if physicists had a theory of quantum gravity whose predictions had been well-confirmed in other areas, this would give them a significant degree of confidence in the theory's predictions about the possibility or impossibility of time travel.
|
||||
Other proposals that allow for backwards time travel but prevent time paradoxes, such as the Novikov self-consistency principle, which would ensure the timeline stays consistent, or the idea that a time traveler is taken to a parallel universe while their original timeline remains intact, do not qualify as "chronology protection".
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Causality
|
||||
Cosmic censorship hypothesis
|
||||
Novikov self-consistency principle
|
||||
Time travel
|
||||
Wormhole
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Hawking, S. W. (July 1992). "Chronology protection conjecture". Physical Review D. 46 (2): 603–611. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46..603H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.46.603. ISSN 0556-2821. PMID 10014972.
|
||||
Visser, Matt (2002). "The quantum physics of chronology protection". arXiv:gr-qc/0204022.
|
||||
Li, Li-Xin (1996). "Must Time Machine Be Unstable against Vacuum Fluctuations?". Classical and Quantum Gravity. 13 (9): 2563–2568. arXiv:gr-qc/9703024. Bibcode:1996CQGra..13.2563L. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/13/9/019. S2CID 250909592.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
https://web.archive.org/web/20101125122824/http://hawking.org.uk/index.php/lectures/63
|
||||
https://plus.maths.org/content/time-travel-allowed — Kip Thorne discusses time travel in general relativity, and the basis in quantum physics for the chronology protection conjecture
|
||||
27
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|
||||
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|
||||
title: "Curved spacetime"
|
||||
chunk: 1/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:02.570747+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In physics, curved spacetime is the mathematical model in which, with Einstein's theory of general relativity, gravity naturally arises, as opposed to being described as a fundamental force in Newton's static Euclidean reference frame. Objects move along geodesics—curved paths determined by the local geometry of spacetime—rather than being influenced directly by distant bodies. This framework led to two fundamental principles: coordinate independence, which asserts that the laws of physics are the same regardless of the coordinate system used, and the equivalence principle, which states that the effects of gravity are indistinguishable from those of acceleration in sufficiently small regions of space. These principles laid the groundwork for a deeper understanding of gravity through the geometry of spacetime, as formalized in Einstein's field equations.
|
||||
|
||||
== Introduction ==
|
||||
Newton's theories assumed that motion takes place against the backdrop of a rigid Euclidean reference frame that extends throughout all space and all time. Gravity is mediated by a mysterious force, acting instantaneously across a distance, whose actions are independent of the intervening space. In contrast, Einstein denied that there is any background Euclidean reference frame that extends throughout space. Nor is there any such thing as a force of gravitation, only the structure of spacetime itself.
|
||||
|
||||
In spacetime terms, the path of a satellite orbiting the Earth is not dictated by the distant influences of the Earth, Moon and Sun. Instead, the satellite moves through space only in response to local conditions. Since spacetime is everywhere locally flat when considered on a sufficiently small scale, the satellite is always following a straight line in its local inertial frame. We say that the satellite always follows along the path of a geodesic. No evidence of gravitation can be discovered following alongside the motions of a single particle.
|
||||
In any analysis of spacetime, evidence of gravitation requires that one observe the relative accelerations of two bodies or two separated particles. In Fig. 5-1, two separated particles, free-falling in the gravitational field of the Earth, exhibit tidal accelerations due to local inhomogeneities in the gravitational field such that each particle follows a different path through spacetime. The tidal accelerations that these particles exhibit with respect to each other do not require forces for their explanation. Rather, Einstein described them in terms of the geometry of spacetime, i.e. the curvature of spacetime. These tidal accelerations are strictly local. It is the cumulative total effect of many local manifestations of curvature that result in the appearance of a gravitational force acting at a long range from Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
Different observers viewing the scenarios presented in this figure interpret the scenarios differently depending on their knowledge of the situation. (i) A first observer, at the center of mass of particles 2 and 3 but unaware of the large mass 1, concludes that a force of repulsion exists between the particles in scenario A while a force of attraction exists between the particles in scenario B. (ii) A second observer, aware of the large mass 1, smiles at the first reporter's naiveté. This second observer knows that in reality, the apparent forces between particles 2 and 3 really represent tidal effects resulting from their differential attraction by mass 1. (iii) A third observer, trained in general relativity, knows that there are, in fact, no forces at all acting between the three objects. Rather, all three objects move along geodesics in spacetime.
|
||||
Two central propositions underlie general relativity.
|
||||
|
||||
The first crucial concept is coordinate independence: The laws of physics cannot depend on what coordinate system one uses. This is a major extension of the principle of relativity from the version used in special relativity, which states that the laws of physics must be the same for every observer moving in non-accelerated (inertial) reference frames. In general relativity, to use Einstein's own (translated) words, "the laws of physics must be of such a nature that they apply to systems of reference in any kind of motion." This leads to an immediate issue: In accelerated frames, one feels forces that seemingly would enable one to assess one's state of acceleration in an absolute sense. Einstein resolved this problem through the principle of equivalence.
|
||||
|
||||
The equivalence principle states that in any sufficiently small region of space, the effects of gravitation are the same as those from acceleration. In Fig. 5-2, person A is in a spaceship, far from any massive objects, that undergoes a uniform acceleration of g. Person B is in a box resting on Earth. Provided that the spaceship is sufficiently small so that tidal effects are non-measurable (given the sensitivity of current gravity measurement instrumentation, A and B presumably should be Lilliputians), there are no experiments that A and B can perform which will enable them to tell which setting they are in. An alternative expression of the equivalence principle is to note that in Newton's universal law of gravitation, F = GMmg/r2 = mgg and in Newton's second law, F = mia, there is no a priori reason why the gravitational mass mg should be equal to the inertial mass mi. The equivalence principle states that these two masses are identical.
|
||||
To go from the elementary description above of curved spacetime to a complete description of gravitation requires tensor calculus and differential geometry, topics both requiring considerable study. Without these mathematical tools, it is possible to write about general relativity, but it is not possible to demonstrate any non-trivial derivations.
|
||||
|
||||
== Gravitational time dilation ==
|
||||
234
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||||
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|
||||
title: "Curved spacetime"
|
||||
chunk: 2/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime"
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||||
category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:02.570747+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In the discussion of special relativity, forces played no more than a background role. Special relativity assumes the ability to define inertial frames that fill all of spacetime, all of whose clocks run at the same rate as the clock at the origin. Is this really possible? In a nonuniform gravitational field, experiment dictates that the answer is no. Gravitational fields make it impossible to construct a global inertial frame. In small enough regions of spacetime, local inertial frames are still possible. General relativity involves the systematic stitching together of these local frames into a more general picture of spacetime.
|
||||
Years before publication of the general theory in 1916, Einstein used the equivalence principle to predict the existence of gravitational redshift in the following thought experiment: (i) Assume that a tower of height h (Fig. 5-3) has been constructed. (ii) Drop a particle of rest mass m from the top of the tower. It falls freely with acceleration g, reaching the ground with velocity v = (2gh)1/2, so that its total energy E, as measured by an observer on the ground, is
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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/
|
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|
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|
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|
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c
|
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|
||||
2
|
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|
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|
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|
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=
|
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m
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
g
|
||||
h
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
/
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m+{{\tfrac {1}{2}}mv^{2}}/{c^{2}}=m+{mgh}/{c^{2}}}
|
||||
|
||||
(iii) A mass-energy converter transforms the total energy of the particle into a single high energy photon, which it directs upward. (iv) At the top of the tower, an energy-mass converter transforms the energy of the photon E' back into a particle of rest mass m'.
|
||||
It must be that m = m', since otherwise one would be able to construct a perpetual motion device. We therefore predict that E' = m, so that
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
E
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
E
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
h
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
h
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
g
|
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h
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
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1
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
h
|
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|
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|
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c
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\frac {E'}{E}}={\frac {h\nu \,'}{h\nu }}={\frac {m}{m+{\frac {mgh}{c^{2}}}}}=1-{\frac {gh}{c^{2}}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
A photon climbing in Earth's gravitational field loses energy and is redshifted. Early attempts to measure this redshift through astronomical observations were somewhat inconclusive, but definitive laboratory observations were performed by Pound & Rebka (1959) and later by Pound & Snider (1964).
|
||||
Light has an associated frequency, and this frequency may be used to drive the workings of a clock. The gravitational redshift leads to an important conclusion about time itself: Gravity makes time run slower. Suppose we build two identical clocks whose rates are controlled by some stable atomic transition. Place one clock on top of the tower, while the other clock remains on the ground. An experimenter on top of the tower observes that signals from the ground clock are lower in frequency than those of the clock next to her on the tower. Light going up the tower is just a wave, and it is impossible for wave crests to disappear on the way up. Exactly as many oscillations of light arrive at the top of the tower as were emitted at the bottom. The experimenter concludes that the ground clock is running slow, and can confirm this by bringing the tower clock down to compare side by side with the ground clock. For a 1 km tower, the discrepancy would amount to about 9.4 nanoseconds per day, easily measurable with modern instrumentation.
|
||||
Clocks in a gravitational field do not all run at the same rate. Experiments such as the Pound–Rebka experiment have firmly established the distortion of time component of spacetime. The Pound–Rebka experiment says nothing about curvature of the space component of spacetime. But the theoretical arguments predicting gravitational time dilation do not depend on the details of general relativity at all. Any theory of gravity will predict gravitational time dilation if it respects the principle of equivalence. This includes Newtonian gravitation. A standard demonstration in general relativity is to show how, in the "Newtonian limit" (i.e. the particles are moving slowly, the gravitational field is weak, and the field is static), time component of the Christoffel symbols describing the geometry of spacetime alone is sufficient to derive Newton's law of gravity.
|
||||
Newtonian gravitation is a theory of distorted time. General relativity is a theory of distorted spacetime. Given G as the gravitational constant, M as the mass of a Newtonian star, and orbiting bodies of insignificant mass at distance r from the star, the spacetime interval for Newtonian gravitation is one for which only the time coefficient is variable:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
G
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
c
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
y
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
z
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}=\left(1-{\frac {2GM}{c^{2}r}}\right)(c\Delta t)^{2}-\,(\Delta x)^{2}-(\Delta y)^{2}-(\Delta z)^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
419
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime-2.md
Normal file
419
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@ -0,0 +1,419 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Curved spacetime"
|
||||
chunk: 3/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:02.570747+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Distortion of space ==
|
||||
The
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
1
|
||||
−
|
||||
2
|
||||
G
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
/
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
)
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (1-2GM/(c^{2}r))}
|
||||
|
||||
coefficient in front of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
c
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (c\Delta t)^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
describes the distortion of time in Newtonian gravitation, and this distortion completely accounts for all Newtonian gravitational effects. As expected, this correction factor is directly proportional to
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
G
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle G}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle M}
|
||||
|
||||
, and because of the
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle r}
|
||||
|
||||
in the denominator, the correction factor increases as one approaches the gravitating body, meaning that time is distorted.
|
||||
But general relativity is a theory of distorted space and distorted time, so if there are terms modifying the spatial components of the spacetime interval presented above, should not their effects be seen on, say, planetary and satellite orbits due to distortion correction factors applied to the spatial terms?
|
||||
The answer is that they are seen, but the effects are tiny. The reason is that planetary velocities are extremely small compared to the speed of light, so that for planets and satellites of the Solar System, the
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
c
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (c\Delta t)^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
term dwarfs the spatial terms.
|
||||
Despite the minuteness of the spatial terms, the first indications that something was wrong with Newtonian gravitation were discovered over a century-and-a-half ago. In 1859, Urbain Le Verrier, in an analysis of available timed observations of transits of Mercury over the Sun's disk from 1697 to 1848, reported that known physics could not explain the orbit of Mercury, unless there possibly existed a planet or asteroid belt within the orbit of Mercury. The perihelion of Mercury's orbit exhibited an excess rate of precession over that which could be explained by the tugs of the other planets. The ability to detect and accurately measure the minute value of this anomalous precession (only 43 arc seconds per tropical century) is testimony to the sophistication of 19th century astrometry.
|
||||
|
||||
As the astronomer who had earlier discovered the existence of Neptune "at the tip of his pen" by analyzing irregularities in the orbit of Uranus, Le Verrier's announcement triggered a two-decades long period of "Vulcan-mania", as professional and amateur astronomers alike hunted for the hypothetical new planet. This search included several false sightings of Vulcan. It was ultimately established that no such planet or asteroid belt existed.
|
||||
In 1916, Einstein was to show that this anomalous precession of Mercury is explained by the spatial terms in the distortion of spacetime. distortion in the temporal term, being simply an expression of Newtonian gravitation, has no part in explaining this anomalous precession. The success of his calculation was a powerful indication to Einstein's peers that the general theory of relativity could be correct.
|
||||
The most spectacular of Einstein's predictions was his calculation that the distortion terms in the spatial components of the spacetime interval could be measured in the bending of light around a massive body. Light has a slope of ±1 on a spacetime diagram. Its movement in space is equal to its movement in time. For the weak field expression of the invariant interval, Einstein calculated an exactly equal but opposite sign distortion in its spatial components.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
G
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
c
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}=\left(1-{\frac {2GM}{c^{2}r}}\right)(c\Delta t)^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
G
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
[
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
y
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
z
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
]
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle -\,\left(1+{\frac {2GM}{c^{2}r}}\right)\left[(\Delta x)^{2}+(\Delta y)^{2}+(\Delta z)^{2}\right]}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
In Newton's gravitation, the
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
1
|
||||
−
|
||||
2
|
||||
G
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
/
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
)
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (1-2GM/(c^{2}r))}
|
||||
|
||||
coefficient in front of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
c
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (c\Delta t)^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
predicts bending of light around a star. In general relativity, the
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
1
|
||||
+
|
||||
2
|
||||
G
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
/
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
)
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (1+2GM/(c^{2}r))}
|
||||
|
||||
coefficient in front of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
[
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
y
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
(
|
||||
Δ
|
||||
z
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
]
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \left[(\Delta x)^{2}+(\Delta y)^{2}+(\Delta z)^{2}\right]}
|
||||
|
||||
predicts a doubling of the total bending.
|
||||
The story of the 1919 Eddington eclipse expedition and Einstein's rise to fame is well told elsewhere.
|
||||
|
||||
== Sources of spacetime curvature ==
|
||||
|
||||
In Newton's theory of gravitation, the only source of gravitational force is mass.
|
||||
In contrast, general relativity identifies several sources of spacetime curvature in addition to mass. In the Einstein field equations,
|
||||
the sources of gravity are presented on the right-hand side in
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle T_{\mu \nu },}
|
||||
|
||||
the stress–energy tensor.
|
||||
Fig. 5-5 classifies the various sources of gravity in the stress–energy tensor:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
00
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle T^{00}}
|
||||
|
||||
(red): The total mass–energy density, including any contributions to the potential energy from forces between the particles, as well as kinetic energy from random thermal motions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle T^{0i}}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle T^{i0}}
|
||||
|
||||
(orange): These are momentum density terms. Even if there is no bulk motion, energy may be transmitted by heat conduction, and the conducted energy will carry momentum.
|
||||
114
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime-3.md
Normal file
114
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime-3.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Curved spacetime"
|
||||
chunk: 4/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:02.570747+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle T^{ij}}
|
||||
|
||||
are the rates of flow of the i-component of momentum per unit area in the j-direction. Even if there is no bulk motion, random thermal motions of the particles will give rise to momentum flow, so the i = j terms (green) represent isotropic pressure, and the i ≠ j terms (blue) represent shear stresses.
|
||||
One important conclusion to be derived from the equations is that, colloquially speaking, gravity itself creates gravity. Energy has mass. Even in Newtonian gravity, the gravitational field is associated with an energy,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
E
|
||||
=
|
||||
m
|
||||
g
|
||||
h
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle E=mgh,}
|
||||
|
||||
called the gravitational potential energy. In general relativity, the energy of the gravitational field feeds back into creation of the gravitational field. This makes the equations nonlinear and hard to solve in anything other than weak field cases. Numerical relativity is a branch of general relativity using numerical methods to solve and analyze problems, often employing supercomputers to study black holes, gravitational waves, neutron stars and other phenomena in the strong field regime.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Energy-momentum ===
|
||||
|
||||
In special relativity, mass-energy is closely connected to momentum. Just as space and time are different aspects of a more comprehensive entity called spacetime, mass–energy and momentum are merely different aspects of a unified, four-dimensional quantity called four-momentum. In consequence, if mass–energy is a source of gravity, momentum must also be a source. The inclusion of momentum as a source of gravity leads to the prediction that moving or rotating masses can generate fields analogous to the magnetic fields generated by moving charges, a phenomenon known as gravitomagnetism.
|
||||
|
||||
It is well known that the force of magnetism can be deduced by applying the rules of special relativity to moving charges. (An eloquent demonstration of this was presented by Feynman in volume II, chapter 13–6 of his Lectures on Physics, available online.) Analogous logic can be used to demonstrate the origin of gravitomagnetism.
|
||||
In Fig. 5-7a, two parallel, infinitely long streams of massive particles have equal and opposite velocities −v and +v relative to a test particle at rest and centered between the two. Because of the symmetry of the setup, the net force on the central particle is zero. Assume
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
≪
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle v\ll c}
|
||||
|
||||
so that velocities are simply additive. Fig. 5-7b shows exactly the same setup, but in the frame of the upper stream. The test particle has a velocity of +v, and the bottom stream has a velocity of +2v. Since the physical situation has not changed, only the frame in which things are observed, the test particle should not be attracted towards either stream.
|
||||
It is not at all clear that the forces exerted on the test particle are equal. (1) Since the bottom stream is moving faster than the top, each particle in the bottom stream has a larger mass energy than a particle in the top. (2) Because of Lorentz contraction, there are more particles per unit length in the bottom stream than in the top stream. (3) Another contribution to the active gravitational mass of the bottom stream comes from an additional pressure term which, at this point, we do not have sufficient background to discuss. All of these effects together would seemingly demand that the test particle be drawn towards the bottom stream.
|
||||
The test particle is not drawn to the bottom stream because of a velocity-dependent force that serves to repel a particle that is moving in the same direction as the bottom stream. This velocity-dependent gravitational effect is gravitomagnetism.
|
||||
Matter in motion through a gravitomagnetic field is hence subject to so-called frame-dragging effects analogous to electromagnetic induction. It has been proposed that such gravitomagnetic forces underlie the generation of the relativistic jets (Fig. 5-8) ejected by some rotating supermassive black holes.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pressure and stress ===
|
||||
Quantities that are directly related to energy and momentum should be sources of gravity as well, namely internal pressure and stress. Taken together, mass-energy, momentum, pressure and stress all serve as sources of gravity: Collectively, they are what tells spacetime how to curve.
|
||||
General relativity predicts that pressure acts as a gravitational source with exactly the same strength as mass–energy density. The inclusion of pressure as a source of gravity leads to dramatic differences between the predictions of general relativity versus those of Newtonian gravitation. For example, the pressure term sets a maximum limit to the mass of a neutron star. The more massive a neutron star, the more pressure is required to support its weight against gravity. The increased pressure, however, adds to the gravity acting on the star's mass. Above a certain mass determined by the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, the process becomes runaway and the neutron star collapses to a black hole.
|
||||
The stress terms become highly significant when performing calculations such as hydrodynamic simulations of core-collapse supernovae.
|
||||
These predictions for the roles of pressure, momentum and stress as sources of spacetime curvature are elegant and play an important role in theory. In regards to pressure, the early universe was radiation dominated, and it is highly unlikely that any of the relevant cosmological data (e.g. nucleosynthesis abundances, etc.) could be reproduced if pressure did not contribute to gravity, or if it did not have the same strength as a source of gravity as mass–energy. Likewise, the mathematical consistency of the Einstein field equations would be broken if the stress terms did not contribute as a source of gravity.
|
||||
|
||||
== Experimental test of the sources of spacetime curvature ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Definitions: Active, passive, and inertial mass ===
|
||||
Bondi distinguishes between different possible types of mass: (1) active mass (
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{a}}
|
||||
|
||||
) is the mass which acts as the source of a gravitational field; (2)passive mass (
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{p}}
|
||||
|
||||
) is the mass which reacts to a gravitational field; (3) inertial mass (
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{i}}
|
||||
|
||||
) is the mass which reacts to acceleration.
|
||||
205
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime-4.md
Normal file
205
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime-4.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,205 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Curved spacetime"
|
||||
chunk: 5/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_spacetime"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:02.570747+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{p}}
|
||||
|
||||
is the same as gravitational mass (
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{g}}
|
||||
|
||||
) in the discussion of the equivalence principle.
|
||||
In Newtonian theory,
|
||||
|
||||
The third law of action and reaction dictates that
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{a}}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{p}}
|
||||
|
||||
must be the same.
|
||||
On the other hand, whether
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{p}}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{i}}
|
||||
|
||||
are equal is an empirical result.
|
||||
In general relativity,
|
||||
|
||||
The equality of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{p}}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{i}}
|
||||
|
||||
is dictated by the equivalence principle.
|
||||
There is no "action and reaction" principle dictating any necessary relationship between
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{a}}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{p}}
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pressure as a gravitational source ===
|
||||
|
||||
The classic experiment to measure the strength of a gravitational source (i.e. its active mass) was first conducted in 1797 by Henry Cavendish (Fig. 5-9a). Two small but dense balls are suspended on a fine wire, making a torsion balance. Bringing two large test masses close to the balls introduces a detectable torque. Given the dimensions of the apparatus and the measurable spring constant of the torsion wire, the gravitational constant G can be determined.
|
||||
To study pressure effects by compressing the test masses is hopeless, because attainable laboratory pressures are insignificant in comparison with the mass-energy of a metal ball.
|
||||
However, the repulsive electromagnetic pressures resulting from protons being tightly squeezed inside atomic nuclei are typically on the order of 1028 atm ≈ 1033 Pa ≈ 1033 kg·s−2m−1. This amounts to about 1% of the nuclear mass density of approximately 1018kg/m3 (after factoring in c2 ≈ 9×1016m2s−2).
|
||||
|
||||
If pressure does not act as a gravitational source, then the ratio
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
/
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle m_{a}/m_{p}}
|
||||
|
||||
should be lower for nuclei with higher atomic number Z, in which the electrostatic pressures are higher. L. B. Kreuzer (1968) did a Cavendish experiment using a Teflon mass suspended in a mixture of the liquids trichloroethylene and dibromoethane having the same buoyant density as the Teflon (Fig. 5-9b). Fluorine has atomic number Z = 9, while bromine has Z = 35. Kreuzer found that repositioning the Teflon mass caused no differential deflection of the torsion bar, hence establishing active mass and passive mass to be equivalent to a precision of 5×10−5.
|
||||
Although Kreuzer originally considered this experiment merely to be a test of the ratio of active mass to passive mass, Clifford Will (1976) reinterpreted the experiment as a fundamental test of the coupling of sources to gravitational fields.
|
||||
In 1986, Bartlett and Van Buren noted that lunar laser ranging had detected a 2 km offset between the moon's center of figure and its center of mass. This indicates an asymmetry in the distribution of Fe (abundant in the Moon's core) and Al (abundant in its crust and mantle). If pressure did not contribute equally to spacetime curvature as does mass–energy, the moon would not be in the orbit predicted by classical mechanics. They used their measurements to tighten the limits on any discrepancies between active and passive mass to about 10−12. With decades of additional lunar laser ranging data, Singh et al. (2023) reported improvement on these limits by a factor of about 100.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Gravitomagnetism ===
|
||||
|
||||
The existence of gravitomagnetism was proven by Gravity Probe B (GP-B), a satellite-based mission which launched on 20 April 2004. The spaceflight phase lasted until 2005. The mission aim was to measure spacetime curvature near Earth, with particular emphasis on gravitomagnetism.
|
||||
Initial results confirmed the relatively large geodetic effect (which is due to simple spacetime curvature, and is also known as de Sitter precession) to an accuracy of about 1%. The much smaller frame-dragging effect (which is due to gravitomagnetism, and is also known as Lense–Thirring precession) was difficult to measure because of unexpected charge effects causing variable drift in the gyroscopes. Nevertheless, by August 2008, the frame-dragging effect had been confirmed to within 15% of the expected result, while the geodetic effect was confirmed to better than 0.5%.
|
||||
Subsequent measurements of frame dragging by laser-ranging observations of the LARES, LAGEOS-1 and LAGEOS-2 satellites has improved on the GP-B measurement, with results (as of 2016) demonstrating the effect to within 5% of its theoretical value, although there has been some disagreement on the accuracy of this result.
|
||||
Another effort, the Gyroscopes in General Relativity (GINGER) experiment, seeks to use three 6 m ring lasers mounted at right angles to each other 1400 m below the Earth's surface to measure this effect. The first ten years of experience with a prototype ring laser gyroscope array, GINGERINO, established that the full scale experiment should be able to measure gravitomagnetism due to the Earth's rotation to within a 0.1% level or even better.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Spacetime topology
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
24
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Hill_Medal-0.md
Normal file
24
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Hill_Medal-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Dorothy Hill Medal"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Hill_Medal"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:31.038014+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Dorothy Hill Medal is awarded annually and honours the contributions of Dorothy Hill to Australian Earth science and her work in opening up tertiary science education to women.
|
||||
The award supports research in the Earth sciences by female researchers up to 10 years post doctorate for research carried out mainly in Australia.
|
||||
Prior to 2018 the award was known as the Dorothy Hill Award.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Recipients ==
|
||||
Source: Australian Academy of Science
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of earth sciences awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Elaine Bennett Research Prize"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine_Bennett_Research_Prize"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:32.194183+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Elaine Bennett Research Prize, awarded every year by the American Economic Association, recognizes and honors outstanding research in any field of economics by a woman not more than ten years beyond her Ph.D. Prior to 2023 the award had been given every other year for a woman not more than seven years beyond her PhD. First awarded in 1998, three of the first six winners of this prize have been the first three female winners of the John Bates Clark Medal.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Past recipients ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of awards honoring women
|
||||
List of economics awards
|
||||
John Bates Clark Medal
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
34
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackwell_Medal-0.md
Normal file
34
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackwell_Medal-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Elizabeth Blackwell Medal"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackwell_Medal"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:27.402908+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Elizabeth Blackwell Medal is awarded annually by the American Medical Women's Association. The medal is named in honor of Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to receive a medical degree in the United States and a pioneer in promoting the education of women in medicine. Established by Elise S. L'Esperance in 1949, 100 years after Blackwell received her medical degree, the medal is granted to a woman physician "who has made the most outstanding contributions to the cause of women in the field of medicine." Before 1993, the medal was only awarded to members of the AMWA.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Recipients ==
|
||||
Source: AMWA
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of medicine awards
|
||||
List of prizes, medals, and awards for women in science
|
||||
List of prizes named after people
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
"Elizabeth Blackwell medal". Journal of the American Medical Women's Association. 47 (3): 68–69. May–June 1992. PMID 1624663.
|
||||
Vaschak, MR (February 1975). "The Elizabeth Blackwell Annual Award, 1974". Journal of the American Medical Women's Association. 30 (2): 84–85. PMID 163270.
|
||||
Mega, LT; McKinney, PA (Sep–Oct 1990). "Looking back at progress: AMWA award winners". Journal of the American Medical Women's Association. 45 (5): 200–6. PMID 2269768.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Elizabeth Blackwell Award
|
||||
21
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_L._Scott_Award-0.md
Normal file
21
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_L._Scott_Award-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Elizabeth L. Scott Award"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_L._Scott_Award"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:33.387019+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Elizabeth L. Scott Award is an biennial award given (in even years) by the Committee of Presidents of Statistical Societies and named in honor of Elizabeth Scott, an American statistician. This award recognizes an individual who exemplifies the contributions of Elizabeth L. Scott’s lifelong efforts to further the careers of women in academia. The award is given to an individual who has helped foster opportunities in statistics for women and is presented at the Joint Statistical Meetings. Starting in 2020, the recipient of the award will give a lecture at the Joint Statistical Meetings.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of Award winners ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of mathematics awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "FASEB Excellence in Science Award"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASEB_Excellence_in_Science_Award"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:34.596906+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Excellence in Science Award was established by the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) in 1989 to recognize outstanding achievement by women in biological science. All women who are members of one or more of the societies of FASEB are eligible for nomination. Nominations recognize a woman whose career achievements have contributed significantly to further our understanding of a particular discipline by excellence in research.
|
||||
The award includes a $10,000 unrestricted research grant, funded by Eli Lilly and Company.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Award recipients ==
|
||||
Source: FASEB Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
|
||||
1989 Marian Koshland
|
||||
1990 Elizabeth Hay
|
||||
1991 Ellen Vitetta
|
||||
1992 Bettie Sue Masters
|
||||
1993 Susan Leeman
|
||||
1994 Lucille Shapiro
|
||||
1995 Philippa Marrack
|
||||
1996 Zena Werb
|
||||
1997 Claude Klee
|
||||
1998 Eva Neer
|
||||
1999 Helen Blau
|
||||
2000 Peng Loh
|
||||
2001 Laurie Glimcher
|
||||
2002 Phyllis Wise
|
||||
2003 Joan A. Steitz
|
||||
2004 Janet Rossant
|
||||
2005 Anita Roberts
|
||||
2006 Marilyn Farquhar and Elaine Fuchs
|
||||
2007 Frances Arnold
|
||||
2008 Mina J. Bissell
|
||||
2009 Susan L. Lindquist
|
||||
2010 Susan S. Taylor
|
||||
2011 Gail R. Martin
|
||||
2012 Susan R. Wessler
|
||||
2013 Terry Orr-Weaver
|
||||
2014 Kathryn V. Anderson
|
||||
2015 Diane Griffin
|
||||
2016 Bonnie Bassler
|
||||
2017 Diane Mathis
|
||||
2018 Lynne E. Maquat
|
||||
2019 Barbara B. Kahn
|
||||
2020 :
|
||||
Lifetime Achievement : Brigid Hogan
|
||||
Mid-Career Investigator : Aviv Regev
|
||||
Early-Career Investigator : Karen Schindler
|
||||
2021:
|
||||
Lifetime Achievement : M. Celeste Simon
|
||||
Mid-Career Investigator : Valentina Greco
|
||||
Early-Career Investigator : Cigall Kadoch
|
||||
2022:
|
||||
Lifetime Achievement : Arlene H. Sharpe
|
||||
Mid-Career Investigator : Sallie R. Permar
|
||||
Early-Career Investigator : Smita Krishnaswamy
|
||||
2023:
|
||||
Lifetime Achievement : Elaine S. Jaffe
|
||||
Mid-Career Investigator : Paola Arlotta
|
||||
Early-Career Investigator : Diana Libuda
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of biology awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Florence Nightingale David Award"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale_David_Award"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:29.777856+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Florence Nightingale David Award is an award given every two years (in odd-numbered years) jointly by the Committee of Presidents of Statistical Societies and Caucus for Women in Statistics to a distinguished female statistician.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Description ==
|
||||
The award's purpose is to "recognize a female statistician who exemplifies the contributions of Florence Nightingale David" and who "has advanced the discipline and proven herself to be an outstanding role model". Since the founding of the award, it has become a "prestigious hallmark of achievement" among female statisticians.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Winners ==
|
||||
The Florence Nightingale David Award was first given in 2001, with David herself being given the award retroactively, dated to 1994. The winners of the award have been:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,925 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Fourth, fifth, and sixth derivatives of position"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth,_fifth,_and_sixth_derivatives_of_position"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:05.034067+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In the physics field of kinematics, the fourth, fifth and sixth derivatives of position are generalizations of velocity and acceleration. They are defined as derivatives of the position vector with respect to time – with the first, second, and third derivatives being velocity, acceleration, and jerk, respectively. These higher-order derivatives are less common than the first three; thus their names are not as standardized, though the concept of a minimum snap trajectory has been used in robotics.
|
||||
The fourth derivative is referred to as snap, leading the fifth and sixth derivatives to be "sometimes somewhat facetiously" called crackle and pop, named after the Rice Krispies mascots of the same name. The fourth derivative is also called jounce.
|
||||
|
||||
== Applications ==
|
||||
Minimizing snap and jerk is useful in mechanical and civil engineering because it reduces vibrations and ensures smoother motion transitions. In civil engineering, railway tracks and roads are designed to limit snap, particularly around bends with varying radii of curvature. When snap is constant, the jerk changes linearly, producing a gradual increase in radial acceleration; when snap is zero, acceleration changes linearly. These profiles are often achieved using mathematical clothoid functions. The same principle is applied by roller coaster designers, who use smooth transitions in loops and helices to enhance ride comfort.
|
||||
In mechanical engineering, controlling snap and jerk is important in fields such as automotive design, to prevent camfollowers from jumping off of camshafts, and manufacturing, where rapid acceleration changes in cutting tools can cause premature tool wear and uneven surface finishes. Minimum-snap and minimum-jerk trajectories are also used in trajectory optimization in robotics. Minimum-snap trajectories for quadrotors can reduce control effort, while minimum-jerk trajectories for robotic manipulators produce predictable motions that improve control performance and facilitate human-robot interaction.
|
||||
|
||||
== Fourth derivative (snap/jounce) ==
|
||||
Snap, or jounce, is the fourth derivative of the position vector with respect to time, or the rate of change of the jerk with respect to time. Equivalently, it is the second derivative of acceleration or the third derivative of velocity,
|
||||
and is defined by any of the following equivalent expressions:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbf {s} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {j} }{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}\mathbf {a} }{\mathrm {d} t^{2}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{3}\mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t^{3}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{4}\mathbf {r} }{\mathrm {d} t^{4}}}.}
|
||||
|
||||
The following equations are used for constant snap:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
6
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
6
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
24
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {j} &=\mathbf {j} _{0}+\mathbf {s} t,\\\mathbf {a} &=\mathbf {a} _{0}+\mathbf {j} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {s} t^{2},\\\mathbf {v} &=\mathbf {v} _{0}+\mathbf {a} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {j} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {s} t^{3},\\\mathbf {r} &=\mathbf {r} _{0}+\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {a} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {j} _{0}t^{3}+{\tfrac {1}{24}}\mathbf {s} t^{4},\end{aligned}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where
|
||||
|
||||
The notation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbf {s} }
|
||||
|
||||
(used by Visser) is not to be confused with the displacement vector commonly denoted similarly.
|
||||
The dimensions of snap are distance per fourth power of time [LT−4]. The corresponding SI unit is metre per second to the fourth power, m/s4, m⋅s−4.
|
||||
|
||||
== Fifth derivative ==
|
||||
The fifth derivative of the position vector with respect to time is sometimes referred to as crackle. It is the rate of change of snap with respect to time. Crackle is defined by any of the following equivalent expressions:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
||||
d
|
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|
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|
||||
s
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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t
|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
=
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
d
|
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|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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2
|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
||||
d
|
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|
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|
||||
3
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
a
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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3
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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|
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4
|
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|
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|
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|
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v
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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4
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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|
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5
|
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|
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|
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|
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r
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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5
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbf {c} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {s} }{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}\mathbf {j} }{\mathrm {d} t^{2}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{3}\mathbf {a} }{\mathrm {d} t^{3}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{4}\mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t^{4}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{5}\mathbf {r} }{\mathrm {d} t^{5}}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The following equations are used for constant crackle:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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s
|
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|
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=
|
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s
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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+
|
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c
|
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t
|
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j
|
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|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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j
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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s
|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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+
|
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1
|
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2
|
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|
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|
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2
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|
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|
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a
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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a
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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j
|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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+
|
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1
|
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2
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|
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|
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s
|
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|
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|
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2
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|
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1
|
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6
|
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|
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3
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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v
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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v
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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a
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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+
|
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|
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|
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|
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1
|
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2
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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j
|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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2
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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|
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1
|
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6
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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3
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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|
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1
|
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24
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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c
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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4
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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r
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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r
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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v
|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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+
|
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|
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1
|
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2
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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a
|
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0
|
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|
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t
|
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|
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2
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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1
|
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6
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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j
|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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3
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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|
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1
|
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24
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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s
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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4
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
1
|
||||
120
|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
c
|
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|
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|
||||
t
|
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|
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5
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {s} &=\mathbf {s} _{0}+\mathbf {c} t\\[1ex]\mathbf {j} &=\mathbf {j} _{0}+\mathbf {s} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {c} t^{2}\\[1ex]\mathbf {a} &=\mathbf {a} _{0}+\mathbf {j} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {s} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {c} t^{3}\\[1ex]\mathbf {v} &=\mathbf {v} _{0}+\mathbf {a} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {j} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {s} _{0}t^{3}+{\tfrac {1}{24}}\mathbf {c} t^{4}\\[1ex]\mathbf {r} &=\mathbf {r} _{0}+\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {a} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {j} _{0}t^{3}+{\tfrac {1}{24}}\mathbf {s} _{0}t^{4}+{\tfrac {1}{120}}\mathbf {c} t^{5}\end{aligned}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where
|
||||
|
||||
The dimensions of crackle are [LT−5]. The corresponding SI unit is m/s5.
|
||||
|
||||
== Sixth derivative ==
|
||||
The sixth derivative of the position vector with respect to time is sometimes referred to as pop. It is the rate of change of crackle with respect to time. Pop is defined by any of the following equivalent expressions:
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,696 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Fourth, fifth, and sixth derivatives of position"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth,_fifth,_and_sixth_derivatives_of_position"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:05.034067+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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|
||||
c
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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t
|
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|
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|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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|
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2
|
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|
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|
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|
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s
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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d
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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2
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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=
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
d
|
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|
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|
||||
3
|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
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|
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|
||||
t
|
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|
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3
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
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|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
||||
|
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=
|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
5
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
||||
d
|
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|
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|
||||
t
|
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|
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5
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
6
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
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|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
6
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {c} }{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}\mathbf {s} }{\mathrm {d} t^{2}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{3}\mathbf {j} }{\mathrm {d} t^{3}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{4}\mathbf {a} }{\mathrm {d} t^{4}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{5}\mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t^{5}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{6}\mathbf {r} }{\mathrm {d} t^{6}}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The following equations are used for constant pop:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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p
|
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|
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t
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
s
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
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0
|
||||
|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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c
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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+
|
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|
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|
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|
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1
|
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2
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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2
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
j
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
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|
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s
|
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|
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|
||||
0
|
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|
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|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
c
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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2
|
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|
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|
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+
|
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|
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|
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|
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1
|
||||
6
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
p
|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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3
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
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|
||||
0
|
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|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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2
|
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|
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|
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+
|
||||
|
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|
||||
|
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1
|
||||
6
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
c
|
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|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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|
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t
|
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|
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3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
24
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
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|
||||
t
|
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|
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4
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
6
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
24
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
120
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
5
|
||||
|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
6
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
24
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
120
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
5
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
720
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
6
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {c} &=\mathbf {c} _{0}+\mathbf {p} t\\\mathbf {s} &=\mathbf {s} _{0}+\mathbf {c} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {p} t^{2}\\\mathbf {j} &=\mathbf {j} _{0}+\mathbf {s} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {c} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {p} t^{3}\\\mathbf {a} &=\mathbf {a} _{0}+\mathbf {j} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {s} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {c} _{0}t^{3}+{\tfrac {1}{24}}\mathbf {p} t^{4}\\\mathbf {v} &=\mathbf {v} _{0}+\mathbf {a} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {j} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {s} _{0}t^{3}+{\tfrac {1}{24}}\mathbf {c} _{0}t^{4}+{\tfrac {1}{120}}\mathbf {p} t^{5}\\\mathbf {r} &=\mathbf {r} _{0}+\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {a} _{0}t^{2}+{\tfrac {1}{6}}\mathbf {j} _{0}t^{3}+{\tfrac {1}{24}}\mathbf {s} _{0}t^{4}+{\tfrac {1}{120}}\mathbf {c} _{0}t^{5}+{\tfrac {1}{720}}\mathbf {p} t^{6}\end{aligned}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where
|
||||
|
||||
The dimensions of pop are [LT−6]. The corresponding SI unit is m/s6.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
The dictionary definition of jounce at Wiktionary
|
||||
551
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation-0.md
Normal file
551
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,551 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Galilean transformation"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:06.401340+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In physics, a Galilean transformation is used to transform between the coordinates of two reference frames which differ only by constant relative motion within the constructs of Newtonian physics. These transformations together with spatial rotations and translations in space and time form the inhomogeneous Galilean group (assumed throughout below). Without the translations in space and time the group is the homogeneous Galilean group. The Galilean group is the group of motions of Galilean relativity acting on the four dimensions of space and time, forming the Galilean geometry. This is the passive transformation point of view. In special relativity the homogeneous and inhomogeneous Galilean transformations are, respectively, replaced by the Lorentz transformations and Poincaré transformations; conversely, the group contraction in the classical limit c → ∞ of Poincaré transformations yields Galilean transformations.
|
||||
The equations below are only physically valid in a Newtonian framework, and not applicable to coordinate systems moving relative to each other at speeds approaching the speed of light.
|
||||
Galileo formulated these concepts in his description of uniform motion.
|
||||
The topic was motivated by his description of the motion of a ball rolling down a ramp, by which he measured the numerical value for the acceleration of gravity near the surface of the Earth.
|
||||
|
||||
== Translation ==
|
||||
|
||||
Although the transformations are named for Galileo, it is the absolute time and space as conceived by Isaac Newton that provides their domain of definition. In essence, the Galilean transformations embody the intuitive notion of addition and subtraction of velocities as vectors.
|
||||
The notation below describes the relationship under the Galilean transformation between the coordinates (x, y, z, t) and (x′, y′, z′, t′) of a single arbitrary event, as measured in two coordinate systems S and S′, in uniform relative motion (velocity v) in their common x and x′ directions, with their spatial origins coinciding at time t = t′ = 0:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
x
|
||||
−
|
||||
v
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle x'=x-vt}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
y
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
y
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle y'=y}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
z
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
z
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle z'=z}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
t
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle t'=t.}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Note that the last equation holds for all Galilean transformations up to addition of a constant, and expresses the assumption of a universal time independent of the relative motion of different observers.
|
||||
In the language of linear algebra, this transformation is considered a shear mapping, and is described with a matrix acting on a vector. With motion parallel to the x-axis, the transformation acts on only two components:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
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t
|
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′
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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0
|
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|
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|
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1
|
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|
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|
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|
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)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}x'\\t'\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}1&-v\\0&1\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}x\\t\end{pmatrix}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Though matrix representations are not strictly necessary for Galilean transformation, they provide the means for direct comparison to transformation methods in special relativity.
|
||||
|
||||
== Galilean transformations ==
|
||||
The Galilean symmetries can be uniquely written as the composition of a rotation, a translation and a uniform motion of spacetime. Let x represent a point in three-dimensional space, and t a point in one-dimensional time. A general point in spacetime is given by an ordered pair (x, t).
|
||||
A uniform motion, with velocity v, is given by
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
↦
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (\mathbf {x} ,t)\mapsto (\mathbf {x} +t\mathbf {v} ,t),}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where v ∈ R3. A translation is given by
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
↦
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
s
|
||||
)
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (\mathbf {x} ,t)\mapsto (\mathbf {x} +\mathbf {a} ,t+s),}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where a ∈ R3 and s ∈ R. A rotation is given by
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
↦
|
||||
(
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle (\mathbf {x} ,t)\mapsto (R\mathbf {x} ,t),}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where R : R3 → R3 is an orthogonal transformation.
|
||||
As a Lie group, the group of Galilean transformations has dimension 10.
|
||||
|
||||
== Galilean group ==
|
||||
Two Galilean transformations G(R, v, a, s) and G(R' , v′, a′, s′) compose to form a third Galilean transformation,
|
||||
|
||||
G(R′, v′, a′, s′) ⋅ G(R, v, a, s) = G(R′ R, R′ v + v′, R′ a + a′ + v′ s, s′ + s).
|
||||
The set of all Galilean transformations Gal(3) forms a group with composition as the group operation.
|
||||
The group is sometimes represented as a matrix group with spacetime events (x, t, 1) as vectors where t is real and x ∈ R3 is a position in space.
|
||||
The action is given by
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
x
|
||||
+
|
||||
v
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
+
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}R&v&a\\0&1&s\\0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}x\\t\\1\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}Rx+vt+a\\t+s\\1\end{pmatrix}},}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where s is real and v, x, a ∈ R3 and R is a rotation matrix.
|
||||
The composition of transformations is then accomplished through matrix multiplication. Care must be taken in the discussion whether one restricts oneself to the connected component group of the orthogonal transformations.
|
||||
Gal(3) has named subgroups. The identity component is denoted SGal(3).
|
||||
Let m represent the transformation matrix with parameters v, R, s, a:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{
|
||||
m
|
||||
:
|
||||
R
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
I
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
}
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \{m:R=I_{3}\},}
|
||||
|
||||
anisotropic transformations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{
|
||||
m
|
||||
:
|
||||
s
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
}
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \{m:s=0\},}
|
||||
|
||||
isochronous transformations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{
|
||||
m
|
||||
:
|
||||
s
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
,
|
||||
v
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
}
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \{m:s=0,v=0\},}
|
||||
|
||||
spatial Euclidean transformations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
G
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
{
|
||||
m
|
||||
:
|
||||
s
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
,
|
||||
a
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
}
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle G_{1}=\{m:s=0,a=0\},}
|
||||
|
||||
uniformly special transformations / homogeneous transformations, isomorphic to Euclidean transformations.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
G
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
{
|
||||
m
|
||||
:
|
||||
v
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
,
|
||||
R
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
I
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
}
|
||||
≅
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle G_{2}=\{m:v=0,R=I_{3}\}\cong \left(\mathbf {R} ^{4},+\right),}
|
||||
|
||||
shifts of origin / translation in Newtonian spacetime.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
G
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
{
|
||||
m
|
||||
:
|
||||
s
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
,
|
||||
a
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
,
|
||||
v
|
||||
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|
||||
0
|
||||
}
|
||||
≅
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
3
|
||||
)
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle G_{3}=\{m:s=0,a=0,v=0\}\cong \mathrm {SO} (3),}
|
||||
|
||||
rotations (of reference frame) (see SO(3)), a compact group.
|
||||
1482
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation-1.md
Normal file
1482
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation-1.md
Normal file
File diff suppressed because it is too large
Load Diff
334
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation-2.md
Normal file
334
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,334 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Galilean transformation"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:06.401340+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
||||
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||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle [L'_{ij},L'_{kl}]=i[\delta _{ik}L'_{jl}-\delta _{il}L'_{jk}-\delta _{jk}L'_{il}+\delta _{jl}L'_{ik}]\,\!}
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle [L'_{ij},P'_{k}]=i[\delta _{ik}P'_{j}-\delta _{jk}P'_{i}]\,\!}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle [L'_{ij},C'_{k}]=i[\delta _{ik}C'_{j}-\delta _{jk}C'_{i}]\,\!}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle [C'_{i},H']=iP'_{i}\,\!}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
and finally
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
[
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle [C'_{i},P'_{j}]=iM\delta _{ij}~.}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where the new parameter
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle M}
|
||||
|
||||
shows up.
|
||||
This extension and projective representations that this enables is determined by its group cohomology.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Galilean invariance
|
||||
Representation theory of the Galilean group
|
||||
Galilei-covariant tensor formulation
|
||||
Poincaré group
|
||||
Lorentz group
|
||||
Lagrangian and Eulerian coordinates
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Arnold, V. I. (1989). Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics (2 ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 6. ISBN 0-387-96890-3.
|
||||
Bargmann, V. (1954). "On Unitary Ray Representations of Continuous Groups". Annals of Mathematics. 2. 59 (1): 1–46. doi:10.2307/1969831. JSTOR 1969831.
|
||||
Copernicus, Nicolaus; Kepler, Johannes; Galilei, Galileo; Newton, Isaac; Einstein, Albert (2002). Hawking, Stephen (ed.). On the Shoulders of Giants: The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy. Philadelphia, London: Running Press. pp. 515–520. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4.
|
||||
Galilei, Galileo (1638i). Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno á due nuoue scienze (in Italian). Leiden: Elsevier. pp. 191–196.
|
||||
Galilei, Galileo (1638e). Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences [Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche Intorno a Due Nuove Scienze]. Translated to English 1914 by Henry Crew and Alfonso de Salvio.
|
||||
Gilmore, Robert (2006). Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Some of Their Applications. Dover Books on Mathematics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486445291.
|
||||
Hoffmann, Banesh (1983), Relativity and Its Roots, Scientific American Books, ISBN 0-486-40676-8, Chapter 5, p. 83
|
||||
Lerner, Lawrence S. (1996), Physics for Scientists and Engineers, vol. 2, Jones and Bertlett Publishers, Inc, ISBN 0-7637-0460-1, Chapter 38 §38.2, p. 1046,1047
|
||||
Mould, Richard A. (2002), Basic relativity, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-95210-1, Chapter 2 §2.6, p. 42
|
||||
Nadjafikhah, Mehdi; Forough, Ahmad-Reza (2009). "Galilean Geometry of Motions" (PDF). Applied Sciences. 11: 91–105.
|
||||
Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2006), Principles of Physics: A Calculus-based Text (4th ed.), Brooks/Cole - Thomson Learning, Bibcode:2006ppcb.book.....J, ISBN 0-534-49143-X, Chapter 9 §9.1, p. 261
|
||||
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garvan–Olin_Medal-0.md
Normal file
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garvan–Olin_Medal-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Garvan–Olin Medal"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garvan–Olin_Medal"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:43.169639+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Francis P. Garvan–John M. Olin Medal, previously called the Francis P. Garvan Medal, is an annual award that recognizes distinguished scientific accomplishment, leadership and service to chemistry by women chemists. The Award is offered by the American Chemical Society (ACS), and consists of a cash prize (US$5,000) and a medal. The medal was designed by Margaret Christian Grigor.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Background ==
|
||||
Any individual may nominate a single eligible chemist in one year. Nominees must be a female citizen of the United States.
|
||||
The award was established by Francis Garvan and Mabel Brady Garvan in 1936 in honor of their daughter. It was initially an essay contest, that ran for seven years, as a memorial to their daughter (the American Chemical Society's Prize Essay Contest). It was solely funded by the Francis P. Garvan Medal Endowment from its establishment in 1936 until 1979. W. R. Grace & Co. assumed co-sponsorship of the award from 1979 to 1983. In 1984, Olin Corporation assumed co-sponsorship. Mabel Brady Garvan remained involved with the Award through 1967.
|
||||
The Garvan–Olin Award is the ACS' third-oldest award, and the first award established to honor women chemists.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Award recipients ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of chemistry awards
|
||||
List of science and technology awards for women
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
"Francis P. Garvan-John M. Olin Medal". American Chemical Society.
|
||||
Special Collections and University Archives. "Finding Aid for MS 678 Garvan Medalists Survey Collection, 1981-2000". Iowa State University.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Hopper_Celebration_of_Women_in_Computing"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:45.565115+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing (GHC) is a series of conferences designed to bring the research and career interests of women in computing to the forefront. It is the world's largest gathering of women and non-binary technologists. The celebration, named after computer scientist Grace Hopper, is organized by the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology. GHC 2022 conference was held hybrid in Orlando and virtually at the end of September 2022.
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
In 1994, Anita Borg and Telle Whitney founded the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing. With the initial idea of creating a conference by and for women computer scientists, Borg and Whitney met over dinner, with a blank sheet of paper, having no idea how to start a conference, and started to plan out their vision. The first Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing was held in Washington, D.C., in June 1994, and brought together 500 technical women. More than a dozen conferences have been held from 1994 to the present; the second was held in 1997 and the conference has been held annually since 2006. The sold-out 2010 conference attracted 2,147 attendees from 29 countries. Beginning in 2011, the conference has been held in a convention center to accommodate its growing size.
|
||||
|
||||
== Conference structure ==
|
||||
The Grace Hopper Celebration consists of a combination of technical sessions and career sessions and includes a poster session, career fair, awards ceremony, and more. The conference features 650 presenters. Potential presenters submit proposals for panels, workshops, presentations, Birds of a Feather sessions, New Investigators papers, PhD Forum, and Poster Session, including ACM Student Research Competition.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Tracks/Content ===
|
||||
The Grace Hopper Celebration 2022 featured content in 14 tracks:
|
||||
|
||||
Academic
|
||||
Artificial Intelligence
|
||||
Career
|
||||
Computer Systems Engineering
|
||||
Data Science
|
||||
Diversity, Equity, Inclusion & Belonging
|
||||
Extended Reality, Media and Gaming
|
||||
Hardware
|
||||
Human Computer Interaction
|
||||
Non- Traditional Technology
|
||||
Open Source & Open Source Day
|
||||
Product Management
|
||||
Security/Privacy
|
||||
Software Engineering
|
||||
|
||||
=== Keynote Speakers ===
|
||||
The Grace Hopper Celebration features prominent women in technology. Keynote speakers at Grace Hopper Celebration 2022 included Daphe Koller, Dr. Anita Hill, Megan Rapinoe, Anne Neuberger and Frances Haugen.
|
||||
Past keynote speakers included Sheryl Sandberg, Shirley Jackson, Carol Bartz, Duy-Loan Le, Kathy Pham, Megan Smith, Ginni Rometty, Nonny de la Peña, Maria Klawe, Frances E. Allen, Mary Lou Jepsen, Barbara Liskov, Susan Landau, Jennifer Mankoff, Vivienne Ming, Susan L. Graham, Melinda Gates, and Fernanda Viegas. Speaker presentations are available to watch online after the conference.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Poster Session and ACM Student Research Competition ===
|
||||
The Grace Hopper Celebration features one of the largest technical poster sessions of any conference, with over 175 posters. Presenters can choose to have their posters considered for the ACM Student Research Competition (SRC) at the Grace Hopper Celebration, the largest SRC of any technical conference.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Awards ===
|
||||
The Abie Awards honor women technologists and those who support women in tech. The 2022 Abie Award Winners were:
|
||||
|
||||
Daphne Koller (San Francisco, California) - Technical Leadership Award Winner
|
||||
Kris Dorsey (Boston, Massachusetts) - Emerging Leader Award in Honor of Denice Denton Award Winner
|
||||
Katherine Vergara (Santiago, Chile) - Student of Vision Award Winner
|
||||
Paula Coto (Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina) - Change Agent Award Winner
|
||||
Neha Narkhede (Menlo Park, California) - Technology Entrepreneurship Award Winner
|
||||
Past Abie Award winners include Ruzena Bajcsy, BlogHer, Elaine Weyuker and Unoma Ndili Okorafor.
|
||||
|
||||
=== CRA-W Career Mentoring Workshops ===
|
||||
The Computing Research Association’s Committee on the Status of Women in Computing Research (CRA-W) sponsors a series of sessions at the Grace Hopper Celebration aimed at undergraduates, graduates, and early career researchers. Sessions cover topics such as applying to graduate school, publishing papers, networking, work-life balance, and more.
|
||||
|
||||
=== K-12 Computing Teachers Workshop ===
|
||||
Hosted by the Computer Science Teachers Association and the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology, the K-12 Computing Teachers Workshop is a two-day event for K-12 teachers, covering challenges and ways to involve more girls in computer science. The workshop began in 2009, attracting more than 650 applications its first year.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Technical Executive Forum ===
|
||||
Begun in 2007, the Technical Executive Forum convenes high-level technology executives to discuss challenges and share solutions for recruiting, retaining, and advancing technical women. In 2010, 65 executives attended the event, from companies including Microsoft, Google, and Symantec.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Senior Women’s Summit ===
|
||||
The Senior Women's Summit is a one-day event held at the Grace Hopper Celebration, that brings together senior-level women to discuss issues facing senior technical women and provide a learning and networking platform.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Grace Hopper Open Source Day ===
|
||||
Grace Hopper Open Source Day was held for the first time in 2011. One-day registration is open to the public and included for all conference attendees. The event includes a codeathon, skill-building workshop, and exhibition space featuring open source projects.
|
||||
|
||||
Participating organizations have included Google Crisis Response, Mozilla, Sahana Software Foundation, The Women's Peer-to-Peer Network, ODK, Microsoft Disaster Response, OpenHatch, Wikimedia Foundation, E-Democracy, Systers, WordPress and OpenStack.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Career Fair ===
|
||||
The Grace Hopper Celebration features a career fair with over 70 high-tech companies, government labs, and universities.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Scholarships ===
|
||||
Students make up approximately half of the attendees at the Grace Hopper Celebration. The Anita Borg Institute offers scholarships to undergraduate and graduate students to attend the conference. The scholarship includes:
|
||||
|
||||
Individual registration for the three-day conference
|
||||
Hotel accommodations
|
||||
Meal card for use at the convention center during the conference
|
||||
Airfare
|
||||
Travel stipend
|
||||
In 2010, 321 scholarships were awarded. In addition to the GHC Scholarship, Anita Borg Institute offers the ABI-Heinz College Partnership Program. This is designed for students who have successfully completed their bachelor's degree, have been named a GHC Scholar by AnitaB.org, and are interested in obtaining a master's degree from the Heinz College at Carnegie Mellon University. GHC Scholars who are accepted into master's programs at the Heinz college are eligible for tuition scholarships of a minimum of $6,000 per semester.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Hopper_Celebration_of_Women_in_Computing"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:45.565115+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Childcare and nursing mothers' room ===
|
||||
The Grace Hopper Celebration offers free childcare to all attendees, as well as an on-site nursing mothers' room.
|
||||
|
||||
== Open Source Day ==
|
||||
Open Source Day (OSD) is the largest celebration of women in open source. OSD is an all-day hackathon (including workshops) at Grace Hopper Celebration in which participants of all skill levels learn about Open Source while contributing to projects designed to solve real-world problems. OSD is organized in two parts: projects for contributions and hands-on workshops for upskilling.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Open Source Day 2022 ===
|
||||
Open Source Day 2022 (OSD22) took place virtually on September 16, 2022 and was open to all GHC22 ticket holders for participation. The Opening Ceremony of OSD22 featured Anne Neuberger, Nithya Ruff and Mishi Choudhary. OSD22 hosted 27 open source projects and 10 workshops.
|
||||
Participants contributed code to 27 open source projects.
|
||||
|
||||
== Criticisms ==
|
||||
The GHC conference has been criticized for a lack of diversity, particularly racial diversity, and financial inaccessibility due to the high cost of attendance. In 2019, the cost of registration, not including hotel, transportation, or other costs, was $450 for students, $600 for academics, and $1,150 for general registration.
|
||||
In 2015, GHC faced criticism, including from engineer Erica Baker, when two white men and zero black women were featured as "headline" speakers. The organization responded by targeting more diversity in speakers and collecting race and ethnicity data at the following year's event.
|
||||
GHC does not pay its speakers. In past years GHC required speakers to purchase their own conference ticket, but as of 2020, speakers receive complimentary registration. (In the case of two selected poster presenters, only one will receive complimentary registration.) Speakers are not paid and travel and hotel expenses are not covered. The "pay to speak" approach has been criticized by people including author and software engineer Gayle Laakmann McDowell.
|
||||
In 2023, female and non-binary attendees criticized the event for being dominated by "pushy" cisgender men, some of whom were harassing the women present.
|
||||
|
||||
== List of Grace Hopper Celebrations ==
|
||||
Past Grace Hopper Celebrations include:
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of awards honoring women
|
||||
Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing
|
||||
GHC Archives Archived 2017-09-28 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
60
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertha_Sponer_Prize-0.md
Normal file
60
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertha_Sponer_Prize-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Hertha Sponer Prize"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertha_Sponer_Prize"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:46.775302+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Hertha Sponer Prize is a scientific prize of the German Physical Society (German: Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG). It has been awarded annually since 2002 to a female scientist for outstanding scientific work in the field of physics, and was initiated by the Equal Opportunities Working Group of the DPG. The prize is intended to encourage younger female scientists by publicly recognizing them, with the hope that this recognition attracts more women to study physics. The prize consists of a certificate and award of €3,000. Nominations are for recognition of a particular work (journal article or thesis), and self-nominations are permitted.
|
||||
The prize is named after the German physicist Hertha Sponer (1895–1968), who made important contributions to molecular physics and spectroscopy.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Prizewinners ==
|
||||
Former prizewinners include:
|
||||
|
||||
2002: Karina Morgenstern (Freie Universität Berlin) for dynamic scanning tunneling microscope investigations on nanostructures.
|
||||
2003: Uta Fritze-von Alvensleben (Göttingen Observatory) for the investigation of galaxy evolution on cosmological time scales, in particular with regard to their interaction.
|
||||
2004: Myrjam Winning (RWTH Aachen University) for contributions to metallurgy and materials science, in particular X-ray structure investigations of grain boundaries.
|
||||
2005: Elena Vedmedenko (University of Hamburg) for outstanding work on the magnetism of nanostructures with applications in spintronics.
|
||||
2006: Ekaterina Shamonina (University of Osnabrück) for outstanding contributions to electromagnetic metamaterials.
|
||||
2007: Christine Silberhorn (University of Erlangen-Nuremberg) for work on quantum communication with continuous variables.
|
||||
2008: Sylvie Roke (Max Planck Institute for Metals Research Stuttgart) for experimental and theoretical work on nonlinear optical scattering at particle surfaces.
|
||||
2009: Corinna Kollath (École polytechnique, Paris) for theoretical studies of non-equilibrium states of ultracold boson and fermion atomic gases.
|
||||
2010: Liu Na (University of Stuttgart) for pioneering contributions to the characterization and fabrication of three-dimensional metal nanostructures.
|
||||
2011: Martina Hentschel (Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems Dresden) for the theoretical investigation of mesoscopic electronic and optical systems, in particular optical microcavities and the radiation characteristics of microlasers.
|
||||
2012: Katharina Franke (FU Berlin) for her groundbreaking work on the interaction of magnetic molecules with superconductors on the nano- and mesoscopic scale.
|
||||
2013: Kerstin Tackmann (DESY) gor her outstanding work on the way to the detection of the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN.
|
||||
2014: Anne Schukraft (RWTH Aachen University) for the measurement of muon neutrinos with energies up to
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
10
|
||||
|
||||
15
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle 10^{15}}
|
||||
|
||||
eV with the IceCube detector.
|
||||
2015: Ilaria Zardo (Eindhoven University of Technology) for outstanding work on understanding the lattice dynamics and electronic band structures of semiconductor nanowires with wurtzite and zincblende crystal structures.
|
||||
2016 not awarded
|
||||
2017: Isabelle Staude (Friedrich Schiller University Jena) in recognition of her pioneering contribution to basic research in nanophotonics.
|
||||
2018: Karin Everschor-Sitte (University of Mainz) for her pioneering research on the theoretical understanding of topologically protected magnetic structures, the skyrmions.
|
||||
2019: Adriana Pálffy-Buß (Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics) for her pioneering theoretical calculations of the interaction of high-energy radiation with atomic nuclei based on quantum effects.
|
||||
2020: Priscilla Pani (DESY) for her essential contributions to the search for dark matter at the LHC.
|
||||
2021: Naëmi Leo (Asociación Centro de Investigación Cooperativa en Nanociencias (CIC nanoGUNE), San Sebastián, Spain) for her outstanding contributions to the study and characterization of artificial metamaterials and ferroic systems.
|
||||
2022: Elisabeth Fischer-Friedrich (Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life (PoL) at the Technical University of Dresden) for her outstanding theoretical and experimental contributions to the characterization of the mechanical properties of cells and protein condensates.
|
||||
2023: Joint award to
|
||||
Adinda de Wit (University of Zurich Physics Institute, Switzerland) for her outstanding experimental contributions to the first observation of the Higgs-b-Yukawa coupling and the precise determination of the Higgs couplings
|
||||
Belina von Krosigk (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology) for her fundamental contributions to the direct search and understanding of dark matter through the further development of models and methodological and analytical techniques for the detection of weak signals.
|
||||
2024: Juliane Borchert (INATECH, University of Freiburg) for her outstanding contributions to the understanding of processes for highly efficient perovskite solar cells.
|
||||
2025: Janna Katharina Behr (German Electron Synchrotron DESY, Hamburg) for her major contributions to the search for an extended Higgs sector through Higgs decays to top quarks.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
61
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iota_Sigma_Pi-0.md
Normal file
61
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iota_Sigma_Pi-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Iota Sigma Pi"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iota_Sigma_Pi"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:48.007677+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Iota Sigma Pi (ΙΣΠ) is a national honor society in the United States. It was established in 1900 and specializes in the promotion of women in the sciences, especially chemistry. It also focuses on personal and professional growth for women in these fields. As with all honor societies, they create professional networks along with recognizing achievements of women in chemistry.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
Iota Sigma Pi was formed during a period when women gained little recognition for their work; therefore, women began to set up their own awards to highlight their abilities on their resumes. It was created by the merger of three chemistry honor societies for women that were established in the early 20th century.
|
||||
Agnes Fay Morgan, department chair of the Department of Household Science and Arts at the University of California, formed Alchemi in 1900. Alchemi spread to the University of Southern California and Stanford University. In 1911, a national chemistry honor society was established at the University of Washington. A third honor society, Iota Sigma Pi, was established at the University of Nebraska in 1912. The latter two societies merged as Iota Sigma Pi in 1913 and were joined by the three chapters of Alchmi in 1916. Its first National Convention was held in 1918 at the University of Nebraska. Five of the eight chapters at that time were present.
|
||||
The goals of Iota Sigma Pi were to encourage women to pursue chemistry academically, to "stimulate personal accomplishment in chemical fields" and to promote the academic, business, and social lives of its members. It continued to spread across the country, and eventually held meetings for the American Chemical Society.
|
||||
Iota Sigma Pi was a charter member of the Professional Panhellenic Association in 1925. In the 1930s, there was an offer of amalgamation from the Phi Lambda Upsilon honor society for male chemists but this was refused.
|
||||
Iota Sigma Pi was briefly a member of the Association of College Honor Societies or ACHS, joining in February 1955, but resigned to operate independently in 1963. In 1963, it had 19 active chapters, 8 inactive chapters, and 6,271 initiates.
|
||||
As of 2025, Iota Sigma Pi has chartered 47 chapters and initiated more than 11,000 members. Its national headquarters is based at De Paul University in Chicago, Illinois.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Symbols ==
|
||||
Iota Sigma Pi's emblem is a hexagonal key that features a crescent a circle, and the Greek letters ΙΣΠ. The society's colors are white, gold, and cedar green. Its flower is the white narcissus. Its publication is The Iotan, first published in 1941.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Chapters ==
|
||||
|
||||
As of 2025, Iota Sigma Pi has chartered 47 chapters.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Awards ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Professional awards ===
|
||||
The highest award from the society is the National Honorary Member which is given to female chemists who have made an exceptional and significant achievement in the field. The certificate is awarded with a prize fund of $1,500. Some of the previous winners include: Marie Sklodowska-Curie, Gerti Cori and Dorothy Hodgkin.
|
||||
The Violet Diller Professional Excellence Award, named after a previous member (treasurer and president), is awarded for "accomplishments in academic, governmental, or industrial chemistry, in education, in administration, or a combination of these areas". The award consists of a certificate and a $1,000 prize fund. This award was first awarded to Joan P. Lambros in 1984.
|
||||
The Agnes Fay Morgan Research Award is given to women who have achieved in the field of chemistry or biochemistry. The Centennial Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching is given to those who have excelled in teaching chemistry, biochemistry, or a similar subject. The nominee must spend at least 75 percent of their time teaching undergraduates to qualify for the certificate and $500 award.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Student awards ===
|
||||
The Anna Louise Hoffman Award for Outstanding Achievement in Graduate Research is given to the nominee who has demonstrated outstanding chemical research. The nominee must also be a full-time graduate student to get the certification and $500 reward. There are two awards for Undergraduate Excellence in Chemistry; one must go to a first-generation student. Again, the reward is a certificate and $500.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notable members ==
|
||||
|
||||
As of 2025, Iota Sigma Pi has initiated more than 11,000 members.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Honor society
|
||||
List of chemistry societies
|
||||
Professional Fraternity Association
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Iota Sigma Pi website
|
||||
Iota Sigma Pi finding aid
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irène_Joliot-Curie_Prize"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:09:45.866492+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:49.207837+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
357
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)-0.md
Normal file
357
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,357 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Jerk (physics)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:07.559806+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Jerk (also known as jolt) is the rate of change of an object's acceleration over time. It is a vector quantity (having both magnitude and direction). Jerk is most commonly denoted by the symbol j and expressed in m/s3 (SI units) or standard gravities per second(g0/s).
|
||||
|
||||
== Expressions ==
|
||||
As a vector, jerk j can be expressed as the first time derivative of acceleration, second time derivative of velocity, and third time derivative of position:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbf {j} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {a} }{\mathrm {d} t}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}\mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t^{2}}}={\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{3}\mathbf {r} }{\mathrm {d} t^{3}}},}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where a is acceleration, v is velocity, r is position, and t is time.
|
||||
Third-order differential equations of the form
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
J
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
.
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
¨
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle J\left({\overset {\mathbf {...} }{x}},{\ddot {x}},{\dot {x}},x\right)=0}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
are sometimes called jerk equations. When converted to an equivalent system of three ordinary first-order non-linear differential equations, jerk equations are the minimal setting for solutions showing chaotic behaviour. This condition generates mathematical interest in jerk systems. Systems involving fourth-order derivatives or higher are accordingly called hyperjerk systems.
|
||||
|
||||
== Physiological effects and human perception ==
|
||||
|
||||
Human body position is controlled by balancing the forces of antagonistic muscles. In balancing a given force, such as holding up a weight, the postcentral gyrus establishes a control loop to achieve the desired equilibrium. If the force changes too quickly, the muscles cannot relax or tense fast enough and overshoot in either direction, causing a temporary loss of control. The reaction time for responding to changes in force depends on physiological limitations and the attention level of the brain: an expected change will be stabilized faster than a sudden decrease or increase of load.
|
||||
To avoid vehicle passengers losing control over body motion and getting injured, it is necessary to limit the exposure to both the maximum force (acceleration) and maximum jerk, since time is needed to adjust muscle tension and adapt to even limited stress changes. Sudden changes in acceleration can cause injuries such as whiplash. Excessive jerk may also result in an uncomfortable ride, even at levels that do not cause injury. Engineers expend considerable design effort minimizing "jerky motion" on elevators, trams, and other conveyances.
|
||||
For example, consider the effects of acceleration and jerk when riding in a car:
|
||||
|
||||
Skilled and experienced drivers can accelerate smoothly, but beginners often provide a jerky ride. When changing gears in a car with a foot-operated clutch, the accelerating force is limited by engine power, but an inexperienced driver can cause severe jerk because of intermittent force closure over the clutch.
|
||||
The feeling of being pressed into the seats in a high-powered sports car is due to the acceleration. As the car launches from rest, there is a large positive jerk as its acceleration rapidly increases. After the launch, there is a small, sustained negative jerk as the force of air resistance increases with the car's velocity, gradually decreasing acceleration and reducing the force pressing the passenger into the seat. When the car reaches its top speed, the acceleration has reached 0 and remains constant, after which there is no jerk until the driver decelerates or changes direction.
|
||||
When braking suddenly or during collisions, passengers whip forward with an initial acceleration that is larger than during the rest of the braking process because muscle tension regains control of the body quickly after the onset of braking or impact. These effects are not modeled in vehicle testing because cadavers and crash test dummies do not have active muscle control.
|
||||
To minimize the jerk, curves along roads are designed to be clothoids as are railroad curves and roller coaster loops.
|
||||
|
||||
== In human kinematics ==
|
||||
Human motion tends to minimize the sums of squares of the jerks for the motion along a pre-defined path. As an optimization problem, this can be stated as,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
minimize
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∫
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
s
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
u
|
||||
b
|
||||
j
|
||||
e
|
||||
c
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
o
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
0
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
f
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
0
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
f
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\underset {\mathbf {j} }{\operatorname {minimize} }}&&\int _{0}^{t}|\mathbf {j} (s)|^{2}ds\\&\operatorname {subject\;to} &&\mathbf {x} (0)=\mathbf {x} _{\mathrm {i} }\\&&&\mathbf {x} (t)=\mathbf {x} _{\mathrm {f} }\\&&&\mathbf {v} (0)=\mathbf {v} _{\mathrm {i} }\\&&&\mathbf {v} (t)=\mathbf {v} _{\mathrm {f} }\end{aligned}}}
|
||||
|
||||
It has been shown that this is equivalent to the two-thirds speed-curvature power law for humans.
|
||||
|
||||
== Force, acceleration, and jerk ==
|
||||
For a constant mass m, acceleration a is directly proportional to force F according to Newton's second law of motion:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
F
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\mathbf {a} }
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
In classical mechanics of rigid bodies, there are no forces associated with the derivatives of acceleration; however, physical systems experience oscillations and deformations as a result of jerk. In designing the Hubble Space Telescope, NASA set limits on both jerk and jounce.
|
||||
The Abraham–Lorentz force is the recoil force on an accelerating charged particle emitting radiation. This force is proportional to the particle's jerk and to the square of its charge. The Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory is a more advanced theory, applicable in a relativistic and quantum environment, and accounting for self-energy.
|
||||
342
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)-1.md
Normal file
342
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,342 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Jerk (physics)"
|
||||
chunk: 2/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:07.559806+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== In an idealized setting ==
|
||||
Discontinuities in acceleration do not occur in real-world environments because of deformation, quantum mechanics effects, and other causes. However, a jump-discontinuity in acceleration and, accordingly, unbounded jerk are feasible in an idealized setting, such as an idealized point mass moving along a piecewise smooth, whole continuous path. The jump-discontinuity occurs at points where the path is not smooth. Extrapolating from these idealized settings, one can qualitatively describe, explain and predict the effects of jerk in real situations.
|
||||
Jump-discontinuity in acceleration can be modeled using a Dirac delta function in jerk, scaled to the height of the jump. Integrating jerk over time across the Dirac delta yields the jump-discontinuity.
|
||||
For example, consider a path along an arc of radius r, which tangentially connects to a straight line. The whole path is continuous, and its pieces are smooth. Now assume a point particle moves with constant speed along this path, so its tangential acceleration is zero. The centripetal acceleration given by v2/r is normal to the arc and inward. When the particle passes the connection of pieces, it experiences a jump-discontinuity in acceleration given by v2/r, and it undergoes a jerk that can be modeled by a Dirac delta, scaled to the jump-discontinuity.
|
||||
For a more tangible example of discontinuous acceleration, consider an ideal spring–mass system with the mass oscillating on an idealized surface with friction. The force on the mass is equal to the vector sum of the spring force and the kinetic frictional force. When the velocity changes sign (at the maximum and minimum displacements), the magnitude of the force on the mass changes by twice the magnitude of the frictional force, because the spring force is continuous and the frictional force reverses direction with velocity. The jump in acceleration equals the force on the mass divided by the mass. That is, each time the mass passes through a minimum or maximum displacement, the mass experiences a discontinuous acceleration, and the jerk contains a Dirac delta until the mass stops. The static friction force adapts to the residual spring force, establishing equilibrium with zero net force and zero velocity.
|
||||
Consider the example of a braking and decelerating car. The brake pads generate kinetic frictional forces and constant braking torques on the disks (or drums) of the wheels. Rotational velocity decreases linearly to zero with constant angular deceleration. The frictional force, torque, and car deceleration suddenly reach zero, which indicates a Dirac delta in physical jerk. The Dirac delta is smoothed down by the real environment, the cumulative effects of which are analogous to damping of the physiologically perceived jerk. This example neglects the effects of tire sliding, suspension dipping, real deflection of all ideally rigid mechanisms, etc.
|
||||
Another example of significant jerk, analogous to the first example, is the cutting of a rope with a particle on its end. Assume the particle is oscillating in a circular path with non-zero centripetal acceleration. When the rope is cut, the particle's path changes abruptly to a straight path, and the force in the inward direction changes suddenly to zero. Imagine a monomolecular fiber cut by a laser; the particle would experience very high rates of jerk because of the extremely short cutting time.
|
||||
|
||||
== In rotation ==
|
||||
|
||||
Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis in an inertial reference frame. If its angular position as a function of time is θ(t), the angular velocity, acceleration, and jerk can be expressed as follows:
|
||||
|
||||
Angular velocity,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
θ
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
θ
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \omega (t)={\dot {\theta }}(t)={\frac {\mathrm {d} \theta (t)}{\mathrm {d} t}}}
|
||||
|
||||
, is the time derivative of θ(t).
|
||||
Angular acceleration,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
α
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \alpha (t)={\dot {\omega }}(t)={\frac {\mathrm {d} \omega (t)}{\mathrm {d} t}}}
|
||||
|
||||
, is the time derivative of ω(t).
|
||||
Angular jerk,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ζ
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
α
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
¨
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
θ
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
.
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \zeta (t)={\dot {\alpha }}(t)={\ddot {\omega }}(t)={\overset {...}{\theta }}(t)}
|
||||
|
||||
, is the time derivative of α(t).
|
||||
Angular acceleration equals the torque acting on the body, divided by the body's moment of inertia with respect to the momentary axis of rotation. A change in torque results in angular jerk.
|
||||
The general case of a rotating rigid body can be modeled using kinematic screw theory, which includes one axial vector, angular velocity Ω(t), and one polar vector, linear velocity v(t). From this, the angular acceleration is defined as
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
α
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\alpha }}(t)={\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}(t)={\dot {\boldsymbol {\omega }}}(t)}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
and the angular jerk is given by
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ζ
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
α
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
α
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
¨
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\zeta }}(t)={\frac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}(t)={\dot {\boldsymbol {\alpha }}}(t)={\ddot {\boldsymbol {\omega }}}(t)}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
taking the angular acceleration from Angular acceleration § Particle in three dimensions as
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
α
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
×
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\alpha }}={\frac {d{\boldsymbol {\omega }}}{dt}}={\frac {\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {a} }{r^{2}}}-{\frac {2}{r}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}}
|
||||
|
||||
, we obtain
|
||||
829
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)-2.md
Normal file
829
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,829 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Jerk (physics)"
|
||||
chunk: 3/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:07.559806+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ζ
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
α
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
×
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
×
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
×
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\boldsymbol {\zeta }}={\frac {d{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}}{dt}}={\frac {1}{r^{2}}}\left(\mathbf {r} \times {\frac {d\mathbf {a} }{dt}}+{\frac {d\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\times \mathbf {a} \right)-{\frac {2}{r^{3}}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}\left(\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {a} \right)\\\\+{\frac {2}{r^{2}}}\left({\frac {dr}{dt}}\right)^{2}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}-{\frac {2}{r}}{\frac {d^{2}r}{dt^{2}}}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}-{\frac {2}{r}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}{\frac {d{\boldsymbol {\omega }}}{dt}}\end{aligned}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
replacing
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\frac {d{\boldsymbol {\omega }}}{dt}}}
|
||||
|
||||
we can have the last item as
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
×
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
×
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}-{\frac {2}{r}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}{\frac {d{\boldsymbol {\omega }}}{dt}}&=-{\frac {2}{r}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}\left({\frac {\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {a} }{r^{2}}}-{\frac {2}{r}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}\right)\\\\&=-{\frac {2}{r^{3}}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}\left(\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {a} \right)+{\frac {4}{r^{2}}}\left({\frac {dr}{dt}}\right)^{2}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}\end{aligned}}}
|
||||
|
||||
, and we finally get
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ζ
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
×
|
||||
|
||||
j
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
×
|
||||
|
||||
a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
r
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\boldsymbol {\zeta }}={\frac {\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {j} }{r^{2}}}+{\frac {\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {a} }{r^{2}}}-{\frac {4}{r^{3}}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}\left(\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {a} \right)+{\frac {6}{r^{2}}}\left({\frac {dr}{dt}}\right)^{2}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}-{\frac {2}{r}}{\frac {d^{2}r}{dt^{2}}}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}\end{aligned}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
or vice versa, replacing
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \left(\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {a} \right)}
|
||||
|
||||
with
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
α
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\alpha }}}
|
||||
|
||||
:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
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|
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|
||||
|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
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||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ω
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\boldsymbol {\zeta }}={\frac {\mathbf {r} \times \mathbf {j} }{r^{2}}}+{\frac {\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {a} }{r^{2}}}-{\frac {4}{r}}{\frac {dr}{dt}}{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}-{\frac {2}{r^{2}}}\left({\frac {dr}{dt}}\right)^{2}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}-{\frac {2}{r}}{\frac {d^{2}r}{dt^{2}}}{\boldsymbol {\omega }}\end{aligned}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
For example, consider a Geneva drive, a device used for creating intermittent rotation of a driven wheel (the blue wheel in the animation) by continuous rotation of a driving wheel (the red wheel in the animation). During one cycle of the driving wheel, the driven wheel's angular position θ changes by 90 degrees and then remains constant. Because of the finite thickness of the driving wheel's fork (the slot for the driving pin), this device generates a discontinuity in the angular acceleration α, and an unbounded angular jerk ζ in the driven wheel.
|
||||
Jerk does not preclude the Geneva drive from being used in applications such as movie projectors and cams. In movie projectors, the film advances frame-by-frame, but the projector operation has low noise and is highly reliable because of the low film load (only a small section of film weighing a few grams is driven), the moderate speed (2.4 m/s), and the low friction.
|
||||
|
||||
With cam drive systems, use of a dual cam can avoid the jerk of a single cam; however, the dual cam is bulkier and more expensive. The dual-cam system has two cams on one axle that shifts a second axle by a fraction of a revolution. The graphic shows step drives of one-sixth and one-third rotation per one revolution of the driving axle. There is no radial clearance because two arms of the stepped wheel are always in contact with the double cam. Generally, combined contacts may be used to avoid the jerk (and wear and noise) associated with a single follower (such as a single follower gliding along a slot and changing its contact point from one side of the slot to the other can be avoided by using two followers sliding along the same slot, one side each).
|
||||
|
||||
== In elastically deformable matter ==
|
||||
|
||||
An elastically deformable mass deforms under an applied force (or acceleration); the deformation is a function of its stiffness and the magnitude of the force. If the change in force is slow, the jerk is small, and the propagation of deformation is considered instantaneous as compared to the change in acceleration. The distorted body acts as if it were in a quasistatic regime, and only a changing force (nonzero jerk) can cause propagation of mechanical waves (or electromagnetic waves for a charged particle); therefore, for nonzero to high jerk, a shock wave and its propagation through the body should be considered.
|
||||
The propagation of deformation is shown in the graphic "Compression wave patterns" as a compressional plane wave through an elastically deformable material. Also shown, for angular jerk, are the deformation waves propagating in a circular pattern, which causes shear stress and possibly other modes of vibration. The reflection of waves along the boundaries cause constructive interference patterns (not pictured), producing stresses that may exceed the material's limits. The deformation waves may cause vibrations, which can lead to noise, wear, and failure, especially in cases of resonance.
|
||||
|
||||
The graphic captioned "Pole with massive top" shows a block connected to an elastic pole and a massive top. The pole bends when the block accelerates, and when the acceleration stops, the top will oscillate (damped) under the regime of pole stiffness. One could argue that a greater (periodic) jerk might excite a larger amplitude of oscillation because small oscillations are damped before reinforcement by a shock wave. One can also argue that a larger jerk might increase the probability of exciting a resonant mode because the larger wave components of the shock wave have higher frequencies and Fourier coefficients.
|
||||
63
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)-3.md
Normal file
63
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)-3.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Jerk (physics)"
|
||||
chunk: 4/4
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:07.559806+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
To reduce the amplitude of excited stress waves and vibrations, one can limit jerk by shaping motion and making the acceleration continuous with slopes as flat as possible. Due to limitations of abstract models, algorithms for reducing vibrations include higher derivatives, such as jounce, or suggest continuous regimes for both acceleration and jerk. One concept for limiting jerk is to shape acceleration and deceleration sinusoidally with zero acceleration in between (see graphic captioned "Sinusoidal acceleration profile"), making the speed appear sinusoidal with constant maximum speed. The jerk, however, will remain discontinuous at the points where acceleration enters and leaves the zero phases.
|
||||
|
||||
== In the geometric design of roads and tracks ==
|
||||
|
||||
Roads and tracks are designed to limit the jerk caused by changes in their curvature. Design standards for high-speed rail vary from 0.2 m/s3 to 0.6 m/s3. Track transition curves limit the jerk when transitioning from a straight line to a curve, or vice versa. Recall that in constant-speed motion along an arc, acceleration is zero in the tangential direction and nonzero in the inward normal direction. Transition curves gradually increase the curvature and, consequently, the centripetal acceleration.
|
||||
An Euler spiral, the theoretically optimum transition curve, linearly increases centripetal acceleration and results in constant jerk (see image above). In real-world applications, the plane of the track is inclined (cant) along the curved sections. The incline causes vertical acceleration, which is a design consideration for wear on the track and embankment. The Wiener Kurve (Viennese Curve) is a patented curve designed to minimize this wear.
|
||||
Rollercoasters are also designed with track transitions to limit jerk. When entering a loop, acceleration values can reach around 4g (40 m/s2), and riding in this high acceleration environment is only possible with track transitions. S-shaped curves, such as figure eights, also use track transitions for smooth rides.
|
||||
|
||||
== In motion control ==
|
||||
In motion control, the design focus is on straight, linear motion, with the need to move a system from one steady position to another (point-to-point motion). The design concern from a jerk perspective is vertical jerk; the jerk from tangential acceleration is effectively zero since linear motion is non-rotational.
|
||||
Motion control applications include passenger elevators and machining tools. Limiting vertical jerk is considered essential for elevator riding convenience. ISO 8100-34 specifies measurement methods for elevator ride quality with respect to jerk, acceleration, vibration, and noise; however, the standard does not specify levels for acceptable or unacceptable ride quality. It is reported that most passengers rate a vertical jerk of 2 m/s3 as acceptable and 6 m/s3 as intolerable. For hospitals, 0.7 m/s3 is the recommended limit.
|
||||
A primary design goal for motion control is to minimize the transition time without exceeding speed, acceleration, or jerk limits. Consider a third-order motion-control profile with quadratic ramping and deramping phases in velocity.
|
||||
|
||||
This motion profile consists of the following seven segments:
|
||||
Acceleration build up — positive jerk limit; linear increase in acceleration to the positive acceleration limit; quadratic increase in velocity
|
||||
Upper acceleration limit — zero jerk; linear increase in velocity
|
||||
Acceleration ramp down — negative jerk limit; linear decrease in acceleration; (negative) quadratic increase in velocity, approaching the desired velocity limit
|
||||
Velocity limit — zero jerk; zero acceleration
|
||||
Deceleration build up — negative jerk limit; linear decrease in acceleration to the negative acceleration limit; (negative) quadratic decrease in velocity
|
||||
Lower deceleration limit — zero jerk; linear decrease in velocity
|
||||
Deceleration ramp down — positive jerk limit; linear increase in acceleration to zero; quadratic decrease in velocity; approaching the desired position at zero speed and zero acceleration
|
||||
|
||||
Segment four's time period (constant velocity) varies with distance between the two positions. If this distance is so small that omitting segment four would not suffice, then segments two and six (constant acceleration) could be equally reduced, and the constant velocity limit would not be reached. If this modification does not sufficiently reduce the crossed distance, then segments one, three, five, and seven could be shortened by an equal amount, and the constant acceleration limits would not be reached.
|
||||
Other motion profile strategies are used, such as minimizing the square of jerk for a given transition time and, as discussed above, sinusoidal-shaped acceleration profiles. Motion profiles are tailored for specific applications including machines, people movers, chain hoists, automobiles, and robotics.
|
||||
|
||||
=== In manufacturing ===
|
||||
Jerk is an important consideration in manufacturing processes. Rapid changes in acceleration of a cutting tool can lead to premature tool wear and result in uneven cuts; consequently, modern motion controllers include jerk limitation features. In mechanical engineering, jerk, in addition to velocity and acceleration, is considered in the development of cam profiles because of tribological implications and the ability of the actuated body to follow the cam profile without chatter.
|
||||
Jerk is often considered when vibration is a concern. A device that measures jerk is called a "jerkmeter".
|
||||
|
||||
== Further derivatives ==
|
||||
|
||||
Further time derivatives have also been named, as snap or jounce (fourth derivative), crackle (fifth derivative), and pop (sixth derivative). Time derivatives of position of higher order than four appear rarely.
|
||||
The terms snap, crackle, and pop—for the fourth, fifth, and sixth derivatives of position—were inspired by the advertising mascots Snap, Crackle, and Pop.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Geomagnetic jerk
|
||||
Shock (mechanics)
|
||||
Yank
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sources ===
|
||||
Sprott JC (2003). Chaos and Time-Series Analysis. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850839-5.
|
||||
Sprott JC (1997). "Some simple chaotic jerk functions" (PDF). Am J Phys. 65 (6): 537–43. Bibcode:1997AmJPh..65..537S. doi:10.1119/1.18585. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-13. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
|
||||
Blair G (2005). "Making the Cam" (PDF). Race Engine Technology (10). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2008-05-15. Retrieved 2009-09-29.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
What is the term used for the third derivative of position? Archived 2016-11-30 at the Wayback Machine, description of jerk in the Usenet Physics FAQ Archived 2011-06-23 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Mathematics of Motion Control Profiles Archived 2020-10-02 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Elevator-Ride-Quality Archived 2022-03-28 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Elevator manufacturer brochure
|
||||
Patent of Wiener Kurve
|
||||
(in German) Description of Wiener Kurve
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Joan & Joseph Birman Research Prize in Topology and Geometry"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_&_Joseph_Birman_Research_Prize_in_Topology_and_Geometry"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:26.249558+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Joan & Joseph Birman Research Prize in Topology and Geometry is a prize given every other year by the Association for Women in Mathematics to an outstanding young female researcher in topology or geometry. The prize fund for the award was endowed by a donation in 2013 from Joan Birman and her husband, Joseph Birman, and first awarded in 2015.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Winners ==
|
||||
Elisenda Grigsby (2015), for her research in low-dimensional topology, particularly in knot theory and categorified invariants.
|
||||
Emmy Murphy (2017), for her research in symplectic geometry where she developed new techniques for studying symplectic manifolds and contact geometry.
|
||||
Kathryn Mann (2019), for "major breakthroughs in the theory of dynamics of group actions on manifolds".
|
||||
Emily Riehl (2021), for "deep and foundational work in category theory and homotopy theory".
|
||||
Kristen Hendricks (2023), for "highly influential work on equivariant aspects of Floer homology theories".
|
||||
Mona Merling (2025), for "innovative and impactful research in algebraic K-theory, equivariant homotopy theory, and their applications to manifold theory".
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of awards honoring women
|
||||
List of mathematics awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
AWM Birman Research Prize, Association for Women in Mathematics
|
||||
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krieger–Nelson_Prize-0.md
Normal file
28
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krieger–Nelson_Prize-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Krieger–Nelson Prize"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krieger–Nelson_Prize"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:50.372357+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Krieger–Nelson Prize is presented by the Canadian Mathematical Society in recognition of an outstanding woman in mathematics. It was first
|
||||
awarded in 1995. The award is named after Cecilia Krieger and Evelyn Nelson, both known for their contributions to mathematics in Canada.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Recipients ==
|
||||
While the award has largely been awarded to a female mathematician working at a Canadian University, it has also been awarded to Canadian-born or -educated women working outside of the country. For example, Cathleen Morawetz, past president of the American Mathematical Society, and a faculty member at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences (a division of New York University) was awarded the Krieger–Nelson Prize in 1997. (Morawetz was educated at the University of Toronto in Toronto, Canada). According to the call for applications, the award winner should be a "member of the Canadian mathematical community".
|
||||
The recipient of the Krieger–Nelson Prize delivers a lecture to the Canadian Mathematical Society, typically during its summer meeting.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of mathematics awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Krieger–Nelson Prize, Canadian Mathematical Society.
|
||||
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitner_Lectures-0.md
Normal file
46
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitner_Lectures-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Lise Meitner Lectures"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Meitner_Lectures"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:56.346937+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Lise Meitner Lectures (LML) are a series of public lectures in honour of Lise Meitner. The lectures are organized jointly by the German Physical Society and the Austrian Physical Society, with the intention to showcase outstanding female scientists in physics or related fields. The annual lecture series was launched in 2008, when Lise Meitner's birthday celebrated its 130th anniversary. In October 2008, the Lise Meitner Lecture was held in Vienna and Berlin with an accompanying exhibition. The annual lecture series not only aims at increasing the visibility of successful female researchers, but also at encouraging girls and young women towards careers in physics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Awardees ==
|
||||
2025: Anne L’Huillier, „Attosecond pulses of light for studying electron dynamics“
|
||||
2024: Lisa Kaltenegger, "Alien Earths: Searching for a Second Earth - Challenges, Opportunities and Adventures"
|
||||
2023: Donna Strickland, "Generating High-Intensity, Ultrashort Optical Pulses"
|
||||
2022: Viola Priesemann, "Learning in living neuronal networks" (Lernen in lebenden neuronalen Netzwerken)
|
||||
2021: Claudia Draxl, "Quantum-based Materials Modeling and Artificial Intelligence for Tackling Societal Challenges"
|
||||
2019: Halina Rubinsztein-Dunlop, "Sculpted light in nano- and microsystems"
|
||||
2017/18: Nicola Spaldin, "New materials for a new age" (DPG 2018/ÖPG 2017)
|
||||
2017/18: Johanna Stachel, "Erforschung von Urknallmaterie an der Weltmaschine LHC" (DPG 2017/ÖPG 2018)
|
||||
2016: Petra Schwille, "Ist Leben konstruierbar?"
|
||||
2015: Cornelia Denz, "Material in neuem Licht - wie maßgeschneidertes Licht Materie strukturieren und anordnen kann"
|
||||
2014: Felicitas Pauss, "Das Higgs-Teilchen: Unsichtbares sichtbar und Unmögliches möglich machen"
|
||||
2013: Jocelyn Bell Burnell, "Pulsars and extreme physics"
|
||||
2012: Renate Loll, "More than meets the eye: probing the Planckian structure of spacetime"
|
||||
2010: Anna Frebel, "Die ältesten Sterne im Universum und die chemische Entwicklung unserer Galaxie"
|
||||
2009: Cecilia Jarlskog, "Symmetries – exact and broken"
|
||||
2008: Mildred Dresselhaus, "Why are we so excited about nano-carbons?"
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Lise Meitner Distinguished Lecture
|
||||
Meitner Medal
|
||||
Ludwig Boltzmann Prize
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Lise-Meitner-Lectures featured by the German Physical Society
|
||||
Lise-Meitner-Lectures featured by the Austrian Physical Society
|
||||
Dates of the Lise-Meitner-Lecture
|
||||
Exhibition catalog Lise Meitner Lecture 2008
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of female Nobel laureates"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_Nobel_laureates"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:51.507842+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Nobel Prizes are five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's will of 1895, are awarded to "those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to Mankind." Additionally, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (often referred to as the Nobel Prize in Economics) was established by Sveriges Riksbank in 1968 and is awarded to a "person or persons in the field of economic sciences who have produced work of outstanding importance."
|
||||
As of 2025, according to the Nobel Foundation, 68 Nobel Prizes and the Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences have been awarded to 67 women (Marie Curie has been honoured twice, first in Physics in 1903, then in Chemistry in 1911). Unique Nobel Prize laureates include 894 men, 64 women, and 27 organizations.
|
||||
The approximate distribution of Nobel prizes awarded to women is as follows (regularly updated list from the Nobel Foundation can be found on their website at "Nobel-Prize awarded women" ):
|
||||
|
||||
twenty women have won the Nobel Peace Prize (16.3% of 110 awarded);
|
||||
eighteen have won the Nobel Prize in Literature (15% of 120 awarded);
|
||||
fourteen have won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (5.6% of 230 awarded);
|
||||
eight have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (4.1% of 191 awarded);
|
||||
five have won the Nobel Prize in Physics (1.8% of 224 awarded);
|
||||
and three (Elinor Ostrom, Esther Duflo and Claudia Goldin) have won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (2.17% of 92 awarded).
|
||||
The first woman to win a Nobel Prize was Marie Skłodowska-Curie, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 with Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel. Curie is also the first person and the only woman to have won multiple Nobel Prizes; in 1911, she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Curie's daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, making the two the only mother–daughter pair to have won Nobel Prizes and of Pierre and Irène Curie the only father-daughter pair to have won Nobel Prizes by the same occasion, whilst there are 6 father-son pairs who have won Nobel Prizes by comparison.
|
||||
The most recent women to be awarded a Nobel Prize were Maria Corina Machado for Peace, Mary Brunkow for Physiology or Medicine (2025), Han Kang in Literature (2024), Claudia Goldin in Economics, Narges Mohammadi for Peace, Anne L'Huillier in Physics and Katalin Karikó in Physiology or Medicine (2023), Annie Ernaux in Literature and Carolyn R. Bertozzi for Chemistry (2022), Maria Ressa for Peace (2021), Louise Glück in Literature, Andrea M. Ghez in Physics, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna in Chemistry (2020). The most Nobel Prizes awarded to women in a single year was in 2009, when five women became laureates in four categories.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Female laureates ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Physiology or Medicine ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Physics ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Chemistry ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Literature ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Peace ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Economic Sciences ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Specific
|
||||
|
||||
General
|
||||
|
||||
"Nobel Prize awarded women". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2022-10-06.
|
||||
"Women - Nobel Prize laureates". nobelists.org. Retrieved 24 June 2024.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Sanchez, Chelsey (2 November 2021). "These Are the Four Women Who Won Nobel Prizes in 2020". Harper's Bazaar. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
|
||||
Alan Asaid (26 September 2009). "Så ratade Akademien kvinnorna" [How the Academy Rejected the Women]. SvD (in Swedish).
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of female nominators for the Nobel Prize"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_nominators_for_the_Nobel_Prize"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:35.878491+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Nobel Prize (Swedish: Nobelpriset) is a set of five different prizes that, according to its benefactor Alfred Nobel in his 1895 will, must be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind". The five prizes are awarded in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace.
|
||||
Since 1901, numerous nominators have forwarded their nominations of distinguished individuals or organizations for the prize, and most of these nominators were women. The following is a list of the female nominators for the prestigious Nobel Prize:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Physics ==
|
||||
The Nobel Committee for Physics sends confidential forms to persons who are competent and qualified to nominate. According to the nomination process, the individuals are considered the qualified nominators for the physics prize:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Chemistry ==
|
||||
For the chemistry prize, the following individuals are considered as qualified nominators:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Physiology or Medicine ==
|
||||
For the physiology or medicine prize, the following individuals are entitled to nominate:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Literature ==
|
||||
The Nobel Committee of the Swedish Academy sends invitation letters to persons who are qualified to nominate for the Nobel Prize in Literature. The following individuals are eligible forwarding nominations:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Peace ==
|
||||
According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, a nomination is considered valid if it is submitted by a person or a group of people who falls within one of the following categories:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of female nominees for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:37.126969+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences is an annual award established in 1969 by Sweden's central bank, Sveriges Riksbank. Though not one of the original Nobel Prizes, it was founded to celebrate the bank's 300th anniversary and in memory of Alfred Nobel. The laureates are chosen in a manner similar to the Nobel Prizes and receives the recognition during the Nobel ceremonies.
|
||||
As of 2025, 68 Nobel Prizes and the Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences have been awarded to 67 women and since 1901, the year wherein the awarding of the prizes began, hundreds of women have already been nominated and shortlisted carefully in each field. From 1969 to 1972, four women have been nominated for the Nobel Memorial Prize until 2009 when the first female economist was subsequently awarded.
|
||||
In 1969, British economist Joan Robinson became the first ever woman to be nominated for a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. She was nominated multiple times and shortlisted in 1975 and 1976 but remained unrewarded with The New York Times explaining that "[Ms. Robinson] did not win the prize because [the committee] feared that she would either refuse it or, worse, use the Nobel limelight to attack mainstream economics." Of the currently revealed female nominees, the notable economists Karin Kock-Lindberg, Elizabeth Ellis Hoyt, Barbara Ward and Sadie Alexander were not included. Currently, the Nobel archives has revealed nominations from 1969 to 1972, the other enlisted women were verified nominations based on public and private news agencies.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Nominees by their first nomination ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of female Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of economists
|
||||
Matilda effect
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Alan Asaid (26 September 2009). "Så ratade Akademien kvinnorna" [How the Academy Rejected the Women]. SvD (in Swedish).
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:38.377804+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Nobel Prize (Swedish: Nobelpriset) is a set of five different prizes that, according to its benefactor Alfred Nobel, in his 1895 will, must be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind". The five prizes are awarded in the fields of Physiology or Medicine, Physics, Chemistry, Literature, and Peace.
|
||||
As of 2025, 68 Nobel Prizes and the Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences have been awarded to 67 women and since 1901, the year wherein the awarding of the prizes began, hundreds of women have already been nominated and shortlisted carefully in each field. From 1901 to 1975, 15 women have been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and 3 of these nominees were subsequently awarded.
|
||||
In 1911, Polish-French scientist Marie Curie became the first ever women to win a solo Nobel Prize in Chemistry. She became and the only woman to have won two Nobel Prizes: in 1903, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics alongside her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel. Curie's daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, eventually became the second recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, making the two the only mother-daughter pair to have won Nobel Prizes. Of the currently revealed female nominees, the notable scientists Marie Pasteur, Nadezhda Ziber-Shumova, Laura Alberta Linton, Alice Ball, Julia Lermontova, Muriel Onslow, Margarete von Wrangell, Mary Engle Pennington, Pauline Ramart, Gertrud Kornfeld, Maud Menten, Clara Benson, Maria Lipp, Astrid Cleve, Ellen Gleditsch, Marianne Angermann, Helen Parsons, Katharine Burr Blodgett, Elizabeth Rona, Sibyl and Icie Hoobler were not included. Currently, the Nobel archives has revealed nominations from 1901 to 1975, the other enlisted women were verified nominations based on public and private news agencies.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Nominees by their first nomination ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of female Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of female scientists in the 20th century
|
||||
Matilda effect
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Alan Asaid (26 September 2009). "Så ratade Akademien kvinnorna" [How the Academy Rejected the Women]. SvD (in Swedish).
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:39.542386+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Nobel Prize (Swedish: Nobelpriset) is a set of five different prizes that, according to its benefactor Alfred Nobel, in his 1895 will, must be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind". The five prizes are awarded in the fields of Physiology or Medicine, Physics, Chemistry, Literature, and Peace.
|
||||
As of 2025, 68 Nobel Prizes and the Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences have been awarded to 67 women and since 1901, the year wherein the awarding of the prizes began, hundreds of women have already been nominated and shortlisted carefully in each field. From 1902 to 1975, 13 women have been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics and three of the nominees were subsequently awarded.
|
||||
The first woman to win a Nobel Prize was Marie Curie, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 with her husband, Pierre Curie, and Henri Becquerel. Curie is also the only woman to have won multiple Nobel Prizes; in 1911, she won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Curie's daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935, making the two the only mother-daughter pair to have won Nobel Prizes. Of the currently revealed female nominees, the notable scientists Alice Ball, Henrietta Swan Leavitt, Hertha Ayrton, Harriet Brooks, Agnes Pockels, Annie Jump Cannon, Margaret Eliza Maltby, Mileva Marić, Elizabeth Alexander, Maud Menten, Elda Emma Anderson, Hertha Sponer, Kathleen Lonsdale, Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz, Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen, Luise Lange, Katherine Burr Blodgett, Jeanne Ferrier, Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat, Toshiko Yuasa, Ruby Payne-Scott, Katharina Boll-Dornberger, Grete Hermann and Leona Woods were not included. Currently, the Nobel archives has revealed nominations from 1901 to 1975, the other enlisted women were verified nominations based on public and private news agencies.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Nominees by their first nomination ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of female Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of female scientists in the 20th century
|
||||
Matilda effect
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Alan Asaid (26 September 2009). "Så ratade Akademien kvinnorna" [How the Academy Rejected the Women]. SvD (in Swedish).
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of female nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_female_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:40.767824+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Nobel Prize (Swedish: Nobelpriset) is a set of five different prizes that, according to its benefactor Alfred Nobel, in his 1895 will, must be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind". The five prizes are awarded in the fields of Physiology or Medicine, Physics, Chemistry, Literature, and Peace.
|
||||
As of 2025, 68 Nobel Prizes and the Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences have been awarded to 67 women and since 1901, the year wherein the awarding of the prizes began, hundreds of women have already been nominated and shortlisted carefully in each field. From 1912 to 1956, 19 women have been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine wherein one was declared invalid, one was purportedly recommended and one was subsequently awarded.
|
||||
In 1912, Mary Edwards Walker became the first ever woman nominated for prize in physiology or medicine but her nomination was later declared invalid by the Nobel Committee because her nominator was not invited to nominate that year. Hence, Cécile Vogt-Mugnier, nominated first in 1922, became the official first female nominee but never won despite numerous recommendations. She was followed by Maud Slye who was nominated in the year 1923, but again never won. Only in 1947, that the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was finally awarded to a woman, Gerty Cori, sharing with her husband Carl Ferdinand Cori. Of the currently revealed female nominees, the physiologists Nettie Stevens, Alice Ball, Ida Henrietta Hyde, María Orosa, Florence R. Sabin, Rosalind Franklin, Louise Pearce, Esther Killick, Hattie Alexander, Dorothy Hansine Andersen, Mary Barber, Frieda Robscheit-Robbins, Virginia Apgar, Olga Bridgman and Alice Catherine Evans were not included. Currently, the Nobel archives has revealed nominations from 1901 to 1956, the other enlisted women were verified nominations based on public and private news agencies.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Nominees by their first nomination ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of female Nobel laureates
|
||||
List of female scientists in the 20th century
|
||||
Matilda effect
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Alan Asaid (26 September 2009). "Så ratade Akademien kvinnorna" [How the Academy Rejected the Women]. SvD (in Swedish).
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:54:39.212429+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:19.164035+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Oakley_Dayhoff_Award"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:52.712131+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award from the Biophysical Society in Rockville, Maryland, is given to a woman who "holds very high promise or has achieved prominence while developing the early stages of a career in biophysical research". It is "one of the top national honors" in biophysics. The award was established in 1984 in honor of Margaret Dayhoff, a biophysicist associated with the Biophysical Society and the National Biomedical Research Foundation.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Award recipients ==
|
||||
Source: Biophysical Society
|
||||
|
||||
1984/85: Dagmar Ringe and Bonnie Ann Wallace
|
||||
1985/86: Barbara A. Lewis
|
||||
1986/87: Barbara E. Ehrlich
|
||||
1987/88: Rachel E. Klevit
|
||||
1988/89: Nancy L. Thompson
|
||||
1989/90: Anne Walter
|
||||
1990/91: Jeanne Rudzki Small
|
||||
1991/92: Hazel M. Holden and Francine R. Smith
|
||||
1992/93: Carol Vandenberg
|
||||
1993/94: Jean S. Baum
|
||||
1994/95: Hillary C. M. Nelson
|
||||
1995/96: Lynne Regan
|
||||
1996/97: Susan Marqusee
|
||||
1997/98: Bonnie Anne Berger
|
||||
1998/99: Judith R. Mourant
|
||||
1999: Lydia Gregoret
|
||||
2000/2001: Millie M. Georgiadis and Ka Yee Christina Lee
|
||||
2002: Gina MacDonald
|
||||
2003: Hao Wu
|
||||
2004: Dorothee Kern
|
||||
2005: Sarah Keller
|
||||
2006: Anne Hinderliter
|
||||
2007: Kalina Hristova
|
||||
2008: Judith Klein-Seetharaman
|
||||
2009: Teresa Giraldez, Adrienne L. Fairhall, and Jin Zhang
|
||||
2010: Crina Nimigean and Maria Spies
|
||||
2011: Diane Lidke
|
||||
2012: Lucy R. Forrest
|
||||
2013: Jennifer L. Ross and Katherine Henzler-Wildman
|
||||
2014: Sarah Veatch
|
||||
2015: Antonina Roll-Mecak
|
||||
2016: Sophie Dumont and Polina Lishko
|
||||
2017: Julie S. Biteen
|
||||
2018: Carrie L. Partch
|
||||
2019: Meytal Landau
|
||||
2020: Valeria Vásquez
|
||||
2021: Randy Stockbridge
|
||||
2022: Gabriela Schlau-Cohen
|
||||
2023: Elizabeth H. Kellogg
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of biology awards
|
||||
List of prizes, medals, and awards for women in science
|
||||
Prizes named after people
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award page
|
||||
Dayhoff Award, NLM
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_W._Rossiter_History_of_Women_in_Science_Prize"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T09:28:14.378453+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:53.943095+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer_Award-0.md
Normal file
23
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer_Award-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer_Award"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:44.372924+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award is an annual prize presented by the American Physical Society in recognition of an outstanding contribution to physics research by a woman. It recognizes and enhances outstanding achievements by women physicists in the early years of their careers.
|
||||
The prize has been awarded since 1986 and is named after Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Nobel laureate in 1963 with J. Hans D. Jensen and Eugene Paul Wigner. Goeppert-Mayer and Jensen were awarded their prize "for their discovery of the nuclear shell structure". Goeppert-Mayer was the second woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics after Marie Curie.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Recipients ==
|
||||
Source:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of physics awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,687 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Metric tensor (general relativity)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_tensor_(general_relativity)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:08.849054+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In general relativity, the metric tensor (in this context often abbreviated to simply the metric) is the fundamental object of study. The metric captures all the geometric and causal structure of spacetime, being used to define notions such as time, distance, volume, curvature, angle, and separation of the future and the past.
|
||||
In general relativity, the metric tensor plays the role of the gravitational potential in the classical theory of gravitation, although the physical content of the associated equations is entirely different. Gutfreund and Renn say "that in general relativity the gravitational potential is represented by the metric tensor."
|
||||
|
||||
== Notation and conventions ==
|
||||
This article works with a metric signature that is mostly positive (− + + +); see sign convention. The gravitation constant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
G
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle G}
|
||||
|
||||
will be kept explicit. This article employs the Einstein summation convention, where repeated indices are automatically summed over.
|
||||
|
||||
== Definition ==
|
||||
Mathematically, spacetime is represented by a four-dimensional differentiable manifold
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle M}
|
||||
|
||||
and the metric tensor is given as a covariant, second-degree, symmetric tensor on
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle M}
|
||||
|
||||
, conventionally denoted by
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g}
|
||||
|
||||
. Moreover, the metric is required to be nondegenerate with signature (− + + +). A manifold
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle M}
|
||||
|
||||
equipped with such a metric is a type of Lorentzian manifold.
|
||||
Explicitly, the metric tensor is a symmetric bilinear form on each tangent space of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle M}
|
||||
|
||||
that varies in a smooth (or differentiable) manner from point to point. Given two tangent vectors
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
u
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle u}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle v}
|
||||
|
||||
at a point
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle x}
|
||||
|
||||
in
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle M}
|
||||
|
||||
, the metric can be evaluated on
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
u
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle u}
|
||||
|
||||
and
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
v
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle v}
|
||||
|
||||
to give a real number:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
u
|
||||
,
|
||||
v
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
v
|
||||
,
|
||||
u
|
||||
)
|
||||
∈
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g_{x}(u,v)=g_{x}(v,u)\in \mathbb {R} .}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
This is a generalization of the dot product of ordinary Euclidean space. Unlike Euclidean space – where the dot product is positive definite – the metric is indefinite and gives each tangent space the structure of Minkowski space.
|
||||
|
||||
== Local coordinates and matrix representations ==
|
||||
Physicists usually work in local coordinates (i.e. coordinates defined on some local patch of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
M
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle M}
|
||||
|
||||
). In local coordinates
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle x^{\mu }}
|
||||
|
||||
(where
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mu }
|
||||
|
||||
is an index that runs from 0 to 3) the metric can be written in the form
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
⊗
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g=g_{\mu \nu }dx^{\mu }\otimes dx^{\nu }.}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The factors
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle dx^{\mu }}
|
||||
|
||||
are one-form gradients of the scalar coordinate fields
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle x^{\mu }}
|
||||
|
||||
. The metric is thus a linear combination of tensor products of one-form gradients of coordinates. The coefficients
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g_{\mu \nu }}
|
||||
|
||||
are a set of 16 real-valued functions (since the tensor
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g}
|
||||
|
||||
is a tensor field, which is defined at all points of a spacetime manifold). In order for the metric to be symmetric
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g_{\mu \nu }=g_{\nu \mu },}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
giving 10 independent coefficients.
|
||||
If the local coordinates are specified, or understood from context, the metric can be written as a 4 × 4 symmetric matrix with entries
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g_{\mu \nu }}
|
||||
|
||||
. The nondegeneracy of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g_{\mu \nu }}
|
||||
|
||||
means that this matrix is non-singular (i.e. has non-vanishing determinant), while the Lorentzian signature of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g}
|
||||
|
||||
implies that the matrix has one negative and three positive eigenvalues. Physicists often refer to this matrix or the coordinates
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g_{\mu \nu }}
|
||||
|
||||
themselves as the metric (see, however, abstract index notation).
|
||||
With the quantities
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle dx^{\mu }}
|
||||
|
||||
being regarded as the components of an infinitesimal coordinate displacement four-vector (not to be confused with the one-forms of the same notation above), the metric determines the invariant square of an infinitesimal line element, often referred to as an interval. The interval is often denoted
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ds^{2}=g_{\mu \nu }dx^{\mu }dx^{\nu }.}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The interval
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ds^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
imparts information about the causal structure of spacetime. When
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ds^{2}<0}
|
||||
|
||||
, the interval is timelike and the square root of the absolute value of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ds^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
is an incremental proper time. Only timelike intervals can be physically traversed by a massive object. When
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ds^{2}=0}
|
||||
|
||||
, the interval is lightlike, and can only be traversed by (massless) things that move at the speed of light. When
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
>
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ds^{2}>0}
|
||||
|
||||
, the interval is spacelike and the square root of
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
|
||||
s
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle ds^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
acts as an incremental proper length. Spacelike intervals cannot be traversed, since they connect events that are outside each other's light cones. Events can be causally related only if they are within each other's light cones.
|
||||
The components of the metric depend on the choice of local coordinate system. Under a change of coordinates
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
→
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle x^{\mu }\to x^{\bar {\mu }}}
|
||||
|
||||
, the metric components transform as
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
Λ
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Λ
|
||||
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
¯
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g_{{\bar {\mu }}{\bar {\nu }}}={\frac {\partial x^{\rho }}{\partial x^{\bar {\mu }}}}{\frac {\partial x^{\sigma }}{\partial x^{\bar {\nu }}}}g_{\rho \sigma }=\Lambda ^{\rho }{}_{\bar {\mu }}\,\Lambda ^{\sigma }{}_{\bar {\nu }}\,g_{\rho \sigma }.}
|
||||
|
||||
1044
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_tensor_(general_relativity)-1.md
Normal file
1044
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_tensor_(general_relativity)-1.md
Normal file
File diff suppressed because it is too large
Load Diff
@ -0,0 +1,519 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Metric tensor (general relativity)"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_tensor_(general_relativity)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:08.849054+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Curvature ==
|
||||
The metric
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g}
|
||||
|
||||
completely determines the curvature of spacetime. According to the fundamental theorem of Riemannian geometry, there is a unique connection ∇ on any semi-Riemannian manifold that is compatible with the metric and torsion-free. This connection is called the Levi-Civita connection. The Christoffel symbols of this connection are given in terms of partial derivatives of the metric in local coordinates
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle x^{\mu }}
|
||||
|
||||
by the formula
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Γ
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
x
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
μ
|
||||
,
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
,
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
,
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \Gamma ^{\lambda }{}_{\mu \nu }={\frac {1}{2}}g^{\lambda \rho }\left({\frac {\partial g_{\rho \mu }}{\partial x^{\nu }}}+{\frac {\partial g_{\rho \nu }}{\partial x^{\mu }}}-{\frac {\partial g_{\mu \nu }}{\partial x^{\rho }}}\right)={\frac {1}{2}}g^{\lambda \rho }\left(g_{\rho \mu ,\nu }+g_{\rho \nu ,\mu }-g_{\mu \nu ,\rho }\right)}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(where commas indicate partial derivatives).
|
||||
The curvature of spacetime is then given by the Riemann curvature tensor which is defined in terms of the Levi-Civita connection ∇. In local coordinates this tensor is given by:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
σ
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Γ
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Γ
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
Γ
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
λ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Γ
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
Γ
|
||||
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
λ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Γ
|
||||
|
||||
λ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {R^{\rho }}_{\sigma \mu \nu }=\partial _{\mu }\Gamma ^{\rho }{}_{\nu \sigma }-\partial _{\nu }\Gamma ^{\rho }{}_{\mu \sigma }+\Gamma ^{\rho }{}_{\mu \lambda }\Gamma ^{\lambda }{}_{\nu \sigma }-\Gamma ^{\rho }{}_{\nu \lambda }\Gamma ^{\lambda }{}_{\mu \sigma }.}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The curvature is then expressible purely in terms of the metric
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle g}
|
||||
|
||||
and its derivatives.
|
||||
|
||||
== Einstein's equations ==
|
||||
One of the core ideas of general relativity is that the metric (and the associated geometry of spacetime) is determined by the matter and energy content of spacetime. Einstein's field equations:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
−
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
8
|
||||
π
|
||||
G
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
4
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle R_{\mu \nu }-{\frac {1}{2}}Rg_{\mu \nu }={\frac {8\pi G}{c^{4}}}\,T_{\mu \nu }}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where the Ricci curvature tensor
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
e
|
||||
f
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ν
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle R_{\nu \rho }\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ {R^{\mu }}_{\nu \mu \rho }}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
and the scalar curvature
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
e
|
||||
f
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
g
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle R\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ g^{\mu \nu }R_{\mu \nu }}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
relate the metric (and the associated curvature tensors) to the stress–energy tensor
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
T
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
ν
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle T_{\mu \nu }}
|
||||
|
||||
. This tensor equation is a complicated set of nonlinear partial differential equations for the metric components. Exact solutions of Einstein's field equations are very difficult to find.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Alternatives to general relativity
|
||||
Introduction to the mathematics of general relativity
|
||||
Mathematics of general relativity
|
||||
Ricci calculus
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
See general relativity resources for a list of references.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Nancy Millis Medal for Women in Science"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Millis_Medal_for_Women_in_Science"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:59.803463+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Nancy Millis Medal for Women in Science, also known as the Nancy Millis Medal, is an annual award conferred by the Australian Academy of Science. It is named in honour of the microbiologist Nancy Millis (1922–2012) and recognises women scientists, with eight to 15 years' experience after completing their PhD, for their outstanding contribution to research and leadership.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Winners ==
|
||||
The medal was first awarded in 2014 and annually since:
|
||||
|
||||
2014: Emma Johnston
|
||||
2015: Tamara Davis
|
||||
2016: Elena Belousova
|
||||
2017: Kerrie Ann Wilson
|
||||
2018: Marie-Liesse Asselin-Labat
|
||||
2019: Jacqueline Batley
|
||||
2020: Kate Schroder and Nicole Bell
|
||||
2021: Angela Moles and Cathryn Trott
|
||||
2022: Vanessa Peterson
|
||||
2023: Renae Ryan
|
||||
2024: Anita Ho-Baillie
|
||||
2025: Natasha Hurley-Walker
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether_Lecture-0.md
Normal file
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether_Lecture-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Noether Lecture"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether_Lecture"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:00.975014+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Noether Lecture is a distinguished lecture series that honors women "who have made fundamental and sustained contributions to the mathematical sciences". The Association for Women in Mathematics (AWM) established the annual lectures in 1980 as the Emmy Noether Lectures, in honor of one of the leading mathematicians of her time. In 2013 it was renamed the AWM-AMS Noether Lecture and since 2015 is sponsored jointly with the American Mathematical Society (AMS). The recipient delivers the lecture at the yearly American Joint Mathematics Meetings held in January.
|
||||
The ICM Emmy Noether Lecture is an additional lecture series, sponsored by the International Mathematical Union. Beginning in 1994 this lecture was delivered at the International Congress of Mathematicians, held every four years. In 2010 the lecture series was made permanent.
|
||||
The 2021 Noether Lecture was supposed to have been given by Andrea Bertozzi of UCLA, but it was cancelled. The cancellation was made during the George Floyd protests: "This decision comes as many of this nation rise up in protest over racial discrimination and brutality by police". Although she intended to speak on other topics, Bertozzi is known for research on the mathematics of policing, and in a letter to the AMS, Sol Garfunkel concluded that "the reason for her exclusion was one of her areas of research". In an official blog of the AMS, a group calling themselves The Just Mathematics Collective called for a boycott of mathematical collaborations with police, dismissing Garfunkel's letter as "intended to further dismiss the boycott" and celebrating the cancellation of Bertozzi's lecture.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Noether Lecturer ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== ICM Emmy Noether Lecturers ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Falconer Lecture
|
||||
Kovalevsky Lecture
|
||||
List of mathematics awards
|
||||
List of things named after Emmy Noether
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Official website
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OWSD-Elsevier_Foundation_Award"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:48:59.638426+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:16:02.233826+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Pearl Meister Greengard Prize"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Meister_Greengard_Prize"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T11:15:55.141343+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Pearl Meister Greengard Prize is an award for women scientists in biology given annually by the Rockefeller University.
|
||||
The Prize was founded by Nobel laureate Paul Greengard and his wife Ursula von Rydingsvard in honor of Greengard's mother, Pearl Meister Greengard, who died giving birth to him. Greengard began funding the award in 1998. Greengard donated the full share of his 2000 Nobel Prize to the fund, and was able to use his new publicity to attract additional funding for the award, which was launched in 2004. The award is meant to shine a spotlight on exceptional female scientists, since, as Greengard observed, "[women] are not yet receiving awards and honors at a level commensurate with their achievements."
|
||||
The award includes a $100,000 honorarium (previously $50,000).
|
||||
Three recipients of the Prize, Carol Greider, Elizabeth Blackburn and Katalin Karikó, have gone on to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. One recipient, Jennifer Doudna, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Winners ==
|
||||
Source: Rockefeller University Archived August 12, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
|
||||
Nicole Marthe Le Douarin (2004)
|
||||
Philippa Marrack (2005)
|
||||
Mary Frances Lyon (2006)
|
||||
Gail R. Martin, Beatrice Mintz, Elizabeth Robertson (2007)
|
||||
Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider, Vicki Lundblad (2008)
|
||||
Suzanne Cory (2009)
|
||||
Janet Rowley and Mary-Claire King (2010)
|
||||
Brenda Milner (2011)
|
||||
Joan Steitz (2012)
|
||||
Huda Y. Zoghbi (2013)
|
||||
Lucy Shapiro (2014)
|
||||
Helen Hobbs (2015)
|
||||
Bonnie Bassler (2016)
|
||||
JoAnne Stubbe (2017)
|
||||
Jennifer Doudna (2018)
|
||||
Xiaowei Zhuang (2019)
|
||||
Joanne Chory (2020)
|
||||
Pamela Björkman (2021)
|
||||
Katalin Karikó (2022)
|
||||
Lily Jan, Eve Marder (2023)
|
||||
Svetlana Mojsov (2024)
|
||||
Maria Jasin (2025)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of prizes, medals, and awards for women in science
|
||||
List of biology awards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Pearl Meister Greengard Prize Website, The Rockefeller University
|
||||
The Man Who Loves Women Who Love Science, The Huffington Post, November 3, 2011
|
||||
Three Share Nobel Prize in Medicine for Studies of the Brain, The New York Times, October 10, 2000
|
||||
Spending the Nobel Prize Archived March 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, The Scientist, September 29, 2006
|
||||
How Nobel Winners Spend Their Prize Money, Time Magazine, October 10, 2008
|
||||
How One Nobel Laureate Gave Another A Hand, CBS Evening News, December 6, 2009
|
||||
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