From b7e1ace49a83e429e4d2e011a4fc7b3647cc3f0d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Tue, 5 May 2026 00:23:00 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 490 new, 2596 updated, 3159 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 48971776 -> 49487872 bytes data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboutness-0.md | 53 + .../wiki/Abstract_nonsense-0.md | 32 + .../wiki/Abstract_structure-0.md | 34 + .../wiki/Abstraction_(mathematics)-0.md | 44 + .../wiki/Abuse_of_notation-0.md | 424 ++++++++ .../wiki/Abuse_of_notation-1.md | 333 ++++++ .../Active_and_passive_transformation-0.md | 864 ++++++++++++++++ .../Active_and_passive_transformation-1.md | 958 ++++++++++++++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-0.md | 377 +++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-1.md | 279 +++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint-0.md | 33 + .../wiki/Authority_control-0.md | 37 + .../wiki/Authority_control-1.md | 25 + .../wiki/Authority_control-2.md | 69 ++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliomining-0.md | 35 + 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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboutness" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:24.487269+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Aboutness is a term used in library and information science (LIS), linguistics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of mind. In general, the term refers to the concept that a text, utterance, image, or action is on or of something. In LIS, it is often considered synonymous with a document's subject. In the philosophy of mind, it has been often considered synonymous with intentionality, perhaps since John Searle (1983). In the philosophy of logic and language, it is understood as the way a piece of text relates to a subject matter or topic. +R. A. Fairthorne (1969) is credited with coining the exact term "aboutness", which became popular in LIS since the late 1970s, perhaps due to arguments put forward by William John Hutchins (1975, 1977, 1978). Hutchins argued that "aboutness" was to be preferred to "subject" because it removed some epistemological problems. Birger Hjørland (1992, 1997) argued, however, that the same epistemological problems also were present in Hutchins' proposal, why "aboutness" and "subject" should be considered synonymous. +While information scientists may well be concerned with the literary aboutness (John Hutchins, 1975, 1977, 1978), philosophers of mind and psychologists with the psychological or intentional aboutness (John Searle, 1983) and language of thought (Jerry Fodor, 1975), and semantic externalists with the external state of affairs (Hilary Putnam, 1975). These seminal perspectives are respectively analogous to Ogden and Richards' Literary, psychological, and external contexts (1923), as well as Karl Popper's World 1, 2, and 3 (1977). + + +== See also == +Content analysis +Intentional stance +Theme and rheme + + +== Literature == +Furner, J. (November 5, 2006). "The ontology of subjects of works". ASIS&T conference. +Hjørland, B. (2001). "Towards a theory of aboutness, subject, topicality, theme, domain, field, content... and relevance". Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52(9), 774–778. +Bruza, P. D., Song, D. W., & Wong, K. F. (2000). "Aboutness from a commonsense perspective". Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51(12), 1090–1105. Available at: http://people.kmi.open.ac.uk/dawei/papers/aboutness-aista00.pdf +Campbell, G. (2000a). "Aboutness and meaning: How a paradigm of subject analysis can illuminate queer theory in literary studies". IN: CAIS 2000. Canadian Association for Information Science: Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference. +Campbell, G. (2000b). "Queer theory and the creation of contextual subject access tools for gay and lesbian communities". Knowledge Organization, 27(3), 122–131. +Hjørland, B. (1997): Information seeking and subject representation: An activity-theoretical approach to information science. Westport & London: Greenwood Press. +Holley, R., and Joudrey, D.N. (2021). "Aboutness and Conceptual Analysis: A Review", Cataloging & Classification Quarterly 59:2-3, 159–185. +Joudrey, D. N. (2005). Building Puzzles And Growing Pearls: A Qualitative Exploration Of Determining Aboutness (PhD diss.: University of Pittsburgh). +Heidegger, M. (1996). Being and Time, trans. by Joan Stambaugh. Albany: State University of New York Press. +Hjørland, B. (1992). "The concept of "subject" in information science". Journal of Documentation, 48(2), 172–200. +Frohmann, B. (1990). "Rules of indexing: A critique of mentalism in information retrieval theory". Journal of Documentation, 81–101. +Beghtol, C. (1986). "Bibliographic classification theory and text linguistics: aboutness analysis, intertextuality and the cognitive act of classifying documents". Journal of Documentation, 42, 84–113. +Searle, John (1983). Intentionality: An Essay in the Philosophy of Mind, Cambridge University Press. +Salem, Shawky (1982). "Towards "coring" and "aboutness": An approach to some aspects of in-depth indexing". Journal of Information Science Principles & Practice, 1982, 4, 167–170. +Mark Petersen, A. (1979). "The meaning of "about" in fiction indexing and retrieval". ASLIB Proceedings, 31, 251- 257. +Swift, D. F., Winn, V. & Bramer, D. (1978). ""Aboutness" as a strategy for retrieval in the social sciences". ASLIB Proceedings, 30, 182–187. +Hutchings, W. J. (1978). "The concept of "aboutness" in subject indexing". ASLIB Proceedings, 30, 172–181. +Hutchins, W. J. (1977). "On the problem of "aboutness" in document analysis". Journal of Informatics, 1, 17–35. +Maron, M. E. (1977). "On indexing, retrieval and the meaning of about". Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 28, 38–43. +Heidegger, M. (1977). "Sein und Zeit", in Heidegger's Gesamtausgabe, volume 2, ed. F.-W. von Herrmann, 1977, XIV, 586p. +Hutchins, W. J. (1975). Languages of indexing and classification. A linguistic study of structures and functions. London: Peter Peregrinus. +Fairthorne, R. A. (1969). "Content analysis, specification and control". Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 4, 73–109. +Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and Time, trans. by John Macquarrie & Edward Robinson. London: SCM Press. +Goodman, N. (1961). "About". Mind, 70(277), 1-24. +Putnam, H. (1958). "Formalization of the concept "about"". Philosophy of Science, 25(2), 125-130. +Thalheimer, R. (1936). "More about "about"". Analysis, 3(3): 46-48. +Ryle, G. (1933). "About". Analysis, 1(1): 10–11. +Yablo, S. (2014) Aboutness, Princeton University Press + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_nonsense-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_nonsense-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2cf20d367 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_nonsense-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Abstract nonsense" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_nonsense" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:52.017389+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In mathematics, abstract nonsense, general abstract nonsense, generalized abstract nonsense, and general nonsense are nonderogatory terms used by mathematicians to describe long, theoretical parts of a proof they skip over when readers are expected to be familiar with them. These terms are mainly used for abstract methods related to category theory and homological algebra. More generally, "abstract nonsense" may refer to a proof that relies on category-theoretic methods, or even to the study of category theory itself. + + +== Background == +Roughly speaking, category theory is the study of the general form, that is, categories of mathematical theories, without regard to their content. As a result, mathematical proofs that rely on category-theoretic ideas often seem out-of-context, somewhat akin to a non sequitur. Authors sometimes dub these proofs "abstract nonsense" as a light-hearted way of alerting readers to their abstract nature. Labeling an argument "abstract nonsense" is usually not intended to be derogatory, and is instead used jokingly, in a self-deprecating way, affectionately, or even as a compliment to the generality of the argument. Alexander Grothendieck was critical of this notion, and stated that: + +The introduction of the cipher 0 or the group concept was general nonsense too, and mathematics was more or less stagnating for thousands of years because nobody was around to take such childish steps... +Certain ideas and constructions in mathematics share a uniformity throughout many domains, unified by category theory. Typical methods include the use of classifying spaces and universal properties, use of the Yoneda lemma, natural transformations between functors, and diagram chasing. +When an audience can be assumed to be familiar with the general form of such arguments, mathematicians will use the expression "Such and such is true by abstract nonsense" rather than provide an elaborate explanation of particulars. For example, one might say that "By abstract nonsense, products are unique up to isomorphism when they exist", instead of arguing about how these isomorphisms can be derived from the universal property that defines the product. This allows one to skip proof details that can be considered trivial or not providing much insight, focusing instead on genuinely innovative parts of a larger proof. + + +== History == +The term predates the foundation of category theory as a subject itself. Referring to a joint paper with Samuel Eilenberg that introduced the notion of a "category" in 1942, Saunders Mac Lane wrote the subject was 'then called "general abstract nonsense"'. The term is often used to describe the application of category theory and its techniques to less abstract domains. +The term is believed to have been coined by the mathematician Norman Steenrod, himself one of the developers of the categorical point of view. + + +== Notes and references == + + +== External links == + +Usage in mathematical exposition from Noam Elkies' class notes \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_structure-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_structure-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..be7725a08 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_structure-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Abstract structure" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_structure" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:53.223922+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In mathematics and related fields, an abstract structure is a way of describing a set of mathematical objects and the relationships between them, focusing on the essential rules and properties rather than any specific meaning or example. +For example, in a game such as chess, the rules of how the pieces move and interact define the structure of the game, regardless of whether the pieces are made of wood or plastic. Similarly, an abstract structure defines a framework of objects, operations, and relationships. These structures are studied in their own right, revealing fundamental mathematical principles. While a real-world object or computer program might represent, instantiate, or implement an abstract structure, the structure itself exists as an abstract concept, independent of any particular representation. +This abstraction allows to see common patterns across seemingly different areas of mathematics and to apply the same reasoning and tools to analyze them. Abstract structures are studied not only in logic and mathematics but in the fields that apply them, as computer science and computer graphics, and in the studies that reflect on them, such as philosophy (especially the philosophy of mathematics). +An abstract structure has a richer structure than a concept or an idea. An abstract structure must include precise rules of behaviour which can be used to determine whether a candidate implementation actually matches the abstract structure in question, and it must be free from contradictions. Thus we may debate how well a particular government fits the concept of democracy, but there is no room for debate over whether a given sequence of moves is or is not a valid game of chess (for example Kasparovian approaches). + + +== Examples == +A sorting algorithm is an abstract structure, but a recipe is not, because it depends on the properties and quantities of its ingredients. +A simple melody is an abstract structure, but an orchestration is not, because it depends on the properties of particular instruments. +Euclidean geometry is an abstract structure, but the theory of continental drift is not, because it depends on the geology of the Earth. +A formal language is an abstract structure, but a natural language is not, because its rules of grammar and syntax are open to debate and interpretation. + + +== Notes == + + +== See also == +Abstraction in computer science +Abstraction in general +Abstraction in mathematics +Abstract object +Deductive apparatus +Formal sciences +Mathematical structure \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(mathematics)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(mathematics)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1c08c108b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(mathematics)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Abstraction (mathematics)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(mathematics)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:54.412897+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying structures, patterns or properties of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena. In other words, to be abstract is to remove context and application. Two of the most highly abstract areas of modern mathematics are category theory and model theory. + + +== Description == +Many areas of mathematics began with the study of real world problems, before the underlying rules and concepts were identified and defined as abstract structures. For example, geometry has its origins in the calculation of distances and areas in the real world, and algebra started with methods of solving problems in arithmetic. +Abstraction is an ongoing process in mathematics and the historical development of many mathematical topics exhibits a progression from the concrete to the abstract. For example, the first steps in the abstraction of geometry were historically made by the ancient Greeks, with Euclid's Elements being the earliest extant documentation of the axioms of plane geometry—though Proclus tells of an earlier axiomatisation by Hippocrates of Chios. In the 17th century, Descartes introduced Cartesian co-ordinates which allowed the development of analytic geometry. Further steps in abstraction were taken by Lobachevsky, Bolyai, Riemann and Gauss, who generalised the concepts of geometry to develop non-Euclidean geometries. Later in the 19th century, mathematicians generalised geometry even further, developing such areas as geometry in n dimensions, projective geometry, affine geometry and finite geometry. Finally Felix Klein's "Erlangen program" identified the underlying theme of all of these geometries, defining each of them as the study of properties invariant under a given group of symmetries. This level of abstraction revealed connections between geometry and abstract algebra. +In mathematics, abstraction can be advantageous in the following ways: + +It reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics. +Known results in one area can suggest conjectures in another related area. +Techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in other related areas. +Patterns from one mathematical object can be generalized to other similar objects in the same class. +On the other hand, abstraction can also be disadvantageous in that highly abstract concepts can be difficult to learn. A degree of mathematical maturity and experience may be needed for conceptual assimilation of abstractions. +Bertrand Russell, in The Scientific Outlook (1931), writes that "Ordinary language is totally unsuited for expressing what physics really asserts, since the words of everyday life are not sufficiently abstract. Only mathematics and mathematical logic can say as little as the physicist means to say." + + +== See also == +Abstract detail +Generalization +Abstract thinking +Abstract logic +Abstract algebraic logic +Abstract model theory +Abstract nonsense +Concept +Mathematical maturity + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == + +Bajnok, Béla (2013). An Invitation to Abstract Mathematics. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4614-6635-2. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f23d4b602 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,424 @@ +--- +title: "Abuse of notation" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:55.629926+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In mathematics, abuse of notation occurs when an author uses a mathematical notation in a way that is not entirely formally correct, but which might help to simplify the exposition or to suggest the correct intuition, while possibly minimizing errors and confusion at the same time. +A closely related concept is abuse of language or abuse of terminology, where a term — rather than a notation — is used informally. For example, while the word representation properly designates a group homomorphism from a group G to GL(V), where V is a vector space, it is common to call V itself a "representation of G." +Since both mathematical notation and terminology vary across time and context, what is flagged as abuse in one context could be formally correct in another. Furthermore, abuse of notation should not be conflated with misuse of notation, which does not have the presentational benefits of the former and should be avoided, such as the misuse of constants of integration. + +== Examples == + +=== Suppression of parameters === +Many mathematical objects consist of a set, often called the underlying set, equipped with some additional structure, such as a mathematical operation or a topology. It is a common abuse of notation to use the same symbol for the underlying set and the structured object, a phenomenon known as suppression of parameters. +For example, + + + + + Z + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } + + may denote the set of the integers, the group of integers together with addition, or the ring of integers with addition and multiplication. Likewise, + + + + + + R + + + 3 + + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} + + is often used to mean 3D Euclidean space taken as a vector space, metric space, or topological space, depending on the properties relevant in context. This is because, for example, the Euclidean distance is understood to be the 'default' metric on + + + + + + R + + + 3 + + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} + + and is assumed when not stated otherwise, even though there are others. +Similarly, while a topological space + + + + ( + X + , + + + T + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle (X,{\mathcal {T}})} + + consists of both an underlying set + + + + X + + + {\displaystyle X} + + and a topology + + + + + + T + + + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}} + +, it is customary to talk about "the space + + + + X + + + {\displaystyle X} + +" in situations where only one topology on + + + + X + + + {\displaystyle X} + + is ever considered — once that topology is clearly established. +In general, there is no problem with suppression of parameters if the object under reference is well understood, and avoiding such an abuse of notation might even make mathematical texts more pedantic and more difficult to read. When this abuse of notation may be confusing, one may distinguish between structures by denoting e.g. + + + + ( + + Z + + , + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle (\mathbb {Z} ,+)} + + the group of integers with addition and + + + + ( + + Z + + , + + + , + ⋅ + ) + + + {\displaystyle (\mathbb {Z} ,+,\cdot )} + + the ring of integers; by explicitly defining the topology, metric structure, etc. of interest on + + + + + + R + + + 3 + + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} + +; or by explicitly writing out tuples like + + + + ( + X + , + + + T + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle (X,{\mathcal {T}})} + + and + + + + ( + X + , + + + + T + ′ + + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle (X,{\mathcal {T'}})} + + to distinguish between different topological spaces with the same underlying set. + +=== Function notation === +One may encounter, in many textbooks, sentences such as "Let + + + + f + ( + x + ) + + + {\displaystyle f(x)} + + be a function ...". This is an abuse of notation, as the name of the function is + + + + f + , + + + {\displaystyle f,} + + and + + + + f + ( + x + ) + + + {\displaystyle f(x)} + + denotes the value of + + + + f + + + {\displaystyle f} + + for the element + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + + of its domain. More precisely correct phrasings include "Let + + + + f + + + {\displaystyle f} + + be a function of the variable + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + + ..." or "Let + + + + x + ↦ + f + ( + x + ) + + + {\displaystyle x\mapsto f(x)} + + be a function ..." This abuse of notation is widely used, as it simplifies the formulation, and the systematic use of a correct notation quickly becomes pedantic. +Another abuse of notation occurs in sentences such as "Let us consider the function + + + + + x + + 2 + + + + + x + + + 1 + + + {\displaystyle x^{2}+x+1} + + ...", when in fact + + + + + x + + 2 + + + + + x + + + 1 + + + {\displaystyle x^{2}+x+1} + + is a polynomial expression, not a function per se — whereas the function that maps the variable + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + + to + + + + + x + + 2 + + + + + x + + + 1 + + + {\displaystyle x^{2}+x+1} + + could formally be denoted + + + + x + ↦ + + x + + 2 + + + + + x + + + 1. + + + {\displaystyle x\mapsto x^{2}+x+1.} + + Similarly, a constant function + + + + f + + + {\displaystyle f} + + may be identified with its value, as in + + + + f + = + c + + + {\displaystyle f=c} + +, when it would be more correct to write e.g. " + + + + f + ( + x + ) + = + c + + + {\displaystyle f(x)=c} + + for all inputs + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + +." Nevertheless, these abuses of notation are widely used, since they are more concise and generally not confusing. + +=== Equality vs. isomorphism === +Many mathematical structures are defined through a characterizing property (often a universal property). Once this desired property is defined, there may be various ways to construct the structure, and the corresponding results are formally different objects, but which have exactly the same properties (i.e., isomorphic). As there is no way to distinguish these isomorphic objects through their properties, it is standard to consider them as equal, even if this is formally wrong. +One example of this is the Cartesian product, which is often seen as associative: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..801fc9bec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,333 @@ +--- +title: "Abuse of notation" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:55.629926+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + + + + + ( + E + × + F + ) + × + G + = + E + × + ( + F + × + G + ) + = + E + × + F + × + G + + + {\displaystyle (E\times F)\times G=E\times (F\times G)=E\times F\times G} + +. +But this is strictly speaking not true: if + + + + x + ∈ + E + + + {\displaystyle x\in E} + +, + + + + y + ∈ + F + + + {\displaystyle y\in F} + + and + + + + z + ∈ + G + + + {\displaystyle z\in G} + +, the identity + + + + ( + ( + x + , + y + ) + , + z + ) + = + ( + x + , + ( + y + , + z + ) + ) + + + {\displaystyle ((x,y),z)=(x,(y,z))} + + would imply that + + + + ( + x + , + y + ) + = + x + + + {\displaystyle (x,y)=x} + + and + + + + z + = + ( + y + , + z + ) + + + {\displaystyle z=(y,z)} + +, and so + + + + ( + ( + x + , + y + ) + , + z + ) + = + ( + x + , + y + , + z + ) + + + {\displaystyle ((x,y),z)=(x,y,z)} + + would mean nothing. However, these equalities can be legitimized and made rigorous in category theory—using the idea of a natural isomorphism. +Another example of similar abuses occurs in statements such as "there are two non-Abelian groups of order 8", which more strictly stated means "there are two isomorphism classes of non-Abelian groups of order 8". + +=== Equivalence classes === +Referring to an equivalence class of an equivalence relation by + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + + instead of + + + + [ + x + ] + + + {\displaystyle [x]} + + is an abuse of notation. Formally, if a set + + + + X + + + {\displaystyle X} + + is partitioned by an equivalence relation + + + + ∼ + + + {\displaystyle \sim } + +, then for each + + + + x + ∈ + X + + + {\displaystyle x\in X} + +, the equivalence class + + + + + { + y + ∈ + X + + | + + y + ∼ + x + } + + + {\displaystyle \{y\in X|y\sim x\}} + + is denoted + + + + [ + x + ] + + + {\displaystyle [x]} + +. But in practice, if the remainder of the discussion is focused on the equivalence classes rather than the individual elements of the underlying set, then it is common to drop the square brackets in the discussion. +For example, in modular arithmetic, a finite group of order + + + + n + + + {\displaystyle n} + + can be formed by partitioning the integers via the equivalence relation " + + + + x + ∼ + y + + + {\displaystyle x\sim y} + + if and only if + + + + x + ≡ + y + + ( + + m + o + d + + + n + ) + + + {\displaystyle x\equiv y\ (\mathrm {mod} \ n)} + +". The elements of that group would then be + + + + [ + 0 + ] + , + [ + 1 + ] + , + … + , + [ + n + − + 1 + ] + + + {\displaystyle [0],[1],\dots ,[n-1]} + +, but in practice they are usually denoted simply as + + + + 0 + , + 1 + , + . + . + . + , + n + − + 1 + + + {\displaystyle 0,1,...,n-1} + +. +Another example is the space of (classes of) measurable functions over a measure space, or classes of Lebesgue integrable functions, where the equivalence relation is equality "almost everywhere". + +== Subjectivity == +The terms "abuse of language" and "abuse of notation" depend on context. Writing "f : A → B" for a partial function from A to B is almost always an abuse of notation, but not in a category theoretic context, where f can be seen as a morphism in the category of sets and partial functions. + +== See also == +Mathematical notation +Misnomer + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..89708e322 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,864 @@ +--- +title: "Active and passive transformation" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:56.857340+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Geometric transformations can be distinguished into two types: active or alibi transformations which change the physical position of a set of points relative to a fixed frame of reference or coordinate system (alibi meaning "being somewhere else at the same time"); and passive or alias transformations which leave points fixed but change the frame of reference or coordinate system relative to which they are described (alias meaning "going under a different name"). +For instance, active transformations are useful to describe successive positions of a rigid body. On the other hand, passive transformations may be useful in human motion analysis to observe the motion of the tibia relative to the femur, that is, its motion relative to a (local) coordinate system which moves together with the femur, rather than a (global) coordinate system which is fixed to the floor. +In three-dimensional Euclidean space, any proper rigid transformation, whether active or passive, can be represented as a screw displacement, the composition of a translation along an axis and a rotation about that axis. +The terms active transformation and passive transformation were first introduced in 1957 by Valentine Bargmann for describing Lorentz transformations in special relativity. + +== Example == + +As an example, let the vector + + + + + v + + = + ( + + v + + 1 + + + , + + v + + 2 + + + ) + ∈ + + + R + + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} =(v_{1},v_{2})\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}} + +, be a vector in the plane. A rotation of the vector through an angle θ in counterclockwise direction is given by the rotation matrix: + + + + + R + = + + + ( + + + + cos + ⁡ + θ + + + − + sin + ⁡ + θ + + + + + sin + ⁡ + θ + + + cos + ⁡ + θ + + + + ) + + + , + + + {\displaystyle R={\begin{pmatrix}\cos \theta &-\sin \theta \\\sin \theta &\cos \theta \end{pmatrix}},} + + +which can be viewed either as an active transformation or a passive transformation (where the above matrix will be inverted), as described below. + +== Spatial transformations in the Euclidean space R3 == +In general a spatial transformation + + + + T + : + + + R + + + 3 + + + → + + + R + + + 3 + + + + + {\displaystyle T\colon \mathbb {R} ^{3}\to \mathbb {R} ^{3}} + + may consist of a translation and a linear transformation. In the following, the translation will be omitted, and the linear transformation will be represented by a 3×3 matrix + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + +. + +=== Active transformation === +As an active transformation, + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + transforms the initial vector + + + + + v + + = + ( + + v + + x + + + , + + v + + y + + + , + + v + + z + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} =(v_{x},v_{y},v_{z})} + + into a new vector + + + + + + v + + ′ + + = + ( + + v + + x + + ′ + + , + + v + + y + + ′ + + , + + v + + z + + ′ + + ) + = + T + + v + + = + T + ( + + v + + x + + + , + + v + + y + + + , + + v + + z + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} '=(v'_{x},v'_{y},v'_{z})=T\mathbf {v} =T(v_{x},v_{y},v_{z})} + +. +If one views + + + + { + + + e + + + x + + ′ + + = + T + ( + 1 + , + 0 + , + 0 + ) + , + + + + e + + + y + + ′ + + = + T + ( + 0 + , + 1 + , + 0 + ) + , + + + + e + + + z + + ′ + + = + T + ( + 0 + , + 0 + , + 1 + ) + } + + + {\displaystyle \{\mathbf {e} '_{x}=T(1,0,0),\ \mathbf {e} '_{y}=T(0,1,0),\ \mathbf {e} '_{z}=T(0,0,1)\}} + + as a new basis, then the coordinates of the new vector + + + + + + v + + ′ + + = + + v + + x + + + + + e + + + x + + ′ + + + + + v + + y + + + + + e + + + y + + ′ + + + + + v + + z + + + + + e + + + z + + ′ + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} '=v_{x}\mathbf {e} '_{x}+v_{y}\mathbf {e} '_{y}+v_{z}\mathbf {e} '_{z}} + + in the new basis are the same as those of + + + + + v + + = + + v + + x + + + + + e + + + x + + + + + + v + + y + + + + + e + + + y + + + + + + v + + z + + + + + e + + + z + + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} =v_{x}\mathbf {e} _{x}+v_{y}\mathbf {e} _{y}+v_{z}\mathbf {e} _{z}} + + in the original basis. Note that active transformations make sense even as a linear transformation into a different vector space. It makes sense to write the new vector in the unprimed basis (as above) only when the transformation is from the space into itself. + +=== Passive transformation === +On the other hand, when one views + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + as a passive transformation, the initial vector + + + + + v + + = + ( + + v + + x + + + , + + v + + y + + + , + + v + + z + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} =(v_{x},v_{y},v_{z})} + + is left unchanged, while the coordinate system and its basis vectors are transformed in the opposite direction, that is, with the inverse transformation + + + + + T + + − + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle T^{-1}} + +. This gives a new coordinate system XYZ with basis vectors: + + + + + + + e + + + X + + + = + + T + + − + 1 + + + ( + 1 + , + 0 + , + 0 + ) + , + + + + e + + + Y + + + = + + T + + − + 1 + + + ( + 0 + , + 1 + , + 0 + ) + , + + + + e + + + Z + + + = + + T + + − + 1 + + + ( + 0 + , + 0 + , + 1 + ) + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {e} _{X}=T^{-1}(1,0,0),\ \mathbf {e} _{Y}=T^{-1}(0,1,0),\ \mathbf {e} _{Z}=T^{-1}(0,0,1)} + + +The new coordinates + + + + ( + + v + + X + + + , + + v + + Y + + + , + + v + + Z + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle (v_{X},v_{Y},v_{Z})} + + of + + + + + v + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } + + with respect to the new coordinate system XYZ are given by: + + + + + + v + + = + ( + + v + + x + + + , + + v + + y + + + , + + v + + z + + + ) + = + + v + + X + + + + + e + + + X + + + + + + v + + Y + + + + + e + + + Y + + + + + + v + + Z + + + + + e + + + Z + + + = + + T + + − + 1 + + + ( + + v + + X + + + , + + v + + Y + + + , + + v + + Z + + + ) + . + + + {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} =(v_{x},v_{y},v_{z})=v_{X}\mathbf {e} _{X}+v_{Y}\mathbf {e} _{Y}+v_{Z}\mathbf {e} _{Z}=T^{-1}(v_{X},v_{Y},v_{Z}).} + + +From this equation one sees that the new coordinates are given by + + + + + ( + + v + + X + + + , + + v + + Y + + + , + + v + + Z + + + ) + = + T + ( + + v + + x + + + , + + v + + y + + + , + + v + + z + + + ) + . + + + {\displaystyle (v_{X},v_{Y},v_{Z})=T(v_{x},v_{y},v_{z}).} + + +As a passive transformation + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + transforms the old coordinates into the new ones. +Note the equivalence between the two kinds of transformations: the coordinates of the new point in the active transformation and the new coordinates of the point in the passive transformation are the same, namely + + + + + ( + + v + + X + + + , + + v + + Y + + + , + + v + + Z + + + ) + = + ( + + v + + x + + ′ + + , + + v + + y + + ′ + + , + + v + + z + + ′ + + ) + . + + + {\displaystyle (v_{X},v_{Y},v_{Z})=(v'_{x},v'_{y},v'_{z}).} + + +== In abstract vector spaces == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..24d021bd5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,958 @@ +--- +title: "Active and passive transformation" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:56.857340+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The distinction between active and passive transformations can be seen mathematically by considering abstract vector spaces. +Fix a finite-dimensional vector space + + + + V + + + {\displaystyle V} + + over a field + + + + K + + + {\displaystyle K} + + (thought of as + + + + + R + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } + + or + + + + + C + + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } + +), and a basis + + + + + + B + + + = + { + + e + + i + + + + } + + 1 + ≤ + i + ≤ + n + + + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}=\{e_{i}\}_{1\leq i\leq n}} + + of + + + + V + + + {\displaystyle V} + +. This basis provides an isomorphism + + + + C + : + + K + + n + + + → + V + + + {\displaystyle C:K^{n}\rightarrow V} + + via the component map + + + + ( + + v + + i + + + + ) + + 1 + ≤ + i + ≤ + n + + + = + ( + + v + + 1 + + + , + ⋯ + , + + v + + n + + + ) + ↦ + + ∑ + + i + + + + v + + i + + + + e + + i + + + + + {\textstyle (v_{i})_{1\leq i\leq n}=(v_{1},\cdots ,v_{n})\mapsto \sum _{i}v_{i}e_{i}} + +. +An active transformation is then an endomorphism on + + + + V + + + {\displaystyle V} + +, that is, a linear map from + + + + V + + + {\displaystyle V} + + to itself. Taking such a transformation + + + + τ + ∈ + + End + + ( + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle \tau \in {\text{End}}(V)} + +, a vector + + + + v + ∈ + V + + + {\displaystyle v\in V} + + transforms as + + + + v + ↦ + τ + v + + + {\displaystyle v\mapsto \tau v} + +. The components of + + + + τ + + + {\displaystyle \tau } + + with respect to the basis + + + + + + B + + + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}} + + are defined via the equation + + + + τ + + e + + i + + + = + + ∑ + + j + + + + τ + + j + i + + + + e + + j + + + + + {\textstyle \tau e_{i}=\sum _{j}\tau _{ji}e_{j}} + +. Then, the components of + + + + v + + + {\displaystyle v} + + transform as + + + + + v + + i + + + ↦ + + τ + + i + j + + + + v + + j + + + + + {\displaystyle v_{i}\mapsto \tau _{ij}v_{j}} + +. +A passive transformation is instead an endomorphism on + + + + + K + + n + + + + + {\displaystyle K^{n}} + +. This is applied to the components: + + + + + v + + i + + + ↦ + + T + + i + j + + + + v + + j + + + =: + + v + + i + + ′ + + + + {\displaystyle v_{i}\mapsto T_{ij}v_{j}=:v'_{i}} + +. Provided that + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + is invertible, the new basis + + + + + + + B + + + ′ + + = + { + + e + + i + + ′ + + } + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}'=\{e'_{i}\}} + + is determined by asking that + + + + + v + + i + + + + e + + i + + + = + + v + + i + + ′ + + + e + + i + + ′ + + + + {\displaystyle v_{i}e_{i}=v'_{i}e'_{i}} + +, from which the expression + + + + + e + + i + + ′ + + = + ( + + T + + − + 1 + + + + ) + + j + i + + + + e + + j + + + + + {\displaystyle e'_{i}=(T^{-1})_{ji}e_{j}} + + can be derived. +Although the spaces + + + + + End + + ( + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{End}}(V)} + + and + + + + + End + + ( + + + K + + n + + + + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{End}}({K^{n}})} + + are isomorphic, they are not canonically isomorphic. Nevertheless a choice of basis + + + + + + B + + + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}} + + allows construction of an isomorphism. + +=== As left- and right-actions === +Often one restricts to the case where the maps are invertible, so that active transformations are the general linear group + + + + + GL + + ( + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{GL}}(V)} + + of transformations while passive transformations are the group + + + + + GL + + ( + n + , + K + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{GL}}(n,K)} + +. +The transformations can then be understood as acting on the space of bases for + + + + V + + + {\displaystyle V} + +. An active transformation + + + + τ + ∈ + + GL + + ( + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle \tau \in {\text{GL}}(V)} + + sends the basis + + + + { + + e + + i + + + } + ↦ + { + τ + + e + + i + + + } + + + {\displaystyle \{e_{i}\}\mapsto \{\tau e_{i}\}} + +. Meanwhile a passive transformation + + + + T + ∈ + + GL + + ( + n + , + K + ) + + + {\displaystyle T\in {\text{GL}}(n,K)} + + sends the basis + + + + { + + e + + i + + + } + ↦ + + { + + + ∑ + + j + + + ( + + T + + − + 1 + + + + ) + + j + i + + + + e + + j + + + + } + + + + {\textstyle \{e_{i}\}\mapsto \left\{\sum _{j}(T^{-1})_{ji}e_{j}\right\}} + +. +The inverse in the passive transformation ensures the components transform identically under + + + + τ + + + {\displaystyle \tau } + + and + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + +. This then gives a sharp distinction between active and passive transformations: active transformations act from the left on bases, while the passive transformations act from the right, due to the inverse. +This observation is made more natural by viewing bases + + + + + + B + + + + + {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}} + + as a choice of isomorphism + + + + + Φ + + + B + + + + : + + K + + n + + + → + V + + + {\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathcal {B}}:K^{n}\rightarrow V} + +. The space of bases is equivalently the space of such isomorphisms, denoted + + + + + Iso + + ( + + K + + n + + + , + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{Iso}}(K^{n},V)} + +. Active transformations, identified with + + + + + GL + + ( + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{GL}}(V)} + +, act on + + + + + Iso + + ( + + K + + n + + + , + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{Iso}}(K^{n},V)} + + from the left by composition, that is if + + + + τ + + + {\displaystyle \tau } + + represents an active transformation, we have + + + + + Φ + + + + B + ′ + + + + + = + τ + ∘ + + Φ + + + B + + + + + + {\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathcal {B'}}=\tau \circ \Phi _{\mathcal {B}}} + +. On the opposite, passive transformations, identified with + + + + + GL + + ( + n + , + K + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{GL}}(n,K)} + + acts on + + + + + Iso + + ( + + K + + n + + + , + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{Iso}}(K^{n},V)} + + from the right by pre-composition, that is if + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + represents a passive transformation, we have + + + + + Φ + + + + B + ″ + + + + + = + + Φ + + + B + + + + ∘ + T + + + {\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathcal {B''}}=\Phi _{\mathcal {B}}\circ T} + +. +This turns the space of bases into a left + + + + + GL + + ( + V + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{GL}}(V)} + +-torsor and a right + + + + + GL + + ( + n + , + K + ) + + + {\displaystyle {\text{GL}}(n,K)} + +-torsor. +From a physical perspective, active transformations can be characterized as transformations of physical space, while passive transformations are characterized as redundancies in the description of physical space. This plays an important role in mathematical gauge theory, where gauge transformations are described mathematically by transition maps which act from the right on fibers. + +== See also == +Change of basis +Covariance and contravariance of vectors +Rotation of axes +Translation of axes + +== References == + +Dirk Struik (1953) Lectures on Analytic and Projective Geometry, page 84, Addison-Wesley. + +== External links == +UI ambiguity \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c4b56e0e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,377 @@ +--- +title: "Adequality" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:58.075678+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Adequality is a technique developed by Pierre de Fermat in his treatise Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minimam (a Latin treatise circulated in France c. 1636 ) to calculate maxima and minima of functions, tangents to curves, area, center of mass, least action, and other problems in calculus. According to André Weil, Fermat "introduces the technical term adaequalitas, adaequare, etc., which he says he has borrowed from Diophantus. As Diophantus V.11 shows, it means an approximate equality, and this is indeed how Fermat explains the word in one of his later writings." (Weil 1973). Diophantus coined the word παρισότης (parisotēs) to refer to an approximate equality. Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac translated Diophantus's Greek word into Latin as adaequalitas. Paul Tannery's French translation of Fermat's Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the words adéquation and adégaler. + +== Fermat's method == +Fermat used adequality first to find maxima of functions, and then adapted it to find tangent lines to curves. +To find the maximum of a term + + + + p + ( + x + ) + + + {\displaystyle p(x)} + +, Fermat equated (or more precisely adequated) + + + + p + ( + x + ) + + + {\displaystyle p(x)} + + and + + + + p + ( + x + + + e + ) + + + {\displaystyle p(x+e)} + + and after doing algebra he could cancel out a factor of + + + + e + , + + + {\displaystyle e,} + + and then discard any remaining terms involving + + + + e + . + + + {\displaystyle e.} + + To illustrate the method by Fermat's own example, consider the problem of finding the maximum of + + + + p + ( + x + ) + = + b + x + − + + x + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle p(x)=bx-x^{2}} + + (in Fermat's words, it is to divide a line of length + + + + b + + + {\displaystyle b} + + at a point + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + +, such that the product of the two resulting parts be a maximum). Fermat adequated + + + + b + x + − + + x + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle bx-x^{2}} + + with + + + + b + ( + x + + + e + ) + − + ( + x + + + e + + ) + + 2 + + + = + b + x + − + + x + + 2 + + + + + b + e + − + 2 + e + x + − + + e + + 2 + + + + + {\displaystyle b(x+e)-(x+e)^{2}=bx-x^{2}+be-2ex-e^{2}} + +. That is (using the notation + + + + ∽ + + + {\displaystyle \backsim } + + to denote adequality, introduced by Paul Tannery): + + + + + b + x + − + + x + + 2 + + + ∽ + b + x + − + + x + + 2 + + + + + b + e + − + 2 + e + x + − + + e + + 2 + + + . + + + {\displaystyle bx-x^{2}\backsim bx-x^{2}+be-2ex-e^{2}.} + + +Canceling terms and dividing by + + + + e + + + {\displaystyle e} + + Fermat arrived at + + + + + b + ∽ + 2 + x + + + e + . + + + {\displaystyle b\backsim 2x+e.} + + +Removing the terms that contained + + + + e + + + {\displaystyle e} + + Fermat arrived at the desired result that the maximum occurred when + + + + x + = + b + + / + + 2 + + + {\displaystyle x=b/2} + +. +Fermat also used his principle to give a mathematical derivation of Snell's laws of refraction directly from the principle that light takes the quickest path. + +== Descartes' criticism == +Fermat's method was highly criticized by his contemporaries, particularly Descartes. Victor Katz suggests this is because Descartes had independently discovered the same new mathematics, known as his method of normals, and Descartes was quite proud of his discovery. Katz also notes that while Fermat's methods were closer to the future developments in calculus, Descartes' methods had a more immediate impact on the development. + +== Scholarly controversy == + +Both Newton and Leibniz referred to Fermat's work as an antecedent of infinitesimal calculus. Nevertheless, there is disagreement amongst modern scholars about the exact meaning of Fermat's adequality. Fermat's adequality was analyzed in a number of scholarly studies. In 1896, Paul Tannery published a French translation of Fermat's Latin treatises on maxima and minima (Fermat, Œuvres, Vol. III, pp. 121–156). Tannery translated Fermat's term as “adégaler” and adopted Fermat's “adéquation”. Tannery also introduced the symbol + + + + ∽ + + + {\displaystyle \backsim } + + for adequality in mathematical formulas. + +Heinrich Wieleitner (1929) wrote:Fermat replaces A with A+E. Then he sets the new expression roughly equal (angenähert gleich) to the old one, cancels equal terms on both sides, and divides by the highest possible power of E. He then cancels all terms which contain E and sets those that remain equal to each other. From that [the required] A results. That E should be as small as possible is nowhere said and is at best expressed by the word "adaequalitas". (Wieleitner uses the symbol + + + + + ∼ + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \sim } + +.) + +Max Miller (1934) wrote:Thereupon one should put the both terms, which express the maximum and the minimum, approximately equal (näherungsweise gleich), as Diophantus says.(Miller uses the symbol + + + + + ≈ + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \approx } + +.) + +Jean Itard (1948) wrote:One knows that the expression "adégaler" is adopted by Fermat from Diophantus, translated by Xylander and by Bachet. It is about an approximate equality (égalité approximative) ". (Itard uses the symbol + + + + + ∽ + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \backsim } + +.) + +Joseph Ehrenfried Hofmann (1963) wrote:Fermat chooses a quantity h, thought as sufficiently small, and puts f(x + h) roughly equal (ungefähr gleich) to f(x). His technical term is adaequare.(Hofmann uses the symbol + + + + + ≈ + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \approx } + +.) + +Peer Strømholm (1968) wrote:The basis of Fermat's approach was the comparition of two expressions which, though they had the same form, were not exactly equal. This part of the process he called "comparare par adaequalitatem" or "comparer per adaequalitatem", and it implied that the otherwise strict identity between the two sides of the "equation" was destroyed by the modification of the variable by a small amount: + + + + + + f + ( + A + ) + + ∼ + + f + ( + A + + + E + ) + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle f(A){\sim }f(A+E)} + +. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4253db98f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,279 @@ +--- +title: "Adequality" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:58.075678+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This, I believe, was the real significance of his use of Diophantos' πἀρισον, stressing the smallness of the variation. The ordinary translation of 'adaequalitas' seems to be "approximate equality", but I much prefer "pseudo-equality" to present Fermat's thought at this point.He further notes that "there was never in M1 (Method 1) any question of the variation E being put equal to zero. The words Fermat used to express the process of suppressing terms containing E was 'elido', 'deleo', and 'expungo', and in French 'i'efface' and 'i'ôte'. We can hardly believe that a sane man wishing to express his meaning and searching for words, would constantly hit upon such tortuous ways of imparting the simple fact that the terms vanished because E was zero.(p. 51) +Claus Jensen (1969) wrote:Moreover, in applying the notion of adégalité – which constitutes the basis of Fermat's general method of constructing tangents, and by which is meant a comparition of two magnitudes as if they were equal, although they are in fact not ("tamquam essent aequalia, licet revera aequalia non sint") – I will employ the nowadays more usual symbol + + + + + ≈ + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \approx } + +. The Latin quotation comes from Tannery's 1891 edition of Fermat, volume 1, page 140. +Michael Sean Mahoney (1971) wrote:Fermat's Method of maxima and minima, which is clearly applicable to any polynomial P(x), originally rested on purely finitistic algebraic foundations. It assumed, counterfactually, the inequality of two equal roots in order to determine, by Viete's theory of equations, a relation between those roots and one of the coefficients of the polynomial, a relation that was fully general. This relation then led to an extreme-value solution when Fermat removed his counterfactual assumption and set the roots equal. Borrowing a term from Diophantus, Fermat called this counterfactual equality 'adequality'.(Mahoney uses the symbol + + + + + ≈ + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \approx } + +.) On p. 164, end of footnote 46, Mahoney notes that one of the meanings of adequality is approximate equality or equality in the limiting case. +Charles Henry Edwards, Jr. (1979) wrote:For example, in order to determine how to subdivide a segment of length + + + + + b + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle b} + + into two segments + + + + + x + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle x} + + and + + + + + b + − + x + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle b-x} + + whose product + + + + + x + ( + b + − + x + ) + = + b + x + − + + x + + 2 + + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle x(b-x)=bx-x^{2}} + + is maximal, that is to find the rectangle with perimeter + + + + + 2 + b + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle 2b} + + that has the maximal area, he [Fermat] proceeds as follows. First he substituted + + + + + x + + + e + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle x+e} + + (he used A, E instead of x, e) for the unknown x, and then wrote down the following "pseudo-equality" to compare the resulting expression with the original one: + + + + + + b + ( + x + + + e + ) + − + ( + x + + + e + + ) + + 2 + + + = + b + x + + + b + e + − + + x + + 2 + + + − + 2 + x + e + − + + e + + 2 + + + + ∼ + + b + x + − + + x + + 2 + + + . + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle b(x+e)-(x+e)^{2}=bx+be-x^{2}-2xe-e^{2}\;\sim \;bx-x^{2}.} + + +After canceling terms, he divided through by e to obtain + + + + + b + − + 2 + + x + − + e + + ∼ + + 0. + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle b-2\,x-e\;\sim \;0.} + + Finally he discarded the remaining term containing e, transforming the pseudo-equality into the true equality + + + + + x + = + + + b + 2 + + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle x={\frac {b}{2}}} + + that gives the value of x which makes + + + + + b + x + − + + x + + 2 + + + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle bx-x^{2}} + + maximal. Unfortunately, Fermat never explained the logical basis for this method with sufficient clarity or completeness to prevent disagreements between historical scholars as to precisely what he meant or intended." + +Kirsti Andersen (1980) wrote:The two expressions of the maximum or minimum are made "adequal", which means something like as nearly equal as possible.(Andersen uses the symbol + + + + + ≈ + + + + {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \approx } + +.) +Herbert Breger (1994) wrote:I want to put forward my hypothesis: Fermat used the word "adaequare" in the sense of "to put equal" ... In a mathematical context, the only difference between "aequare" and "adaequare" seems to be that the latter gives more stress on the fact that the equality is achieved.(Page 197f.) +John Stillwell (Stillwell 2006 p. 91) wrote:Fermat introduced the idea of adequality in 1630s but he was ahead of his time. His successors were unwilling to give up the convenience of ordinary equations, preferring to use equality loosely rather than to use adequality accurately. The idea of adequality was revived only in the twentieth century, in the so-called non-standard analysis. +Enrico Giusti (2009) cites Fermat's letter to Marin Mersenne where Fermat wrote:Cette comparaison par adégalité produit deux termes inégaux qui enfin produisent l'égalité (selon ma méthode) qui nous donne la solution de la question" ("This comparison by adequality produces two unequal terms which finally produce the equality (following my method) which gives us the solution of the problem").. Giusti notes in a footnote that this letter seems to have escaped Breger's notice. +Klaus Barner (2011) asserts that Fermat uses two different Latin words (aequabitur and adaequabitur) to replace the nowadays usual equals sign, aequabitur when the equation concerns a valid identity between two constants, a universally valid (proved) formula, or a conditional equation, adaequabitur, however, when the equation describes a relation between two variables, which are not independent (and the equation is no valid formula). On page 36, Barner writes: "Why did Fermat continually repeat his inconsistent procedure for all his examples for the method of tangents? Why did he never mention the secant, with which he in fact operated? I do not know." +Katz, Schaps, Shnider (2013) argue that Fermat's application of the technique to transcendental curves such as the cycloid shows that Fermat's technique of adequality goes beyond a purely algebraic algorithm, and that, contrary to Breger's interpretation, the technical terms parisotes as used by Diophantus and adaequalitas as used by Fermat both mean "approximate equality". They develop a formalisation of Fermat's technique of adequality in modern mathematics as the standard part function which rounds off a finite hyperreal number to its nearest real number. + +== See also == +Fermat's principle +Transcendental law of homogeneity + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Breger, Herbert (1994). "The mysteries of adaequare: A vindication of fermat". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 46 (3): 193–219. doi:10.1007/BF01686277. S2CID 119440472. +Edwards, C. H. (1979). The Historical Development of the Calculus. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-6230-5. ISBN 978-0-387-94313-8. +Giusti, E. (2009) "Les méthodes des maxima et minima de Fermat", Ann. Fac. Sci. Toulouse Math. (6) 18, Fascicule Special, 59–85. +Grabiner, Judith V. (Sep 1983), "The Changing Concept of Change: The Derivative from Fermat to Weierstrass", Mathematics Magazine, 56 (4): 195–206, doi:10.2307/2689807, JSTOR 2689807 +Katz, V. (2008), A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, Addison Wesley +Stillwell, J.(2006) Yearning for the impossible. The surprising truths of mathematics, page 91, A K Peters, Ltd., Wellesley, MA. +Weil, A., Book Review: The mathematical career of Pierre de Fermat. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 79 (1973), no. 6, 1138–1149. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8909f53f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Adjoint" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:59.225743+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In mathematics, the term adjoint applies in several situations. Several of these share a similar formalism: if A is adjoint to B, then there is typically some formula of the type + +(Ax, y) = (x, By). +Specifically, adjoint or adjunction may mean: + +Adjoint of a linear map, also called its transpose in case of matrices +Hermitian adjoint (adjoint of a linear operator) in functional analysis +Adjoint endomorphism of a Lie algebra +Adjoint representation of a Lie group +Adjoint functors in category theory +Adjunction (field theory) +Adjunction formula (algebraic geometry) +Adjunction space in topology +Conjugate transpose of a matrix in linear algebra +Adjugate matrix, related to its inverse +Adjoint equation +The upper and lower adjoints of a Galois connection in order theory +The adjoint of a differential operator with general polynomial coefficients +Kleisli adjunction +Monoidal adjunction +Quillen adjunction +Axiom of adjunction in set theory +Adjunction (rule of inference) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e7e015ff8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Authority control" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:25.700102+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In information science, authority control is a process that organizes information, for example in library catalogs, by using a single, distinct spelling of a name (heading) or an identifier (generally persistent and alphanumeric) for each topic or concept. The word authority in authority control derives from the idea that the names of people, places, things, and concepts are authorized, i.e., they are established in one particular form. These one-of-a-kind headings or identifiers are applied consistently throughout catalogs which make use of the respective authority file, and are applied for other methods of organizing data such as linkages and cross references. Each controlled entry is described in an authority record in terms of its scope and usage, and this organization helps the library staff maintain the catalog and make it user-friendly for researchers. +Catalogers assign each subject—such as author, topic, series, or corporation—a particular unique identifier or heading term which is then used consistently, uniquely, and unambiguously for all references to that same subject, which removes variations from different spellings, transliterations, pen names, or aliases. The unique header can guide users to all relevant information including related or collocated subjects. Authority records can be combined into a database and called an authority file, and maintaining and updating these files as well as "logical linkages" to other files within them is the work of librarians and other information catalogers. Accordingly, authority control is an example of controlled vocabulary and of bibliographic control. +While in theory any piece of information is amenable to authority control such as personal and corporate names, uniform titles, series names, and subjects, library catalogers typically focus on author names and titles of works. Since 1898, one of the most commonly used authority files globally is the subject headings from the Library of Congress. +As time passes, information changes, prompting needs for reorganization. According to one view, authority control is not about creating a perfect seamless system but rather it is an ongoing effort to keep up with these changes and try to bring "structure and order" to the task of helping users find information. + +== Benefits of authority control == +Better researching. Authority control helps researchers understand a specific subject with less wasted effort. A well-designed digital catalog/database enables a researcher to query a few words of an entry to bring up the already established term or phrase, thus improving accuracy and saving time. +Makes searching more predictable. It can be used in conjunction with keyword searching using "and" or "not" or "or" or other Boolean operators on a web browser. It increases chances that a given search will return relevant items. +Consistency of records. +Organization and structure of information. +Efficiency for catalogers. The process of authority control is not only of great help to researchers searching for a particular subject to study, but it can help catalogers organize information as well. Catalogers can use authority records when trying to categorize new items, since they can see which records have already been cataloged and can therefore avoid unnecessary work. +Maximizes library resources. Authority control helps ensure libraries have an accurate inventory of their materials, so that, for example, duplicate orders are not placed for an already owned resource. +Fewer errors. It can help catch errors caused by typos or misspellings which can sometimes accumulate over time, sometimes known as quality drift. These errors can then be corrected by library staff or by automated clean-up software. + +== Examples == + +=== Diverse names describe the same subject === + +Sometimes within a catalog, there are diverse names or spellings for only one person or subject. This variation may cause researchers to overlook relevant information. Authority control is used by catalogers to collocate materials that logically belong together but that present themselves differently. Records are used to establish uniform titles that collocate all versions of a given work under one unique heading even when such versions are issued under different titles. With authority control, one unique preferred name represents all variations and will include different variations, spellings and misspellings, uppercase versus lowercase variants, differing dates, and so forth. For example, in Wikipedia, the first wife of Charles III is described by an article Diana, Princess of Wales as well as numerous other descriptors, e.g. Princess Diana, but both Princess Diana and Diana, Princess of Wales describe the same person so they all redirect to the same main article; in general, all authority records choose one title as the preferred one for consistency. In an online library catalog, various entries might look like the following: + +Diana. (1) +Diana, Princess of Wales. (1) +Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961–1997. (13) +Diana, Princess of Wales 1961–1997. (1) +Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961–1997. (2) +DIANA, PRINCESS OF WALES, 1961–1997. (1) +These terms describe the same person. Accordingly, authority control reduces these entries to one unique entry or officially authorized heading, sometimes termed an access point: Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961–1997. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..77f767534 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Authority control" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:25.700102+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Generally, there are different authority file headings and identifiers used by different libraries in different countries, possibly inviting confusion, but there are different approaches internationally to try to lessen the confusion. One international effort to prevent such confusion is the Virtual International Authority File which is a collaborative attempt to provide a single heading for a particular subject. It is a way to standardize information from different authority files around the world such as the Integrated Authority File (GND) maintained and used cooperatively by many libraries in German-speaking countries and the United States Library of Congress. The idea is to create a single worldwide virtual authority file. For example, the ID for Princess Diana in the GND is 118525123 (preferred name: Diana < Wales, Prinzessin>) while the United States Library of Congress uses the term Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961–1997; other authority files have other choices. The Virtual International Authority File choice for all of these variations is VIAF ID: 107032638 — that is, a common number representing all of these variations. +The English Wikipedia prefers the term "Diana, Princess of Wales", but at the bottom of the article about her, there are links to various international cataloging efforts for reference purposes. + +=== Same name describes two different subjects === +Sometimes two different authors have been published under the same name. This can happen if there is a title which is identical to another title or to a collective uniform title. This, too, can cause confusion. Different authors can be distinguished correctly from each other by, for example, adding a middle initial to one of the names; in addition, other information can be added to one entry to clarify the subject, such as birth year, death year, range of active years such as 1918–1965 when the person flourished, or a brief descriptive epithet. When catalogers come across different subjects with similar or identical headings, they can disambiguate them using authority control. + +== Authority records and files == +A customary way of enforcing authority control in a bibliographic catalog is to set up a separate index of authority records, which relates to and governs the headings used in the main catalog. This separate index is often referred to as an "authority file". It contains an indexable record of all decisions made by catalogers in a given library (or—as is increasingly the case—cataloging consortium), which catalogers consult when making, or revising, decisions about headings. As a result, the records contain documentation about sources used to establish a particular preferred heading, and may contain information discovered while researching the heading which may be useful. +While authority files provide information about a particular subject, their primary function is not to provide information but to organize it. They contain enough information to establish that a given author or title is unique, but that is all; irrelevant but interesting information is generally excluded. Although practices vary internationally, authority records in the English-speaking world generally contain the following information: + +Headings show the preferred title chosen as the official and authorized version. It is important that the heading be unique; if there is a conflict with an identical heading, then one of the two will have to be chosen:Since the headings function as access points, making sure that they are distinct and not in conflict with existing entries is important. For example, the English novelist William Collins (1824–89), whose works include the Moonstone and The Woman in White is better known as Wilkie Collins. Cataloguers [sic] have to decide which name the public would most likely look under, and whether to use a see also reference to link alternative forms of an individual's name. +Cross references are other forms of the name or title that might appear in the catalog and include: +see references are forms of the name or title that describe the subject but which have been passed over or deprecated in favor of the authorized heading form +see also references point to other forms of the name or title that are also authorized. These see also references generally point to earlier or later forms of a name or title. +Statement(s) of justification is a brief account made by the cataloger about particular information sources used to determine both authorized and deprecated forms. Sometimes this means citing the title and publication date of the source, the location of the name or title on that source, and the form in which it appears on that source. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e60c5d3ea --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "Authority control" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:25.700102+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +For example, the Irish writer Brian O'Nolan, who lived from 1911 to 1966, wrote under many pen names such as Flann O'Brien and Myles na Gopaleen. Catalogers at the United States Library of Congress chose one form—"O'Brien, Flann, 1911–1966"—as the official heading. The example contains all three elements of a valid authority record: the first heading O'Brien, Flann, 1911–1966 is the form of the name that the Library of Congress chose as authoritative. In theory, every record in the catalog that represents a work by this author should have this form of the name as its author heading. What follows immediately below the heading beginning with Na Gopaleen, Myles, 1911–1966 are the see references. These forms of the author's name will appear in the catalog, but only as transcriptions and not as headings. If a user queries the catalog under one of these variant forms of the author's name, he or she would receive the response: "See O'Brien, Flann, 1911–1966." There is an additional spelling variant of the Gopaleen name: "Na gCopaleen, Myles, 1911–1966" has an extra C inserted because the author also employed the non-anglicized Irish spelling of his pen-name, in which the capitalized C shows the correct root word while the preceding g indicates its pronunciation in context. So if a library user comes across this spelling variant, he or she will be led to the same author regardless. See also references, which point from one authorized heading to another authorized heading, are exceedingly rare for personal name authority records, although they often appear in name authority records for corporate bodies. The final four entries in this record beginning with His At Swim-Two-Birds ... 1939. constitute the justification for this particular form of the name: it appeared in this form on the 1939 edition of the author's novel At Swim-Two-Birds, whereas the author's other noms de plume appeared on later publications. + +== Access control == +The act of choosing a single authorized heading to represent all forms of a name is quite often a difficult and complex task, considering that any given individual may have legally changed their name or used a variety of legal names in the course of their lifetime, as well as a variety of nicknames, pen names, stage names or other alternative names. It may be particularly difficult to choose a single authorized heading for individuals whose various names have controversial political or social connotations, when the choice of authorized heading may be seen as endorsement of the associated political or social ideology. +An alternative to using authorized headings is the idea of access control, where various forms of a name are related without the endorsement of one particular form. + +== Cooperative cataloging == +Before the advent of digital online public access catalogs and the Internet, individual cataloging departments within each library generally carried out creating and maintaining a library's authority files. Naturally, there was a considerable difference in the authority files of the different libraries. For the early part of library history, it was generally accepted that, as long as a library's catalog was internally consistent, the differences between catalogs in different libraries did not matter greatly. +As libraries became more attuned to the needs of researchers and began interacting more with other libraries, the value of standard cataloging practices came to be recognized. With the advent of automated database technologies, catalogers began to establish cooperative consortia, such as OCLC and RLIN in the United States, in which cataloging departments from libraries all over the world contributed their records to, and took their records from, a shared database. This development prompted the need for national standards for authority work. +In the United States, the primary organization for maintaining cataloging standards with respect to authority work operates under the aegis of the Library of Congress Program for Cooperative Cataloging. It is known as the Name Authority Cooperative Program, or NACO Authority. + +== Standards == +There are various standards using different acronyms. + +=== Standards for authority metadata === +MARC standards for authority records in machine-readable format. +Metadata Authority Description Schema (MADS), an XML schema for an authority element set that may be used to provide metadata about agents (people, organizations), events, and terms (topics, geographics, genres, etc.). +Encoded Archival Context, an XML schema for authority records conforming to ISAAR. + +=== Standards for object identification, controlled by an identification-authority === +Legal personality identification systems (person-IDs) and authorities: +serey + (CPF) – International Standard Archival Authority Record for Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families. Published by the International Council on Archives +ISNI – International Standard Name Identifier +ORCID – Open Researcher and Contributor ID, a subset of the ISNI, to uniquely identify scientific and other academic authors. +DAI – Digital Author Identification, another subset of ISNI. +GRID – Global Research Identifier Database +GND – Integrated Authority File (Gemeinsame Normdatei), authority file for personal names, corporate bodies and subject headings. +KANTO – National Agent Data (finaf), authority file for persons and corporate bodies. +LCCN – Library of Congress Control Number +NDL – National Diet Library +VIAF – Virtual International Authority File, an aggregation of authority files currently focused on personal and corporate names. +WorldCat/identities +Bibliographic object identification systems and authorities: +DOI – Digital object identifier +urn:lex, for law-document identifiers, controlled by local law authorities. +ISBN – International Standard Book Number +ISSN – International Standard Serial Number +Other identification systems (for generic named-entities) and authorities: +GeoNames +TGN – Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names + +=== Standards for identified-object metadata === +vCard +Dublin Core + +== See also == +Persistent identifier +Knowledge Organization Systems +Library classification systems: +Dewey Decimal Classification +Library of Congress Classification +Ontology (information science) +Proprietary services +ResearcherID +Registration authority +Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliomining-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliomining-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e4c4011c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliomining-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Bibliomining" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliomining" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:26.830125+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Bibliomining is the use of a combination of data mining, data warehousing, and bibliometrics for the purpose of analyzing library services. The term was created in 2003 by Scott Nicholson, Assistant Professor, Syracuse University School of Information Studies, in order to distinguish data mining in a library setting from other types of data mining. + + +== How bibliomining works == +First a data warehouse must be created. This is done by compiling information on the resources, such as titles and authors, subject headings, and descriptions of the collections. Then the demographic surrogate information is organized. Finally the library information (such as the librarian, whether or not the information came from the reference desk or circulation desk, and the location of the library) is obtained. +Once this is organized, the data can be processed and analyzed. This can be done via a few methods, such as online analytical processing (OLAP), using a data mining program, or through data visualization. + + +== Uses of bibliomining == +Bibliomining is used to discover patterns in what people are reading and researching and allows librarians to target their community better. Bibliomining can also help library directors focus their budgets on resources that will be utilized. Another use is to determine when people use the library more often, so staffing needs can be adequately met. Combining bibliomining with other research techniques such as focus groups, surveys and cost-benefit analysis, will help librarians to get a better picture of their patrons and their needs. + + +== Issues == +There is some concern that data mining violates patron privacy. But by extracting the data, all personally identifiable information is deleted, and the data warehouse is clean. The original patron data can then be totally deleted and there will be no way to link the new data to a particular patron. This can be done in a few ways. One, used with information regarding database access, is to track the IP address, but then replace it with a similar code, that will allow identification without violating privacy. Another is to keep track of an item returned to the library and create a "demographic surrogate" of the patron. The demographic surrogate would not give any identifiable information such as names, library card numbers or addresses. +The other concern in bibliomining is that it only provides data in a very detached manner. Information is given as to how a patron uses library resources, but there is no way to track if the resources met the user's needs completely. Someone could take out a book on a topic, but not find the information they were seeking. Bibliomining only helps identify which books are used, not how useful they actually were. Bibliomining cannot provide information on how well a collection serves a patron. In order to counteract this, bibliomining must be used in accordance with other research techniques. + + +== See also == +Iris.AI + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..086d65f6e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Born-digital" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:28.033797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term born-digital refers to materials that originate in a digital form. This is in contrast to digital reformatting, through which analog materials become digital, as in the case of files created by scanning physical paper records. It is most often used in relation to digital libraries and the issues that go along with said organizations, such as digital preservation and intellectual property. However, as technologies have advanced and spread, the concept of being born-digital has also been discussed in relation to personal consumer-based sectors, with the rise of e-books and evolving digital music. Other terms that might be encountered as synonymous include "natively digital", "digital-first", and "digital-exclusive". + +== Discrepancies in definition == +There exists some inconsistency in defining born-digital materials. Some believe such materials must exist in digital form exclusively; in other words, if they can be transferred into a physical, analog form, they are not truly born-digital. However, others maintain that while these materials will often not have a subsequent physical counterpart, having one does not bar them from being classified as 'born-digital'. For instance, Mahesh and Mittal identify two types of born-digital content, "exclusive digital" and "digital for print", allowing for a broader base of classification than the former definition provides. +Furthermore, it has been pointed out that certain works may incorporate components that are both born-digital and digitized, further blurring the lines between what should and should not be considered 'born-digital.' For example, a digital video created may utilize historical film footage that has been converted. It is important to be aware of these discrepancies when thinking about born-digital materials and the effects they have. However, some universals do exist across these definitions. All make clear the fact that born-digital media must originate digitally. Also, they agree that this media must be able to be utilized in a digital form (whether exclusively or otherwise), while they do not have to exist or be used as analog materials. + +== Etymology == +The term "born digital" is of uncertain origin. While it may have occurred to multiple people at various times, it was coined independently by web developer Randel (Rafi) Metz in 1993, who acquired the domain name "borndigital.com" then and sustained it as a personal website for 18 years until 2011. The domain is now owned by a web developer in New Zealand. The original website is archived here. + +== Examples of born-digital content == + +=== Grey literature and communications === +Much of the grey literature that exists today are almost entirely conducted online, due in part to the accessibility and speed of internet communications. As the products of the vast amount of information created by organizations and individuals on computers, data sets and electronic records must exist in the context of other activities. Common content includes: + +Email +Documents created in word processors and/or observed in viewers. Examples include Microsoft Word, Google Docs, WordPerfect, Apple Pages, LibreOffice Writer, and Adobe Reader. +Spreadsheets used to organize and tabulate data are almost entirely digital. Common applications include Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, LibreOffice Calc, and Lotus 1-2-3 (discontinued). +Presentations used to present data and ideas are created with software such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides, LibreOffice Impress, and Prezi. +Electronic medical records +Social media websites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Reddit have originated in the networked world, and are therefore born-digital by default. + +==== Digital photography ==== +Digital photography has allowed larger groups of people to participate in the process, art form, and pastime of photography. With the advent of digital cameras in the late 1980s, followed by the invention and dissemination of mobile phones capable of photography, sales of digital cameras eventually surpassed that of analog cameras. The early to mid 2000s saw the rise of photo storage websites, such as Flickr and Photobucket, and social media websites dedicated primarily to sharing digital photographs, including Instagram, Pinterest, Imgur, and Tumblr. Digital image files include Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG), Tagged Image File Format (TIFF), Portable Network Graphics (PNG), Graphic Interchange Format (GIF), and raw image format. + +==== Digital art ==== +Digital art is an umbrella term for art created with a computer. Types include visual media, digital animation, computer-aided design, 3D models and interactive art. Webcomics, comics published primarily on the internet, are an example of exclusively born-digital art. Webcomics follow the tradition of user-generated content and may later be printed by the creator, but as they were originally disseminated through the internet, they are considered to be born-digital media. Many webcomics are published on existing social media websites, while others use webcomic-specific platforms, such as Webtoon, or their own domains. + +==== Electronic books ==== + +E-books are books that can be read through the digital screens of computers, smartphones, or dedicated devices. The e-book sector of the book industry has flourished in recent years, with increasing numbers of e-books and e-book readers being developed and sold. E-publishing is particularly favorable to independent authors, because the digital marketplace creates a more direct connection between authors, their works, and the audience. Some publishing houses, including major ones such as Harlequin, have formed imprints for digital-only books in response to this trend. Publishers also offer digital-exclusive publications for use on e-book readers, such as the Kindle. One example of this was with the simultaneous launch of Amazon's Kindle 2 with the Stephen King novelette Ur. In recent years, however, the sale of e-books from traditional publishers has decreased, due in part to increasing prices. + +==== Video recordings ==== +Videos that are born-digital vary in type and usage. Vlogs, an amalgamation of "video" and "blog," are streamed and consumed on video-sharing websites such as YouTube. +Similarly, a web series is a television-like show that is shown exclusively and/or initially on the internet. This does not include the streaming of pre-existing traditional television shows. Examples include Dr. Horrible's Sing Along Blog, The Lizzie Bennett Diaries, The Guild, and The Twilight Zone (2019). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7ccaba7b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Born-digital" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:28.033797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Sound recordings ==== +Digital sound recordings have played a role since the 1970s with the acceptance of pulse-code modulation (PCM) in the recording process. Since then, numerous means of storing and delivering digital audio have been developed, including web streams, compact discs and mp3 audio files. Increasingly, digital audio are only available via download, lacking any kind of tangible counterpart. One example of this trend is the 2008 recording of Hector Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique by Los Angeles Philharmonic under Gustavo Dudamel. Available through download only, it has presented problems for libraries which may want to carry this work but cannot due to licensing limitations. Another example is Radiohead's 2007 release In Rainbows, released initially as a digital download, before later receiving a physical release. + +==== Other media ==== +WebExhibits are websites that act as virtual museums for any variety of content. These often use both primary and secondary historical sources, maps, timelines, infographics, and other data visualizations to showcase the historical past. One example is Clio Visualizing History's Click! The Ongoing Feminist Revolution, a web exhibit about the American women's movement from the 1940s to the present. Clio Visualizing History was founded by Lola Van Wagenen in 1996 to meet the growing need for innovative history projects in multi-media platforms. + +=== Journalism === +As existing print publications migrated to born-digital releases, digital native news websites such as HuffPo and Buzzfeed News have grown substantially. This trend toward web-exclusive content has seen the rise of "news applications," or news articles built with interactive features that cannot be replicated on print. "News Apps" are often heavily data-driven, using interactive graphics custom-built for the story by a team of software specialists in addition to the core group of writers and editors. Examples include Baltimore Homicides from The Baltimore Sun, Do No Harm from the Las Vegas Sun, and Snow Fall from The New York Times, which took a team of more than fifteen journalists, web developers, and designers to build. + +== Key issues == + +=== Preservation === +Digital preservation involves the conservation and maintenance of digital content. As with other digital objects, preservation must be a continuous and regular undertaking, as these materials do not show the same signs of degradation that print and other physical materials do. Invisible processes such as bit rot can lead to irreparable damage. In the case of born-digital content, deterioration can occur in the form of bit rot, a process in which digital files degrade over time, and link rot, a process in which URLs link to pages on the internet that are no longer available. Incompatibility is also a concern, in regard to the eventual obsolescence of both hardware and software capable of making sense of the documents. + +Many questions arise regarding what should be archived and preserved and who should undertake the job. Vast amounts of born-digital content are created constantly and institutions are forced to decide what and how much should be saved. Because linking plays such a large role in the digital setting, whether a responsibility exists to maintain access to links (and therefore context) is debated, especially when considering the scope of such a task. Additionally, since publishing is not as delineated in the digital realm and preliminary versions of work are increasingly made available, knowing when to archive presents further complications. + +=== Relevance and accessibility === +For digital libraries and repositories that are used as reference materials, such as PBS LearningMedia, which provides educational resources for teachers, staying relevance is of utmost importance. The information must be factually accurate and include context, while staying current to the website's main goals. As in the case of preservation, bit rot, link rot, and incompatibility negatively affect how users might access born-digital records, while mere functionality, e.g. video quality and legibility of any text, is also a concern. Additionally, considerations on how digital content can be inclusive of people with disabilities should be made, particularly in conjunction with assistive technologies such as screen readers, screen magnifiers, and speech-to-text software. Access is also affected by licensing laws — the lack of ownership of their digital collections leaves libraries with nothing when their license expires, despite the costs already paid. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aff1f9e7c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Born-digital" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:28.033797+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Licensing === +Laws created to protect the intellectual property were written for analog works; as such, provisions such as the first-sale doctrine of US copyright law, which enables libraries to lend materials to patrons, have not been applied to the digital realm. Therefore, certain copyrighted digital content that is licensed rather than owned, as is common with many digital materials, is often of limited use since it cannot be transmitted to patrons at various computers or lent through an interloan agreement. However, with regards to the preservation functions of libraries and archives and the subsequent need to make copies of born-digital materials, the laws of many countries have been changing, allowing for agreements to be made between these institutions and the rights holders of born-digital content. +Consumers have also had to deal with intellectual property as it concerns their ownership of and ability to control the born-digital material that they buy. Piracy proves to be a bigger problem with digital objects, including those that are born-digital, because such materials can be copied and spread in perfect condition with speed and distance on a scale inconceivable for traditional print and physical materials. Again, the first-sale doctrine, which, from a consumer standpoint, allows purchasers of materials to sell or give away items (such as books and CDs), is not yet applied effectively to digital objects. Three reasons for this have been identified by Victor Calaba: "...first, license agreements imposed by software manufacturers typically prohibit exercise of the first sale doctrine; second, traditional copyright law may not support application of the first sale doctrine to digital works; finally, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act functionally prevents users from making copies of digitized works and prohibits the necessary bypassing of access control mechanisms to facilitate a transfer." +Increasingly, institutions are more interested in subscribing to digital versions of journals, something observed as some scholarly journals have unbundled their print and electronic editions and allowed for separate subscription; these trends have created questions about the economic sustainability of print publication. Major journals such as the American Chemical Society have made significant changes to their print editions in order to cut costs, and many others predict an exclusively digital future. The increasing subscription prices and predatory practices of scholarly journals, however, provided impetus for the Open Access Movement, which advocates for free, unrestricted access to scholarly papers. + +== See also == +e-Flux +Digital artifactual value +Digital curation +Legal deposit +National edeposit, Australia's system for depositing, storing and managing all born-digital documents published in Australia +Virtual artifact + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butts_and_bounds-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butts_and_bounds-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9afa42f15 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butts_and_bounds-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Butts and bounds" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butts_and_bounds" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:11.119592+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Butts and bounds, shortened form for "abuttals and boundaries" of a property, are the boundary lines delineated between plots of land, usually those which define the end of an estate, as used in legal deeds, titles, etc. These are usually descriptive features in the property, such as trees, outcroppings of stone, or riverine brooks, etc., and are signified in the legal deed for purposes of identification. + + +== Historical uses == +The practice of signifying butts and bounds in the sale of real estate and in legal deeds and contracts is an ancient practice, having attestation in the Hebrew Bible. In the episode of Abraham who purchased the field of Ephron in Genesis 23:17, and where it describes the cave and the trees in the outermost bounds of the property, the Sages of Israel learnt thereby that he that sells his field must write in the deed its landmarks and boundaries. +According to rabbinic tradition, Joshua, when dividing the Land of Canaan among the twelve tribes of Israel, planted Sea squill (Hebrew: חצוב) to mark off the butts and bounds of tribal inheritance. The practice was still prevalent along the coast of the Syrian-Egyptian desert as late as the 20th-century. +In Jewish laws of agronomy, the prohibition of marking off butts and bounds beginning on the first day of the lunar month Tishri during the Seventh-year (until the end of that year) is expressly stated in the compendium of Jewish oral law known as the Mishnah (Shevi'it 2:2): + +Until the New Year they may mark the butts and bounds of property (Hebrew: מיבלין), strip off leaves, cover up [exposed] roots or fumigate plants. + + +=== Legal deeds of conveyance === +The civil laws with respect to standard formularies used in drafting documents and legal deeds differ from country to country. For example, in some societies the custom requires that, where there are no distinct physical features in the said property, it is sufficient to mention the name(s) of the property owner(s) of the adjacent fields. As early as anno 500 CE it was litigated: + +If the field is bounded by fields of Reuben on the east and west and by fields of Simeon on the north and south, he must write, 'the field is bounded by fields of Reuben on two sides, and by fields of Simeon on two sides.' [And not simply, 'It lies between the fields of Reuben and Simeon,' which leaves room for ambiguity.] +In older legal deeds, the phrase "butted and bounded by..." often precedes the actual description of the ends of the land in question. In modern conveyances of real estate, the legal term is often defined as Parcels clause. + + +=== USA === + +With the development of modern surveying techniques in Europe and the proposals put forward before the US Congress under the Land Ordinance of 1785, a more efficient way was devised in the United States for the layout, sale and disposal of private and public lands, known as the Public Land Survey System. This new system formed the basis for dividing all territory, and where it called-out unto surveyors in their respective places to take an account of all lands, and to divide the same territory into Townships of six miles square, by lines running due north and south, and others crossing these at right angles. The plats of townships respectively were to be marked by subdivisions consisting each of lots of one mile square, or 640 acres, and numbered from 1 to 36. These numbered subdivisions were known as Sections. Sections could also be divided into four equal quarters (fractions of a section), known simply as NW [= north-west], NE [= north-east], SW [= south-west] and SE [= south-east], while each quarter could be subdivided into another four quarters, such that the north-east quarter when divided into four more quarters, would have the designation of either SENE [= south-east of North-east quarter], or SWNE [= south-west of North-east quarter], or NWNE (north-west of North-east quarter], or NENE [= north-east of North-east quarter]. In this manner, all sections were duly divided. Thus, by this means, land holders who either bought land or who were granted land due to their military service, were able to register their holdings in their names, in their respective counties, with the date of purchase or issuance of a military warrant, and the precise location of the property (e.g. lands of Section 14, in Township 11S [= eleven South], of Range 14W [= fourteen West]) ascribed to the person. Township numbers were always followed by a principal meridian directional sign (either N or S [= for north and south]), while the range number was always followed by a base line directional sign (either E or W [= for east and west]). + + +=== Australia === +In Australian common law, which shares a common law heritage with the United Kingdom, Canada and the United-States, "A description by abuttals will, as a rule, override measurements expressed in figures if conflict exists between description and measurement". The same rule applies in 2nd-century Judaic law, except where the seller had noted in the transaction that he was selling to the buyer a parcel of land defined by measurement, and which same measurement he (the seller) expressly stated as extending as far as its physical butts and bounds. Had the buyer discovered, when he came to take an account of his field, that the butts and bounds did not extend so far, but were one-sixth (1⁄6) less than the designated measurement avouched by the seller, the sale does not hold-up as good, seeing that the conditions were fraudulent, in which case, the seller is required to reimburse to its buyer the difference paid (diminishing one-sixth of the cost), or else give to him more land. When both measurement and descriptive features are used, anything less than a deviancy of 1⁄6 is still in the realm of accuracy. + + +== Historical example == +The following deed of sale from the US shows the parameters of a plot of land, bounded by trees and a river: + + +== See also == +Beating of the bounds +Boundary (real estate) +Boundary marker +Deed +Land lot +Metes and bounds +Title (property) + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Christopher Fennell, "An Account of James Monroe's Land Holdings: Surveying terminology" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..99a545401 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Chronostratigraphy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:42.400088+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the ages of rock strata in relation to time. +The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and eventually, the entire geologic record of the Earth. +The standard stratigraphic nomenclature is a chronostratigraphic system based on palaeontological intervals of time defined by recognised fossil assemblages (biostratigraphy). The aim of chronostratigraphy is to give a meaningful age date to these fossil assemblage intervals and interfaces. + + +== Methodology == +Chronostratigraphy relies heavily upon isotope geology and geochronology to derive hard dating of known and well defined rock units which contain the specific fossil assemblages defined by the stratigraphic system. In practice, as it is very difficult to isotopically date most fossils and sedimentary rocks directly, inferences must be made in order to arrive at an age date which reflects the beginning of the interval. +The methodology used is derived from the law of superposition and the principles of cross-cutting relationships. +Because igneous rocks occur at specific intervals in time and are essentially instantaneous on a geologic time scale, and because they contain mineral assemblages which may be dated more accurately and precisely by isotopic methods, the construction of a chronostratigraphic column relies heavily upon intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks. +Metamorphism, often associated with faulting, may also be used to bracket depositional intervals in a chronostratigraphic column. Metamorphic rocks can occasionally be dated, and this may give some limitations to the age in which a bed could have been laid down. For example, if a bed containing graptolites overlies crystalline basement at some point, dating the crystalline basement will give a maximum age of that fossil assemblage. +This process requires a considerable degree of effort and checking of field relationships and age dates. For instance, there may be many millions of years between a bed being laid down and an intrusive rock cutting it; the estimate of age must necessarily be between the oldest cross-cutting intrusive rock in the fossil assemblage and the youngest rock upon which the fossil assemblage rests. + + +== Units == +Chronostratigraphic units, with examples: + +eonothem – Phanerozoic +erathem – Paleozoic +system – Ordovician +series – Upper Ordovician +stage – Ashgill + + +== Differences from geochronology == +It is important not to confuse geochronologic and chronostratigraphic units. Chronostratigraphic units are geological material, so it is correct to say that fossils of the species Tyrannosaurus rex have been found in the Upper Cretaceous Series. Geochronological units are periods of time and take the same name as standard stratigraphic units but replacing the terms upper/lower with late/early. Thus it is also correct to say that Tyrannosaurus rex lived during the Late Cretaceous Epoch. +Chronostratigraphy is an important branch of stratigraphy because the age correlations derived are crucial in drawing accurate cross sections of the spatial organization of rocks and in preparing accurate paleogeographic reconstructions. + + +== See also == +Biostratigraphy +Chronozone +Geochronology +Geologic record +Geologic time scale +List of geochronologic names +Tectonostratigraphy + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronozone-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronozone-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..91533311a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronozone-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Chronozone" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronozone" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:43.591424+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A chronozone or chron is a unit in chronostratigraphy, defined by events such as +geomagnetic reversals (magnetozones), or based on the presence of specific fossils (biozone or biochronozone). +According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the term "chronozone" refers to the rocks formed during a particular time period, while "chron" refers to that time period. +Although non-hierarchical, chronozones have been recognized as useful markers or benchmarks of time in the rock record. Chronozones are non-hierarchical in that chronozones do not need to correspond across geographic or geologic boundaries, nor be equal in length. Although a former, early constraint required that a chronozone be defined as smaller than a geological stage. Another early use was hierarchical in that Harland et al. (1989) used "chronozone" for the slice of time smaller than a faunal stage defined in biostratigraphy. + The ICS superseded these earlier usages in 1994. +The key factor in designating an internationally acceptable chronozone is whether the overall fossil column is clear, unambiguous, and widespread. Some accepted chronozones contain others, and certain larger chronozones have been designated which span whole defined geological time units, both large and small. +For example, the chronozone Pliocene is a subset of the chronozone Neogene, and the chronozone Pleistocene is a subset of the chronozone Quaternary. + + +== See also == +Body form +Chronology (geology) +European Mammal Neogene +Geologic time scale +North American Land Mammal Age +Type locality (geology) +List of GSSPs + + +== References == + + +== External links == +International Stratigraphic Chart from the International Commission on Stratigraphy +USA National Park Service +Washington State University Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine +Web Geological Time Machine +Eon or Aeon, Math Words - An alphabetical index +The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP): overview +Chart of The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP): chart +Geotime chart displaying geologic time periods compared to the fossil record \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d6860d7d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Claim club" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:12.319651+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Claim clubs, also called actual settlers' associations or squatters' clubs, were a nineteenth-century phenomenon in the American West. Usually operating within a confined local jurisdiction, these pseudo-governmental entities sought to regulate land sales in places where there was little or no legal apparatus to deal with land-related quarrels of any size. Some claim clubs sought to protect squatters, while others defended early land owners. In the twentieth century, sociologists suggested that claim clubs were a pioneer adaptation of democratic bodies on the East Coast, including town halls. + +== Purpose == +Claim clubs were essentially designed to "do what politicians refused to do: make land available to needy settlers." Their general purpose was to protect the first settlers to arrive on unclaimed lands, particularly in their rights to speculate and cultivate. With the continuous availability of frontier lands from the 1830s through the 1890s, settlers kept moving west. Each claim club established its own rules of governance and enforcement; however, these were almost always vigilante actions. Period accounts report that in some areas, claim clubs were regarded with "the same majesty of the law of the Supreme Court of the United States." +East Coast land speculators were prone to roam the recently opened Western United States and select the most desirable spots with the intent to outbid the settler and real claimant when the lands were offered for sale at the Land Office. Claim jumpers were also a problem. Generally they sought to be present at a land sale when the first claimant was not there. In many cases, when people who claimed land and then did not live on it and had not developed it with a shelter, fencing or other structures, "claim jumpers" would move in. +This was one scenario where claim clubs would enter. The absentee-owned land would be exploited directly and indirectly, or just simply seized with the title held "by claim club." Members might vote expensive local improvements for the land, including roads and schoolhouses, and assign the heavy costs of development as a tax burden on the land held by absentees. This became the regular policy of some claim clubs, designed to force the sale by absentee owners to actual residents, or at least to local speculators. +Claim clubs did not always protect the honest settler against the scheming speculator. Although claim club law sometimes shielded of the simple homesteader, it was also a tool and a weapon of the speculator. Claim clubs acted not only to protect a squatter's title to land he lived on and was cultivating, but also to help the same squatter defend unoccupied second and third tracts against the claim of later arrivals. +The institution of the claim club is said to have "reached perfection" in Iowa, where more than a hundred such groups carefully regulated land commerce until the United States government intervened. + +== Examples == +One early claim club in the United States was established by settlers around Burlington, Iowa, where claims were formed before the Sauk and Meskwaki peoples ceded the area in 1832. These clubs were established in direct violation of federal law, in what J. Sterling Morton described as a claim meeting. According to one report, "Such clubs sprang up 'as readily as did the sunflowers wherever the prairie sod was broken' in Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska..." Other reports corroborate the spread of claim clubs, with their presence felt in the aforementioned states, as well as New Mexico, North Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, Colorado and Washington. + +=== Colorado === +In Old Colorado City, Colorado, the El Paso Claim Club was formed by members of the Colorado City Town Company in 1859. The Club reportedly "settled land disputes and recorded real property transactions until federal government regulations provided for an official land office in 1862." +The Cañon City (Colorado) Claim Club first platted the town of Cañon City in 1860. The club had six members, each of whom mined coal, iron, gypsum, marble and granite mining in the area, and Denver also had a claim club. + +=== Nebraska === +The Omaha Claim Club was founded in 1854, the year the city was founded. Initially designed to protect the interests of 20 men, it grew to include almost two hundred settlers. The group used violent means to impose "frontier justice", including dunking in the frozen Missouri River, running off legitimate settlers, and other forms of vigilantism. The club imposed their will on the Nebraska Territorial Legislature as well, and with the passage of a territorial law granting 320 acres (1.3 km2) per settler, they doubled the federally imposed limit of 160 acres (0.6 km2). The club ran Omaha until the Supreme Court ruled against their violent measures in Baker v. Morton, a hallmark in contract law cases. +In the 1854 the Bellevue (Nebraska) Claim Club was organized. The original aim of the club was "to secure the peaceful adjustment of all cases in which claims in this then un-surveyed country overlapped each other." The club was renowned for visiting "claim jumpers" with beatings to convince them to leave their claims. Its last act, reportedly in 1858, was to attempt to tar and feather an old man and his three sons reportedly squatting in the area. The Platte Valley Claim Club was established in Fremont in August, 1856 to settle land disputes, and folded by late 1857. +Fort Saint Vrain, Nebraska Territory also had a claim club in the late 1850s that was designed to keep the town from failing. It did not succeed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7211f7668 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Claim club" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:12.319651+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Kansas === +One story of claim club "justice" comes from Montgomery County, Kansas town in 1867. An early settler had tilled his land and improved on it, according to the provisions of the Homestead Act. However, he had not lived on it for five years. After he sold it to another man, this same settler reportedly went to the United States Land Office to preempt the man to whom he sold the land. After doing so this settler attempted to displace the man he sold the land to and claim it as his own. When the local claim club ordered the town sheriff to "put the man away", the original settler was never seen again. + +=== Iowa === +Claim clubs also secured members' stakes on land they speculated to become important to the federal government, for the purpose of selling it back to the government at a later date. Members of one Iowa claim club purchased 15,000 acres (61 km2) in central Iowa, which eventually was sold in order to develop both the state capitol in Des Moines and Iowa City, where the state university is today. +Iowa had several other claim clubs, as well. In Fort Des Moines, Fort Dodge, Iowa and Iowa City active clubs abounded. In Iowa City the club's mission was to "...protect all persons who do or may hold claims, against the interference of any person who shall attempt to deprive such claim holders of their claims and improvements, by preemption or otherwise." + +=== Others === +From 1832 to 1843, Dupage County, Illinois created a number of claim clubs until the federal land surveyors arrived. In 1835 settlers in Elkhorn Creek, Wisconsin formed a claim club. Other settlers did the same, including the town of Yankton, South Dakota. There is also a report of a claim club in Alabama in the 1850s. + +== Decline == +In the latter part of the 1850s claim clubs came under pressure from the federal government, and lost public support in many communities. In an 1858 ruling, the United States Department of the Interior addressed claim clubs directly, stating that, "A member of a claim club, organized for the purpose of illegally appropriating and selling public lands, will be held to the strictest proof of honest intent, when asserting an individual claim." +The violent actions of the Omaha Claim Club may have brought about the demise of claim clubs across the country. In 1860, in Baker v. Morton, the Supreme Court ordered that city's club to disband. Other sources say that with the arrival of several United States Land Offices across the West, the claim clubs simply were not needed. +The Omaha Claim Club, along with many claim clubs around Nebraska, disbanded by 1860. + +== See also == +Preemption Act of September 4, 1841 +Bald Knobbers +Stockgrowers association + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_(landform)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_(landform)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e8313abd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_(landform)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Dell (landform)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_(landform)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:13.753963+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In physical geography, a dell is a grassy hollow—or dried stream bed—often partially covered in trees. In literature, dells have pastoral connotations, frequently imagined as secluded and pleasant safe havens. +The word "dell" comes from the Old English word dell, which is related to the Old English word dæl, modern 'dale'. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with the word "dingle", although "dingle" specifically refers to deep ravines or hollows that are embowered with trees. The terms have also been combined to form examples of tautological placenames in Dingle Dell, Kent, and Dingle Dell Reserve, Auckland. + + +== In popular culture == +Rivendell – Fictional valley of Elves in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth — Tolkien's fictional Elvish locale. +Derndingle — in The Lord of the Rings, the place in Fangorn Forest where the Entmoot is held. +"The Farmer in the Dell" – an American folk song brought to United States by German immigrants. +"This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison" - A poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, makes reference to a dell in lines 5-10. + + +== Related places == +Hollywood Dell, Los Angeles +Hollywood Bowl – Amphitheater in Los Angeles, California +Matthiessen State Park – State park in Illinois, US +Wisconsin Dells – Gorge on the Wisconsin River in Wisconsin, United States +The Dell (Wellington, New Zealand) – A flat, sheltered lawn area with a stage, surrounded by steep hills + + +== See also == + +Cirque – Amphitheatre-like valley formed by glacial erosion +Coulee – Type of valley or drainage zone +Glen – Name for valley commonly used in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man +U-shaped valley, also known as glaciated valley – Valleys formed by glacial scouring +Gully – Landform created by running water and/or mass movement eroding sharply into soil +Canyon, also known as Gorge – Deep chasm between cliffs +Valley – Low area between hills, often with a river running through it + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Dells at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depocenter-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depocenter-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e51919a91 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depocenter-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Depocenter" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depocenter" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:46.122412+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A depocenter or depocentre in geology is the part of a sedimentary basin where a particular rock unit has its maximum thickness. Depending on the controls on subsidence and the sedimentary environment, the location of a basin's depocenter may vary with time, such as in active rift basins as extensional faults grow, link or become abandoned. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6fa11a23d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Discoverability" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:29.265231+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Discoverability is the degree to which something, especially a piece of content or information, can be found in a search of a file, database, or other information system. Discoverability is a concern in library and information science, many aspects of digital media, software and web development, and in marketing, since products and services cannot be used if people cannot find it or do not understand what it can be used for. +Metadata, or "information about information", such as a book's title, a product's description, or a website's keywords, affects how discoverable something is on a database or online. Adding metadata to a product that is available online can make it easier for end users to find the product. For example, if a song file is made available online, making the title, band name, genre, year of release, and other pertinent information available in connection with this song means the file can be retrieved more easily. The organization of information through the implementation of alphabetical structures or the integration of content into search engines exemplifies strategies employed to enhance the discoverability of information. +The concept of discoverability, while related to but distinct from accessibility and usability, which are other qualities that affect the usefulness of a piece of information, is a critical aspect of information retrieval. + +== Etymology == +The concept of "discoverability" in an information science and online context is a loose borrowing from the concept of the similar name in the legal profession. In law, "discovery" is a pre-trial procedure in a lawsuit in which each party, through the law of civil procedure, can obtain evidence from the other party or parties by means of discovery devices such as a request for answers to interrogatories, request for production of documents, request for admissions and depositions. Discovery can be obtained from non-parties using subpoenas. When a discovery request is objected to, the requesting party may seek the assistance of the court by filing a motion to compel discovery. + +== Purpose == +The usability of any piece of information directly relates to how discoverable it is, either in a "walled garden" database or on the open Internet. The quality of information available on this database or on the Internet depends upon the quality of the meta-information about each item, product, or service. In the case of a service, because of the emphasis placed on service reusability, opportunities should exist for reuse of this service. However, reuse is only possible if information is discoverable in the first place. To make items, products, and services discoverable, the process is as follows: + +Document the information about the item, product or service (the metadata) in a consistent manner. +Store the documented information (metadata) in a searchable repository. +while technically a human-searchable repository, such as a printed paper list would qualify, "searchable repository" is usually taken to mean a computer-searchable repository, such as a database that a human user can search using some type of search engine or "find" feature. +Enable search for the documented information in an efficient manner. +supports number 2, because while reading through a printed paper list by hand might be feasible in a theoretical sense, it is not time and cost-efficient in comparison with computer-based searching. +Apart from increasing the reuse potential of the services, discoverability is also required to avoid development of solution logic that is already contained in an existing service. To design services that are not only discoverable but also provide interpretable information about their capabilities, the service discoverability principle provides guidelines that could be applied during the service-oriented analysis phase of the service delivery process. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..11deae1b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Discoverability" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:29.265231+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Specific to digital media === +In relation to audiovisual content, according to the meaning given by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) for the purpose of its 2016 Discoverability Summit, discoverability can be summed up to the intrinsic ability of given content to "stand out of the lot", or to position itself so as to be easily found and discovered. A piece of audiovisual content can be a movie, a TV series, music, a book (eBook), an audio book or podcast. When audiovisual content such as a digital file for a TV show, movie, or song, is made available online, if the content is "tagged" with identifying information such as the names of the key artists (e.g., actors, directors and screenwriters for TV shows and movies; singers, musicians and record producers for songs) and the genres (for movies genres, music genres, etc.). +When users interact with online content, algorithms typically determine what types of content the user is interested in, and then a computer program suggests "more like this", which is other content that the user may be interested in. Different websites and systems have different algorithms, but one approach, used by Amazon (company) for its online store, is to indicate to a user: "customers who bought x also bought y" (affinity analysis, collaborative filtering). This example is oriented around online purchasing behaviour, but an algorithm could also be programmed to provide suggestions based on other factors (e.g., searching, viewing, etc.). +Discoverability is typically referred to in connection with search engines. A highly "discoverable" piece of content would appear at the top, or near the top of a user's search results. A related concept is the role of "recommendation engines", which give a user recommendations based on his/her previous online activity. Discoverability applies to computers and devices that can access the Internet, including various console video game systems and mobile devices such as tablets and smartphones. When producers make an effort to promote content (e.g., a TV show, film, song, or video game), they can use traditional marketing (billboards, TV ads, radio ads) and digital ads (pop-up ads, pre-roll ads, etc.), or a mix of traditional and digital marketing. +Even before the user's intervention by searching for a certain content or type of content, discoverability is the prime factor which contributes to whether a piece of audiovisual content will be likely to be found in the various digital modes of content consumption. As of 2017, modes of searching include looking on Netflix for movies, Spotify for music, Audible for audio books, etc., although the concept can also more generally be applied to content found on Twitter, Tumblr, Instagram, and other websites. It involves more than a content's mere presence on a given platform; it can involve associating this content with "keywords" (tags), search algorithms, positioning within different categories, metadata, etc. Thus, discoverability enables as much as it promotes. For audiovisual content broadcast or streamed on digital media using the Internet, discoverability includes the underlying concepts of information science and programming architecture, which are at the very foundation of the search for a specific product, information or content. + +== Applications == + +=== Within a webpage === +Within a specific webpage or software application ("app"), the discoverability of a feature, content or link depends on a range of factors, including the size, colour, highlighting features, and position within the page. When colour is used to communicate the importance of a feature or link, designers typically use other elements as well, such as shadows or bolding, for individuals, who cannot see certain colours. Just as traditional paper printing created other physical locations that stood out, such as being "above the fold" of a newspaper versus "below the fold", a web page or app's screenview may have certain locations that give features additional visibility to users, such as being right at the bottom of the web page or screen. +The positional advantages or disadvantages of various locations depend on different cultures and languages (e.g., left to right vs. right to left). Some locations have become established, such as having toolbars at the top of a screen or webpage. Some designers have argued that commonly used features (e.g., a print button) should be much more visually prominent than very rarely used features. Some features cannot be seen, but there is a convention that if the user places the mouse cursor in a certain area, then a toolbar or function option will become visible. In general, because of the smaller screen of mobile devices, controls are often not placed right in the centre of the screen, because that is where the user views content or text. +Some organizations try to increase the discoverability of a certain feature by adding animation, such as a moving "click here" icon. As of 2017, the addition of motion sensors and geotracking to mobile devices has made webpage design for discoverability more complex, because smartphones and tablets are typically capable of having many more inputs from the user than a 1980s era desktop, including "swiping" the touchscreen, touching images on the screen, or tilting the device. One of the challenges in webpage and app design is that the degree of sophistication and experience of users with navigating in the webpage or app environment varies a great deal, from individuals who are new to using these applications at one extreme to experienced computer users. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1aed78feb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Discoverability" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:29.265231+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Internet search === +For items that are searched for online, the goal of discoverability is to be at or near the top of the search results. Organizations may make efforts to make it more likely, that "their" content or webpages are at the top, or close to the top, of search results; these approaches are often collectively called search engine optimization (SEO). Note that when an organization takes action to increase the SEO of its website, this does not normally involve changes to the search engine itself; rather, it involves adding metadata tags and original content, among other strategies, to increase the "visibility" of the website to search engine algorithms. +Recent discussions of discoverability have also considered AI-generated answer systems, in which visibility may depend not only on ranking in conventional search results but also on whether sources are selected, cited, and synthesized in generated responses. + +==== Services ==== +In a service delivery context, the application of this principle requires collecting information about the service during the service analysis phase as during this phase; maximum information is available about the service's functional context and the capabilities of the service. At this stage, the domain knowledge of the business experts could also be enlisted to document meta-data about the service. In the service-oriented design phase, the already gathered meta-data could be made part of the service contract. The OASIS SOA-RM standard specifies service description as an artifact that represents service meta-data. +To make the service meta-data accessible to interested parties, it must be centrally accessible. This could either be done by publishing the service-meta to a dedicated 'service registry' or by simply placing this information in a 'shared directory'. In case of a 'service registry', the repository can also be used to include QoS, SLA and the current state of a service. + +=== Voice user interfaces === +Voice user interfaces may have low discoverability if users are not aware of the commands that they are able to say, so these interfaces may display a list of available commands to help users find them. + +== Metadata types == + +=== Functional === +This is the basic type of meta-information that expresses the functional context of the service and the details about the product, content, or service's capabilities. The application of the standardized service contract principle helps to create the basic functional meta-data in a consistent manner. The same standardization should be applied when the same meta-information is being outside the technical contract of the service e.g. when publishing information to a service registry. +For general items, the data that might be used to categorize them may include: + +Name of product, content or service (for audiovisual content, this would be song name, or TV show/movie title) +Name of manufacturer, designer, creators (for audiovisual content, this would be names of director/producer/artists) +Technical data (size, weight, height for physical items, or in the case of digital files, compression approach, file size) +For items which can identify their location via embedded sensors (such as with Internet of things geolocation data), location of use/access) + +=== Quality of service === + +For services, to know about the service behavior and its limitations, and about the user experience, all of this information needs to be documented within the service registry. This way potential consumers can use this meta-information by comparing it against their performance requirements. + +== Considerations == + +=== Services === +The effective application of this design principle requires that the meta-information recorded against each service needs to be consistent and meaningful. This is only possible if organization-wide standards exist that enforce service developers to record the required meta-data in a consistent way. The information recorded as the meta-data for the service needs to be presented in a way so that both technical and non-technical IT experts can understand the purpose and the capabilities of the service, as an evaluation of the service may be required by the business people before the service is authorized to be used. +This principle is best applied during the service-oriented analysis phase as during this time, all the details about the service's purpose and functionality are available. Although most of the service design principles support each other in a positive manner, however, in case of service abstraction and service discoverability principle, there exists an inversely proportional relationship. This is because as more and more details about the service are hidden away from the service consumers, less discoverable information is available for discovering the service. This could be addressed by carefully recording the service meta-information so that the inner workings of the service are not documented within this meta-information. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5223c5bdd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Discoverability" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:29.265231+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Algorithms === +In the digital economy, sophisticated algorithms are required for the analysis of the ways that end users search for, access and use different content or products online. Thus, not only is metadata created regarding the content or product, but also data about specific users' interaction with this content. If a social media website has a user profile for a given person, indicating demographic information (age, gender, location of residence, employment status, education, etc.), then this website can collect and analyse information about tendencies and preferences of a given user or a subcategory of users. This raises potential privacy concerns. +Algorithms have been called “black boxes”, because the factors used by the leading websites in their algorithms are typically proprietary information which is not released to the public. While a number of search engine optimization (SEO) firms offer the services of attempting to increase the ranking of a client's web content or website, these SEO firms do not typically know the exact algorithms used by Google and Facebook. Web crawlers can only access 26% of new online content "...by recrawling a constant fraction of the entire web". +One concern raised with the increasing role of algorithms in search engines and databases is the creation of filter bubbles. To give a practical example, if a person searches for comedy movies online, a search engine algorithm may start mainly recommending comedies to this user, and not showing him or her the range of other films (e.g., drama, documentary, etc.). On the positive side, if this person only likes comedy films, then this restricted "filter" will reduce the information load of scanning through vast numbers of films. However, various cultural stakeholders have raised concerns about how these filter algorithms may restrict the diversity of material that is discoverable to users. Concerns about the dangers of "filter bubbles" have been raised in regards to online news services, which provide types of news, news sources, or topics to a user based on his/her previous online activities. Thus a person who has previously searched for Fox TV content will mainly be shown more Fox TV content and a person who has previously searched for PBS content will be shown more PBS search results, and so on. This could lead to news readers becoming only aware of a certain news source's viewpoints. +The search behaviour of video content viewers has changed a great deal with increasing popularity of video sharing websites and video streaming. Whereas a typical TV show consumer of the 1980s would read a print edition of TV Guide to find out what shows were on, or click from channel to channel ("channel surfing") to see if any shows appealed to them, in the 2010s, video content consumers are increasingly watching on screens (either smart TVs, tablet computer screens or smartphones), that have a computerized search function and often automated algorithm-created suggestions for the viewer. With this search function, a user can enter the name of a TV show, producer, actor, screenwriter or genre to help them find content of interest to them. If the user is using a search engine on a smart device, this device may transmit information about the user's preferences and previous online searches to the website. Furthermore, in the 1980s, the type or brand of television a user was watching on did not affect his/her viewing habits. However, a person searching for TV shows in the 2010s on different brands of computerized smart TVs will probably get different search results for the same search term. + +=== Limitations === +For organizations that are trying to get maximal user uptake of their product, discoverability has become an important goal. However, achieving discovery does not automatically translate into market success. For example, if the hypothetical online game "xyz" is easily discoverable, but it will not function on most mobile devices, then this video game will not perform well in the mobile game market, despite it being at the top of search results. As well, even if the product functions, that is it runs or plays properly, as well, users may not like the product. +In the case that a user does like a certain online product or service, the discoverability has to be repeatable. If the user cannot find the product or service on a subsequent search, she or he may no longer look for this product/service, and instead shift to a substitute that is easily and reliably findable. It is not enough to make the online product or service discoverable for only a short period, unless the goal is only to create “viral content" as part of a short-term marketing campaign. + +== See also == +Findability +Information foraging +Service-oriented architecture +WSDL + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_debris_accumulation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_debris_accumulation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2bae4a7e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_debris_accumulation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Discrete debris accumulation" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_debris_accumulation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:48.559798+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Discrete debris accumulation (DDA) is a non-genetic term in mountain glacial geology to aid identification of non-lithified sediments on a valley or mountain slope or floor. It is intended that the debris accumulation is discrete such that it can be mapped, in the field and/or from aerial or satellite imagery. The origin or formative process may well not be known clearly or be changed by subsequent investigators it is advisable to have a non-genetic field reference so that discussion can then be used to ascertain, if possible, the origin. Mountain areas may currently have glaciers (glacierized) or have had glaciers (glaciated) or be subject to forms of periglacial activity. A moraine would be an easily identified DDA as would an esker. Although scree (talus) is generally easily identified and mapped, these deposits may be modified by ice, avalanches or downslope movement to create essentially new landforms. Many small slope failures and landslides can give the appearance of moraines or protalus ramparts on slopes. After mapping as a DDA, further investigation might draw light on the origin of the feature. +The term was apparently first used by Sven Lukas for a very specific feature in Svalbard. +Independently, it was suggested in the literature in W. B. Whalley and subsequently in Whalley, 2012 as relating to the basic definition and usage as above. This book chapter provides several photographic examples. +The 'cirque infills' described by Hätterstrand et al. (2008) in the Khibiny Mountains, Kola Peninsula could be described as discrete debris accumulations, although their origin is postulated by these authors as being moraine remnants of an ice sheet pushing into these cirques rather than as rock glaciers formed within the cirques. +A recent term introduced by Brighenti et al. is 'Cold Rocky Landforms' (CRLs) as a more general term including landforms generally identified as: protalus ramparts, valley-wall rock glaciers, talus (or scree) slopes and 'ice-embedded' moraines. 'Structurally, CRLs have a surface mantle of rocky debris and interiors composed of ice and rock'. However, it is by no means clear that any CRL necessarily contains ice in any form. Ice would not be present in areas that have long since lost any ice, whether from glaciers or snowbanks such as in upland Britain, where DDAs, as difficult to map entities, are known to exist. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstate-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstate-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6b618ffa7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstate-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Downstate" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstate" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:15.087080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Downstate may refer to: + +Downstate Illinois, the portion of the U.S. state of Illinois south of the Chicago metropolitan area +Downstate (play), a 2018 tragicomedy about sex offenders set in Downstate Illinois +Downstate New York, the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of New York, including New York City +SUNY Downstate Medical Center, sometimes referred to as "Downstate" + + +== See also == +Upstate (disambiguation) +Down south (disambiguation) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_point-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_point-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a489df5bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_point-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Dry point" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_point" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:16.391971+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geography, a dry point is an area of firm or flood-free ground in an area of wetland, marsh or flood plains. The term typically applies to settlements, and dry point settlements were common in history. +In the United Kingdom extreme examples of dry point settlements include Ely, situated on a small hill in the marshy Fens; Glastonbury, situated on a low hill in the marshy Somerset Levels; and Wareham surrounded by flood plains beside Poole Harbour. +A dry point has the advantages of flood protection, fertile soil (due to previous floodings which would have deposited silt on the land) and fairly flat land which is ideal for agriculture and building. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Dry point at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_lake-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_lake-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a53f94aec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_lake-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +--- +title: "Endorheic lake" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_lake" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:17.716959+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An endorheic lake (also called a sink lake or terminal lake) is a collection of water within an endorheic basin, or sink, with no evident outlet. Endorheic lakes are generally saline as a result of being unable to get rid of solutes left in the lake by evaporation. These lakes can be used as indicators of anthropogenic change, such as irrigation or climate change, in the areas surrounding them. Lakes with subsurface drainage are called cryptorheic. + + +== Components of endorheic lakes == +The two main ways that endorheic lakes accumulate water are through river flow into the lake (discharge) and precipitation falling into the lake. The collected water of the lake, instead of discharging, can only be lost due to either evapotranspiration or percolation (water sinking underground, e.g., to become groundwater in an aquifer). Because of this lack of an outlet, endorheic lakes are mostly salt water rather than fresh water. The salinity in the lake gradually builds up through years as water evaporates and leaves its solutes behind. + + +== Similar types of lakes == +Depending on water losses, precipitation, and inflow (e.g., a spring, a tributary, or flooding), the temporal result of a lake in a sink may change. The lake could be a persistent lake, an intermittent lake, a playa lake (temporarily covered with water), or an ephemeral lake, which completely disappears (e. g. by evaporation) before reappearing in wetter seasons. These terms (playa, ephemeral lake, etc.) are sometimes used interchangeably, but there has been activity tending towards defining meanings for each term. + + +== Anthropogenic effects == +Many endorheic lakes exist in arid or semi-arid climates. Because these climates have limited rainfall, but also a high possibility of evaporation, endorheic lakes in these regions often experience flux in their water levels. This flux can be aggravated by anthropogenic intrusions (e.g. global warming). + +In Central Asia, a large percentage of water for farming comes from surface water, like endorheic lakes, rather than precipitation. Because of the overall lack of precipitation, farming in this area can only be sustained by irrigation. Massive amounts of irrigation in agrarian Central Asia have led to the reduction in size of endorheic lakes. The Aral Sea was once the second largest endorheic lake in the world, but anthropogenic effects such as bad irrigation practices have led to this lake's drastic decrease in size and transition into a desert, the Aralkum Desert. +Endorheic lakes, because of the closed nature of their systems, are sensitive to new conditions. Records of previous environmental change are preserved in lake sediments in endorheic lakes that are being affected by climate change; these natural records can give information about past climates and conditions of the lake. Research on these lake sediments could lead to these lakes becoming archives of the effects of climate change. There is early evidence that in regions affected by irrigation the majority of endorheic lake area may have already been lost. + + +== List of endorheic lakes == + + +=== Africa === +Afar Depression (Great Rift Valley in East Africa) +Lake Chad (Central Africa) +Lake Rukwa (East Africa) +Lake Turkana (East Africa) + + +=== Asia === +Aral Sea (Kazakhstan; Uzbekistan) +Lake Balkhash (Kazakhstan) +Caspian Sea (Iran; Azerbaijan; Russia; Kazakhstan; Turkmenistan) +Dead Sea (Israel; Jordan; West Bank) +Gavkhouni (Isfahan, Iran) +Hamun-e Jaz Murian (Kerman and Sistan and Baluchistan, Iran) +Hamun Lake (Iran) +Issyk-Kul (Kyrgyzstan) +Lake Urmia (West Azerbaijan province, Iran) +Lake Van (Turkey) +Maharloo Lake (Fars province, Iran) +Namak Lake (Qom, Iran) +Qarhan Playa (Qinghai, China) +Shalkar (Kazakhstan) +Pangong Tso (Ladakh, India; Tibet, China) + + +=== Australia === +Kumpupintil Lake (Western Australia) +Lake Eyre (South Australia) +Lake George (New South Wales) + + +=== Europe === +Botkul (Kazakhstan–Russia border) +Caspian Sea +Lake Neusiedl (Austria, Hungary) +Lake Prespa (Balkans) +Lake Trasimeno (Italy) + + +=== North America === +Carson Sink (Churchill County, Nevada, U.S.) +Devils Lake (North Dakota, U.S.) +Devil's Lake (Wisconsin, U.S.) +Lake Enriquillo (Dominican Republic) +Etang Saumâtre (Haiti) +Great Salt Lake (Utah, U.S.) +Humboldt Sink (northwestern Nevada, U.S.) +Mono Lake (Mono County, California, U.S.) +Owens Lake (Eastern Sierra, California, U.S.) +Pyramid Lake (western Nevada, U.S.) +Quinn River Sink (northwestern Nevada, U.S.) +Salton Sink (southern California, U.S.) +Eagle Lake (British Columbia, Canada) +Choelquoit Lake (British Columbia, Canada) +Martin Lake (British Columbia, Canada) +Manitou Lake (Saskatchewan, Canada) +Lake Xochimilco (Mexico City, Mexico) + + +=== South America === +Lake Poopó (Altiplano part of Bolivia) + + +== See also == +Sinkhole – Geologically-formed topological depression + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eonothem-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eonothem-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2a8b89ffc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eonothem-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Eonothem" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eonothem" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:49.745512+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In stratigraphy and geology, an eonothem is the totality of rock strata laid down in the stratigraphic record deposited during a certain eon of the continuous geologic timescale. The eonothem is not to be confused with the eon itself, which is a corresponding division of geologic time spanning a specific number of (hundreds of millions of) years, during which rocks were formed that are classified within the eonothem. Eonothems have the same names as their corresponding eons, which means during the history of the Earth only four eonothems were formed. Oldest to newest these are the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. A rock stratum, fossil or feature present in the "upper Phanerozoic" eonothem would therefore have originated within the "later Phanerozoic" eon. In practice, the rock column is discontinuous: + +Technically, a complete geologic record doesn't occur anywhere. For such a record to develop would require the area to have been receiving sedimentary deposits continually ever since the origin of the earth. Nowhere is such a situation known to exist. If it did exist, we could not effectively look at the strata because they would still be buried, and modern strata would continue to be deposited on top of them. +The earth's surface has been far too dynamic to allow that to occur anywhere. No area has been in such a static condition throughout the earth's long history. Areas that have had sediment deposited on them at one time are later uplifted and eroded. In some places this has occurred many times. There is ample evidence to prove such a sequence of events. +Eonothems, despite discontinuities (locally missing strata or unconformities), can be compared to others where the rock record is more complete and, by correlation of points of correspondence, be fixed appropriately within the eon. They are therefore useful as broad chronostratigraphic units, specifying approximate age within the timelines within the rock column. +Eonothems are subdivided into erathems and their smaller subdivisions within geology and paleobiology and their sub-fields, and a whole system of cross-disciplinary classification by strata is in place with oversight by the International Commission on Stratigraphy. +Eonothems are not often used in practice as expert dating estimates can be and usually are specified into the more refined timelines of smaller chronostratigraphic units, which can be subdivided in turn down to the many defined stages, the smallest formally recognised units used in dating. (see the hierarchy of comparative units, five each for time division types and five for the rock record types.) + + +== Dating standards == +Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages (GSSAs) are defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy and are used primarily for time-dating rock layers older than 630 million years ago (mya), before a good fossil record exists. +For more recent periods, a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), largely based on research progress in geobiology and improved methods of fossil dating is used to define such boundaries. In contrast to GSSAs, GSSPs are based on important events and transitions within a particular stratigraphic section. In older sections, there is insufficient fossil record or well preserved sections to identify the key events necessary for a GSSP so GSSAs are defined based on fixed dates. + + +== Etymology == +Eonothem derives from eon 'age', a Latin transliteration from the koine Greek word αἰών (aion) from the archaic αἰϝών (aiwon), and thema 'that which is placed or laid down; subject of a discourse'. + + +== See also == + + +=== Multidiscipline comparison === + +Chronostratigraphy +Lithostratigraphy +Geologic record + + +=== Related other topics === +Body form +Fauna (animals) +Type locality + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Hedberg, H.D., (editor), International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976 +International Stratigraphic Chart from the International Commission on Stratigraphy +USA National Park Service +Washington State University Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine +Web Geological Time Machine +Eon or Aeon, Math Words - An alphabetical index + + +== External links == +The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP): overview +Chart of The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP): chart +Geotime chart displaying geologic time periods compared to the fossil record. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erathem-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erathem-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6e7b72f82 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erathem-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Erathem" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erathem" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:50.980515+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In stratigraphy, paleontology, geology, and geobiology, an erathem is the total stratigraphic unit deposited during a certain corresponding span of time during an era in the geologic timescale. +It can therefore be used as a chronostratigraphic unit of time which delineates a large span of years – less than a geological eon, but greater than its successively smaller and more refined subdivisions (geologic periods, epochs, and geologic ages). By 3,500 million years ago (Mya) simple life had developed on earth (the oldest known microbial fossils in Australia are dated to this figure). The atmosphere was a mix of noxious and poisonous gases (methane, ammonia, sulfur compounds, etc. – a so-called reducing atmosphere lacking much free oxygen which was bound up in compounds). +These simple organisms, cyanobacteria ruled the still cooling earth for approximately a billion years and gradually transformed the atmosphere to one containing free oxygen. These changes, along with tectonic activity left chemical trails (red bed formation, etc.) and other physical clues (magnetic orientation, layer formation factors) in the rock record, and it is these changes along with the later richer fossil record which specialists use to demarcate times early in planet earth's history in various disciplines. +Erathems are not often used in practice. While they are subdivisions of eonothems and are themselves subdivided into systems, dating experts prefer the finer resolution of smaller spans of time when evaluating strata. +Erathems have the same names as their corresponding eras. The Phanerozoic eonothem can thus be divided into Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic erathems. Similarly, the Proterozoic eonothem is divided youngest to oldest into the Neoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic and Paleoproterozoic erathems, and the Archean eon and eonothem are divided similarly into the Neoarchean, Mesoarchean, Paleoarchean and the Eoarchean, for which a lower (oldest) limit is undefined. + + +== See also == + + +=== Multidiscipline comparison === + + +=== Related other topics === +Body form +European Mammal Neogene +Geologic time scale +New Zealand geologic time scale +North American Land Mammal Age +Fauna (animals) +Type locality +List of GSSPs + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Gehling, James; Jensen, Sören; Droser, Mary; Myrow, Paul; Narbonne, Guy (March 2001). "Burrowing below the basal Cambrian GSSP, Fortune Head, Newfoundland". Geological Magazine. 138 (2): 213–218. Bibcode:2001GeoM..138..213G. doi:10.1017/S001675680100509X. hdl:10662/24314. S2CID 131211543. 1. +Hedberg, H.D., (editor), International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976 +International Stratigraphic Chart from the International Commission on Stratigraphy +US National Park Service description of geographic time +Washington State University description of geographic time Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine +Web Geological Time Machine +Eon or Aeon, Math Words – An alphabetical index + + +== External links == +The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP): overview +Chart of The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP): chart +Geotime chart displaying geologic time periods compared to the fossil record – Deals with chronology and classifications for laymen (not GSSPs) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0fa6d6372 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Field (geography)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:19.055094+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the context of spatial analysis, geographic information systems, and geographic information science, a field is a property that fills space, and varies over space, such as temperature or density. This use of the term has been adopted from physics and mathematics, due to their similarity to physical fields (vector or scalar) such as the electromagnetic field or gravitational field. Synonymous terms include spatially dependent variable (geostatistics), statistical surface ( thematic mapping), and intensive property (physics and chemistry) and crossbreeding between these disciplines is common. The simplest formal model for a field is the function, which yields a single value given a point in space (i.e., t = f(x, y, z) ) + +== History == +The modeling and analysis of fields in geographic applications was developed in five essentially separate movements, all of which arose during the 1950s and 1960s: + +Cartographic techniques for visualizing fields in thematic maps, including choropleth and isarithmic maps. In theoretical cartography, the concept of a "statistical surface" had gained wide acceptance by 1960, using the metaphor of a third dimension to conceptualize continuous quantitative variation in a variable. The statistical surface as a concept and term has persisted in cartography to the present. +The quantitative revolution of geography, starting in the 1950s, and leading to the modern discipline of spatial analysis; especially techniques such as the Gravity model and models of potential. Although they did not specifically use the term field, they were incorporating the mathematics of fields from physics. +The development of raster GIS models and software, starting with the Canadian Geographic Information System in the 1960s, which mapped fields such as land cover type. +The technique of cartographic modeling, pioneered by Ian McHarg in the 1960s and later formalized for digital implementation in raster GIS by Dana Tomlin as map algebra. +Geostatistics, which arose from mining geology starting in the 1950s, was originally developed around methods for interpolating the continuous variation in fields from finite point samples. Terms such as regionalized variable were often used in the literature rather than "field." +While all of these incorporated similar concepts, none of them used the term "field" consistently, and the integration of the underlying conceptual models of these applications has only occurred since 1990 as part of the emergence of Geographic information science. +During the 1980s, the maturation of the core technologies of GIS enabled academics to begin to theorize about the fundamental concepts of geographic space upon which the software seemed to be based. Donna Peuquet, Helen Couclelis, and others began to recognize that the competing vector and raster data models were based on a duality between a view of the world as filled with objects and a "location-based" or "image-based" view of the world filled with properties of location. Michael F. Goodchild introduced the term field from physics by 1992 to formalize the location-property conceptual model. During the 1990s, the raster-vector debate transformed into a debate over whether the "object view" or the "field view" was dominant, whether one reflected the nature of the real world and the other was merely a conceptual abstraction. + +== The nature and types of fields == +Fields are useful in geographic thought and analysis because when properties vary over space, they tend to do so in spatial patterns due to underlying spatial structures and processes. A common pattern is, according to Tobler's first law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." That is, fields (especially those found in nature) tend to vary gradually, with nearby locations having similar values. This concept has been formalized as spatial dependence or spatial autocorrelation, which underlies the method of geostatistics. A parallel concept that has received less publicity, but has underlain geographic theory since at least Alexander von Humboldt is spatial association, which describes how phenomena are similarly distributed. This concept is regularly used in the method of map algebra. +Even though the basic concept of a field came from physics, geographers have developed independent theories, data models, and analytical methods. One reason for this apparent disconnect is that although geographic fields may show patterns similar to gravity and magnetism, they can have a very different underlying nature, and be created by very different processes. Geographic fields can be classified by their ontology or fundamental nature as: + +Natural fields, properties of matter that are formed at scales below that of human perception, and thus appear continuous at human scales, such as temperature or soil moisture. +Aggregate fields, statistically constructed properties of aggregate groups of individuals, such as Population density or tree canopy coverage. +Fields of potential or influence, which measure conceptual, non-material quantities (and are thus most closely related to the fields of physics), such as the probability that a person at any given location will prefer to use a particular grocery store. + +Geographic fields can also be categorized according to the type of domain of the measured variable, which determines the pattern of spatial change. A continuous field has a continuous (real number) domain, and typically shows gradual change over space, such as temperature or soil moisture; a discrete field, also known as a categorical coverage or area-class map, has a discrete (often qualitative) domain, such as land cover type, soil class, or surface geologic formation, and typically has a pattern of regions of homogeneous value with boundaries (or transition zones) where the value changes. +Both scalar (having a single value for any location) and vector (having multiple values for any location representing different but related properties) fields are found in geographic applications, although the former is more common. +Geographic fields can exist over a temporal domain as well as space. For example, temperature varies over time as well as location in space. In fact, many of the methods used in time geography and similar spatiotemporal models treat the location of an individual as a function or field over time. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..30a251502 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Field (geography)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:19.055094+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Representation models == +Because, in theory, a field consists of an infinite number of values at an infinite number of locations, exhibiting a non-parametric pattern, only finite sample-based representations can be used in analytical and visualization tools such as GIS, statistics, and maps. Thus, several conceptual, mathematical and data models have emerged to approximate fields, including: + +An irregular point sample, a finite set of sample locations, at either random or strategic locations. Examples include data from weather stations or Lidar point clouds. +A lattice, or regular point sample, consisting of locations that are evenly spaced in each cartesian direction. These are typically stored in a Raster data structure. Examples include the Digital elevation model. +A Choropleth, an irregular a priori partition, in which space is partitioned into regions unrelated to the field itself, such as countries, and field values are summarized over each region. These are typically stored using vector polygons. Examples would include Population density by county, derived from census returns. +A Chorochromatic map or Area-class map, an irregular strategic partition usually used for discrete fields, in which space is partitioned into regions intended to match regions of homogeneous field value, typically stored as vector polygons. Examples include maps of geologic layers or vegetation stands. +A grid or regular partition, in which space is partitioned into equal regions (often squares), and field values are summarized over each region. These are also typically stored in a Raster data structure. Examples include the electromagnetic reflectance signature of land cover as represented in Remote sensing imagery. +A surface, in which the field is conceptualized as a third spatial dimension, and three dimensional data models are used for representation. Examples include the Triangulated irregular network (TIN). + An isarithm or isopleth, in which lines are drawn connecting locations of equal field value, partitioning space into regions of similar value. An example is the Contour line of elevation, commonly found on topographic maps. +The choice of representation model typically depends on a variety of factors, including the analyst's conceptual model of the phenomenon, the devices or methods available to measure the field, the tools and techniques available to analyze or visualize the field, and the models being used for other phenomena with which the field in question will be integrated. It is common to transform data from one model to another; for example, an isarithmic weather map of temperature is often generated from a raster grid, which was created from raw weather station data (an irregular point sample). Every such transformation requires Interpolation to estimate field values between or within the sample locations, which can lead to a number of forms of uncertainty, or misinterpretation traps such as the Ecological fallacy and the Modifiable areal unit problem. This also means that when data is transformed from one model to another, the result will always be less certain than the source. + +== See also == +Feature (geography) +Region (geography) + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friability-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friability-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7e01ebce3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friability-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Friability" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friability" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:52.287947+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In materials science, friability ( FRY-ə-BIL-ə-tee), the condition of being friable, describes the tendency of a solid substance to break into smaller pieces under stress or contact, especially by rubbing. The opposite of friable is indurate. +Substances that are designated hazardous, such as asbestos or crystalline silica, are often said to be friable if small particles are easily dislodged and become airborne, and hence respirable (able to enter human lungs), thereby posing a health hazard. +Tougher substances, such as concrete, may also be mechanically ground down and reduced to finely divided mineral dust. However, such substances are not generally considered friable because of the degree of difficulty involved in breaking the substance's chemical bonds through mechanical means. Some substances, such as polyurethane foams, show an increase in friability with exposure to ultraviolet radiation, as in sunlight. +Friable is sometimes used metaphorically to describe "brittle" personalities who can be "rubbed" by seemingly-minor stimuli to produce extreme emotional responses. + + +== General == +A friable substance is any substance that can be reduced to fibers or finer particles by the action of a small amount of pressure or friction, such as rubbing or inadvertently brushing up against the substance. The term could also apply to any material that exhibits these properties, such as: + +Ionically bound substances that are less than 1 kg/L in density +Clay tablets +Crackers +Mineral fibers +Polyurethane (foam) +Aerogel + + +== Geological == +Friable and indurated are terms used commonly in soft-rock geology, especially with sandstones, mudstones, and shales to describe how well the component rock fragments are held together. +Examples: + +Clumps of dried clay +Chalk +Perlite + + +== Medical == +The term friable is also used to describe tumors in medicine. This is an important determination because tumors that are easily torn apart have a higher risk of malignancy and metastasis. +Examples: + +Some forms of cancer, such as atrial myxoma +An inflamed gallbladder + + +== Pharmaceutical == + +Friability testing is a laboratory technique used by the pharmaceutical industry to test the durability of tablets during transit. This testing involves repeatedly dropping a sample of tablets over a fixed time, using a rotating wheel with a baffle. The result is inspected for broken tablets, and the percentage of tablet mass lost through chipping. A typical specification will allow a non-zero percentage of chipping, and zero broken tablets. + + +== See also == +Asbestos abatement +Frangibility +Spall + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +UK Advisory Committee Treatise On Friable Ceramic Fibres Archived 2017-07-06 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazetteer_abbreviations-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazetteer_abbreviations-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..83ef0c2f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazetteer_abbreviations-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Gazetteer abbreviations" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazetteer_abbreviations" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:20.584200+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of common atlas and gazetteer abbreviations. These abbreviations are not always used consistently between publications; some terms have fallen out of use over time. Older gazetteers and atlases often neglect to define abbreviations and underlying terms. Gazetteer and map abbreviations can show up in several forms: upper or lower case, with or without periods, sometimes with hyphens (e.g., Post Village may be P.V., PV, p.v., or p-v). +This list does not include direction headings (e.g., N. or No. for north, etc.), which are generally clear. + + +== References == + + +== See also == +Administrative division \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius_loci-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius_loci-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0aecf6ad1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius_loci-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "Genius loci" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius_loci" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:21.863810+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In classical Roman religion, a genius loci (pl.: genii locorum) was the protective spirit of a place. It was often depicted in religious iconography as a figure holding attributes such as a cornucopia, patera (libation bowl), or snake. Many Roman altars found throughout the Western Roman Empire were dedicated to a particular genius loci. The Roman imperial cults of the Emperor and the imperial house developed in part in connection with the sacrifices made by neighborhood associations (vici) to the local genius. These 265 local districts had their cult organised around the Lares Compitales (guardian spirits or lares of the crossroads), which the emperor Augustus transformed into Lares Augusti along with the Genius Augusti. The emperor's genius is then regarded as the genius loci of the Roman Empire as a whole. +Roman examples of these genii can be found, for instance, at the church of St. Giles, Tockenham, Wiltshire, England, where the genius loci is depicted as a relief in the wall of a Norman church built of Roman material. This shows "a youthful and curly-haired Roman Genius worked in high relief, holding a cornucopia in his left hand and a patera in his right", which previously has been "erroneously identified as Asclepius". + + +== Asian usage == +The numinous spirits of places in Asia are still honored today in city pillar shrines, outdoor spirit houses and indoor household and business shrines. + + +== Western usage == +In contemporary usage, genius loci usually refers to a location's distinctive atmosphere or a "spirit of the place" rather than necessarily a guardian spirit. An example of contemporary usage might be "Light reveals the genius loci of a place." + + +== Art and architecture == +Alexander Pope made the genius loci an important principle in garden and landscape design with the following lines from Epistle IV, to Richard Boyle, Earl of Burlington: + +Pope's verse laid the foundation for one of the most widely agreed principles of landscape architecture, that landscape designs should always be adapted to the context in which they are located. +A priori, archetype, and genius loci are the primary principals of Neo-Rationalism or New Rationalism. Pioneered by the Italian architect Aldo Rossi, Neo-Rationalism developed in the light of a re-evaluation of the work of Giuseppe Terragni and gained momentum through the work of Giorgio Grassi. Characterized by elemental vernacular forms and an adaptation to the existing environment, the Neo-Rationalist style has adherents beyond architecture in the greater world of art. +In the context of modern architectural theory, genius loci has profound implications for place-making, falling within the philosophical branch of phenomenology. This field of architectural discourse is explored most notably by the theorist Christian Norberg-Schulz in his book, Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. + + +== Modern fantasy == +Adaptations of the original concept of the genius loci appear in some modern fantasy works. +Tom Bombadil in The Lord of the Rings has been described by Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey as the genius loci of the Old Forest, a wooded land bordering the Shire. +In the Dungeons and Dragons 3.0 edition book the Epic Level Handbook, the genius loci is a malign, powerful ooze that mimics the landscape and has no intelligence of its own. It can magically enslave a visitor whose mind affects the genius loci's behaviour. It is spontaneously generated when a place is undisturbed for a long time. +In The Dresden Files, a genius loci is an elemental spirit of a place. The island of Demonreach has a genius loci, also named Demonreach, which is omniscient regarding the island. Wizards can form a spiritual connection with a genius loci and the place it represents. +The Rivers of London series of novels by Ben Aaronovitch feature many beings described as genii locorum, primarily those of the River Thames and its tributaries. + + +== See also == +Jinn +Kami +Landvættir +Wight +Seonangshin, Korean equivalent +Spirit house +Pukwudgie +Rå +Hulder +Tomte +Tuatha Dé Danann +Leshy +Huldufólk +Nymph +Haltija +Chinese versions +Cheng Huang Gong (City God), Chinese official urban equivalent +Tu Di Gong (Earth Deity), Chinese locality equivalent +Dizhu shen (Landlord deity), Chinese equivalent for small regions like buildings +Jinushigami +Tutelary deity +Zashiki-warashi +Zeitgeist + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Patterson, Barry (2005). The Art of Conversation with the Genius Loci. Cappall Bann Books. ISBN 1-86163-169-3. + + +== External links == + +Essay on the Genius loci in landscape and garden design +Photographs of St. Giles, Tockenham, Wiltshire \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genreflecting-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genreflecting-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6a0fad632 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genreflecting-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Genreflecting" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genreflecting" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:30.577856+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Genreflecting is the process of examining and analyzing the patterns and characteristics of literary genres—both fiction and recreational nonfiction—and using that analysis to identify titles with similar appeals to readers (i.e., read-alikes), in order to make reading suggestions to individuals who are looking for something to read. +The term "genreflecting" was first coined by Betty Rosenberg, a prominent library science educator, in 1982. +Since that time, the term has been adopted by readers' advisory in libraries and extended to nonfiction genres as well as fiction. A similar practice in retail bookstores is called "hand-selling." + + +== History == +At the time the first edition of Rosenberg's Genreflecting was written, adding popular reading materials to library collections and recommending those titles to readers were controversial practices. Dr. Rosenberg's First Law of Reading—"Never apologize for your reading taste"—has since been adopted by growing numbers of librarians, and the field of readers' advisory has become increasingly central to the practice of librarianship. +Nancy Pearl, the well known model of the librarian action figure and author of Book Lust and More Book Lust, has promoted and further popularized the practice of readers' advisory within the library community and beyond. +In recent years, a number of online databases have been developed to assist readers' advisors find "read-alikes," including What Do I Read Next? (Gale Thomson), NoveList (EBSCO), The Reader's Advisor Online (Greenwood Publishing Group), Fiction Connection (Bowker), and Booklist Online (American Library Association). + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Rosenberg, Betty. (1982). Genreflecting: A Guide to Reading Interests in Genre Fiction. Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 978-0872873339 +Herald, Diana Tixier. (2005). Genreflecting: A Guide to Popular Reading Interests (6th ed.). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 978-1591582861 +Cords, Sarah Statz. (2006). The Real Story: A Guide to Nonfiction Reading Interests. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. ISBN 978-1591582830 +Saricks, Joyce G. (2009). The Readers' Advisory Guide to Genre Fiction (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: ALA Editions. ISBN 978-0838909898 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocell_(cartography)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocell_(cartography)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2d801a984 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocell_(cartography)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Geocell (cartography)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocell_(cartography)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:23.207666+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geographic information systems, a geocell (or geo-cell) is a patch on the surface of the Earth that is 1 degree of latitude by 1 degree of longitude in extent. +At the equator, a geocell is approximately a 111x111 kilometres (69 mi) square - but the east-west dimension of geocells gradually decreases and the shape of the geocell becomes increasingly trapezoidal towards the poles. At the North and South poles, geocells are distorted into long, thin triangles which are still approximately 111 kilometres (69 mi) in the north/south direction but with a base of just 969 metres (3,179 ft). + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_levels-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_levels-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..89de8ba32 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_levels-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Geographic levels" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_levels" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:24.602609+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geography, different geographic (scale) levels are distinguished: + +The local scale level relates to a small area, usually a city or municipality; +The regional scale level relates to a larger area, usually a region, state or province; +The national scale level relates to a country; +The continental scale level refers to a continent; +The global scale applies to the entire world; +The fluvial scale level relates to river basins (this scale level is mainly used in the context of pollution, for example). + +Within geography the use of geographic levels is also known as scales of analysis. +An area of several countries (such as the Middle East or West Africa) is sometimes counted under the continental scale level, sometimes under the regional scale. Actually, both are incorrect, because it does not include a continent but is larger than a country, while the regional scale is smaller than the national scale. Sometimes the international scale level is also used for this, but this term is not in general use. + + +== Use == +The concept is used to describe, for example, disasters, climate models, cartographic matters, epidemiological studies or effects of human actions on the environment. Using the concept of Geographic levels it is easier to describe the scale, size and impact of a phonomenon. +Changing geographic levels helps to identify how people affected by their environment at different levels, from local to global. +This concept enables geographers to see hidden patterns and connections in the world. +Changing scale can uncover causes and effects of phenomena, offering a wider or more detailed view. +Geographers use scales to choose the right area for study, compare places, link human activity to environmental health, and avoid oversimplifying complex issues. +It is also used to present data. + + +== See also == +Level of analysis + + +== References == + + +== External links == +https://wikitravel.org/en/Wikitravel:Geographical_hierarchy \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_targeting-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_targeting-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9080acc69 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_targeting-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Geographic targeting" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_targeting" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:26.010109+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Geographic targeting is a viable way for resource allocation, especially to alleviate poverty in a country. In this context, public expenditure and policy interventions can be deployed to reach the neediest people in the poorest areas. +Geographical targeting for poverty alleviation employs a variety of techniques, such as database, and geographic information systems to construct poverty maps. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_cluster-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_cluster-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a01cf777 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_cluster-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Geographical cluster" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_cluster" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:27.401132+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A geographical cluster is a localized anomaly, usually an excess of something given the distribution or variation of something else. Often it is considered as an incidence rate that is unusual in that there is more of some variable than might be expected. Examples would include: a local excess disease rate, a crime hot spot, areas of high unemployment, accident blackspots, unusually high positive residuals from a model, high concentrations of flora or fauna, physical features or events like earthquake epicenters etc... +Identifying these extreme regions may be useful in that there could be implicit geographical associations with other variables that can be identified and would be of interest. Pattern detection via the identification of such geographical clusters is a very simple and generic form of geographical analysis that has many applications in many different contexts. The emphasis is on localized clustering or patterning because this may well contain the most useful information. +A geographical cluster is different from a high concentration as it is generally second order, involving the factoring in of the distribution of something else. + + +== Geographical cluster detection == +Identifying geographical clusters can be an important stage in a geographical analysis. Mapping the locations of unusual concentrations may help identify causes of these. Some techniques include the Geographical Analysis Machine and Besag and Newell's cluster detection method. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..90d8d5461 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Geographical feature" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:28.730253+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geography and particularly in geographic information science, a geographic feature or simply feature (also called an object or entity) is a representation of phenomenon that exists at a location in the space and scale of relevance to geography; that is, at or near the surface of Earth. It is an item of geographic information, and may be represented in maps, geographic information systems, remote sensing imagery, statistics, and other forms of geographic discourse. Such representations of phenomena consist of descriptions of their inherent nature, their spatial form and location, and their characteristics or properties. + +== Terminology == +The term "feature" is broad and inclusive, and includes both natural and human-constructed objects. The term covers things which exist physically (e.g. a building) as well as those that are conceptual or social creations (e.g. a neighbourhood). Formally, the term is generally restricted to things which endure over a period. A feature is also discrete, meaning that it has a clear identity and location distinct from other objects, and is defined as a whole, defined more or less precisely by the boundary of its geographical extent. This differentiates features from geographic processes and events, which are perdurants that only exist in time; and from geographic masses and fields, which are continuous in that they are not conceptualized as a distinct whole. +In geographic information science, the terms feature, object, and entity are generally used as roughly synonymous. In the 1992 Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS), one of the first public standard models of geographic information, an attempt was made to formally distinguish them: an entity as the real-world phenomenon, an object as a representation thereof (e.g. on paper or digital), and a feature as the combination of both entity and representation objects. Although this distinction is often cited in textbooks, it has not gained lasting nor widespread usage. In the ISO 19101 Geographic Information Reference Model and Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) Simple Features Specification, international standards that form the basis for most modern geospatial technologies, a feature is defined as "an abstraction of a real-world phenomenon", essentially the object in SDTS. + +== Types of features == + +=== Natural features === +A natural feature is an object on the planet that was not created by humans, but is a part of the natural world. + +==== Ecosystems ==== + +There are two different terms to describe habitats: ecosystem and biome. An ecosystem is a community of organisms. In contrast, biomes occupy large areas of the globe and often encompass many different kinds of geographical features, including mountain ranges. +Biotic diversity within an ecosystem is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems. Living organisms are continually engaged in a set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist, and ecosystem describes any situation where there is relationship between organisms and their environment. +Biomes represent large areas of ecologically similar communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms. Biomes are defined based on factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate. Unlike biogeographic realms, biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities. Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation. + +==== Water bodies ==== + +A body of water is any significant and reasonably long-lasting accumulation of water, usually covering the land. The term "body of water" most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it may also include smaller pools of water such as ponds, creeks or wetlands. Rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are not always considered bodies of water, but they are included as geographical formations featuring water. +Some of these are easily recognizable as distinct real-world entities (e.g. an isolated lake), while others are at least partially based on human conceptualizations. Examples of the latter are a branching stream network in which one of the branches has been arbitrarily designated as the continuation of the primary named stream; or a gulf or bay of a body of water (e.g. a lake or an ocean), which has no meaningful dividing line separating it from the rest of the lake or ocean. + +==== Landforms ==== + +A landform comprises a geomorphological unit and is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape, as part of the terrain, and as such is typically an element of topography. Landforms are categorized by features such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. They include berms, mounds, hills, cliffs, valleys, rivers, and numerous other elements. Oceans and continents are the highest-order landforms. + +=== Artificial features === + +==== Settlements ==== + +A settlement is a permanent or temporary community in which people live. Settlements range in components from a small number of dwellings grouped together to the largest of cities with surrounding urbanized areas. Other landscape features such as roads, enclosures, field systems, boundary banks and ditches, ponds, parks and woods, mills, manor houses, moats, and churches may be considered part of a settlement. + +==== Administrative regions and other constructs ==== +These include social constructions that are created to administer and organize the land, people, and other spatially-relevant resources. Examples are governmental units such as a state, cadastral land parcels, mining claims, zoning partitions of a city, and church parishes. There are also more informal social features, such as city neighbourhoods and other vernacular regions. These are purely conceptual entities established by edict or practice, although they may align with visible features (e.g. a river boundary), and may be subsequently manifested on the ground, such as by survey markers or fences. + +==== Engineered constructs ==== + +Engineered geographic features include highways, bridges, airports, railroads, buildings, dams, and reservoirs, and are part of the anthroposphere because they are man-made geographic features. + +=== Cartographic features === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6f5179922 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Geographical feature" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:28.730253+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Cartographic features are types of abstract geographical features, which appear on maps but not on the planet itself, even though they are located on the planet. For example, grid lines, latitudes, longitudes, the Equator, the prime meridian, and many types of boundary, are shown on maps of Earth, but do not physically exist. They are theoretical lines used for reference, navigation, and measurement. + +== Features and Geographic Information == + +In GIS, maps, statistics, databases, and other information systems, a geographic feature is represented by a set of descriptors of its various characteristics. A common classification of those characteristics has emerged based on developments by Peuquet, Mennis, and others, including the following : + + Identity, the fact that a feature is unique and distinct from all other features. This does not have an inherent description, but humans have created many systems for attempting to express identity, such as names and identification numbers/codes. +Existence, the fact that a feature exists in the world. At first, this may seem trivial, but complex situations are common, such as features that are proposed or planned, abstract concepts (e.g., the Equator), under construction, or that no longer exist. + Kind (also known as class, type, or category), one or more groups to which a feature belongs, typically focused on those that are most fundamental to its existence. It thus completes the sentence "This is a _________." These are generally in the form of common nouns (tree, dog, building, county, etc.), which may be isolated or part of a taxonomic hierarchy. + Relationships to other features. These may be inherent if they are crucial to the existence and identity of the feature, or incidental if they are not crucial, but "just happen to be." These may be of at least three types: +Spatial relations, those that can be visualized and measured in space. For example, the fact that the Potomac River is adjacent to Maryland is an inherent spatial relation because the river is part of the definition of the boundary of Maryland, but the overlap relation between Maryland and the Delmarva Peninsula is incidental, as each would exist unproblematically without the other. +Meronomic relations (also known as partonomy), in which a feature may exist as a part of a larger whole, or may exist as a collection of parts. For example, the relationship between Maryland and the United States is a meronomic relation; one is not just spatially within the boundaries of the other, but is a component part of the other that in part defines the existence of both. +Genealogical relations (also known as parent-child), which tie a feature to others that existed previously and created it (or from which it was formed by another agent), and in turn to any features it has created. For example, if a county were created by the subdivision of two existing counties, they would be considered its parents. +Location, a description of where the feature exists, often including the shape of its extent. While a feature has an inherent location, measuring it for the purpose of representation as data can be a complex process, such as requiring the invention of abstract spatial reference systems, and the necessary employment of cartographic generalization, including an expedient choice of dimension (e.g., a city could be represented as a region or as a point, depending on scale and need). +Attributes, characteristics of a feature other than location, often expressed as text or numbers; for example, the population of a city. In geography, the levels of measurement developed by Stanley Smith Stevens (and further extended by others) is a common system for understanding and using attribute data. +Time is fundamental to the representation of a feature, although it does not have independent temporal descriptions. Instead, expressions of time are attached to other characteristics, describing how they change (thus, they are analogous to adverbs in common discourse). Any of the above characteristics is mutable, with the possible exception of identity. For example, the lifespan of a feature could be considered as the temporal extent of its existence. The location of a city can change over time as annexations expand its extent. The resident population of a country changes frequently due to immigration, emigration, birth, and death. +The descriptions of features (i.e., the measured values of each of the above characteristics) are typically collected in Geographic databases, such as GIS datasets, based on a variety of data models and file formats, often based on the vector logical model. + +== See also == +Geographical field +Geographical location +Human geography +Landscape +Physical geography +Simple Features + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..10ccde1c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Geographical segregation" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:30.043055+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Geographical segregation exists whenever the proportions of population rates of two or more populations are not homogeneous throughout a defined space. Populations can be considered any plant or animal species, human genders, followers of a certain religion, people of different nationalities, ethnic groups, etc. +In social geography segregation of ethnic groups, social classes and genders is often measured by the calculation of indices such as the index of dissimilarity. Different dimensions of segregation (or its contrary) are recognized: exposure, evenness, clustering, concentration, centralization, etc. More recent studies also highlight new local indices of segregation. +Geographical segregation is most often measured with individuals' place of residence, but increasing geographical data availability makes it now possible to compute segregation indexes using individuals' activity space, in whole or in part. + +== Human geographical segregation == +Segregation, as a broad concept, has appeared in all parts of the world where people exist—in different contexts and times it takes on different forms, shaped by the physical and human environments. The spatial concentration of population groups is not a new phenomenon. Since societies began to form there have been segregated inhabitants. Either segregated purposefully by force, or gradually over time, segregation was based on socio-economic, religious, educational, linguistic or ethnic grounds. Some groups choose to be segregated to strengthen social identity. + +== Types == + +=== Legal segregation === +Segregation can be caused by legal frameworks, such as in the extreme example of apartheid in South Africa, and even Jewish ghettoization in Germany in the 20th century. Segregation can also happen slowly, stimulated by increased land and housing prices in certain neighborhoods, resulting in segregation of rich and poor in many urban cities. Segregation can also be assigned arbitrarily. This can occur on a global scale, such as is seen in the Partition of India, instances in Ireland, and many other situations. Geographical boundaries were often put in place without much consideration for native peoples and natural geographic terrain and cultural limits that had long been in place. + +In the United States, segregation was enforced through the law. Notably, the racial segregation between white and black racial populations in the American South during the late 1800s into the first half of the 20th century. These laws consisted of separating people of color from white people in public places, including movie theaters, restaurants, schools, shopping centers, etc. The legislations were commonly referred to as Jim Crow laws. Although these laws were abolished in the mid 1960’s the impacts are still present in American communities today. Represented through the significant gap in homeownership, income status, and education levels in communities of color versus majority white. +In apartheid South Africa, segregation was very much a legal concept. Enforced by the government, black and South-Africans of color were discriminated against, and forced to comply with apartheid. Some of the legislation passed dealt with physical segregation in schools, land tenure, geographic segregation and state repression. These were very clearly legislative, but also in the case of most white South Africans, a social construct as well. +Segregation can also be encouraged, using geographical boundaries, while not explicitly enforced. Public housing projects, especially in the United States, have been criticized for this. Putting cheap housing in poor black neighborhoods encouraged local African-Americans to stay in the area, keeping other richer areas white by not building public housing there. Current day, many communities within the United States are still segregated, due to the ongoing racial inequalities still present and self-segregation. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e1d239878 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Geographical segregation" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:30.043055+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Social segregation and gentrification === +Segregation can also be caused by social factors that become evident as they happen, but are not necessarily government sanctioned. This could be things like informal ghettos, or simply rich neighborhoods. In terms of land capital, over time in a given area, humans will settle down and buy or take land. Some privileged people will acquire better land (that is, more arable, proximate to potential capital, more pleasing views). Demand for these nicer habitats drives up prices, and areas deemed "better" based solely on geography become inherently exclusionary in their population makeup. +West Point Grey, an area of Vancouver Canada, is in part rich because of the views offered of Downtown Vancouver, the Gulf Islands, and its location near the water and University of British Columbia. Wealthy people had the resources to pay for advantages, and subsequently drove up prices. Examples of this can be seen all over the world. Geographical segregation is not always defined by the sightline of places. It also occurs around certain structures, or simply in areas that are specifically developed with an income bracket in mind. +These social factors are commonly attributed to the impacts of gentrification. Gentrification is the process in which the makeup of a community is changed. These changes include racial identity, economic status, and level of education. Generally, gentrification occurs in communities that are low-income and a majority-minority population. It begins when affluent families, usually of white racial identity, move into these lower-income neighborhoods and invest their money into the community. These improvements to the community consist of reconstructing public transit, the businesses within downtown areas, and the houses in neighborhoods. This raises the overall investment value of the area, which increases the living costs. Which in turn, causes the original low-income residents to be displaced, due to the unaffordability. It can also create physical health issues for the original residents. As they are segregated in areas typically near factors or construction zones, exposing them to toxins. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has issued that gentrification is a public health issue. +Another segregation term, the ghetto, has been used in many different contexts over time, generally meaning any physical part of a city predominantly occupied by any particular group of people. It implies that the group may be looked down upon and segregated purposefully. This does not mean that all ghettos are built up communities and buildings specifically for a segregation purpose, although many are. In the case of the United States, segregation of the African-American community was to a degree due to white flight out of the cities, rather than forcing African-Americans to live in the downtown cores. + +=== Gated communities === +Gated communities could be seen as a combination of both legal frameworks and social conventions regarding segregation. A gated community today is a controlled neighborhood, inhabited by people with common interests, such as safety, or class separation, but not necessarily of the same ethnicity or religion—it is distinct from an international community (in most cases). Gated communities are very controversial, as they can be seen as encouraging distinction and separation, and therefore superiority from those who do not live with the gates community. + +=== Self-segregation === +Self segregation is almost as common an occurrence as involuntary segregation is. Often, immigrants coming to a new and foreign country will band together for mutual benefit, and to keep a sense of community in the new country. These can be called ethnic enclaves and can be formed by any community or people group. Some well-known groups are Chinatowns, Little Italys and barrios. These localized phenomena also come in the form of ethnoburbs, which are essentially the same concept as an ethnic enclave, but specifically located in suburbs, rather than the traditional downtowns, where Chinatowns and Little Italys are usually based. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_event-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_event-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..892039977 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_event-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Geological event" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_event" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:53.471312+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A geological event is a temporary and spatially heterogeneous and dynamic (diachronous) happening in Earth history that contributes to the transformation of Earth system and the formation of geological strata. Event stratigraphy was first proposed as a system for the recognition, study and correlation of the effects of important physical or biological events on the broader stratigraphical record. + +Geological events range in time span by orders of magnitude, from seconds to millions of years, and in spatial scale from local to regional and, ultimately, global. In contrast to chronostratigraphic or geochronological units, that define the boundaries between periods, epochs and other units of the geologic time scale, complex dynamic diachronous changes are inherent to the event-stratigraphy paradigm. The lithostratigraphic or biostratigraphic boundaries that mark the onset and termination of geological events in the stratigraphic record may be diachronous, whereas those of formal chronostratigraphic or geochronologic units have basal boundaries that are isochronous. +Examples of geological events include a single footprint, an earthquake, a series of volcanic eruptions, the formation of mountains (orogenies), the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) of 2.4-2.0 billion years ago and the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event (GOBE) ~500 Ma. The event paradigm is firmly embedded in Quaternary science, as the subdivision of quaternary time is based on the recognition of a succession of climatic events, principally glacial and interglacial cycles but also stadials and interstadials. Highly resolved stratigraphic sequences, such as those from ice cores, provide evidence of much shorter-term millennial-scale climatic events that are superimposed on these broad glacial cycles. Other short-term happenings, such as Dansgaard–Oeschger events and Heinrich events, are evident in ice-core sequences and deep-ocean sediment records, respectively. Some scientists have proposed that the Anthropocene is more consistent with the concept of a geological event than with a formal chronostratigraphic/geochronological unit, such as an epoch of geologic time. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geon_(geology)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geon_(geology)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..223e3e6a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geon_(geology)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Geon (geology)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geon_(geology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:55.910880+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term geon (for geological eon) refers to large, geologic units of time. +Geologists traditionally subdivide Earth history into a hierarchy of named intervals: eons, eras, periods, etc. (e.g., the Jurassic Period of the Mesozoic Era). Historians subdivide the history of human activity into intervals that are comparatively much shorter. In both geological and historical scales, the divisions of equal rank are characteristically of unequal duration, and the identification of a particular interval is primarily based on its fossil, artifact, or cultural content (e.g., Carboniferous, Neolithic, Dark Ages, Ming Dynasty). Both scales are calibrated against numerical ages obtained +separately. +An alternative way of referring to the past is to use a scale with intervals of equal duration. We speak of a given decade, century, or millennium. For the enormously long geologic time frame, it is advantageous to use corresponding large, equal time intervals encompassing the events and processes that have shaped our planet. The development of mountain ranges, ocean basins, and continents takes tens to hundreds of millions of years, and large time units thus are convenient for discussing long-term trends. Astronomers use light years and parsecs to deal with huge distances, rather than kilometres. Geologists have geons to refer to large specified time intervals of Earth history. The geon scale is also applicable to other planets with different histories, and to the universe itself. +Two usages of geon have been introduced in geology: + +A geon is a unit "...taken to represent either the span of the average geologic period, or the thickness of the average stratigraphic equivalent, a matter of 60,000,000 years, and 50,000 feet [~15 km] of clastic depositions" (Woodward, 1929). Utilizing the currently accepted value of 542 Ma (million years ago) for the beginning of the Cambrian Period, and using 11 geologic periods in the Phanerozoic Eon, an updated value for Woodward's geon would be about 49.4 million years. Usage in this sense is not current. +A geon is a specified 100-million-year interval of geologic time, counted backward from the present. The geon scale can be likened to a ladder, each interval between rungs representing 100 million years. Geons are named for the leftmost part of the number representing age. For example, the Earth formed about 4550 million years ago, an event that is assigned to Geon 45 (interval below rung 45). Rocks formed at 1851 Ma or 1800 Ma both belong to Geon 18. The extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous Period (065 Ma) belongs to Geon 0. (Hofmann, 1990). + + +== References == +Hofmann, H.J. (1990). "Precambrian time units and nomenclature - the geon concept". Geology. 18 (4): 340–341. Bibcode:1990Geo....18..340H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0340:ptuant>2.3.co;2. Archived from the original on 2005-10-01. +Woodward, H.P. 1929, Standardization of geologic time-units. Pan-American Geologist, v. 51, p. 15-22. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosophy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosophy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8ff62f760 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosophy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Geosophy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosophy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:31.277311+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Geosophy is a concept introduced to geography by J.K. Wright in 1947. The word is a compound of ‘geo’ (Greek for earth) and ‘sophia’ (Greek for wisdom). Wright defined it thus: + +Geosophy ... is the study of geographical knowledge from any or all points of view. It is to geography what historiography is to history; it deals with the nature and expression of geographical knowledge both past and present—with what Whittlesey has called ‘man’s sense of [terrestrial] space’. Thus it extends far beyond the core area of scientific geographical knowledge or of geographical knowledge as otherwise systematized by geographers. Taking into account the whole peripheral realm, it covers the geographical ideas, both true and false, of all manner of people—not only geographers, but farmers and fishermen, business executives and poets, novelists and painters, Bedouins and Hottentots—and for this reason it necessarily has to do in large degree with subjective conceptions. +THE CONCEPT OF GEOSPHY +Geosophy is the school of thought that asserts that earth cannot be studied independent of the people who live & experiences Earth. +The range of perception of the Earth is so varied & there are as many perception as people themselves, so, it is impossible to study the Earth independent of people who experiences it. +This concept reinforced the concept of cultural landscape of Carl 0. Sauer & Ratzel & also the work of vidals Genere-de-vie. + +(Wright 1947) +This has been summarised as: + +the study of the world as people conceive of and imagine it +(McGreevy 1987) +Belief systems as they relate to human interaction with the Earth's environments. + +(attributed to Professor Innes Park 1995) + + +== Superstition == +Geosophy is sometimes used as a synonym for the study of earth mysteries. + + +== See also == +American Association of Geographers +Geopoetics +Technical geography +Quantitative geography +Qualitative geography + + +== References == +Keighren, Innes M. “Geosophy, imagination, and terrae incognitae: exploring the intellectual history of John Kirtland Wright.” Journal of Historical Geography 31, no. 3 (2005): 546–62. +McGreevy, P. 1987 Imagining the future at Niagara Falls. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77 (1):48–62 +Wright, J.K. 1947. Terrae Incognitae: The Place of Imagination in Geography Annals of the Association of American Geographers 37: 1–15. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere-0.md index 226e90c0a..2c7d7a279 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:18:17.642534+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:57.160011+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_lost-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_lost-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a5a15efd5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_lost-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Getting lost" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_lost" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:32.527678+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Getting lost is the occurrence of a person or animal losing spatial reference. This situation consists of two elements: the feeling of disorientation and a spatial component. While getting lost, being lost or totally lost, etc. are popular expressions for someone in a desperate situation (perhaps not literally lost), getting lost is also a positive term for a goal some travellers have in exploring without a plan. Getting lost can also occur in metaphorical senses, such as being unable to follow a conversation. + + +== Process == + +Psychology and neuroscience help to understand the underlying processes which take place before, during and after getting lost. Getting lost is an aspect of behavioral geography, in which human wayfinding and cognitive and environmental factors play a role. For successful travel, it is necessary to be able to identify origin and destination, to determine turn angles, to identify segment lengths and directions of movement, to recognize on-route and distant landmarks. This information is required to plot a course designed to reach a destination (previously known or unknown) or to return to a home base after wandering. If a destination is known but is not directly connected by a path, road, or track to the origin, successful travel may involve search and exploration, spatial updating of one's location, finding familiar landmarks, recognition of segment length and sequencing, identification of a frame of reference. Human movement is often guided by external aids (cartographic maps, charts, compasses, pedometers, and the like). +Getting lost is particularly problematic for children (who have not yet developed tools and strategies for maintaining their bearings) and for the elderly, particularly those experiencing the onset of dementia. Such individuals "can get lost while trying to find their local shop – due to their diminishing memory they can forget where the shop is, or where they live and why they went out of their house in the first place". People experiencing dementia also get lost more easily in poor visibility conditions because the mind fails to appropriately fill in cues as to missing landmarks. Getting lost in unfamiliar terrain can lead even an adult with a healthy mind to panic and engage in unthinking behaviors that make the situation even worse. The tendency of the mind to seek patterns and familiar signs can contribute to this in two ways. First the lost person may mistake features of the terrain for markers that were seen before they became lost, creating a false sense of orientation that may lead the lost person to pursue routes that take them even further off course. Second, the lost person may mistake such features for markers that were seen after they became lost, creating a false sense that they have made a circle and returned to an earlier point of their effort to find their bearings. This may result from topographical disorientation, the inability to orient oneself in one's surroundings, sometimes as a result of focal brain damage. This disability may result from the inability to make use of selective spatial information (e.g., environmental landmarks) or to orient by means of specific cognitive strategies such as the ability to form a mental representation of the environment, also known as a cognitive map. + + +== Lost person behavior == +Search and rescue teams have identified some behavioral patterns in people who get lost in wilderness settings, and they use those patterns to improve the likelihood of finding lost people. For example, lost people tend to follow linear features (e.g., a stream) and to go downhill. + + +== Historical occasions == +There have been some historically notable instances of people getting lost and either being rescued or dying. George Shannon, the youngest adult member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition got lost on two occasions after being separated from the expedition. On August 26, 1804, he was sent to retrieve two pack horses; he was separated from the party for sixteen days and nearly starved, as he went without food for twelve days except for some grapes and rabbits. At first he thought he was behind the expedition, so he sped up thinking he could catch up. Then, getting hungry, he went downstream to look for a trading party he could stay with. Finally John Colter was sent to find him. The second time was on August 6, 1805, when the expedition was at the Three Forks. Shannon was dispatched up a fork the party had named Wisdom (the middle fork was named Jefferson and the placid fork, Philanthropy). He rejoined the party after three days by backtracking to the forks and following the trail of the others. +John Muir wrote in his journals of an occasion when a visiting artist named Billy Simms "went forth to sketch while I was among the glaciers, and got lost - was thirty-six hours without food". Mentally ailing Church of England mission priest Alexander Mackonochie died after getting lost on December 14, 1887, while walking in the Forest of Mamore, near Loch Leven, Scotland: the circumstances were later commemorated in a poem by William McGonagall. In September 2014, Soviet and Russian mathematician Alexey Chervonenkis got lost in Losiny Ostrov National Park; a later search operation found him dead near Mytishchi, a suburb of Moscow. + + +== In fiction and mythology == +People are sometimes depicted in fiction and literature as getting lost, with substantial consequences. For example, due to "the physical structure of Rome, whose streets were notoriously labyrinthine", it has been observed that "getting lost in Rome was staple of travel narratives". The experience of getting lost is also a commonly reported theme of dreams. +In previous times, mythological explanations were given for getting lost and going astray. In the mythology of the British Isles, the culprit making someone get lost—being pixy-led, fairy-led or pouk-ledden as it is called—can be a fairy, Robin Goodfellow, Puck, Hob, a pixy or one of the gwyllion. In the mythology of Ireland, there are also places under fairy spells, leading to the same effect. They are called stray sod or foidin seachrain. +In German speaking Europe, someone getting lost could be attributed to be the fault of a variety of sprites (such as a Will-o'-the-wisp, a wood sprite, or the wild huntsman, the Mittagsweibchen ("noon-woman") or Rübezahl), of a witch or magic in general, or of mythical plants such as the Irrwurz. There are further places known called Irrfleck ("astray spot") or Irr-Revier ("astray district") where people go astray. +Getting lost in the bush has been identified as an enduring trope of Australian literature, often featuring lost children. + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Koester, Robert J. (2008). Lost Person Behavior: A search and rescue guide on where to look for land, air, and water. Charlottesville, VA: DbS Productions. ISBN 9781879471399. OCLC 213479933. + + +== External links == + + Media related to Getting lost at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9ae76b28a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,149 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of Hebrew toponyms" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:35.076948+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary gives translations of Hebrew terms commonly found as components in Hebrew toponyms. + + +== B == + +Be'er Beer Be'erot (plural) +בְּאֵר, wiktionary:באר, 'well'; plural בְּאֵרוֹת +All pages with titles beginning with Beer +All pages with titles beginning with Be'er +All pages with titles beginning with Be'erot + +BeitBayit (sometimes)BethBet +בֵּית, wiktionary:בית, 'house' +All pages with titles beginning with Beit +All pages with titles beginning with Bayit +All pages with titles beginning with Beth +All pages with titles beginning with Bet + + +== E == + +Ein'En +עַיִן, wiktionary:עין, 'spring, fountain' +All pages with titles beginning with Ein +All pages with titles beginning with 'En + +Emek +עֵמֶק, wiktionary:עמק, 'valley' +All pages with titles beginning with Emek + + +== G == + +Gan +גַּן, wiktionary:גן, 'garden' +All pages with titles containing Gan + +Giv'atGivatGivatayim (dual)Giv'ot (plural) +גִּבְעַת, wiktionary:גבעה, 'hill' +All pages with titles beginning with Givat +All pages with titles beginning with Giv'at +All pages with titles beginning with Giv'ot + + +== H == + +Har +הַר, wiktionary:הר, 'mountain' +All pages with titles beginning with Har + + +== I == + +Illit +עילית, wiktionary:עילית, 'upper' +All pages with titles containing Illit + + +== K == + +Kerem +כֶּרֶם, wiktionary:כרם, 'vineyard' +All pages with titles beginning with Kerem + +Kfar +כְּפַר, wiktionary:כפר, 'village' +All pages with titles beginning with Kfar + +KiryatQiryat +קִרְיַת, wiktionary:קריה, 'town' +All pages with titles beginning with Kiryat +All pages with titles beginning with Qiryat + + +== M == + +Ma'ayanMa'yan +מעיין, wiktionary:מעיין, 'spring, fountain' +All pages with titles beginning with Ma'ayan +All pages with titles beginning with Ma'yan + +Mishmar +מִשְׁמַר, wiktionary:משמר, 'guard' +All pages with titles beginning with Mishmar + + +== N == + +Nahal +נַחַל, wiktionary:נחל, stream, wadi, Biblical Hebrew: 'valley' +All pages with titles beginning with Nahal +All pages with titles beginning with Nachal + +Neve Neot (plural) +נְוֵה, נוה, in this context: '(place of) residence, abode, oasis'; plural נאות +All pages with titles beginning with Neve +All pages with titles beginning with Neot + + +== Q == +Qiryat: see Kiryat + + +== R == + +Ramat +רָמַת, wiktionary:רמה, 'heights, highlands'; plural Ramot +All pages with titles beginning with Ramat + +Ramot +רָמוֹת, 'heights, highlands'; plural of Ramat +All pages with titles beginning with Ramot + +Rosh +רֹאשׁ, wiktionary:ראש, 'head' +All pages with titles beginning with Rosh + + +== T == + +Tel +תֵל, wiktionary:תל, 'mound (tell), hill', often in names of archaeological sites +All pages with titles beginning with Tel + +TzurTsur +צוּר, wiktionary:צור, 'rock, cliff' +All pages with titles beginning with Tzur +All pages with titles beginning with Tsur + + +== See also == +List of Hebrew place names +Hebraization of Palestinian place names + + +== Further reading == +M. E. J. Richardson, "Hebrew Toponyms", Tyndale Bulletin Vol. 20, Issue 1, 1969, doi:10.53751/001c.30678 +Joseph Jacobs, Place-names, Jewish Encyclopedia +Yoel Elitzur, "Toponyms in the Land of Israel", In: Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics, 2013, vol. 3, pp. 779-778 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..746f35864 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,147 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 1/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This glossary of geology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to geology, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. For other terms related to the Earth sciences, see Glossary of geography terms (disambiguation). + +== A == + +abiotic +Non-living chemical or physical component of the environment affecting living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems. + +abyssal plain +A flat or very gently sloping area on the floor of a deep ocean basin. + +absolute dating +The process of determining a specific date (in years or some other unit of time) for an archaeological, geological or paleontological site or artifact. + +accident +A sudden discontinuity of ground, such as a fault of great thickness, bed or lentil of unstable ground. + +accretion +A process by which material is added to a tectonic plate or landmass. + +achnelith +A small, glassy volcanic bomb, sphere, dumbbell, or droplet-shaped stone resulting from very liquid magma. + +acid rock +The groups ultrabasic, basic, intermediate and acid constitute a series with progressively increasing SiO2 content. + +aftershock +A small earthquake that follows a main shock. + +agglomerate +An indurated rock built of large angular rock fragments embedded in an ashy matrix and resulting from explosive volcanic activity. Occurs typically in volcanic vents. + +aggregate +A mass consisting of rock or mineral fragments. + +albite +The end member of the plagioclase group of minerals, ideally consisting of silicates of sodium and aluminium, but commonly containing small quantities of potash and lime in addition. Compare barbierite. + +alkaline +A highly basic substance that dissolves in water. + +alkaline rock +A type of rock characterized by a high content of Na2O and K2O relative to the other oxides. They occur throughout the range from ultrabasic to acid, but have their strongest expression in the acid-intermediate part of the range. + +allochthon +A fossil, sediment, or rock that was formed elsewhere and later transported into the location where it is presently found, usually by low angle thrust faulting. An object of this type is referred to as allochthonous. Contrast autochthon. + +alluvial fan +A fan-shaped deposit formed where a fast flowing stream flattens, slows, and spreads typically at the exit of a canyon onto a flatter plain. + +alluvium +Soil or sediments deposited by a river or other running water. + +amber +Fossilized resin or tree sap that is appreciated for its vivid colour, usually reddish-orange to gold or yellow. + +amphibole +An important group of dark-coloured, rock-forming silicate minerals, including hornblende, the commonest. + +amphibolite +A crystalline, coarse-grained rock, containing amphibole as an essential constituent, together with feldspar and frequently garnet. Like hornblende schist, amphibolite is formed by regional metamorphism of basic igneous rocks, but is not foliated. + +amygdaloidal +Amygdules or amygdales form when the gas bubbles or vesicles in volcanic lava (or other extrusive igneous rocks) are infilled with a secondary mineral such as calcite, quartz, chlorite or one of the zeolites. Rocks containing amygdules can be described as amygdaloidal. + +anatexis +Melting of pre-existing rock. Compare metatexis, diatexis, and syntexis. + +andalusite +One of several crystalline forms of aluminium silicate; a characteristic product of the contact metamorphism of argillaceous rocks. + +andesite +Fine-grained igneous rock of intermediate composition. Up to half of the rock is plagioclase feldspar with the rest being ferromagnesian minerals. + +angular unconformity +An unconformity in which younger strata overlie an erosion surface of tilted or folded layered rock. + +anorthite +Also called Indianite. +A mineral from the lime-rich end of the plagioclase group of minerals. Anorthites are usually silicates of calcium and aluminium occurring in some basic igneous rocks, typically those produced by the contact metamorphism of impure calcareous sediments. + +anticline +An arched fold in which the layers usually dip away from the fold axis. Contrast syncline. + +aphanic +Having the texture of carbonate sedimentary rocks characterized by individual crystals or clastic grains less than 0.01 mm in diameter. + +aphanitic +Said of the texture of igneous rock in which the crystalline components are not distinguishable by the naked eye. Both microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline textures are included. + +aplogranite +A light-coloured rock of granitic texture consisting mainly of alkali feldspar and quartz, with subordinate biotite; muscovite may be present. + +aquifer +A body of saturated rock or sediment through which water can move readily. + +aragonite sea +Contains aragonite and high-magnesium calcite as the primary inorganic carbonate precipitates. + +Archean Eon +The oldest eon of the Earth's history. + +archipelago +A chain or cluster of islands. + +arenaceous +Sediments consisting essentially of sand grains; that is, of quartz and rock fragments down to 0.005mm in size. Conglomerates, sandstones, grits and siltstones fall into this category. Particle size 2mm to 1/16mm. + +arenite +1. A general term for any consolidated sedimentary rock composed of sand-sized fragments. +2. “Clean” sandstone, well-sorted, less than 10% argillaceous matrix. Opposite to Wacke. + +arenitic +Pertaining to, having the quality of, or resembling sandstone. + +arkose +An arenaceous sedimentary rock. Like sandstone in its general character but containing feldspar to at least 10%. Formed by the disintegration of the acid igneous rocks and gneisses. + +argillaceous +Sedimentary rocks of the clay grade, i.e. composed of minute mineral fragments and crystals less than 0.005 mm in diameter, as well as large amounts of colloidal material. Apart from finely divided detrital matter, they consist of the so-called clay minerals, such as montmorillonite, kaolinite, gibbsite and diaspore. Siltstones, mudstones, shales, clays, etc. may all be referred to as argillaceous. + +ash +Fragments less than 2 mm (0.079 in) in diameter of pulverized rock, minerals and volcanic glass, created during volcanic eruptions. + +asphalt +A sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits. + +assembled gem +Also called a composite gem. + +asthenosphere +A region of the Earth's outer shell beneath the lithosphere. The asthenosphere is of indeterminate thickness and behaves plastically. + +augite +A complex aluminous silicate of calcium, iron and magnesium, crystallising in the monoclinic system, and occurring in many igneous rocks, particularly those of basic composition. It is an essential component of basalt, dolerite and gabbro. + +aureole +A zone surrounding an igneous intrusion in which country rock shows effects of contact metamorphism. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..27102a60d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,149 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 2/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +autochthon +A fossil, sediment, or rock that was formed or produced in the location where it is now found. The term is widely applied to a coal or peat that originated at the place where the plants comprising it grew and decayed and to rocks that have not been displaced by overthrust faulting. An object of this type is referred to as autochthonous. Contrast allochthon. + +== B == + +bajada +A series of coalescing alluvial fans along a mountain front. + +banded iron formation +A distinctive type of rock often found in primordial sedimentary rocks. + +basalt +A fine-grained, mafic igneous rock composed predominantly of ferromagnesian minerals and with lesser amounts of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar. + +basement rock +The thick foundation of ancient, and oldest metamorphic and igneous rock that forms the crust of continents, often in the form of granite. + +basic rock +Igneous rock with low silica content (<54%). The groups ultrabasic, basic, intermediate, and acid constitute a series with progressively increasing SiO2 content. + +basin +A landform scooped out by water erosion. + +Basin and Range Province +A particular topography covering much of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico that is typified by elongate north-south trending arid valleys bounded by mountain ranges which also bound adjacent valleys. + +batholith +A large discordant pluton with an outcropping area greater than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi). + +bedrock +Native consolidated rock underlying the loose rock or soil surface of the Earth. + +Before Present (BP) + +bentonite +Swelling clay minerals of the smectite group with many industrial applications (drilling mud, expansive backfill materials…). The name bentonite is inherited from Fort Benton in Wyoming where large swelling clay deposits exist. See also smectite and montmorillonite. + +bioerosion +The erosion of hard ocean substrates by living organisms through various biological mechanisms. + +biogenic +Of biological origin – Produced by the present or past activity of living organisms, or by a biological process. + +bioherm +Landform of organic sedimentary rock enclosed or surrounded by rock of different origin. + +biostratigraphy +A branch of stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and assigning relative ages of rock strata by using the fossil assemblages contained within them. + +biostratinomy +The study of the processes that take place after an organism dies but before its final burial. + +biostrome +A distinctly bedded or broadly lenticular sedimentary rock landform. + +biotic +Of biological origin – Produced by the present or past activity of living organisms, or by a biological process. + +biotite +A form of black mica widely distributed in igneous rocks (particularly in granites) as lustrous black crystals, with a singularly perfect cleavage. In composition it is a complex silicate, chiefly of iron and magnesium, together with potassium and hydroxyl. + +bioturbation +The displacement and mixing of sediment particles by benthic fauna (animals) or flora (plants). + +blueschist +A rock that forms by the metamorphism of basalt or rocks of similar composition at high pressures and low temperatures, approximately corresponding to a depth of to and a temperature of to. + +boudin +A structure formed by extension, in which a rigid tabular body such as a bed of sandstone is stretched and deformed amidst less competent beds. See also boudinage. + +boulder + +Bowen's reaction series +The sequence in which minerals crystallize from a cooling basaltic magma. + +brackish +Water with a salinity higher than freshwater but lower than seawater. + +breadcrust bomb +A rounded, smooth-surfaced volcanic bomb with a cracked surface resembling a cracked crust of bread, hence the name. + +breccia +A coarse-grained clastic rock consisting largely of angular fragments of existing rocks. + +buckling +A failure mode of a rock subjected to high compressive stresses, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding. Typically, folding is thought to occur by simple buckling of a planar surface and its confining volume. The volume change is accommodated by layer parallel shortening the volume, which grows in thickness. + +== C == + +calcareous +Formed from or containing a high proportion of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite or aragonite, used of a sediment, sedimentary rock, or soil type. + +calcite +A mineral that is the crystalline form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), showing trigonal symmetry and a great variety of mineral habits. It is one of the commonest of minerals in association with both igneous and sedimentary rocks. + +calcite sea +A body of water in which low-magnesium calcite is the primary inorganic marine calcium carbonate precipitate. + +calcrete +1. A conglomerate of surficial sand and gravel cemented by calcium carbonate precipitated from solution. +2. A calcareous duricrust. + +caldera +A volcanic feature formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption. + +Cambrian +The earliest geologic period of the Paleozoic Era, lasting from 541.0 ± 1.0 to 485.4 ± 1.9 million years ago and succeeded by the Ordovician. + +carbon film +A type of fossil or preservation. + +carbonate +A salt or ester of carbonic acid. + +carbonate hardgrounds +Surfaces of synsedimentarily-cemented carbonate layers that have been exposed on the seafloor. + +casting +The process which occurs when a liquid fills a cavity and then solidifies. If the cavity originated from the decomposition of dead organisms, casting may result in the formation of fossils. + +Cenozoic Era +The most recent of the geological eras, which followed the Mesozoic Era. + +chalk +A soft, white, porous sedimentary rock, a form of limestone composed of calcite coccolith plates. + +chert +A fine-grained, silica-rich, microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline or microfibrous sedimentary rock that sometimes contains small fossils. + +chlorite +Any of a set of allied non-swelling 2:1 (TOT) clay minerals which may be regarded as hydrated silicates of aluminium, iron, and magnesium. Their non-accessible interlayer is filled by a brucite bridge (Mg(OH)2, or sometimes Fe(OH)2). They crystallise in the monoclinic system and are green in colour. They occur as alteration products of such minerals as biotite and hornblende, and also in schistose rocks. + +clast +Any individual constituent grain or fragment of a sediment or rock produced by mechanical weathering of a rock mass. + +clastic rocks +Mechanically redeposited remains of eroded older rocks; i.e. rocks formed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing rocks. + +clay \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..55e5872b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,149 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 3/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +cleavage +The tendency of a rock to break along preferred planes of weakness, caused by the development of a planar fabric as a result of deformation. + +cobble + +coccolith +An individual plate of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores which are arranged around them in a so-called coccosphere. + +coccolithophore +Also called a coccolithophorid. +A type of microfossil of single-celled algae, protists and phytoplankton belonging to the division of haptophytes. These fossils are distinguished by special calcium carbonate plates called coccoliths. + +compaction +The process by which a newly deposited sediment decreases its porosity and progressively expels its original pore water due to the effects of loading. This forms part of the process of lithification. + +compression +The process by which rocks shorten or decrease in volume when exposed to certain forces. + +conchoidal +A type of fracture that results in smoothly curved surface faces. + +concretion +A volume of sedimentary rock in which a mineral cement fills the porosity (i.e. the spaces between the sediment grains). Not to be confused with nodule. + +conglomerate +Any type of rock consisting of individual stones that have become cemented together. + +contact metamorphism +Metamorphism due to the local heating of rocks by the intrusion of magma nearby. + +continental crust +The layer of granitic, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks which form the parts of the Earth's crust that comprise the continents, and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores (known as continental shelves). + +continental margin +Zone of the ocean floor, separating the thin oceanic crust from thicker continental crust. + +continental shelf +Extended perimeter of a continent and its associated coastal plain, which is covered, during interglacial periods (such as the current epoch), by gulfs, and relatively shallow seas known as shelf seas. + +convergent boundary +The boundary between two tectonic plates that are moving toward each other. Contrast divergent boundary. + +copal +A type of resin produced by plant or tree secretions, particularly identified with the forms of aromatic tree resins used by the cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica as a ceremonially burned incense, as well as for a number of other purposes. + +coprolite +A fossilized specimen of human or animal dung. + +cordierite +A silicate of aluminium, iron and magnesium with water, which crystallises in the orthorhombic system and occurs mainly in metamorphic rocks. + +core +The innermost layer(s) of a planet, referring especially to the Earth's core. + +corestone +An ellipsoidal or broadly rectangular joint block of granite formed by subsurface weathering in the same manner as a tor but entirely separated from bedrock. + +country rock +The rock native to an area, as opposed to rock that formed elsewhere and was later transported to the area. + +craton +An old and stable part of the continental crust that has survived the merging and splitting of continents and supercontinents for at least 500 million years. + +cross-bedding +An inclined sedimentary structure in a horizontal unit of rock. Such tilted structures indicate the type of depositional environment, not post-depositional deformation. + +crude oil +A liquid mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons. + +crust +The outermost solid layer of a planet or moon, referring especially to the Earth's crust. + +cryptocrystalline + +crystal + +crystal habit + +crystallinity + +== D == + +dacite +An igneous, volcanic rock with a high iron content. It is an extrusive rock of the same general composition as andesite, but a less calcic feldspar. Synonymous with quartz andesite. + +daughter product +Any distinct isotope produced by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus. + +delta +A landform where the mouth of a river flows into an ocean, sea, desert, estuary, lake or another river. + +degradation +The lowering of a fluvial surface, such as a stream bed or floodplain, through erosional processes. + +dendrite +A crystal that develops with a typical multi-branching tree-like form. + +denudation +The lowering of the earth's surface through chemical and physical weathering. + +deposition +The geological process by which material is added to a landform or landmass. + +detachment fault +A major fault in a mountain belt above which rocks have been intensely folded or faulted. + +diagenesis +The process of chemical, physical, or biological change undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during and after its lithification, exclusive of surface alteration (weathering) and metamorphism. + +diamictite +A comprehensive non-generic term for a non-sorted or poorly sorted non-calcareous terrigenous sedimentary rock that contains a wide range of particle sizes such as rock with sand or larger particles in a muddy matrix. + +diapir +A type of intrusion in which a more mobile and ductilely deformable material is forced into brittle overlying rocks; a dome or anticlinal fold of the overlaying rocks which has been ruptured by the squeezing out of the plastic core material. + +diatomite +A soft, chalk-like sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. + +diopside +A monoclinic pyroxene, ideally consisting of silicate of calcium and magnesium, but commonly containing a variable content of FeSi2O6 in addition, and then strictly known as ferriferous diopside. + +diorite +A grey to dark grey intermediate intrusive igneous rock composed principally of plagioclase feldspar (typically andesine), biotite, hornblende, and/or pyroxene. + +dike +Also spelled dyke. +A type of sheet intrusion referring to any geologic body that cuts discordantly across. A form of minor intrusion injected into the crust during its subjection to tension, the dyke being thin with parallel sides, and maintaining a constant direction in some cases for long distances. Some are more resistant to weathering than the surrounding rock and stand up like walls, while others weather faster and form long narrow depressions. + +dip slope +A geological formation often created by erosion of tilted strata. + +disconformity +A surface that represents missing rock strata but beds above and below that surface are parallel to one another. + +divergent boundary +The boundary separating two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Contrast convergent boundary. + +dolomite +A sedimentary carbonate rock and mineral, both composed of crystalline calcium magnesium carbonate CaMg(CO3)2. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a20e4f68c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,132 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 4/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +dolerite +1. A basic igneous rock of medium grain size, occurring as minor intrusions or in the central parts of thick lava flows. +2. A dark-coloured, basic, igneous rock, composed essentially of pyroxene and a triclinic feldspar with magnetic iron. Considered by some authors to be equivalent to a coarse-grained basalt. +3. A dark, crystalline, igneous rock, chiefly pyroxene with labradorite. +4. Coarse-grained basalt. +5. Diabase. +6. Any dark igneous rock composed chiefly of silicates of iron and magnesium with some feldspar. + +dome +A geological formation consisting of symmetrical anticlines that intersect each other at their respective apices. + +drill core +A drill specifically designed to remove a cylinder of material, much like a hole saw. + +drumlin +An elongated, whale-shaped hill formed by glacial action. + +dunite +An ultrabasic plutonic rock in which the mafic material is almost entirely olivine, with accessory chromite almost always present. Feldspar mainly plagioclase. See also peridotite. + +duricrust +A general term for hard crust existing as a layer in or on the surface of the upper horizons of a soil in semi-arid climates. Duricrust is formed by the accumulation of solid minerals deposited by water moving upwards by capillary action and evaporating in the dry season. Compare hardpan. + +== E == + +earthquake + +eclogite +A generally coarse- to medium-grained pyroxene in which are set red garnets. The colour is pistachio green when fresh, but mottled with red when weathered. + +Eemian transgression +The portion of the Late Pleistocene spanning the period between 120 Ka and 8m before present. + +eonThe largest unit of geologic time. + +epicenter +The point on the Earth's surface that is directly above the hypocenter or focus at which an earthquake or underground explosion originates. + +epidiorite +Any of a set of altered gabbroic and doleritic rocks in which the original pyroxene has been replaced by fibrous amphibole. The rock may be regarded as a first step in the conversion by dynamothermal metamorphism of a basic igneous rock into a green schist. + +epirogenetic +The simultaneous rising and falling movements of continents, maintaining isostasy. + +epoch +A division of the standard geologic time scale subordinate to periods. An example is the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period. + +erosion +The displacement of solids (sediment, soil, rock and other particles) usually by the agents of currents such as wind, water, or ice by downward or down-slope movement in response to gravity or by living organisms (in the case of bioerosion). + +erratic +A piece of rock that deviates from the size and type of rock native to the area in which it rests. Erratics usually occur as stones ranging in size from pebbles to large boulders which were transported by glacial ice, which upon melting left them stranded far from their original source. The name "erratic" is based on the errant location of these boulders. + +escarpment +A transition zone between different physiogeographic provinces that involves an elevation differential, characterized by a cliff or steep slope. + +esker +A long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel, examples of which occur in glaciated and formerly glaciated regions of Europe and North America. Eskers are frequently several miles in length and, because of their peculiar uniform shape, somewhat resemble railroad embankments. + +estuary +A semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. + +eugeosyncline +A geosyncline in which volcanism is associated with clastic sedimentation; the volcanic part of an orthosyncline located away from the craton. + +euhedral +Bounded by the crystal faces peculiar to the species, used of minerals. Synonymous with idiomorphic. + +eustatic movements +Changes of sea level, constant over wide areas, due to alterations in the volume of the oceans resulting from the formation or melting of ice caps. + +evaporite +Any of a diverse set of water-soluble mineral sediments that result from the evaporation of bodies of surface water. + +exfoliation +The stripping of concentric rock slabs from the outer surface of a rock mass. + +extension +Strain involving an increase in length. Extension can cause thinning and faulting. + +extrusive +A mode of igneous volcanic rock formation in which hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes) onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics or tuff. + +== F == + +facies +The sum of the lithological and faunal characters of a sediment is its facies. Lithological facies involves composition, grain size, texture, colour, as well as such mass characteristics as current bedding, nature of stratification, ripple marks, etc. Similarly, metamorphic facies involves the degree of crystallisation and the mineral assemblage in a group of metamorphic rocks. + +fanning +Rock deformation related to shear stress. + +fault +A discrete planar rock fracture which shows evidence of a displacement (the throw of the fault). A fault is a discrete surface. + +fault zone +The zone where exist different discrete fault planes. + +feldspar +Any of a set of the most common minerals in the Earth's crust. All feldspars contain silicon, aluminium, and oxygen and may contain potassium, calcium and sodium. + +fels +A massive metamorphic rock lacking schistosity or foliation. + +felsic +Silicate minerals, magmas, and rocks which are enriched in the lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium. Light minerals (quartz and feldspar) greater than 60% - acid. [Granite (Rhyolite), Adamellite (Rhyo-dacite), Granodiorite (Dacite)]. The term is a mnemonic adjective for igneous rocks having light-coloured minerals in their mode, from "feldspar" and "silica". Contrast mafic. + +ferricrete +A conglomerate consisting of surficial sand and gravel cemented into a hard mass by iron oxide derived from oxidation of percolating solution of iron salts. A ferruginous duricrust. + +ferromagnesian mineral +Any iron/magnesium-bearing mineral, such as augite, hornblende, olivine, or biotite. + +fission track dating +A method that uses tracks that are visible under the microscope to date minerals. + +Flandrian transgression + +fold +A stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, which have become bent or curved as a result of plastic (i.e. permanent) deformation. + +foliation +The parallel alignment of textural and structural features of a rock. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f3678d8dd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,180 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 5/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +fossil +Any mineralized or otherwise preserved remains or traces (such as footprints) of animals, plants, or other once-living organisms. + +fossiliferous +Bearing or being composed of fossils in rocks or strata. + +fossilization + +fracture +Any crack or discontinuity. In its geological definition, it is only used when no displacement can be distinguished. + +fumarole +A vent in the Earth's surface from which hot gases and vapors are emitted. + +== G == + +Ga +A non-standard but widely used abbreviation for one billion (1,000,000,000) years, using the metric prefix G (for "Giga") to indicate a quantity of one billion. When not otherwise qualified, it usually indicates 1,000,000,000 years Before Present (or 1,000,000,000 years ago). + +gabbro +A dark, coarse-grained, intrusive igneous rock chemically equivalent to basalt. + +garnet + +gastrolith +A rock which is or was once held inside the digestive tract of a living animal. + +gemology +Also spelled gemmology. +The branch of geology and mineralogy that studies natural and artificial gemstones. + +gemstone +Also called a gem, fine gem, jewel, precious stone, or semi-precious stone. + +geogenic +Of geologic origin – Resulting from naturally occurring geological processes. + +geological map +A special-purpose map made to show geological features. + +geological time scale +Also geologic time scale. + +geology + +geosyncline +A mobile down-warping of the Earth's crust, either elongate or basin-like, measured in scores of kilometres, which is subsiding as sedimentary and volcanic rocks accumulate to thicknesses of thousands of metres. + +glass +Amorphous (non-crystalline) hard and brittle solid such as soda-lime glass. + +glauconite +A green-coloured, hydrated silicate mineral of potassium and iron that forms on submerged banks. Its occurrence in sands and sandstones is considered an indication of accumulation under marine conditions. + +gneiss +A coarse-grained, pale-coloured gneissose rock, containing abundant feldspar with quartz, mica, hornblende, and garnet. + +Gondwanaland +The southern part of the supercontinent of Pangaea which eventually separated to form present-day South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica. + +graben +A depressed block of the Earth's crust bordered by parallel faults. + +granite +A coarse-grained, often porphyritic, intrusive, felsic, igneous rock containing megascopic quartz, averaging 25%, much feldspar (orthoclase, microcline, sodic plagioclase) and mica or other coloured minerals. Rhyolite is the volcanic equivalent. + +granitoid +Any granite-like rock, including granodiorite, diorite, monzonite, and granite itself, among others. + +granoblastic +An arrangement of mineral grains in a rock of metamorphic origin similar to that of a normal granite, but produced by recrystallisation in the solid and not by crystallisation from a molten condition. + +granodiorite +An intrusive, felsic, igneous rock similar to granite but containing more plagioclase than potassium feldspar. Dacite is the volcanic equivalent. + +granulometry +Statistical distribution of the size of individual sediment grains, or lithified particles in clastic rocks. + +gravel + +graywacke +Also spelled greywacke. +A variety of sandstone generally characterized by its hardness, dark colour, and poorly sorted, angular grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock fragments (lithic fragments) set in a compact, clay-fine matrix. + +greenstone +An omnibus term lacking precision and applied indiscriminately to basic and intermediate igneous rocks of Lower Paleozoic age in which much chlorite has been produced at the expense of the original coloured minerals, staining the rocks green. + +grus +Freshly eroded, angular grains of quartz and feldspar derived from a granitoid. + +== H == + +habit +See crystal habit. + +half-life +The time it takes for a given amount of a radioactive isotope to be reduced by one-half. + +hardpan + +hemicrystalline +Having the properties of certain rocks of igneous origin which contain some interstitial glass in addition to crystalline minerals. Contrast holocrystalline. + +hinge +The zone of maximum curvature of a fold. + +hinge line +A line joining the points of maximum curvature along the hinge of a fold. + +holocrystalline +Having the properties of those igneous rocks in which all of the components are crystalline; glass is absent. Contrast hemicrystalline. + +hornblende +An important rock-forming mineral of complex composition, essentially a silicate of calcium, magnesium and iron, with smaller amounts of potash, soda and hydroxyl. Hornblende crystallises in the monoclinic system and occurs as black crystals or grains in many different types of igneous and metamorphic rocks, including hornblende-granite, syenite, diorite, andesite, hornblende-schist, and amphibole. + +hornfels +A hard, compact, fine-textured contact-altered argillaceous rock that breaks into splintery fragments. + +horst +A raised fault block bounded by normal faults. + +hot spring +A natural spring resulting from the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater from beneath the Earth's crust. + +hydrothermal +Pertaining to the actions or products of heated water. + +hydrothermal vent +A fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated water emerges. + +hypersaline +Having a saltiness or dissolved salt content greater than that of seawater. + +== I == + +ichnology +The study of traces of organismal behavior. + +idiomorphic +Bounded by the crystal faces peculiar to the species, used of minerals. Synonymous with euhedral. + +igneous rock +A type of rock formed by solidification of cooled magma (molten rock), with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. + +ignimbrite +Fine-grained to aphanitic, buff to dark brown compact rock with parallel streaks or lenticles of black glass, produced by violently explosive volcanoes. + +ilmenite +An oxide of iron and titanium, crystallising in the trigonal system; a widespread accessory mineral in igneous rocks, especially those of basic composition. + +illite +Non-swelling clay mineral with a three layers 2:1 (TOT) structure. Its interlayers contain no water and anhydrous K+ cations responsible for their total collapse. Water and cations diffusion is not possible in these collapsed interlayers. The name "illite" is inherited from the state of Illinois where natural non-swelling clay deposits exist. + +indurated +Made hard (by heat or compaction). + +interbeddedbeds (layers) of rock lying between or alternating with beds of a different kind of rock. + +intrusionbody of igneous rock that has crystallized from molten magma below the surface of the Earth. + +island arc +A chain of volcanic islands or mountains formed by plate tectonics as an oceanic tectonic plate subducts under another tectonic plate and produces magma. + +isomorphic +Two crystals that have similar shapes and sizes, usually through the angles. + +isotope +different forms of an element each having different atomic mass (mass number). + +== J == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..064146216 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,138 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 6/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +joint +A discrete discontinuity surface without evidence of displacement. See also diaclase or bedding. + +Jurassic +A major unit of the geologic timescale that extended from about 199.6 ± 0.6 Ma (million years ago) to 145.4 ± 4.0 Ma, between the end of the Triassic and the beginning of the Cretaceous. + +== K == + +Ka +A non-standard but widely used abbreviation for one thousand (1,000) years, using the metric prefix K (for "Kilo") to indicate a quantity of one thousand. When not otherwise qualified, it usually indicates 1,000 years Before Present (or 1,000 years ago). + +kame +An irregularly shaped hill or mound composed of sand, gravel and till that accumulates in a depression on a retreating glacier and is then deposited on the land surface with further melting of the glacier. + +kaolinite +A finely crystalline form of hydrated aluminium silicate occurring as minute monoclinic flaky crystals with a perfect basal cleavage, resulting mainly from the alteration of feldspars under conditions of hydrothermal or pneumatolytic metamorphism. + +karst +A distinct type of landscape shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. Karst topography is usually characterised by closed depressions or sinkholes, caves and underground drainage. + +kettle +A fluvioglacial landform occurring as the result of blocks of ice calving from the front of a receding glacier and becoming partially to wholly buried by glacial outwash. + +kink +A tight curl, twist, or bend in a rock band. See also folding and buckling. + +kink band +An asymmetric, linear zone of deformation characterised by a tight curled, twisted, or bended rock band. Kink bands may also occur as conjugated sets. + +kyanite +A silicate of aluminium which crystallises in the triclinic system. It usually occurs as long-bladed crystals, blue in colour, in metamorphic rocks. + +== L == + +lacuna +A time-stratigraphic unit representing the gap in the stratigraphic record. Specifically the missing interval at an unconformity, representing the interpreted space-time value of both hiatus (period of non-deposition), and degradation vacuity (period of erosion). + +lamprophyre +Igneous rocks usually occurring as dykes intimately related to larger intrusive bodies; characterised by abnormally high contents of coloured silicates, such as biotite, hornblende and augite, and a correspondingly small amount of feldspar, some being feldspar-free. + +large igneous province +Massive volcanic formation resulting from flood basalt eruptions. + +lava +Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. + +leucocratic +A term used to denote a light colour in igneous rocks, due to a high content of felsic minerals and a correspondingly small amount of dark, heavy silicates. + +limestone +A sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO3). + +liquefaction +Soil liquefaction describes the behavior of soils that, when loaded, suddenly suffer a transition from a solid state to a liquefied state, or having the consistency of a heavy liquid. + +lithic fragment +Also simply called a lithic. +A sand-sized grain that is made up of smaller than sand-sized grains, e.g. a shale fragment or basalt fragment in a sandstone. + +lithification +The process by which sediments compact under pressure, expel connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock. + +lithology +A description of the physical characteristics of a rock unit visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as colour, texture, grain size, or composition. + +lithosphere +The rigid, outermost rocky shell of a terrestrial planet or natural satellite. The Earth's lithosphere is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of up to thousands of years or more. + +lithotype +Specific types of rock classified according to the standards of lithology. + +loess +A fine, silty, pale yellow or buff-coloured, windblown (eolian) type of unconsolidated deposit. + +lustre +Also spelled luster. + +== M == + +Ma +A non-standard but widely used abbreviation for one million (1,000,000) years, using the metric prefix M (for "Mega") to indicate a quantity of one million. When not otherwise qualified, it usually indicates 1,000,000 years Before Present (or 1,000,000 years ago). + +mafic +A silicate mineral or rock that is rich in magnesium and iron. A mnemonic term for the ferromagnesian and other non-felsic minerals actually present in an igneous rock rich in dark (ferromagnesian) minerals (greater than 60% by volume). Basic [alkali gabbro (alkali basalt), syeno-gabbro (trachybasalt), gabbro (basalt and dolerite)]. + +magma +Molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or other terrestrial planets) and often collects in a magma chamber. + +magnetite +An oxide of iron which crystallises in the cubic system. It is attracted by a magnet but does not attract iron itself. + +Malmesbury group +An 830 to 980 million-year-old basal group of the Western Cape comprising at least eight distinct formations, including the Tygerberg, Piketberg, Porterville, Berg river, Klipplaat, Moorreesburg, Franschhoek, and Bridgetown formations. + +mantle +The highly viscous layer of molten rock situated directly beneath the Earth's crust and above the outer core. + +marble +A fine to coarse-grained granoblastic calcium carbonate that effervesces in dilute hydrochloric acid. Often banded with various colours and sometimes veined. + +marine terrace +A narrow, flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff caused by the action of the waves. + +marl +A calcium carbonate or lime-rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and aragonite. + +massive +A description applied to a homogeneous rock which lacks internal structure or layers. + +mélange +Large-scale breccia formed in the accretionary wedge above a subduction zone. + +melanocratic +A term applied to rocks which are abnormally rich in dark and heavy ferro-magnesium minerals. + +mesocratic +A term applied to igneous rocks which in respect of their content of dark silicates are intermediate between those of leucocratic and melanocratic type, and contain 30–60% of dark heavy minerals. + +Mesozoic +The era of geological time including the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous ages. + +metamorphic rock + +metamorphism +The solid-state recrystallisation of pre-existing rocks due to changes in heat, pressure, or water-rock interactions, i.e. without melting. + +metapelite +A metamorphosed pelite (fine grain, clayey) rock. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..75e2d3b86 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,149 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 7/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +metasilicate +A salt of the non-existing metasilicic acid H2SiO3 based on an analogy with the carbonate system. + +metatexis +Low-grade anatexis: partial or differential melting of rock components with a low melting point. + +mica +Any of a set of minerals which crystallise in the monoclinic system. They have similar chemical compositions and highly perfect basal cleavage. + +micropaleontology +A branch of paleontology which studies microfossils. + +mid-oceanic ridge +An underwater mountain range typically having a valley known as a rift running along its axis, formed by plate tectonics. + +migmatite +A composite rock composed of igneous or igneous-looking and/or metamorphic materials which are generally distinguishable megascopically. + +mineral + +mineralization +The hydrothermal deposition of economically important metals in the formation of ore bodies or "lodes". + +mineralogy + +miogeosyncline +A geosyncline in which volcanism is not associated with sedimentation, or the non-volcanic part of the orthogeosyncline located near the craton. + +Mohs scale of mineral hardness +Also simply called the Mohs scale. + +molasse +A partly marine, partly continental or deltaic sedimentary facies consisting of a very thick sequence of soft ungraded cross-bedded fossiliferous conglomerates, sandstones, shales, and marls. + +molding +The process of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material using a rigid frame or model called a mold. + +montmorillonite +Swelling clay mineral with a three layer 2:1 (TOT) structure whose interlayers are mainly occupied by hydrated Na+ and Ca2+ cations and water molecules. The name comes from Montmorillon, France. Montmorillonite and smectite are two interchangeable synonyms, the first being preferentially used in the US while the second one is more frequent in the literature from UK and Europe. See also bentonite. + +monocline +A fold with a single limb which produces a sudden steepening of the dip; the rocks, however, soon approximate to horizontal on either side of this flexure. + +monoclinic +Having three crystal axes of unequal lengths, with one intersection oblique and the other two perpendicular. + +moraine +A glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated debris which can occur in currently glaciated and formerly glaciated regions, such as those areas acted upon by a past ice age. + +mullion +A particular type of reworked boudin. The term is likely derived from an architectural structure with the same name. + +muscovite +The common or white mica; for the most part an orthosilicate of aluminium and potassium that crystallises in the monoclinic system. + +== N == + +Namibian age +900 to 542 Ma (Neoproterozoic). + +Neogene +A geologic period starting 23 million years ago and, depending on definition, either lasting until today or ending 2.6 million years ago with the beginning of the Quaternary. + +nodule +A small, irregularly rounded lump or mass of a mineral or mineral aggregate with a contrasting composition to the enclosing sediment or rock. Not to be confused with concretion. + +non-clastic +Having the properties of any chemically and/or organically deposited rock, such as limestones, chalks, and evaporite deposits. + +normal fault +Also called an extensional fault. +Dip-slip faults can be sub-classified into the types "reverse" and "normal". A normal fault occurs when the crust is extended such that the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall. Contrast reverse fault. + +== O == + +obsidian + +oligoclase +One of the plagioclase feldspars consisting of the albite and anorthite molecules combined in the proportions 9:1 to 7:3. It is found especially in the more acid igneous rocks. + +olivine +An orthosilicate mineral of iron and magnesium which crystallises in the orthorhombic system and occurs widely in the basic and ultramafic igneous rocks. It includes olivine-gabbro, olivine–dolerite, olivine-basalt, and peridotites, among others. + +Ordovician +A geologic period and system, the second of six of the Paleozoic Era, spanning the time between 485.4 ± 1.9 to 443.4 ± 1.5 million years ago. It follows the Cambrian and is followed by the Silurian. + +orogenesis +The formation and growth of mountains related to tectonic activity. + +orogeny +Any set of forces and events leading to a large structural deformation of the Earth's lithosphere due to the engagement of tectonic plates. It is the primary mechanism by which mountains are built on continents. + +orthoclase +A silicate of potassium and aluminium which crystallises in the monoclinic system and occurs as an essential constituent in granitic and syenitic rocks and as an accessory in many other rock types. + +orthogeosyncline +A geosyncline between continental and oceanic cratons containing both volcanic and non-volcanic belts. + +orthorhombic +Having a crystal structure with three perpendicular axes all of different lengths. + +orthosilicate +An obsolete classification based on the totally deprotonated tetrahedral SiO4−4 anion of the monomeric orthosilicic acid, H4SiO4, or Si(OH)4. Compare with the hypothetical and non-existing planar trigonal metasilicate SiO2−3 anion imagined from the analogy to the carbonate, CO2−3, anion. + +oxbow lake +A crescent-shaped lake found within a floodplain or fluvial terrace created by the cut-off and abandonment of an active meander within a river or stream channel. + +== P == + +pahoehoe +A type of vesicular, basaltic lava often with a ropy surface texture. + +Palaeozoic +Also spelled Paleozoic. +The earliest of the three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon, spanning the time from roughly 541 to 252.2 million years ago. It is the longest of the Phanerozoic eras and is subdivided into six geologic periods: the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian. The Paleozoic Era follows the Neoproterozoic Era of the Proterozoic Eon, and is followed by the Mesozoic Era. + +paleocurrent +An indication of the direction of fluid flow (at the time of deposition) visible in a rock. + +paleontology +The scientific study of the biological life of the past, primarily through the study of fossils. + +palagonite +An alteration product from the interaction of water with volcanic glass of chemical composition similar to basalt or from the interaction between water and basalt melt. + +paralithic +A weathered layer of bedrock. + +pegmatite +An exceptionally coarse-grained igneous rock. + +pelite +A descriptive name for a clastic rock with a grain size of less than 1/16 mm (originally sand or silt). + +peridotite +An olive green when fresh, medium brown when weathered, saccharoidal intrusive igneous rock composed mainly of olivine, sometimes with pyroxene. + +petrology +The branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution, and structure of rocks. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6aee7e513 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,144 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 8/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +phenoclast +A large, conspicuous fragment in sediment or sedimentary rock composed of various sizes of material. + +phenocryst +A relatively large crystal in an igneous rock. + +phyllite +Any of a set of argillaceous rocks in a condition of metamorphism between slate and mica-schist. + +phyllonite +A rock that macroscopically resembles phyllite but that is formed by mechanical degradation (mylonization) of initially coarser rocks (e.g., graywacke, granite, or gneiss). + +piercing point +A feature that is cut by a fault and moved. Reconstruction of that object can show how much the fault has moved. + +pillar +A vertical, standing, often spire-shaped, natural rock formation. + +pitchstone +A black, opaque volcanic glass that may contain irregular, whitish clusters of minerals. Resembles pitch in appearance. + +plate tectonics +The set of natural processes and phenomena which result in large-scale movements of portions of the Earth's lithosphere, which is fragmented into multiple tectonic plates of various sizes. + +Pleistocene +The geologic epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period and the sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era. + +Pliocene +The geologic period that extends from 5.332 million to 2.588[2] million years Before Present. It is the second-youngest epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Pliocene follows the Miocene and is followed by the Pleistocene. + +pluton + +plutonic +Having crystallised at depth within the Earth's crust, used of a rock. Plutonic rocks are slow-cooling and coarse-grained and have relatively low temperatures of final consolidation. + +plumose structure +A ladder or grid pattern that occurs during jointing that resembles plumes, oriented perpendicular to the stress, hence which usually form parallel to the upper and lower surfaces of the constituent rock unit. + +pneumatolysis +The destructive after-action of the concentrated volatile constituents of a magma, effected after the consolidation of the main body of the magma. + +polymictic + +polysynthetic twinning + +pore water +Water present in rock and soil pore spaces. Also called interstitial water. + +porphyroblast +A large mineral crystal in a metamorphic rock which has grown within the finer-grained groundmass. + +porphyry +1. A rock that is porphyritic, containing large and small crystals. +2. In mining, a specific deposit containing widely disseminated metals, typically copper. + +Precambrian +A non-standard geologic time period immediately preceding the Phanerozoic Eon, divided into several eons of the geologic time scale. It spans from the formation of Earth about 4540 Ma (million years ago) to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, about 541.0 ± 1.0 Ma, when macroscopic hard-shelled animals first appeared in abundance. + +precipitate +A rock or mineral precipitated into solid form from an aqueous solution. + +pressure solution +Rock deformation mechanism involving minerals dissolution under mechanical stress. + +prograde metamorphism +Mineral changes in rocks under increasing pressure and/or temperature conditions. + +protolith +The source rock from which a metamorphic, or in some rare cases a sedimentary, rock was formed. In most cases the appropriate sedimentary term is "provenance" rather than "protolith", since the material has been transported. + +psammite +A general term for a sandstone, most often used to describe a metamorphosed rock unit with a dominantly sandstone protolith. + +pseudomatrix +A weaker material (mainly lithic fragments) that becomes crushed and matrix-like in a rock. + +pumice +A light-coloured, highly vesicular volcanic rock of very low density. + +pyroclastic flow +A fast-moving current of hot gas and rock (collectively known as tephra), which normally hugs the ground and travels downhill or spreads laterally under gravity. + +pyroclastic +A volcanic fragment, such as a volcanic bomb, breadcrust bomb, or achnelith. + +pyroxene +Any of a set of mineral species which, although falling into different systems (orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic), are closely related in form and structure. They are metasilicates of calcium, magnesium, and iron with manganese, and less often with sodium, potassium, zirconium, and fluorine. + +pyroxenite +A coarse-grained, holocrystalline igneous rock consisting mainly of pyroxenes. It may contain biotite, hornblende, or olivine as accessories. + +== Q == + +quartz + +quartzite +A compact, hard, very fine-grained white to creamy white rock which breaks into sharp angular fragments. Quartzite is always associated with other metamorphic rocks, while cemented sandstone is always associated with other sedimentary rocks. + +Quaternary +The most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the standard geologic time scale. It follows the Neogene Period, spanning 2.588 ± 0.005 million years ago to the present. + +== R == + +reef knoll + Landform comprising an immense pile of calcareous material previously accumulated on an ancient sea floor. Reef knolls can be divided into bioherms and biostromes. A bioherm is a landform of organic sedimentary rock enclosed or surrounded by rock of different origins. A biostrome is a distinctly bedded or broadly lenticular sedimentary rock landform. + +regional metamorphism +Over wide areas resulting from deep burial with consequent rise in temperature and static pressure, usually with the help of folding movements that accompany the formation of mountain ranges. + +reticulite +A basaltic pumice in which the walls of the vesicles have collapsed, leaving a network of fine, interconnecting glass threads. It is the lightest rock known. + +retrograde metamorphism +The reconstitution of a rock via revolatisation under decreasing temperatures (and usually pressures), allowing the mineral assemblages formed in prograde metamorphism to revert to those more stable at less extreme conditions. + +reverse fault +Also called a thrust fault. +Dip-slip faults can be sub-classified into the types "reverse" and "normal". A reverse fault occurs when the crust is compressed such that the hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall. Contrast normal fault. + +rhyolite +An aphanitic, buff to greyish flow-banded rock, often containing spherulites or phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar. + +rift + +roche moutonnée +An elongated post-glacial rock formation with a smoothed surface on the uphill side and a "plucked" surface on the downhill side. + +rock + +rolling hills +undulating low hill terrain; cf. "Hügelland" + +rudaceous +Having the composition and characteristics of clastic rocks, i.e. coarse-grained sedimentary rocks, conglomerates, and breccias, with a particle size of less than 2 mm. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f8bec9d8b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,142 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 9/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +rudite +A generic term for any of a set of sedimentary rocks composed of rounded or angular detrital grains, i.e. granules, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders, which are coarser than sand in size. + +== S == + +saccharoidal +Having a texture similar to that of granulated sugar. + +Saldanian orogeny + +sand + +sandstone +Sand (with grains up to 2 mm in diameter) in which the grains are cemented together by secondary silica or calcite. Sandstone may be loosely cemented and soft or well cemented and hard, and is usually buff to brownish in color, sometimes reddish, due to the presence of iron oxides, or greenish, due to the presence of glauconite. + +sanidine +A form of potash feldspar identical in composition with orthoclase but physically different, formed under different conditions and occurring in different rock types. It is the high temperature form of orthoclase, into which it inverts at 900 °C (1,650 °F). Occurs in lavas and dyke rocks. + +schist +A group of medium-grade metamorphic rocks, chiefly notable for the preponderance of lamellar minerals such as micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others. In French, schist is understood as shale. + +scree +See talus. + +sediment trap +A depression in which sediments substantially accumulate over time. + +sedimentary rock + +sequence +A sequence of geological events, processes, or rocks arranged in chronological order. + +sericite +A white potash-mica, similar to muscovite in chemical composition and general character but occurring as a secondary mineral, often as a decomposition product of orthoclase. + +shale +A fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments (silt-sized particles) of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite. + +shear zone +A tabular to sheet-like, planar or curviplanar zone composed of rocks that are more highly strained than rocks adjacent to the zone. See also fault. + +shield +A large area of exposed Precambrian crystalline igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks that form tectonically stable areas. + +shingle beach +A beach which is armoured with pebbles or small- to medium-sized cobbles (as opposed to fine sand), typically ranging from 2 to 200 millimetres (0.1 to 7.9 in) diameter. + +silcrete +An indurated soil duricrust formed when surface sand and gravel are cemented by dissolved silica. + +silt +Granular material of a size somewhere between sand and clay whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or as suspended sediment (also known as suspended load) in a surface water body. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water body. + +siltstone +Indurated silt whose granulometry is somewhere between that of sand and clay. + +slate +Very fine-grained sedimentary rock of the clay or silt grade which as a consequence of regional metamorphism has developed a slaty cleavage. + +slaty cleavage +The property of splitting easily along regular, closely spaced planes of fissility, produced by pressure in fine-grained rocks, with the cleavage planes lying in the directions of maximum elongation of the mass. + +slickenside +A smoothly polished surface caused by frictional movement between rocks along the two sides of a fault. This surface is normally striated in the direction of movement. + +slump +A form of mass wasting that occurs when a coherent mass of loosely consolidated materials or rock layers moves a short distance down a slope. + +snowball Earth +Series of global glaciations in the Precambrian, 600 to 700 million years ago, before the hard-shelled animal life explosion. + +smectite +Swelling clay minerals with a three-layer 2:1 (TOT) structure whose interlayers are mainly occupied by Na+ or Ca2+ hydrated cations and water molecules (from Ancient Greek σμηκτός (smēktós) 'lubricated'; from σμηκτρίς (smēktrís) 'walker's earth, fuller's earth'; lit. 'rubbing earth; earth that has the property of cleaning'). See also montmorillonite and bentonite. For non-swelling 2:1 clay minerals, see illite and chlorite. + +soil liquefaction +The process describing the behavior of soils that, when loaded, suddenly suffer a transition from a solid state to a liquefied state, or which have the consistency of a heavy liquid. + +sorting +Sorting describes the distribution of grain size of sediments, either in unconsolidated deposits or in sedimentary rocks. Very poorly sorted indicates that the sediment sizes are mixed (large variance); whereas well sorted indicates that the sediment sizes are similar (low variance). + +speleothem +A geological formation by mineral deposits that accumulate over time in natural caves. Speleothems most commonly form in calcareous caves due to carbonate dissolution reactions. They can take a variety of forms, depending on their depositional history and environment. Their chemical composition, gradual growth, and preservation in caves make them useful paleoclimatic proxies. Includes stalactites and stalagmites. + +sphene +Ancient deprecated name for a calcium titanium nesosilicate mineral, CaTiSiO5. +Since 1982, officially called titanite by the International Mineralogical Association. + +staurolite +A red brown to black, mostly opaque, nesosilicate mineral with a white streak. + +stone + +storm ridge +A beach ridge usually located further or higher inland caused by wave action from storms. + +strain +A change in the volume or shape of a rock mass in response to stress. + +stratigraphy + +stratum + +stylolite +An irregular discontinuity or non-structural fracture in limestone and other sedimentary rocks. Stylolites result from compaction and pressure solution during diagenesis. + +surficial +Of or pertaining to the surface. + +syenite +A coarse-grained igneous rock of intermediate composition, composed essentially of alkali-feldspar to the extent of at least two thirds of the total, with a variable content of mafic materials, of which common hornblende is characteristic. + +syncline +A geological fold with strata dipping inwards towards the fold axis. Contrast anticline. + +syntaxis +An abrupt change in the orientation of a mountain belt or individual fold/thrust structure + +== T == + +Table Mountain Group +A group of rock formations within the Cape Supergroup sequence of rocks. + +talus +Also called scree. +A collection of broken rock fragments at the base of crags, mountain cliffs, volcanoes or valley shoulders that has accumulated through periodic rockfall from adjacent cliff faces. Landforms associated with these materials are often called talus deposits. + +tectonic plate + +tekton + +tektite +Natural glass formed from terrestrial ejecta during a meteorite impact. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b41e723c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,172 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of geology" +chunk: 10/10 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +tempestite +Storm deposits found in sedimentary formations where shell debris accumulate under the effect of waves and seawater movement. + +tenacity +A mineral's behavior when deformed or broken. + +tephra +Fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size or emplacement mechanism. Once clasts have fallen to the ground they remain as tephra unless hot enough to fuse together into pyroclastic rock or tuff. + +Tethys Ocean +A prehistoric ocean that existed between the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia during the Mesozoic era before the opening of the Indian Ocean. + +till +Also called glacial till. +Unsorted glacial sediment. Glacial drift is a general term for the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous sediments of glacial origin. Glacial till is that part of glacial drift which was deposited directly by the glacier. + +tillite +A type of sedimentary rock derived from glacial till which has been indurated or lithified by subsequent burial into solid rock. + +titanite +A calcium titanium nesosilicate mineral, CaTiSiO5. See also sphene. + +topography +The arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of an area. + +tor +A large, free-standing residual mass (rock outcrop) that rises abruptly from the surrounding smooth and gentle slopes of a rounded hill summit or ridge crest. + +trace fossil + +trachyte +A fine-grained igneous rock type of intermediate composition, in most cases with little or no quartz, consisting largely of alkali-feldspars (sanidene or oligooclase) together with a small amount of coloured silicates such as diopside, horneblende, or mica. + +travertine +A terrestrial sedimentary rock formed by the precipitation of carbonate minerals from solution in ground and surface waters and/or geothermally heated hot springs. + +triclinic +In the triclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal length, and none of the three vectors are orthogonal to another. + +tuff +A rock formed of compacted volcanic fragments, some of which can be distinguished by the naked eye. If the fragments are larger than the rock grades into an agglomerate. + +tundra +A vast, flat, treeless Arctic region of Europe, Asia, and North America in which the subsoil is permanently frozen. + +turbidite +The deposit of a turbidity current. + +turbidity current +A current of rapidly moving, sediment-laden water moving down a slope through water, or another fluid. The current moves because it has a higher density than the fluid through which it flows. + +Tygerberg formation +A component of the PreCambrian Malmesbury group of South Africa + +== U == + +ultramafic +Sometimes used interchangeably with ultrabasic. +Almost feldspar-free. Examples of ultramafic rocks include dunite, peridotite, and pyroxenite. + +undulating hills +see "rolling hills" + +Urgonian +A shallow-water carbonate facies deposited along the northern margins of the Tethys Ocean during the Barremian and Aptian. + +== V == + +vacuole +A bubble inclusion within mineral grains (typically monocrystalline quartz), filled with liquid, gas, or both liquid and gas. Vacuoles are randomly distributed in contrast to the oriented bubble trains of Boehm Lamellae. + +Variscan orogeny +Also called the Hercynian orogeny. +A geologic mountain-building event caused by Late Paleozoic continental collision between Euramerica (Laurussia) and Gondwana to form the supercontinent of Pangaea. + +varve +An annual layer of sediment or sedimentary rock. + +vein +A mineral filling of a fracture or other crack within a rock in a sheet-like or tabular shape. + +vermiculite +A hydrous silicate mineral that is classified as a phyllosilicate and that expands greatly when heated. Exfoliation occurs when the mineral is heated sufficiently. + +vergence +The direction of overturning of asymmetric folds, which matches the direction of thrusting. + +vesiculated + +vitrinite +A group of macerals that are the most common component of coal. + +vitrophyre +See pitchstone. + +volcanic +Rocks that have crystallised from magma poured out at the surface or introduced at shallow depth. They have cooled relatively rapidly, the grain size of the crystals is small, some part of the melt may solidify as glass, volatiles are lost and anhydrous minerals with high temperatures of crystallisation are present. + +volcanic bomb +Rounded or spindle-shaped rock of mainly basaltic composition ejected during eruptions. + +vug +A small cavity in a rock filled or lined with crystals or minerals that are different from the host rock. + +== W == + +wiggle trace +A graph that plots wave amplitudes (recorded by seismic reflection and borehole logging) as a function of time, with the positive peaks shaded in a single dark colour. + +wolframite +An iron manganese tungstate mineral with the chemical formula (Fe,Mn)WO4. + +== X == + +xenolith +A rock fragment which becomes enveloped in a larger rock during the latter's development and hardening. In geology, the term is almost exclusively used to describe inclusions in igneous rock during magma emplacement and eruption. + +xenotime +A rare earth phosphate mineral whose major component is yttrium orthophosphate (YPO4). + +X-ray diffraction (XRD) +A method of determining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and diffracts into many specific directions. + +X-ray fluorescence (XRF) +The emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by bombarding with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays. The phenomenon is widely used for elemental analysis and chemical analysis of minerals. + +xyloid coal +Also called lignite or brown coal. +A soft brown fuel with characteristics that put it somewhere between coal and peat. + +== Y == + +Yellowcake +Also urania. +A kind of uranium concentrate powder obtained from leach solutions in an intermediate step in the enrichment of uranium ores. + +Young's modulus +Also called the tensile modulus. +In solid mechanics, a measure of the stiffness of an isotropic elastic material. It is defined as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of stress in which Hooke's law holds. + +Ypresian +The oldest age or the lowest stratigraphic stage of the Eocene. It spans the time between ~56 Ma and ~49 Ma (million years ago). + +== Z == + +zeolite +Microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as adsorbents. + +zircon +A zirconium silicate mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates. Its corresponding chemical formula is ZrSiO4. + +== See also == + +Outline of geology +Index of geology articles +Glossary of geography terms +Glossary of landforms + +== References == + +== External links == +Schlumberger (2022). "Schlumberger | Energy Glossary". glossary.slb.com. Retrieved 25 October 2022. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7227ebf66 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mathematical jargon" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The language of mathematics has a wide vocabulary of specialist and technical terms. It also has a certain amount of jargon: commonly used phrases which are part of the culture of mathematics, rather than of the subject. Jargon often appears in lectures, and sometimes in print, as informal shorthand for rigorous arguments or precise ideas. Much of this uses common English words, but with a specific non-obvious meaning when used in a mathematical sense. +Some phrases, like "in general", appear below in more than one section. + +== Philosophy of mathematics == +abstract nonsense +A tongue-in-cheek reference to category theory, using which one can employ arguments that establish a (possibly concrete) result without reference to any specifics of the present problem. For that reason, it is also known as general abstract nonsense or generalized abstract nonsense. +[The paper of Eilenberg and Mac Lane (1942)] introduced the very abstract idea of a 'category' — a subject then called 'general abstract nonsense'! +[Grothendieck] raised algebraic geometry to a new level of abstraction...if certain mathematicians could console themselves for a time with the hope that all these complicated structures were 'abstract nonsense'...the later papers of Grothendieck and others showed that classical problems...which had resisted efforts of several generations of talented mathematicians, could be solved in terms of...complicated concepts. +canonical +A reference to a standard or choice-free presentation of some mathematical object (e.g., canonical map, canonical form, or canonical ordering). The same term can also be used more informally to refer to something "standard" or "classic". For example, one might say that Euclid's proof is the "canonical proof" of the infinitude of primes. +There are two canonical proofs that are always used to show non-mathematicians what a mathematical proof is like: +deep +A result is called "deep" if its proof requires concepts and methods that are advanced beyond the concepts needed to formulate the result. For example, the prime number theorem – originally proved using techniques of complex analysis – was once thought to be a deep result until elementary proofs were found. On the other hand, the fact that π is irrational is usually known to be a deep result, because it requires a considerable development of real analysis before the proof can be established – even though the claim itself can be stated in terms of simple number theory and geometry. +elegant +An aesthetic term referring to the ability of an idea to provide insight into mathematics, whether by unifying disparate fields, introducing a new perspective on a single field, or by providing a technique of proof which is either particularly simple, or which captures the intuition or imagination as to why the result it proves is true. In some occasions, the term "beautiful" can also be used to the same effect, though Gian-Carlo Rota distinguished between elegance of presentation and beauty of concept, saying that for example, some topics could be written about elegantly although the mathematical content is not beautiful, and some theorems or proofs are beautiful but may be written about inelegantly. +The beauty of a mathematical theory is independent of the aesthetic qualities...of the theory's rigorous expositions. Some beautiful theories may never be given a presentation which matches their beauty....Instances can also be found of mediocre theories of questionable beauty which are given brilliant, exciting expositions....[Category theory] is rich in beautiful and insightful definitions and poor in elegant proofs....[The theorems] remain clumsy and dull....[Expositions of projective geometry] vied for one another in elegance of presentation and in cleverness of proof....In retrospect, one wonders what all the fuss was about.Mathematicians may say that a theorem is beautiful when they really mean to say that it is enlightening. We acknowledge a theorem's beauty when we see how the theorem 'fits' in its place....We say that a proof is beautiful when such a proof finally gives away the secret of the theorem.... +elementary +A proof or a result is called "elementary" if it only involves basic concepts and methods in the field, and is to be contrasted with deep results which require more development within or outside the field. The concept of "elementary proof" is used specifically in number theory, where it usually refers to a proof that does not resort to methods from complex analysis. +folklore +A result is called "folklore" if it is non-obvious and non-published, yet generally known to the specialists within a field. In many scenarios, it is unclear as to who first obtained the result, though if the result is significant, it may eventually find its way into the textbooks, whereupon it ceases to be folklore. +Many of the results mentioned in this paper should be considered "folklore" in that they merely formally state ideas that are well-known to researchers in the area, but may not be obvious to beginners and to the best of my knowledge do not appear elsewhere in print. +natural +Similar to "canonical" but more specific, and which makes reference to a description (almost exclusively in the context of transformations) which holds independently of any choices. Though long used informally, this term has found a formal definition in category theory. +pathological +An object behaves pathologically (or, somewhat more broadly used, in a degenerated way) if it either fails to conform to the generic behavior of such objects, fails to satisfy certain context-dependent regularity properties, or simply disobeys mathematical intuition. In many occasions, these can be and often are contradictory requirements, while in other occasions, the term is more deliberately used to refer to an object artificially constructed as a counterexample to these properties. A simple example is that from the definition of a triangle having angles which sum to π radians, a single straight line conforms to this definition pathologically. +Since half a century we have seen arise a crowd of bizarre functions which seem to try to resemble as little as possible the honest functions which serve some purpose....Nay more, from the logical point of view, it is these strange functions which are the most general....to-day they are invented expressly to put at fault the reasonings of our fathers.... +[The Dirichlet function] took on an enormous importance...as giving an incentive for the creation of new types of function whose properties departed completely from what intuitively seemed admissible. A celebrated example of such a so-called 'pathological' function...is the one provided by Weierstrass....This function is continuous but not differentiable. +Note for that latter quote that as the differentiable functions are meagre in the space of continuous functions, as Banach found out in 1931, differentiable functions are colloquially speaking a rare exception among the continuous ones. Thus it can hardly be defended any-more to call non-differentiable continuous functions pathological. +rigor (rigour) +The act of establishing a mathematical result using indisputable logic, rather than informal descriptive argument. Rigor is a cornerstone quality of mathematics, and can play an important role in preventing mathematics from degenerating into fallacies. +well-behaved +An object is well-behaved (in contrast with being Pathological) if it satisfies certain prevailing regularity properties, or if it conforms to mathematical intuition (even though intuition can often suggest opposite behaviors as well). In some occasions (e.g., analysis), the term "smooth" can also be used to the same effect. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..eec0d4e70 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mathematical jargon" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Descriptive informalities == +Although ultimately every mathematical argument must meet a high standard of precision, mathematicians use descriptive but informal statements to discuss recurring themes or concepts with unwieldy formal statements. Note that many of the terms are completely rigorous in context. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cdeba5495 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,211 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mathematical jargon" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +almost all +A shorthand term for "all except for a set of measure zero", when there is a measure to speak of, with the phrases almost surely and almost everywhere having related meanings. For example, "almost all real numbers are transcendental" because the algebraic real numbers form a countable subset of the real numbers with measure zero. One can also speak of "almost all" integers having a property to mean "all except finitely many", despite the integers not admitting a measure for which this agrees with the previous usage, such as "almost all prime numbers are odd". There is a more complicated meaning for integers as well, discussed in the main article. Finally, this term is sometimes used synonymously with generic, below. arbitrarily large +Notions which arise mostly in the context of limits, referring to the recurrence of a phenomenon as the limit is approached. A statement such as that predicate P is satisfied by arbitrarily large values, can be expressed in more formal notation by ∀x : ∃y ≥ x : P(y). See also frequently. The statement that quantity f(x) depending on x "can be made" arbitrarily large, corresponds to ∀y : ∃x : f(x) ≥ y. arbitrary +A shorthand for the universal quantifier. An arbitrary choice is one which is made unrestrictedly, or alternatively, a statement holds of an arbitrary element of a set if it holds of any element of that set. Also much in general-language use among mathematicians: "Of course, this problem can be arbitrarily complicated". eventually +In the context of limits, this is shorthand meaning for sufficiently large arguments; the relevant argument(s) are implicit in the context. As an example, the function log(log(x)) eventually becomes larger than 100"; in this context, "eventually" means "for sufficiently large x." +factor through +A term in category theory referring to composition of morphisms. If for three objects A, B, and C a map + + + + f + : + A + → + C + + + {\displaystyle f\colon A\to C} + + can be written as a composition + + + + f + = + h + ∘ + g + + + {\displaystyle f=h\circ g} + + with + + + + g + : + A + → + B + + + {\displaystyle g\colon A\to B} + + and + + + + h + : + B + → + C + + + {\displaystyle h\colon B\to C} + +, then f is said to factor through any (and all) of + + + + B + + + {\displaystyle B} + +, + + + + g + + + {\displaystyle g} + +, and + + + + h + + + {\displaystyle h} + +. finite +When said of the value of a variable assuming values from the non-negative extended reals + + + + + + R + + + ≥ + 0 + + + ∪ + { + ∞ + } + , + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} _{\geq 0}\cup \{\infty \},} + + the meaning is usually "not infinite". For example, if the variance of a random variable is said to be finite, this implies it is a non-negative real number, possibly zero. In some contexts though, for example in "a small but finite amplitude", zero and infinitesimals are meant to be excluded. When said of the value of a variable assuming values from the extended natural numbers + + + + + N + + ∪ + { + ∞ + } + , + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} \cup \{\infty \},} + + the meaning is simply "not infinite". When said of a set or a mathematical object whose main component is a set, it means that the cardinality of the set is less than + + + + + ℵ + + 0 + + + + + {\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} + +. frequently +In the context of limits, this is shorthand for arbitrarily large arguments and its relatives; as with eventually, the intended variant is implicit. As an example, the sequence + + + + ( + − + 1 + + ) + + n + + + + + {\displaystyle (-1)^{n}} + + is frequently in the interval (1/2, 3/2), because there are arbitrarily large n for which the value of the sequence is in the interval. formal, formally +Qualifies anything that is sufficiently precise to be translated straightforwardly in a formal system. For example. a formal proof, a formal definition. generic +This term has similar connotations as almost all but is used particularly for concepts outside the purview of measure theory. A property holds "generically" on a set if the set satisfies some (context-dependent) notion of density, or perhaps if its complement satisfies some (context-dependent) notion of smallness. For example, a property which holds on a dense Gδ (intersection of countably many open sets) is said to hold generically. In algebraic geometry, one says that a property of points on an algebraic variety that holds on a dense Zariski open set is true generically; however, it is usually not said that a property which holds merely on a dense set (which is not Zariski open) is generic in this situation. in general +In a descriptive context, this phrase introduces a simple characterization of a broad class of objects, with an eye towards identifying a unifying principle. This term introduces an "elegant" description which holds for "arbitrary" objects. Exceptions to this description may be mentioned explicitly, as "pathological" cases. Norbert A'Campo of the University of Basel once asked Grothendieck about something related to the Platonic solids. Grothendieck advised caution. The Platonic solids are so beautiful and so exceptional, he said, that one cannot assume such exceptional beauty will hold in more general situations. left-hand side, right-hand side (LHS, RHS) +Most often, these refer simply to the left-hand or the right-hand side of an equation; for example, + + + + x + = + y + + + 1 + + + {\displaystyle x=y+1} + + has + + + + x + + + {\displaystyle x} + + on the LHS and + + + + y + + + 1 + + + {\displaystyle y+1} + + on the RHS. Occasionally, these are used in the sense of lvalue and rvalue: an RHS is primitive, and an LHS is derivative. nice +A mathematical object is colloquially called nice or sufficiently nice if it satisfies hypotheses or properties, sometimes unspecified or even unknown, that are especially desirable in a given context. It is an informal antonym for pathological. For example, one might conjecture that a differential operator ought to satisfy a certain boundedness condition "for nice test functions," or one might state that some interesting topological invariant should be computable "for nice spaces X." +object +Anything that can be assigned to a variable and for which equality with another object can be considered. The term was coined when variables began to be used for sets and mathematical structures. onto +A function (which in mathematics is generally defined as mapping the elements of one set A to elements of another B) is called "A onto B" (instead of "A to B" or "A into B") only if it is surjective; it may even be said that "f is onto" (i. e. surjective). Not translatable (without circumlocutions) to some languages other than English. proper +If, for some notion of substructure, objects are substructures of themselves (that is, the relationship is reflexive), then the qualification proper requires the objects to be different. For example, a proper subset of a set S is a subset of S that is different from S, and a proper divisor of a number n is a divisor of n that is different from n. This overloaded word is also non-jargon for a proper morphism. property +A characteristic that a mathematical object may have or not; for example "being positive". Properties are often expressed with formulas and are used for specifying sets and subsets, typically with set-builder notation. regular +A function is called regular if it satisfies satisfactory continuity and differentiability properties, which are often context-dependent. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01877bf11 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mathematical jargon" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +These properties might include possessing a specified number of derivatives, with the function and its derivatives exhibiting some nice property (see nice above), such as Hölder continuity. Informally, this term is sometimes used synonymously with smooth, below. These imprecise uses of the word regular are not to be confused with the notion of a regular topological space, which is rigorously defined. resp. (Respectively) A convention to shorten parallel expositions. "A (resp. B) [has some relationship to] X (resp. Y)" means that A [has some relationship to] X and also that B [has (the same) relationship to] Y. For example, squares (resp. triangles) have 4 sides (resp. 3 sides); or compact (resp. Lindelöf) spaces are ones where every open cover has a finite (resp. countable) open subcover. sharp +Often, a mathematical theorem will establish constraints on the behavior of some object; for example, a function will be shown to have an upper or lower bound. The constraint is sharp (sometimes optimal) if it cannot be made more restrictive without failing in some cases. For example, for arbitrary non-negative real numbers x, the exponential function ex, where e = 2.7182818..., gives an upper bound on the values of the quadratic function x2. This is not sharp; the gap between the functions is everywhere at least 1. Among the exponential functions of the form αx, setting α = e2/e = 2.0870652... results in a sharp upper bound; the slightly smaller choice α = 2 fails to produce an upper bound, since then α3 = 8 < 32. In applied fields the word "tight" is often used with the same meaning. smooth +Smoothness is a concept which mathematics has endowed with many meanings, from simple differentiability to infinite differentiability to analyticity, and still others which are more complicated. Each such usage attempts to invoke the physically intuitive notion of smoothness. strong, stronger +A theorem is said to be strong if it deduces restrictive results from general hypotheses. One celebrated example is Donaldson's theorem, which puts tight restraints on what would otherwise appear to be a large class of manifolds. This (informal) usage reflects the opinion of the mathematical community: not only should such a theorem be strong in the descriptive sense (below) but it should also be definitive in its area. A theorem, result, or condition is further called stronger than another one if a proof of the second can be easily obtained from the first but not conversely. An example is the sequence of theorems: Fermat's little theorem, Euler's theorem, Lagrange's theorem, each of which is stronger than the last; another is that a sharp upper bound (see sharp above) is a stronger result than a non-sharp one. Finally, the adjective strong or the adverb strongly may be added to a mathematical notion to indicate a related stronger notion; for example, a strong antichain is an antichain satisfying certain additional conditions, and likewise a strongly regular graph is a regular graph meeting stronger conditions. When used in this way, the stronger notion (such as "strong antichain") is a technical term with a precisely defined meaning; the nature of the extra conditions cannot be derived from the definition of the weaker notion (such as "antichain"). sufficiently large, suitably small, sufficiently close +In the context of limits, these terms refer to some (unspecified, even unknown) point at which a phenomenon prevails as the limit is approached. A statement such as that predicate P holds for sufficiently large values, can be expressed in more formal notation by ∃x : ∀y ≥ x : P(y). See also eventually. upstairs, downstairs +A descriptive term referring to notation in which two objects are written one above the other; the upper one is upstairs and the lower, downstairs. For example, in a fiber bundle, the total space is often said to be upstairs, with the base space downstairs. In a fraction, the numerator is occasionally referred to as upstairs and the denominator downstairs, as in "bringing a term upstairs". up to, modulo, mod out by +An extension to mathematical discourse of the notions of modular arithmetic. A statement is true up to a condition if the establishment of that condition is the only impediment to the truth of the statement. Also used when working with members of equivalence classes, especially in category theory, where the equivalence relation is (categorical) isomorphism; for example, "The tensor product in a weak monoidal category is associative and unital up to a natural isomorphism." +vanish +To assume the value 0. For example, "The function sin(x) vanishes for those values of x that are integer multiples of π." This can also apply to limits: see Vanish at infinity. weak, weaker +The converse of strong. well-defined +Accurately and precisely described or specified. For example, sometimes a definition relies on a choice of some object; the result of the definition must then be independent of this choice. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5192703a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mathematical jargon" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Proof terminology == +The formal language of proof draws repeatedly from a small pool of ideas, many of which are invoked through various lexical shorthands in practice. + +aliter +An obsolescent term which is used to announce to the reader an alternative method, or proof of a result. In a proof, it therefore flags a piece of reasoning that is superfluous from a logical point of view, but has some other interest. +by way of contradiction (BWOC), or "for, if not, ..." +The rhetorical prelude to a proof by contradiction, preceding the negation of the statement to be proved. +if and only if (iff) +An abbreviation for logical equivalence of statements. +in general +In the context of proofs, this phrase is often seen in induction arguments when passing from the base case to the induction step, and similarly, in the definition of sequences whose first few terms are exhibited as examples of the formula giving every term of the sequence. +necessary and sufficient +A minor variant on "if and only if"; "A is necessary (and sufficient) for B" means "A if (only if) B". For example, "For a field K to be algebraically closed it is necessary and sufficient that it have no finite field extensions" means "K is algebraically closed if and only if it has no finite extensions". Often used in lists, as in "The following conditions are necessary and sufficient for a field to be algebraically closed...". +need to show (NTS), required to prove (RTP), wish to show, want to show (WTS) +Proofs sometimes proceed by enumerating several conditions whose satisfaction will together imply the desired theorem; thus, one needs to show just these statements. +one and only one +A statement of the existence and uniqueness of an object; the object exists, and furthermore, no other such object exists. +Q.E.D. +(Quod erat demonstrandum): A Latin abbreviation, meaning "which was to be demonstrated", historically placed at the end of proofs, but less common currently, having been supplanted by the Halmos end-of-proof mark, a square sign ∎. +sufficiently nice +A condition on objects in the scope of the discussion, to be specified later, that will guarantee that some stated property holds for them. When working out a theorem, the use of this expression in the statement of the theorem indicates that the conditions involved may be not yet known to the speaker, and that the intent is to collect the conditions that will be found to be needed in order for the proof of the theorem to go through. +the following are equivalent (TFAE) +Often several equivalent conditions (especially for a definition, such as normal subgroup) are equally useful in practice; one introduces a theorem stating an equivalence of more than two statements with TFAE. +transport of structure +It is often the case that two objects are shown to be equivalent in some way, and that one of them is endowed with additional structure. Using the equivalence, we may define such a structure on the second object as well, via transport of structure. For example, any two vector spaces of the same dimension are isomorphic; if one of them is given an inner product and if we fix a particular isomorphism, then we may define an inner product on the other space by factoring through the isomorphism. +Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over k....Let (ei)1≤ i ≤ n be a basis for V....There is an isomorphism of the polynomial algebra k[Tij]1≤ i, j ≤ n onto the algebra Symk(V ⊗ V*)....It extends to an isomorphism of k[GLn] to the localized algebra Symk(V ⊗ V*)D, where D = det(ei ⊗ ej*)....We write k[GL(V)] for this last algebra. By transport of structure, we obtain a linear algebraic group GL(V) isomorphic to GLn. +without (any) loss of generality (WLOG, WOLOG, WALOG), we may assume (WMA) +Sometimes a proposition can be more easily proved with additional assumptions on the objects it concerns. If the proposition as stated follows from this modified one with a simple and minimal explanation (for example, if the remaining special cases are identical but for notation), then the modified assumptions are introduced with this phrase and the altered proposition is proved. + +== Proof techniques == +Mathematicians have several phrases to describe proofs or proof techniques. These are often used as hints for filling in tedious details. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e7ed57cb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mathematical jargon" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +angle chasing +Used to describe a geometrical proof that involves finding relationships between the various angles in a diagram. +back-of-the-envelope calculation +An informal computation omitting much rigor without sacrificing correctness. Often this computation is "proof of concept" and treats only an accessible special case. +brute force +Rather than finding underlying principles or patterns, this is a method where one would evaluate as many cases as needed to sufficiently prove or provide convincing evidence that the thing in question is true. Sometimes this involves evaluating every possible case (where it is also known as proof by exhaustion). +by example +A proof by example is an argument whereby a statement is not proved but instead illustrated by an example. If done well, the specific example would easily generalize to a general proof. +by inspection +A rhetorical shortcut made by authors who invite the reader to verify, at a glance, the correctness of a proposed expression or deduction. If an expression can be evaluated by straightforward application of simple techniques and without recourse to extended calculation or general theory, then it can be evaluated by inspection. It is also applied to solving equations; for example to find roots of a quadratic equation by inspection is to 'notice' them, or mentally check them. 'By inspection' can play a kind of gestalt role: the answer or solution simply clicks into place. +by intimidation +Style of proof where claims believed by the author to be easily verifiable are labelled as 'obvious' or 'trivial', which often results in the reader being confused. +clearly, can be easily shown +A term which shortcuts around calculation the mathematician perceives to be tedious or routine, accessible to any member of the audience with the necessary expertise in the field; Laplace used obvious (French: évident). +complete intuition +commonly reserved for jokes (puns on complete induction). +diagram chasing + Given a commutative diagram of objects and morphisms between them, if one wishes to prove some property of the morphisms (such as injectivity) which can be stated in terms of elements, then the proof can proceed by tracing the path of elements of various objects around the diagram as successive morphisms are applied to it. That is, one chases elements around the diagram, or does a diagram chase. +handwaving +A non-technique of proof mostly employed in lectures, where formal argument is not strictly necessary. It proceeds by omission of details or even significant ingredients, and is merely a plausibility argument. +in general +In a context not requiring rigor, this phrase often appears as a labor-saving device when the technical details of a complete argument would outweigh the conceptual benefits. The author gives a proof in a simple enough case that the computations are reasonable, and then indicates that "in general" the proof is similar. +index battle +For proofs involving objects with multiple indices which can be solved by going to the bottom (if anyone wishes to take up the effort). Similar to diagram chasing. +morally true +Used to indicate that the speaker believes a statement should be true, given their mathematical experience, even though a proof has not yet been put forward. As a variation, the statement may in fact be false, but instead provide a slogan for or illustration of a correct principle. Hasse's local-global principle is a particularly influential example of this. +obviously +See clearly. +the proof is left as an exercise to the reader +Usually applied to a claim within a larger proof when the proof of that claim can be produced routinely by any member of the audience with the necessary expertise, but is not so simple as to be obvious. +trivial +Similar to clearly. A concept is trivial if it holds by definition, is an immediate corollary to a known statement, or is a simple special case of a more general concept. + +== Miscellaneous == +This section features terms used across different areas in mathematics, or terms that do not typically appear in more specialized glossaries. For the terms used only in some specific areas of mathematics, see glossaries in Category:Glossaries of mathematics. + +binary +A binary relation is a set of ordered pairs; an element x is said to be related to another element y if and only if (x,y) are in the set. + +correspondence +A correspondence from a set A to a set B is a subset of a Cartesian product A × B ; in other words, it is a binary relation but with the specification of the ambient sets A, B used in the definition. + +diagram +A visual representation of the relationship(s) between variables. + +function +A function f: A → B is an ordered triple (A, B, f ) consisting of sets A, B and a subset f of the Cartesian product A × B subject to the condition (a, b), (a, b′) ∈ f implies b = b′. In other words, it is a special kind of correspondence where given an element a of A, there is a unique element b of B that corresponds to it. +fundamental + +The word fundamental is used to describe a theorem with a given area of mathematics considered to be the most central theorem of that particular area (e.g. Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic for Arithmetic). + +invariant +An invariant of an object or a space is a property or number of the object or a space that remains unchanged under some transformations. + +map +A synonym for a function between sets or a morphism in a category. Depending on authors, the term "maps" +or the term "functions" may be reserved for specific kinds of functions or morphisms (e.g., function as an analytic term and map as a general term). + +mathematics +See mathematics. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d02141021 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of mathematical jargon" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +multivalued +A "multivalued function” from a set A to a set B is a function from A to the subsets of B. It has typically the property that, for almost all points x of B, there is a neighbourhood of x such that the restriction of the function to the neighbourhood can be considered as a set of functions from the neighbourhood to B. + +projection +A projection is, roughly, a map from some space or object to another that omits some information on the object or space. For example, + + + + + + R + + + 2 + + + → + + R + + , + ( + x + , + y + ) + ↦ + x + + + {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}\to \mathbb {R} ,(x,y)\mapsto x} + + is a projection and its restriction to a graph of a function, say, is also a projection. The terms “idempotent operator” and “forgetful map” are also synonyms for a projection. + +structure +A mathematical structure on an object is an additional set of objects or data attached to the object (e.g., relation, operation, metric, topology). + +== See also == +Glossary of areas of mathematics +List of mathematical constants +List of mathematical symbols +Category:Mathematical terminology + +== Notes == + +== References == +Eilenberg, Samuel; Mac Lane, Saunders (1942), "Natural Isomorphisms in Group Theory", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 28 (12): 537–543, Bibcode:1942PNAS...28..537E, doi:10.1073/pnas.28.12.537, PMC 1078535, PMID 16588584. +Impagliazzo, Russell (1995), "A personal view of average-case complexity", Proc. Tenth Annual Structure in Complexity Theory Conference (SCT'95), pp. 134–147, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.678.8930, doi:10.1109/SCT.1995.514853, ISBN 978-0-8186-7052-7, S2CID 2154064. +Jackson, Allyn (2004), "Comme Appelé du Néant — As If Summoned from the Void: The Life of Alexandre Grothendieck", AMS Notices, 51 (9, 10) (Parts I and II). +Mac Lane, Saunders (1997), "The PNAS way back then" (PDF), Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94 (12): 5983–5985, Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.5983M, doi:10.1073/pnas.94.12.5983, PMC 33670, PMID 9177152. +Mac Lane, Saunders (1998), Categories for the Working Mathematician, Springer. +Monastyrsky, Michael (2001), "Some Trends in Modern Mathematics and the Fields Medal" (PDF), Can. Math. Soc. Notes, 33 (2 and 3). +Pinto, J. Sousa (2004), Hoskins, R.F. (ed.), Infinitesimal methods for mathematical analysis, Horwood Publishing, p. 246, ISBN 978-1-898563-99-0. +Poincare, Henri (1913), Halsted, Bruce (ed.), The Foundations of Science, The Science Press, p. 435. +Rota, Gian-Carlo (1977), "The phenomenology of mathematical beauty", Synthese, 111 (2): 171–182, doi:10.1023/A:1004930722234, ISSN 0039-7857, S2CID 44064821. +Shafarevich, Igor (1991), Kandall, G.A. (ed.), Algebraic Geometry, vol. IV, Springer. +Wiedijk, Freek, ed. (2006), The Seventeen Provers of the World, Birkhäuser, ISBN 978-3-540-30704-4. + +== Bibliography == +Encyclopedia of Mathematics \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7cd20aa6f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteoritics" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:58.418684+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a glossary of terms used in meteoritics, the science of meteorites. + +== # == +2 Pallas – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the CR meteorites. +4 Vesta – second-largest asteroid in the asteroid belt and likely source of the HED meteorites. +221 Eos – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the CO meteorites. +289 Nenetta – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the angrites. +3103 Eger – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the aubrites. +3819 Robinson – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the angrites. +IA meteorite – an iron meteorite group now part of the IAB group/complex. +IAB meteorite – an iron meteorite and primitive achondrite of the IAB group/complex. +IB meteorite – an iron meteorite group now part of the IAB group/complex. +IC meteorite – an iron meteorite that is part of the IC group. + +== A == +Ablation – the process of a meteorite losing mass during the passage through the atmosphere. +Acapulcoite – a group of primitive achondrites. +Accretion – the process in which matter of the protoplanetary disk coalesces to form planetesimals. +Achondrite – a differentiated meteorite (meaning without chondrules). +Aerolite – an old term for stony meteorites. +ALH – an abbreviation used for meteorites from Allan Hills. +Allan Hills 84001 – is an exotic meteorite from Mars that does not fit into any of the SNC groups and was thought to contain evidence for life on Mars. +Allende meteorite – is the largest carbonaceous chondrite ever found on Earth. +Amphoterite – an obsolete classification of chondritic meteorites that are now classified as LL. +Angrite – a basaltic meteorite. +ANSMET – the Antarctic Search for Meteorites is a scientific program that looks for meteorites in the Transantarctic Mountains. +Asteroidal achondrite – an achondrite that differentiated on an asteroid or planetesimal (see planetary achondrite) +Asteroid spectral types – classification of asteroids according to their spectra. +Ataxite – an iron meteorite that has no visible structures when etched. +Aubrite – a class of achondrite meteorites composed primarily of the orthopyroxene enstatite + +== B == +Basaltic achondrite – a grouping of basalt meteorites (HED meteorites + Angrite) +Brachinite – either a primitive achondrite or an asteroidal achondrite +Bolide – is an extremely bright meteor, especially one that explodes in the atmosphere + +== C == +C – can refer to carbonaceous chondrite or to an iron meteorite designation (Roman numeral and letter). +Carbonaceous chondrite +CAI – an abbreviation of calcium–aluminium-rich inclusion +Calcium–aluminium-rich inclusion +Chassignite +Chondrite – stony meteorites unmodified by melting or differentiation of the parent body +Chondrule – millimetre-scale round grains found in chondrites +Clan – meteorites that are not similar enough to form a group, but are also not too different from each other to be put in separate classes. +Class – two or more groups that have a similar chemistry and oxygen isotope ratios. +Compositional type – a classification based on overall composition, for example stony, iron, stony-iron (as introduced by Maskelyne). Can also refer to the composition deduced from spectroscopy of asteroids. +Condensation – the process of chemicals changing from the gaseous to the solid phase during the cooling of the protoplanetary disk. +Condensation sequence – the sequence of minerals that changes from the gaseous to the solid state while the protoplanetary disk cools. +Cosmic dust – small interplanetary and interstellar particles that are similar to meteorites (See Micrometeorite). +Cosmochemistry – the study of the chemical composition of the universe and its constituents, and the processes that produced those compositions. + +== D == +Dar al Gani – a meteorite field in the Libyan Sahara. +Desert glass – natural glass found in deserts formed from the silica in sand as a result of lightning strikes or meteor impacts. +Differentiated – a meteorite that has undergone igneous differentiation. (See: achondrite) +Differentiation – usually the process of a planetesimal forming an iron core and silicate mantle. +Duo – a grouping of two meteorites that share similar characteristics (see Grouplet). + +== E == +E – can refer to enstatite chondrite or to an iron meteorite designation (Roman numeral and letter). +Eagle Station grouplet – a set of pallasite meteorite specimen that do not fit into any of the defined pallasite groups. +Electrophonic bolide – a meteoroid which produces a measurable discharge of electromagnetic energy (EMP) during its passage through the atmosphere. +Enstatite achondrite – a meteorite that is mostly composed of enstatite. Usually part of the aubrite group. +Enstatite chondrite – a rare form of meteorite thought to comprise only 2% of chondrites. + +== F == +Fall – a meteorite that was seen while it fell to Earth and found. +Find – a meteorite that was found without seeing it fall. +Fossil meteorite – a meteorite that was buried under layers of sediment before the start of the Quaternary period. Some or all of the original cosmic material has been replaced by diagenetic minerals. (It is, however, not a fossil). +Fusion crust – a coating on meteorites that forms during their passage through the atmosphere. + +== G == +Group – a collection of five or more meteorites sharing similar characteristics. +Grouplet – a collection of fewer than five meteorites sharing similar characteristics. + +== H == +Hammer Stone – a specific individual meteorite that has hit either a human, man-made object, and/or an animal. +HED – abbreviation for three basaltic achondrite groups howardite, eucrite and diogenite. +HED meteorite – a clan of basaltic achondrites. +Hexahedrite – a structural class of iron meteorites having a relatively low nickel content +Hunter – a person who searches for meteorites. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..97a176238 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,115 @@ +--- +title: "Glossary of meteoritics" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:58.418684+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== I == +Impact breccia – rock composed of fragments of terrestrial, extraterrestrial or mixed origin fused by the energy of impact +Impactite – informal term for a terrestrial rock resulting from the shocking impact of a meteor. +Insoluble organic matter – Kerogen-like macromolecule residue from carbonaceous chondrite meteorites after soluble organic matter has been removed. +Iron–nickel alloy – an alternative expression for meteoric iron. +Iron meteorite – a meteorite that is mainly composed of meteoric iron. + +== K == +Kakangari chondrite – a group of chondrite meteorites. +Kamacite – a native metal (mineral) found in meteorites. + +== L == +Lodranite – member of a small group of primitive achondrites thought to derive from deeper within the same parent body as acapulcoites +Lunaite – a meteorite that originated from the Moon (synonym of Lunar meteorite). Compare Category:Meteorites found on bodies other than Earth. +Lunar meteorite – a meteorite that originated from the Moon (synonym of Lunaite). Compare Category:Meteorites found on bodies other than Earth. + +== M == +Main group pallasite – a pallasite belonging to the main group. +Main mass – the largest/heaviest piece of a fragmented meteorite, typically found in a strewn field. +Magmatic meteorite +Martian meteorite – a meteorite that originated from Mars. Compare Category:Meteorites found on bodies other than Earth. +Maskelynite – a natural glass found in meteorites. +Matrix – the mineral assemblage surrounding chondrules. +Mesosiderite – a grouping of stony-iron meteorite that are breccias. +Meteoric iron – a native metal found in meteorites and a mixture of different mineral phases. Compare telluric iron. +Meteorite Observation and Recovery Program – a scientific program that was centered in Canada. +Meteoriticist – a scientist working on meteorites, meteors, and meteoroids. +Meteoritics – the science of meteorites, meteors, and meteoroids. +MORP – abbreviation for Meteorite Observation and Recovery Program. +Micrometeorite – microscopic meteorites derived from Cosmic dust. + +== N == +Nakhlite – a group of Martian meteorites +Neumann lines (or Neumann bands) – a pattern of fine parallel lines seen in some iron meteorites, thought to be due to impact events on the parent body +Nonmagmatic meteorite – (deprecated) iron meteorites that were thought to have not formed by igneous processes. + +== O == +O – usually refers to ordinary chondrite +Observed fall – a meteorite that was seen when it fell to Earth. +Octahedrite – the most common structural class of iron meteorites. +Ordinary chondrite – a chondrite meteorite, where 'ordinary' means that it is the most common found + +== P == +PAC – abbreviation for primitive achondrite. +Pallasite – a class of stony–iron meteorite. +Panspermia – the hypothesis that life could reach other planets by the means of meteorites and/or comets. +Parent body – the celestial body from which originates a meteorite or a class of meteorites. +Petrologic type – a classification scheme that expresses the degree to which a meteorite has been affected by the secondary processes of thermal metamorphism and aqueous alteration on the parent asteroid. +Pitts grouplet – a grouplet of meteorites that is part of the IAB meteorites. +Planetary achondrite – an achondrite that was differentiated on a planet and not a planetesimal or asteroid (See asteroidal achondrite). +Plessite – a fine grained intergrowth found in meteoric iron consisting of kamacite, taenite and tetrataenite lamella. +Presolar grains – interstellar solid matter in the form of tiny solid grains from a time before the Sun was formed. +Primitive meteorite +Primitive achondrite – a meteorite that has similarities to achondrites and chondrites. +Protoplanetary disk – a circumstellar disk from which all solids in the Solar System formed. +Pyroxene pallasite grouplet + +== R == + +Regmaglypts – thumbprint-sized indentations in the surface of larger meteorites formed by ablation as the meteorite passes through a planet's atmosphere, probably caused by vortices of hot gas. +Rose-Tschermak-Brezina classification – a classification developed by Gustav Rose, Gustav Tschermak and Aristides Brezina. +Rumuruti chondrite – a group of chondrites. + +== S == +Shergottite – igneous rocks of mafic to ultramafic lithology, named after a meteorite that fell at Sherghati, India in 1865. +Shock stage – a measure of the degree of fracturing of the matrix of a common chondrite meteorite. +Shock metamorphism – the effects of shock-wave related deformation and heating during impact events. +Siderite – the old term for iron meteorite. +Siderolite – the old term for stony-iron meteorites. +SNC – abbreviation for shergottite, nakhlite and chassignite, the three main types of Martian meteorite. +Solar nebula – a synonym of the protoplanetary disk. +Soluble organic matter – compounds that can be extracted from carbonaceous chondrites using water or other solvents. These compounds include amino acids, carboxylic acids, and nucleotide bases. +Spectral class – +Stony meteorite – a meteorite composed mostly of silicates. +Stony-iron meteorite – a meteorite that is a mixture of meteoric iron and silicates. +Strewn field – a field of fragments from one meteorite fall. +Structural class – a subdivision of iron meteorites in ataxites, hexahedrites and octahedrites. +Superbolide – is a bolide that reaches an apparent magnitude of −17 or brighter, which is roughly 100 times brighter than the full moon. Recent examples of superbolides include the Sutter's Mill meteorite and the Chelyabinsk meteor. + +== T == +Taenite – a native metal (mineral) found in meteorites. +Tamdakht – a meteorite that fell near Ouarzazate, Morocco on 2008-12-20 producing a strewn field of approximately 25 km (16 mi) by 2 km (1.2 mi) and two small impact craters. +Tektite – glassy terrestrial debris created by meteorite impacts. +Thumbprinting – see regmaglypts +Total known weight (TKW) – total known mass of a meteorite. +Trio – a grouping of three meteorites that share similar characteristics (see Grouplet). +Type – subdivision of meteorites. Loosely defined. Usually refers to chondrite, achondrite and sometimes primitive achondrite. + +== U == +Udei Station grouplet – a grouplet of meteorites that is part of the IAB meteorites. +Ungrouped – a meteorite that has not been assigned to a group or grouplet. +Undifferentiated +Ureilite + +== V == +Vesta – second largest asteroid in the asteroid belt and likely source of the HED meteorites. +Volatile elements – are chemical elements that have low boiling and condensation temperatures. + +== W == +Widmanstätten pattern – a fine interleaving of kamacite and taenite bands/ribbons found in octahedrite irons and some pallasites. +Willamette meteorite – the largest meteorite discovered in North America, found in the Willamette Valley of Oregon. +Winonaite – a type of primitive achondrite meteorite. +Weston meteorite – a meteorite which fell to earth above the town of Weston, Connecticut on December 14, 1807. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviquake-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviquake-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ceedb058f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviquake-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "Graviquake" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviquake" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:59.590808+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A graviquake is an earthquake occurring in an extensional tectonic setting, where the gravitational energy stored during the interseismic period is delivered by the collapse of a brittle upper crustal volume, slipping along a normal fault and generating the double couple recorded in the moment tensor solution. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_valley-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_valley-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e4b30b513 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_valley-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Head of the valley" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_valley" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:33.763831+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The head of the valley or, less commonly, the valley head, refers to the uppermost part of a valley. + + +== Description == +The head of a valley may take widely differing forms; for example, in highland regions the valley often ends in a broad, evenly sloping hollow. The higher the head of the valley, the more likely it is to resemble the geomorphological shape of a cirque. In glacial valleys or trough valleys, it may be referred to as the trough head or trough end. +In mountains with predominantly crystalline rock the heads of the valleys are generally very wet, sometimes boggy and often support lush alpine meadows, whilst those made of limestone are usually dry and covered in talus or gravel. Where there has been ice age glaciation, the valley bottoms are modified by moraines and mountain lakes are common. + + +== See also == +Structural basin +U-shaped or trough valley +Landform +Valley step + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Leser, Hartmut, ed. (2005). Wörterbuch Allgemeine Geographie, 13th ed., dtv, Munich, ISBN 978-3-423-03422-7. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b080660a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Height above mean sea level" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:36.390299+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Height above mean sea level is a measure of a location's vertical distance (height, elevation or altitude) in reference to a vertical datum based on a historic mean sea level. In geodesy, it is formalized as orthometric height. The zero level varies in different countries due to different reference points and historic measurement periods. Climate change and other forces can cause sea levels and elevations to vary over time. + + +== Uses == +Elevation or altitude above sea level is a standard measurement for: + +Geographic locations such as towns, mountains and other landmarks. +The top of buildings and other structures. +Mining infrastructure, particularly underground. +Flying objects such as airplanes or helicopters below a transition altitude defined by local regulations. + + +== Units and abbreviations == +Elevation or altitude is generally expressed as "metres above mean sea level" in the metric system, or "feet above mean sea level" in United States customary and imperial units. Common abbreviations in English are: + +AMSL – above mean sea level +AOD or AODN – above ordnance datum +ASL – above sea level +FAMSL – feet above mean sea level +FASL – feet above sea level +MAMSL – metres above mean sea level +MASL – metres above sea level +MSL – mean sea level +For elevations or altitudes, often just the abbreviation MSL is used, e.g., Mount Everest (8849 m MSL), or the reference to sea level is omitted completely, e.g., Mount Everest (8849 m). + + +== Methods of measurement == +Altimetry is the measurement of altitude or elevation above sea level. Common techniques are: + +Surveying, especially levelling. +Global Navigation Satellite System (such as GPS), where a receiver determines a location from pseudoranges to multiple satellites. A geoid is needed to convert the 3D position to sea-level elevation. +Pressure altimeter measuring atmospheric pressure, which decreases as altitude increases. Since atmospheric pressure varies with the weather, too, a recent local measure of the pressure at a known altitude is needed to calibrate the altimeter. +Stereoscopy in aerial photography. +Aerial lidar and satellite laser altimetry. +Aerial or satellite radar altimetry. +Accurate measurement of historical mean sea levels is complex. Land mass subsidence (as occurs naturally in some regions) can give the appearance of rising sea levels. Conversely, markings on land masses that are uplifted (due to geological processes) can suggest a relative lowering of mean sea level. + + +== See also == +Depth below seafloor +Height above average terrain +Height above ground level +List of places on land with elevations below sea level +Ordnance datum + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit_kingdom-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit_kingdom-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..abb282ad2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit_kingdom-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Hermit kingdom" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit_kingdom" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:37.694417+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term hermit kingdom is an epithet used to refer to any country, organization or society that willfully isolates itself off, either metaphorically or physically, from the rest of the world. North Korea is the most commonly cited example of a hermit kingdom-like country due to its Juche state ideology which is heavily focused on isolationist and self-sufficient internal politics. Other less prominent quoted examples are Turkmenistan, Eritrea, and Bhutan. + + +== North Korea == +The first country to be described as a "hermit kingdom" was Korea during the Joseon dynasty, in William Elliot Griffis's 1882 book Korea: The Hermit Nation. +Korea, which had become increasingly isolationist since the 17th century, was frequently described as a hermit kingdom until 1905, when it became a protectorate of Japan. Today, historical Korea is split into South Korea and North Korea, two states with starkly contrasting economic ideologies. Whereas South Korea is a major developed economy and trade-dependent economy as well as a major importer of overseas goods, North Korea pursues a largely isolationist state ideology known as Juche with a planned economy. + + +== Cold War uses == +During the Cold War, Enver Hoxha's Albania was widely considered a "hermit kingdom" as it was a Stalinist regime, did not allow its ordinary citizens out of the country, and pursued autarky to become entirely self-sufficient. Unlike North Korea, Hoxha's regime, after the Sino-Albanian split, refused to ally with anyone and was hostile towards the entire world, which made it more isolationist than North Korea, which was then Stalinist but was allied with other Eastern Bloc states and did not become isolationist until after the end of the Cold War. + + +== Modern use == +Today, the term is often applied to North Korea in news and social media, and in 2009, it was used by Hillary Clinton, then the United States Secretary of State. +Other current countries considered isolationist "hermit kingdoms" include Turkmenistan, +Belarus, +Eritrea, +and the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. +Historically, the term has been applied to Nepal, +Ladakh, +and Bhutan +in the Himalayas. + + +== Other uses == +The term "hermit kingdom" has also been used to describe Western Australia when it closed its borders during the COVID-19 pandemic. + + +== See also == +Haijin – Isolationist policy in early modern China +Sakoku – Japanese isolationist policy from 1633–1853 +Kim Il Sung – Leader of North Korea from 1948 to 1994 +Isolationism – Policy against engaging in international relations + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Fischer, David Hackett (1970). Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-131545-1. +Seth, Michael J. (Fall 2008). "Korea: From Hermit Kingdom to Colony". Association for Asian Studies. 13 (2: Asia in World History: 1750-1914): 28–33. Retrieved October 8, 2024. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterland-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterland-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af60010a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterland-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Hinterland" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:38.987118+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hinterland is the area under the influence of a particular human settlement. The word comes from a German word meaning 'land behind' a city, a port, or similar. Its use in English was first documented by the geographer George Chisholm in his Handbook of Commercial Geography (1888). Originally the term was associated with the area of a port in which materials for export and import are stored and shipped. Subsequently, the use of the word expanded to its current use. + + +== History == +The word hinterland was recorded in English was by Scottish geographer George Chisholm in 1888, to describe the region behind a port that was economically connected to it for imports and exports. The term was later adopted during the era of European colonialism, particularly during the Scramble for Africa to refer to inland areas that coastal powers claimed as their own. + + +== Geographic region == +An area behind a coast or the shoreline of a river. Specifically, by the doctrine of the hinterland, the hinterland is the inland region lying behind a port and is claimed by the state that owns the coast. +In shipping usage, a port's hinterland is the area that it serves, both for imports and for exports. +The term is also used to refer to the area around a city or town. +More generally, hinterland can refer to the rural area economically tied to an urban catchment area. The size of a hinterland can depend on geography, or on the ease, speed, and cost of transportation between the catchment area and the hinterland. +In colonial usage, the term was applied to the surrounding areas of former European colonies in Africa, which, although not part of the colony itself, were influenced by the colony. By analogous general economic usage, hinterland can refer to the area surrounding a service from which customers are attracted, also called the market area. +In German, Hinterland is sometimes used more generally to describe any sparsely populated area where the infrastructure is underdeveloped, although Provinz (analogous to province) is more common. In the United States, and particularly in the American Midwest (a region of German cultural heritage located far from ocean ports), it is this meaning and not the one relating to ports that predominates in common use. Analogous terms include "the countryside", "the sticks", "the boonies", backcountry, boondocks, the Bush (in Alaskan usage), the outback (Australia), and the sertão (Brazil). +In Germany a local area in the western part of the Kurfürstentum Hessen (Electorate of Hesse) is named Hessisches Hinterland (short: Hinterland, Hessian Hinterland) without being the local backcountry to a larger city. Cities there are Battenberg, Biedenkopf and Gladenbach. The name Hinterland was in use over many centuries, and nowadays means a smaller area. Lesser known, similar names are given to other areas in Germany (and Switzerland). +In Italy, hinterland is used to describe the metropolitan area of a city, especially Milan, outside of the main municipality. + + +== Breadth of knowledge == +A further sense in which the term is commonly applied, especially by British politicians, is in talking about an individual's depth and breadth of knowledge (or lack thereof), of matters outside politics, specifically of academic, artistic, cultural, literary and scientific pursuits. For instance, one could say, "X has a vast hinterland", or "Y has no hinterland". The spread of this usage is usually credited to Denis Healey (British Defence Secretary 1964–1970, Chancellor of the Exchequer 1974–1979) and his wife Edna Healey, initially in the context of the lack of hinterland—i.e., interests outside of politics—of former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. + + +== See also == +Dalmatian Hinterland + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeypot_(tourism)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeypot_(tourism)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b73c256b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeypot_(tourism)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Honeypot (tourism)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeypot_(tourism)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:40.164805+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A honeypot site is a location attractive to tourists who, due to their numbers, place pressure on the environment and local people. Honeypots are often used by cities or countries to manage their tourism industry. +The use of honeypots can protect fragile land away from major cities while satisfying tourists. One such example is the establishment of local parks to prevent tourists from damaging more valuable ecosystems further from their main destination. Honeypots have the added benefit of concentrating many income-generating visitors in one place, therefore developing that area, and in turn making it more appealing to tourists. However, honeypots can suffer from problems of overcrowding, including litter, vandalism, and strain on facilities and transport networks. +Honeypots attract tourists due to parking spaces, shopping centres, public parks, and public toilets. The tourist shops are normally placed all over the shopping centre, which creates pressure on the whole centre to keep the area looking tidy. For example, Stratford-upon-Avon has shops that are aimed mostly at tourists. On a particular street, five shops were aimed towards the locals, and ten shops catered to tourists, reflecting the business opportunity that tourism presents for shopkeepers and other businesspeople in the local economy. + +The once sleepy medieval village has attracted an increasing number of visitors over recent years and is a classic example of a tourist 'honeypot' ... Ste. Enimie is one of these 'designated' places that are designed to attract people to it and therefore reduce the impact on the surrounding area. + + +== See also == +Tourist city + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_line-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_line-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6dc074bfc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_line-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Imaginary line" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_line" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:41.419962+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In general, an imaginary line is usually any sort of geometric line (more generally, curves) that has only an abstract definition and does not physically exist. They are often used to properly identify places on a map. +Some outside geography do exist. A centerline is a nautical term for a line down the center of a vessel lengthwise. + + +== Examples == + + +=== Geography === +As a geographical concept, an imaginary line may serve as an arbitrary division, such as + +Antarctic Circle +Arctic Circle +Border +International Date Line +Latitude, including the Equator, the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer +Longitude, the Prime Meridian Any axis about which an object spins is an imaginary line. +Mason–Dixon line, which informally marks pieces of the borders of four U.S. states: Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, once part of Virginia. Symbolically, the line separates the Northern United States from the Southern United States +Missouri Compromise Line +Time zones + + +=== Science and engineering === +Line of sight +Optical ray +Force lines in mechanical and structural engineering +Field lines for electric and magnetic fields + + +== See also == +Imaginary line (mathematics) + + +== References == + + +== External links == +World Geography Glossary \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_grazing-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_grazing-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c862e4639 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_grazing-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Information grazing" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_grazing" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:31.783951+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Information grazing refers to the ability to quickly obtain knowledge and facts just in time to solve new problems or answer questions. "Information grazing" can also be "information jumping", jumping from site to site and cherry-picking information seems to "rewire" the brain to deleterious effects or focus on something long enough to fully understand all its implications. +Unlike traditional learning, where learning a subject in depth was necessary to draw enough pertinent knowledge to solve new problems or answer questions, information grazing assumes some subjects are so large, fast-changing, interdependent, or esoteric, that traditional methods of learning may be unable to solve new problems or answer questions as efficiently. Information grazing is also one of the most commonly used coping techniques for stress and experts have noticed a trend with people many under the age of 35. +The change from a traditional in-depth learning and memorizing of facts to a mentality of quickly finding, using, and then forgetting knowledge, stems from the technological singularity concept that information is growing so fast (see information explosion or information overload) that an individual can no longer hope to be a "renaissance man" or effectively keep up with some fields of knowledge. Examples of fields of knowledge that are more susceptible to information grazing techniques are science, medical, and engineering, where the “newest” knowledge has become so dynamic, that documentation and dissemination has increasingly moved from fixed paper media to digital formats allowing easier updating and searchability using tools such as AI. With the advent of the Internet and modern computer-cataloging of libraries, vast sums of knowledge are easily accessible in overwhelming quantities in real time. And, with expected future advances in search engine technology and library services, the trend of information overload is expected to worsen; information grazing techniques will become more prevalent to deal with the overload. +Disadvantages of information grazing come from its advantages. Switching from a "fixed" source of information that is constant, verifiable, and worth memorizing to "fluid" sources that are always in flux can lead to quick solutions that are unverified or worse, incorrect. Studies have shown that many people don't read past the first sentences of a Web site's content, and many never go beyond the first ten links listed in a search. As information becomes more like an instantaneous consumable item, memorization is less fact-based but more procedural (i.e. how to find it). Similar concepts are found in Japanese education where after intense study of many unconnected facts, most of the information is forgotten or if remembered, not connected to other relevant facts. In the US, this is similar to cramming an exam. Information grazing may have the same effect but greater, since it is done over the period of years. + + +== See also == +SparkNotes, often used to "read" books in a few minutes. +Browsing +The Cult of the Amateur +Is Google Making Us Stupid? +Large language model + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Growing Up Online "Frontline" Jan 2008. The sections on school work and report writing. +Digital Nation "Frontline" Feb 2011. The sections on students and learning. +The Evolution of Information Grazing on Bokardo.com \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermontane-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermontane-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8e4ebdb01 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermontane-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Intermontane" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermontane" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:42.599087+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Intermontane is a physiographic adjective formed from the prefix "inter-" (signifying among, between, amid, during, within, mutual, reciprocal) and the adjective "montane" (inhabiting, or growing in mountainous regions, especially cool, moist upland slopes below the timberline). +The corresponding physiographic noun is intermountain, while the noun intermontane is an ecologic noun meaning among, between, amid, or within "flora and fauna of a montane habitat." As an example, an alpine region would be an intermontane for a species that migrates between a glacial region and a subalpine region. + + +== Use of the term == +Intermontane Basin, a wide valley between mountain ranges that is partly filled with alluvium such as New Zealand's Mackenzie Basin. +Intermontane Belt, a physiogeological region in the North American Pacific Northwest. +Intermontane Plateaus, the United States physiographic region of the Intermountain West. +Intermontane Steppe, a term used mainly in reference to the Sayan Intermontane Steppe. +In palaeogeography, intermontane may refer to + +Intermontane Islands, an ancient Pacific Ocean chain of volcanic islands of the Intermontane Plate that were active during the Triassic period. +Intermontane Plate, an ancient oceanic tectonic plate on the west coast of North America about 195 million years ago. +Intermontane Trench, an ancient oceanic trench of the Triassic period along the west coast of North America in the former Slide Mountain Ocean. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Intermontane Basins and Plateaus \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e2af542db --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Intertropical Convergence Zone" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:43.875765+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ ITCH, or ICZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous windless weather, is the area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the thermal equator, though its specific position varies seasonally. When it lies near the geographic equator, it is called the near-equatorial trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonal circulation, it is sometimes referred to as a monsoon trough (a usage that is more common in Australia and parts of Asia). + +== Meteorology == +The ITCZ was originally identified from the 1920s to the 1940s as the Intertropical Front (ITF); however, after the recognition of the significance of wind field convergence in tropical weather production in the 1940s and 1950s, the term Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was then applied. +The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, typically thunderstorms, that encircle the globe near the Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds move in a southwestward direction from the northeast, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they move northwestward from the southeast. When the ITCZ is positioned north or south of the Equator, these directions change according to the Coriolis effect imparted by Earth's rotation. For instance, when the ITCZ is situated north of the Equator, the southeast trade wind changes to a southwest wind as it crosses the Equator. The ITCZ is formed by vertical motion largely appearing as convective activity of thunderstorms driven by solar heating, which effectively draw air in; these are the trade winds. The ITCZ is effectively a tracer of the ascending branch of the Hadley cell and is wet. The dry descending branch is the horse latitudes. +The location of the ITCZ gradually varies with the seasons, roughly corresponding with the location of the thermal equator. As the heat capacity of the oceans is greater than air over land, migration is more prominent over land. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone is better defined, the seasonal cycle is more subtle, as the convection is constrained by the distribution of ocean temperatures. Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the Equator, one of which is usually stronger than the other. When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones. + +== ITCZ over oceans vs. land == +The ITCZ is commonly defined as an equatorial zone where the trade winds converge. Rainfall seasonality is traditionally attributed to the north–south migration of the ITCZ, which follows the sun. Although this is largely valid over the equatorial oceans, the ITCZ and the region of maximum rainfall can be decoupled over the continents. The equatorial precipitation over land is not simply a response to just the surface convergence. Rather, it is modulated by a number of regional features such as local atmospheric jets and waves, proximity to the oceans, terrain-induced convective systems, moisture recycling, and spatiotemporal variability of land cover and albedo. + +== South Pacific convergence zone == +The South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ) is a reverse-oriented, or west-northwest to east-southeast aligned, trough extending from the west Pacific warm pool southeastwards towards French Polynesia. It lies just south of the equator during the Southern Hemisphere warm season, but can be more extratropical in nature, especially east of the International Date Line. It is considered the largest and most important piece of the ITCZ, and has the least dependence upon heating from a nearby land mass during the summer than any other portion of the monsoon trough. The southern ITCZ in the eastern tropical Pacific and southern tropical Atlantic, known as the SITCZ, occurs during the Southern Hemisphere fall between 3° and 10° south of the equator east of the 140th meridian west longitude during cool or neutral El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) patterns. When ENSO reaches its warm phase, otherwise known as El Niño, the tongue of lowered sea surface temperatures due to upwelling off the South American continent disappears, which causes this convergence zone to vanish as well. + +== Effects on weather == +Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. Longer term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can result in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas. +In some cases, the ITCZ may become narrow, especially when it moves away from the equator; the ITCZ can then be interpreted as a front along the leading edge of the equatorial air. There appears to be a 15 to 25-day cycle in thunderstorm activity along the ITCZ, which is roughly half the wavelength of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). +Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equator where the trade winds feed. As trans-equator sea voyages became more common, sailors in the eighteenth century named this belt of calm the doldrums because of the calm, stagnant, or inactive winds. + +== Role in tropical cyclone formation == + +Tropical cyclogenesis depends upon low-level vorticity as one of its six requirements, and the ITCZ fills this role as it is a zone of wind change and speed, otherwise known as horizontal wind shear. As the ITCZ migrates to tropical and subtropical latitudes and even beyond during the respective hemisphere's summer season, increasing Coriolis force makes the formation of tropical cyclones within this zone more possible. Surges of higher pressure from high latitudes can enhance tropical disturbances along its axis. In the tropical north Atlantic and the eastern portion of the tropical north Pacific oceans, tropical waves move along the axis of the ITCZ causing an increase in thunderstorm activity, and clusters of thunderstorms can develop under weak vertical wind shear. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..63087132c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Intertropical Convergence Zone" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:43.875765+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Hazards == +In the Age of Sail, to find oneself becalmed in this region in a hot and muggy climate could mean death when wind was the only effective way to propel ships across the ocean. Calm periods within the doldrums could strand ships for days or weeks. Even today, leisure and competitive sailors attempt to cross the zone as quickly as possible as the erratic weather and wind patterns may cause unexpected delays. +In 2009, thunderstorms along the Intertropical Convergence Zone played a role in the loss of Air France Flight 447, which crashed while flying from Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport to Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris. The aircraft crashed with no survivors while flying through a series of large ITCZ thunderstorms, and ice forming rapidly on airspeed sensors was the precipitating cause for a cascade of human errors which ultimately doomed the flight. Most aircraft flying these routes are able to avoid the larger convective cells without incident. + +== Effects of climate change == + + +Based on paleoclimate proxies, the position and intensity of the ITCZ varied in prehistoric times along with changes in global climate. During Heinrich events within the last 100 ka, a southward shift of the ITCZ coincided with the intensification of the Northern Hemisphere Hadley cell coincident with weakening of the Southern Hemisphere Hadley cell. The ITCZ shifted north during the mid-Holocene but migrated south following changes in insolation during the late-Holocene towards its current position. The ITCZ has also undergone periods of contraction and expansion within the last millennium. A southward shift of the ITCZ commencing after the 1950s and continuing into the 1980s may have been associated with cooling induced by aerosols in the Northern Hemisphere based on results from climate models; a northward rebound began subsequently following forced changes in the gradient in temperature between the Northern and Southern hemispheres. These fluctuations in ITCZ positioning had robust effects on climate; for instance, displacement of the ITCZ may have led to drought in the Sahel in the 1980s. +Atmospheric convection may become stronger and more concentrated at the center of the ITCZ in response to a globally warming climate, resulting in sharpened contrasts in precipitation between the ITCZ core (where precipitation would be amplified) and its edges (where precipitation would be suppressed). Atmospheric reanalyses suggest that the ITCZ over the Pacific has narrowed and intensified since at least 1979, in agreement with data collected by satellites and in-situ precipitation measurements. The drier ITCZ fringes are also associated with an increase in outgoing longwave radiation outward of those areas, particularly over land within the mid-latitudes and the subtropics. This change in the ITCZ is also reflected by increasing salinity within the Atlantic and Pacific underlying the ITCZ fringes and decreasing salinity underlying central belt of the ITCZ. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report indicated "medium agreement" from studies regarding the strengthening and tightening of the ITCZ due to anthropogenic climate change. +Less certain are the regional and global shifts in ITCZ position as a result of climate change, with paleoclimate data and model simulations highlighting contrasts stemming from asymmetries in forcing from aerosols, volcanic activity, and orbital variations, as well as uncertainties associated with changes in monsoons and the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. The climate simulations run as part of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) did not show a consistent global displacement of the ITCZ under anthropogenic climate change. In contrast, most of the same simulations show narrowing and intensification under the same prescribed conditions. However, simulations in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) have shown greater agreement over some regional shifts of the ITCZ in response to anthropogenic climate change, including a northward displacement over the Indian Ocean and eastern Africa and a southward displacement over the eastern Pacific and Atlantic oceans. + +== In literature == +The doldrums are notably described in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1798) and also provide a metaphor for the initial state of boredom and indifference of Milo, the child hero of Norton Juster's classic 1961 children's novel The Phantom Tollbooth. It is also cited in the 1939 book Wind, Sand and Stars. + +== See also == + +Asymmetry of the Intertropical Convergence Zone +Chemical equator +Monsoon trough +Horse latitudes +Polar front +Roaring Forties + +== References == + +== External links == + +The ITCZ in Africa via the University of South Carolina +"A Shifting Band of Rain", Scientific American (March 2011) +Duane E. Waliser and Catherine Gautier, November 1993: "A Satellite-derived Climatology of the ITCZ". J. Climate, 6, 2162–2174. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dba5d7b84 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Joint (geology)" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:00.828531+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geology, and more specifically in structural geology, a joint is a break (fracture) of natural origin in a layer or body of rock that lacks visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture ("Mode 1" Fracture). Although joints can occur singly, they most frequently appear as joint sets and systems. A joint set is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be identified through mapping and analysis of their orientations, spacing, and physical properties. A joint system consists of two or more intersecting joint sets. +The distinction between joints and faults hinges on the terms visible or measurable, a difference that depends on the scale of observation. Faults differ from joints in that they exhibit visible or measurable lateral movement between the opposite surfaces of the fracture ("Mode 2" and "Mode 3" Fractures). Thus a joint may be created by either strict movement of a rock layer or body perpendicular to the fracture or by varying degrees of lateral displacement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture that remains "invisible" at the scale of observation. +Joints are among the most universal geologic structures, found in almost every exposure of rock. They vary greatly in appearance, dimensions, and arrangement, and occur in quite different tectonic environments. Often, the specific origin of the stresses that created certain joints and associated joint sets can be quite ambiguous, unclear, and sometimes controversial. The most prominent joints occur in the most well-consolidated, lithified, and highly competent rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, quartzite, and granite. Joints may be open fractures or filled by various materials. Joints infilled by precipitated minerals are called veins and joints filled by solidified magma are called dikes. + +== Formation == +Joints arise from brittle fracture of a rock or layer due to tensile stress. This stress may be imposed from outside; for example, by the stretching of layers, the rise of pore fluid pressure, or shrinkage caused by the cooling or desiccation of a rock body or layer whose outside boundaries remained fixed. +When tensional stresses stretch a body or layer of rock such that its tensile strength is exceeded, it breaks. When this happens the rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum principal stress and perpendicular to the minimum principal stress (the direction in which the rock is being stretched). This leads to the development of a single sub-parallel joint set. Continued deformation may lead to development of one or more additional joint sets. The presence of the first set strongly affects the stress orientation in the rock layer, often causing subsequent sets to form at a high angle, often 90°, to the first set. + +== Types == +Joints are classified by their geometry or by the processes that formed them. + +=== By geometry === +The geometry of joints refers to the orientation of joints as either plotted on stereonets and rose-diagrams or observed in rock exposures. In terms of geometry, three major types of joints are recognized: columnar jointing, systematic joints, and nonsystematic joints. + +==== Columnar ==== + +Columnar jointing is distinguished by triple joint junction points, which split a rock body into long prisms or columns, hence the name. Typically, the joint planes are oriented at or about 120° angles, and so columns are usually hexagonal in section, although 3-, 4-, 5- and 7-sided columns are relatively common. + +Columnar jointing is typical of thick lava flows, and shallow dikes and sills, but rare cases of columnar jointing have also been reported in sedimentary strata. +The width of these prismatic columns ranges from a few centimeters to several metres, and they are often oriented perpendicular to surfaces of contact between the igneous rock and its cooler surroundings. They can thus usually be seen at the top and base surfaces of lava flows, and the contacts of tabular igneous intrusions with the surrounding rock. +Columnar jointing is also known as either columnar structure, prismatic joints, or prismatic jointing + +==== Systematic ==== +Systematic joints are planar, parallel, joints that can be traced for some distance, and occur at regularly, evenly spaced distances on the order of centimeters, meters, tens of meters, or even hundreds of meters. As a result, they occur as families of joints that form recognizable joint sets. Typically, exposures or outcrops within a given area or region of study contains two or more sets of systematic joints, each with its own distinctive properties such as orientation and spacing, that intersect to form well-defined joint systems. + +Based upon the angle at which joint sets of systematic joints intersect to form a joint system, systematic joints can be subdivided into conjugate and orthogonal joint sets. The angles at which joint sets within a joint system commonly intersect are called dihedral angles by structural geologists. When the dihedral angles are nearly 90° within a joint system, the joint sets are known as orthogonal joint sets. When the dihedral angles are from 30 to 60° within a joint system, the joint sets are known as conjugate joint sets. +Within regions that have experienced tectonic deformation, systematic joints are typically associated with either layered or bedded strata that have been folded into anticlines and synclines. Such joints can be classified according to their orientation in respect to the axial planes of the folds as they often commonly form in a predictable pattern with respect to the hinge trends of folded strata. Based upon their orientation to the axial planes and axes of folds, the types of systematic joints are: + +Longitudinal joints – Joints which are roughly parallel to fold axes and often fan around the fold. +Cross-joints – Joints which are approximately perpendicular to fold axes. +Diagonal joints – Joints which typically occur as conjugate joint sets that trend oblique to the fold axes. +Strike joints – Joints which trend parallel to the strike of the axial plane of a fold. +Cross-strike joints – Joints which cut across the axial plane of a fold. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2fa02db56 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Joint (geology)" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:00.828531+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Nonsystematic ==== +Nonsystematic joints are joints that are so irregular in form, spacing, and orientation that they cannot be readily grouped into distinctive, through-going joint sets. + +=== By formation === +Joints can be classified according to their origin, under the labels of tectonics, hydraulics, exfoliation, unloading (release), and cooling. Different authors have proposed contradictory hypotheses for the same joint sets and types. And, joints in the same outcrop may form at different times under varied circumstances. + +==== Tectonic ==== +Tectonic joints are joints formed when the relative displacement of the joint walls is normal to its plane as the result of brittle deformation of bedrock in response to regional or local tectonic deformation of bedrock. Such joints form when directed tectonic stress causes the tensile strength of +bedrock to be exceeded as the result of the stretching of rock layers under conditions of elevated pore fluid pressure and directed tectonic stress. Tectonic joints often reflect local tectonic stresses associated with local folding and faulting. Tectonic joints occur as both nonsystematic and systematic joints, including orthogonal and conjugate joint sets. + +==== Hydraulic ==== +Hydraulic joints are formed when pore fluid pressure becomes elevated as a result of vertical gravitational loading. In simple terms, the accumulation of either sediments, volcanic, or other material causes an increase in the pore pressure of groundwater and other fluids in the underlying rock when they cannot move either laterally or vertically in response to this pressure. This also causes an increase in pore pressure in preexisting cracks that increases the tensile stress on them perpendicular to the minimum principal stress (the direction in which the rock is being stretched). If the tensile stress exceeds the magnitude of the least principal compressive stress the rock will fail in a brittle manner and these cracks propagate in a process called hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic joints occur as both nonsystematic and systematic joints, including orthogonal and conjugate joint sets. In some cases, joint sets can be a tectonic - hydraulic hybrid. + +==== Exfoliation ==== +Exfoliation joints are sets of flat-lying, curved, and large joints that are restricted to massively exposed rock faces in a deeply eroded landscape. Exfoliation jointing consists of fan-shaped fractures varying from a few meters to tens of meters in size that lie sub-parallel to the topography. The vertical, gravitational load of the mass of a mountain-size bedrock mass drives longitudinal splitting and causes outward buckling toward the free air. In addition, paleostress sealed in the granite before the granite was exhumed by erosion and released by exhumation and canyon cutting is also a driving force for the actual spalling. + +==== Unloading ==== +Unloading joints or release joints arise near the surface when bedded sedimentary rocks are brought closer to the surface during uplift and erosion; when they cool, they contract and become relaxed elastically. A stress builds up which eventually exceeds the tensile strength of the bedrock and results in jointing. In the case of unloading joints, compressive stress is released either along preexisting structural elements (such as cleavage) or perpendicular to the former direction of tectonic compression. + +==== Cooling ==== +Cooling joints are columnar joints that result from the cooling of either lava from the exposed surface of a lava lake or flood basalt flow or the sides of a tabular igneous, typically basaltic, intrusion. They exhibit a pattern of joints that join together at triple junctions either at or about 120° angles. They split a rock body into long, prisms or columns that are typically hexagonal, although 3-, 4-, 5- and 7-sided columns are relatively common. They form as a result of a cooling front that moves from some surface, either the exposed surface of a lava lake or flood basalt flow or the sides of a tabular igneous intrusion into either lava of the lake or lava flow or magma of a dike or sill. + +== Fractography == +Joint propagation can be studied through the techniques of fractography in which characteristic marks such as hackles and plumose structures are used to determine propagation directions and, in some cases, the principal stress orientations. + +== Shear fractures == +Some fractures that look like joints are actually shear fractures, which in effect are microfaults. They do not form as the result of the perpendicular opening of a fracture due to tensile stress, but through the shearing of fractures that causes lateral movement of the faces. Shear fractures can be confused with joints because the lateral offset of the fracture faces is not visible in the outcrop or in a specimen. Because of the absence of diagnostic ornamentation or the lack of any discernible movement or offset, they can be indistinguishable from joints. Such fractures occur in planar parallel sets at an angle of 60 degrees and can be of the same size and scale as joints. As a result, some "conjugate joint sets" might actually be shear fractures. Shear fractures are distinguished from joints by the presence of slickensides, the products of shearing movement parallel to the fracture surface. The slickensides are fine-scale, delicate ridge-in-groove lineations on the surface of fracture surfaces. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..df1a379a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Joint (geology)" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:00.828531+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Importance == +Joints are important not only in understanding the local and regional geology and geomorphology but also in developing natural resources, in the safe design of structures, and in environmental protection. Joints have a profound control on weathering and erosion of bedrock. As a result, they exert a strong control on how topography and morphology of landscapes develop. Understanding the local and regional distribution, physical character, and origin of joints is a significant part of understanding the geology and geomorphology of an area. Joints often impart a well-develop fracture-induced permeability to bedrock. As a result, joints strongly influence, even control, the natural circulation (hydrogeology) of fluids, e.g. groundwater and pollutants within aquifers, petroleum in reservoirs, and hydrothermal circulation at depth, within bedrock. Thus, joints are important to the economic and safe development of petroleum, hydrothermal, and groundwater resources and the subject of intensive research relative to these resources. Regional and local joint systems exert a strong control on how ore-forming hydrothermal fluids (consisting largely of H2O, CO2, and NaCl — which formed most of Earth's ore deposits) circulated within its crust. As a result, understanding their genesis, structure, chronology, and distribution is an important part of finding and profitably developing ore deposits. Finally, joints often form discontinuities that may have a large influence on the mechanical behavior (strength, deformation, etc.) of soil and rock masses in, for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction. As a result, joints are an important part of geotechnical engineering in practice and research. + +== Image gallery == + +== See also == +Basalt fan structure – Formation of columnar jointed igneous rock +Exfoliating granite – Granite spalling in superficial layers due to tempearature cycles +Tessellated pavement – Flat rock surface subdivided by fractures + +== References == + +== External links == + +Aydin, A., and J. Zhong (nda) Non-orthogonal Joint Sets, Multiple Joint Sets, Rock Fracture Knowledgebase, Stanford University, Stanford, California. +Aydin, A., and J. Zhong (ndb) Orthogonal Joint Sets, Multiple Joint Sets, Rock Fracture Knowledgebase, Stanford University, Stanford, California. +Aydin, A., and J. Zhong (ndb) Patterns of Multiple Joint Sets, Multiple Joint Sets, Rock Fracture Knowledgebase, Stanford University, Stanford, California. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_organization_system-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_organization_system-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fd6925308 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_organization_system-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +--- +title: "Knowledge organization system" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_organization_system" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:33.029933+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Knowledge organization system (KOS), concept system, or concept scheme is the generic term used in knowledge organization (KO) for the selection of concepts with an indication of selected semantic relations. Despite their differences in type, coverage, and application, all KOS aim to support the organization of knowledge and information to facilitate their management and retrieval. +KOS vary in complexity from simple sorted lists to complex relational networks. They represent both structural and functional features, and serve to eliminate ambiguity, control synonyms, establish relationships, and present properties. From their origins in library and information science (LIS), KOS have been applied to other domains and disciplines within science and industry, although scholarly research and debate remain primarily within the KO field. Challenges of KOS include ambiguity of terminology, repercussions of biased systems, and potential obsolescence. +KOS can be expressed in RDF and RDFS as per the Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) recommendation by W3C, which aims to enable the sharing and linking of KOS via the Web. +One of the largest collections of KOS is the BARTOC registry. + + +== Types == + +While different schema of KOS have been proposed, most are generally arranged in terms of the complexity of their construction and maintenance. Some scholars argue that organizing KOS on a spectrum oversimplifies the shared characteristics among them, and may even result in a non-ideal structure being chosen. +The following types are not exhaustive, and are often not mutually-exclusive in practice. + + +=== Term lists === +Term lists are the least structured form of KOS. They include lists, glossaries, dictionaries, and synonym rings. Authority files and gazetteers may also be considered term lists, however other scholars categorize them and directories as "metadata-like models". +Examples include the Union List of Artist Names name authority file and the GeoNames gazetteer. + + +=== Categorization and classification === +KOS that emphasize specific (and often hierarchical) structures include subject headings, taxonomies, categorization schema, and classification schema & systems. +Despite inconsistent use of the terms "categorization" and "classification" in some literature, categorization is generally loosely-assembled grouping schema and may include attributes that are not mutually exclusive (or having fuzzy boundaries), while classification is related to the arrangement of non-overlapping and mutually-exclusive classes. +Classification schema may be universal (such as Dewey Decimal Classification and Information Coding Classification) or domain-specific (such as the National Library of Medicine Classification). + + +=== Relationship models === +The types of KOS with greatest complexity and which utilize connections between concepts include thesauri, semantic networks, and ontologies. +One of the most prominent examples of a semantic network is WordNet. + + +=== Others === +Certain structures proposed to be considered types of KOS—but are not consistently included in schema—include folksonomies, topic maps, web directory structures, publication organization systems, and bibliometric maps. +Some KOS organize other KOS themselves—for instance, PeriodO is a gazetteer of periodization categories. + + +== Applications == +Some early KOS were developed as a support system for abstracting and indexing services to be used by specially-trained searchers. With the growth of information digitization, usability became increasingly accessible, and more complex structures were developed. +Prominent examples of KOS outside of LIS include organism taxonomy in biology, the periodic table of elements in chemistry, SIC and NAICS classification systems for industry & business, and AGROVOC agricultural controlled vocabulary. + + +== Challenges == +The study and design of KOS is an ongoing topic of discussion among KO scholars. + + +=== Terminology === +[There is] a serious lack of vocabulary control in the literature on controlled vocabulary. +Inconsistency of terminology within the study of KOS is a common issue. For instance, "ontology" is used for both a specific type of KOS as well as a generic term for any KOS. The terms "taxonomy", "classification", and "categorization" are also sometimes used interchangeably. + + +=== Bias === + +As knowledge can be historically and culturally biased, scholars have also discussed how KOS themselves can perpetuate harmful practices or stereotypes. For example, a number of concerns and criticisms about the classification of mental disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders have been raised, contributing to ongoing revisions. +Ethical and intentional design approaches have been proposed for multi-perspective KOS in efforts to mitigate bias and other harmful practices. + + +=== Obsolescence === +The possible obsolescence of the thesaurus and other simpler KOS has been the topic of debate, especially in the face of increasingly complex ontologies, the growing usage of "Google-like retrieval systems", and the move of KO theory and research away from LIS and toward computer science. Supporters of thesauri argue its continued usefulness for metadata enrichment, vocabulary mapping, and web services, as well as its usage in specific domains such as corporate intranets and digital image libraries. + + +== See also == +Library classification +Information retrieval +Epistemology +Metadata + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + +Tudhope, D. & Lykke Nielsen, M. (2006). Introduction to special issue: Knowledge Organization Systems and Services. New Review of Hypermedia and Multimedia, 12(1), 3-9. http://www.journalsonline.tandf.co.uk/media/m35eac0c7l6wvk510nr7/contributions/r/0/7/7/r077564631920800.pdf +Zeng, M. L. & Chan, L. M. (2004). Trends and issues in establishing interoperability among knowledge organization systems. Journal for the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 55(5), 377-395. +Networked Knowledge Organization Systems/Services NKOS: https://nkos.slis.kent.edu/ + + +== External links == +BARTOC +ISKO Encyclopedia of Knowledge Organization \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d06f003e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2% of Earth's surface and includes all continents and islands. Earth's land surface is almost entirely covered by regolith, a layer of rock, soil, and minerals that forms the outer part of the crust. Land plays an important role in Earth's climate system, being involved in the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and water cycle. One-third of land is covered in trees, another third is used for agriculture, and one-tenth is covered in permanent snow and glaciers. The remainder consists of desert, savannah, and prairie. +Land terrain varies greatly, consisting of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, glaciers, and other landforms. In physical geology, the land is divided into two major categories: Mountain ranges and relatively flat interiors called cratons. Both form over millions of years through plate tectonics. Streams – a major part of Earth's water cycle – shape the landscape, carve rocks, transport sediments, and replenish groundwater. At high elevations or latitudes, snow is compacted and recrystallized over hundreds or thousands of years to form glaciers, which can be so heavy that they warp the Earth's crust. About 30 percent of land has a dry climate, due to losing more water through evaporation than it gains from precipitation. Since warm air rises, this generates winds, though Earth's rotation and uneven sun distribution also play a part. +Land is commonly defined as the solid, dry surface of Earth. It can also refer to the collective natural resources that the land holds, including rivers, lakes, and the biosphere. Human manipulation of the land, including agriculture and architecture, can also be considered part of land. Land is formed from the continental crust, the layer of rock on which soil, groundwater, and human and other animal activity sits. +Though modern terrestrial plants and animals evolved from aquatic creatures, Earth's first cellular life likely originated on land. Survival on land relies on fresh water from rivers, streams, lakes, and glaciers, which constitute only three percent of the water on Earth. The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in habitable land areas supporting agriculture and various natural resources. In recent decades, scientists and policymakers have emphasized the need to manage land and its biosphere more sustainably, through measures such as restoring degraded soil, preserving biodiversity, protecting endangered species, and addressing climate change. + +== Definition == +Land is often defined as the solid, dry surface of Earth. The word land may also collectively refer the collective natural resources of Earth, including its land cover, rivers, shallow lakes, its biosphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere (troposphere), groundwater reserves, and the physical results of human activity on land, such as architecture and agriculture. The boundary between land and sea is called the shoreline. + +== Etymology == +The word land is derived from Old English, from the Proto-Germanic word *landą, "untilled land", and then the Proto-Indo-European *lendʰ-, especially in northern regions that were home to languages like Proto-Celtic and Proto-Slavic. Examples include Old Irish land, "land, plot, church building" and Old Irish ithlann, "threshing floor", and Old East Slavic ljadina "wasteland, weeds". +A country or nation may be referred to as the motherland, fatherland, or homeland of its people. Many countries and other places have names incorporating the suffix -land (e.g. England, Greenland, and New Zealand). The equivalent suffix -stan from Indo-Iranian, ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-Iranian *sthāna-, is also present in many country and location names, such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, and others throughout Central Asia. The suffix is also used more generally, as in Persian rigestân (ریگستان) "place of sand, desert", golestân (گلستان) "place of flowers, garden", gurestân (گورستان) "graveyard, cemetery", and Hindustân (هندوستان) "land of the Indo people". + +== Physical science == +The study of land and its history in general is called geography. Mineralogy is the study of minerals, and petrology is the study of rocks. Soil science is the study of soils, encompassing the sub-disciplines of pedology, which focuses on soil formation, and edaphology, which focuses on the relationship between soil and life. + +=== Formation === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..22612874c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5672±0.0006 bya (billion years ago); therefore, Earth itself must have been formed by accretion around this time. The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disc, out of which the planets then grow (in tandem with the star). A nebula contains gas, ice grains and dust (including primordial nuclides). In the nebular hypothesis, planetesimals begin to form as particulate matter accumulates by cohesive clumping and then by gravity. The primordial Earth's assembly took 10–20 myr. By 4.54±0.04 bya, the primordial Earth had formed. +Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapour. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly formed Sun was only at 70% luminosity. By 3.5 bya, the Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. The atmosphere and oceans of the Earth continuously shape the land by eroding and transporting solids on the surface. +Earth's crust formed when the molten outer layer of Planet Earth cooled to form a solid mass as the accumulated water vapour began to act in the atmosphere. Once land became capable of supporting life, biodiversity evolved over hundreds of millions of years, expanding continually except when punctuated by mass extinctions. +The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents are formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly 750 mya (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 mya, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart 180 mya. + +=== Landmasses === + +A continuous area of land surrounded by an ocean is called a landmass. Although it is most often written as one word to distinguish it from the usage "land mass"—the measure of land area—it may also be written as two words. There are four major continuous landmasses on Earth: Africa–Eurasia, America (landmass), Antarctica, and Australia (landmass), which are subdivided into continents. Up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from greatest to least land area, these continents are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. + +=== Terrain === + +Terrain refers to an area of land and its features. Terrain affects travel, mapmaking, ecosystems, and surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can influence climate and weather patterns. The terrain of a region largely determines its suitability for human settlement: flatter alluvial plains tend to have better farming soils than steeper, rockier uplands. +Elevation is defined as the vertical distance between an object and sea level, while altitude is defined as the vertical distance from an object to Earth's surface. The elevation of Earth's land surface varies from the low point of −418 metres (−1,371 feet) at the Dead Sea, to a maximum altitude of 8,848 metres (29,029 feet) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 metres (2,615 feet), with 98.9% of dry land situated above sea level. +Relief refers to the difference in elevation within a landscape; for example, flat terrain would have "low relief", while terrain with a large elevation difference between the highest and lowest points would be deemed "high relief". Most land has relatively low relief. The change in elevation between two points of the terrain is called a slope or gradient. A topographic map is a form of terrain cartography which depicts terrain in terms of its elevation, slope, and the orientation of its landforms. It has prominent contour lines, which connect points of similar elevation, while perpendicular slope lines point in the direction of the steepest slope. Hypsometric tints are colors placed between contour lines to indicate elevation relative to sea level. +A difference between uplands, or highlands, and lowlands is drawn in several earth science fields. In river ecology, "upland" rivers are fast-moving and colder than "lowland" rivers, encouraging different species of fish and other aquatic wildlife to live in these habitats. For example, nutrients are more present in slow-moving lowland rivers, encouraging different species of macrophytes to grow there. The term "upland" is also used in wetland ecology, where "upland" plants indicate an area that is not a wetland. In addition, the term moorland refers to upland shrubland biomes with acidic soils, while heathlands are lowland shrublands with acidic soils. + +=== Geomorphology === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..277395d4f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Geomorphology refers to the study of the natural processes that shape land's surface, creating landforms. Erosion and tectonics, volcanic eruptions, flooding, weathering, glaciation, the growth of coral reefs, and meteorite impacts are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over geological time. +Erosion transports one part of land to another via natural processes, such as wind, water, ice, and gravity. In contrast, weathering wears away rock and other solid land without transporting the land somewhere else. Natural erosional processes usually take a long time to cause noticeable changes in the landscape—for example, the Grand Canyon was created over the past 70 million years by the Colorado River, which scientists estimate continues to erode the canyon at a rate of 0.3 meters (0.98 feet) every 200 years. However, humans have caused erosion to be 10–40 times faster than normal, causing half the topsoil of the surface of Earth's land to be lost within the past 150 years. +Plate tectonics refers to the theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into "tectonic plates" that move over the mantle. This results in continental drift, with continents moving relative to each other. The scientist Alfred Wegener first hypothesized the theory of continental drift in 1912. More researchers developed his idea throughout the 20th century into the now widely accepted theory of plate tectonics. +Several key characteristics define the modern understanding of plate tectonics. The place where two tectonic plates meet is called a plate boundary, with different geological phenomena occurring across different kinds of boundaries. For example, at divergent plate boundaries, seafloor spreading is usually seen, in contrast with the subduction zones of convergent or transform plate boundaries. +Earthquakes and volcanic activity are common in all types of boundaries. Volcanic activity refers to any rupture in Earth's surface where magma escapes, therefore becoming lava. The Ring of Fire, containing two-thirds of the world's volcanos, and over 70% of Earth's seismological activity, comprises plate boundaries surrounding the Pacific Ocean. + +=== Climate === + +Earth's land interacts with and influences its climate heavily, since the land's surface heats up and cools down faster than air or water. Latitude, elevation, topography, reflectivity, and land use all have varying effects on climate. The latitude of the land will influence how much solar radiation reaches its surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes. The land's topography is important in creating and transforming airflow and precipitation. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, can divert wind energy and make air parcels less dense and therefore able to hold less heat. As air rises, this cooling effect causes condensation and precipitation. +Different types of land cover will influence the land's albedo, a measure of the solar radiation that is reflected, rather than absorbed and transferred to Earth. Vegetation has a relatively low albedo, meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun's energy. Forests have an albedo of 10–15 percent while grasslands have an albedo of 15–20 percent. In comparison, sandy deserts have an albedo of 25–40 percent. +Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create urban heat islands that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature of the region. + +== Features == + +A landform is a natural or manmade land feature. Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography. Landforms include hills, mountains, canyons, and valleys, as well as shoreline features such as bays, capes, and peninsulas. + +=== Coasts and islands === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8055c8a35 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The shoreline is the interface between the land and the ocean. It migrates each day as tides rise and fall and moves over long periods of time as sea levels change. The shore extends from the low tide line to the highest elevation that can be reached by storm waves, and the coast stretches out inland until the point where ocean-related features are no longer found. +When land is in contact with bodies of water, it can be eroded. The weathering of a coastline may be impacted by the tides, caused by changes in gravitational forces on larger bodies of water. Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems, often home to a wide range of biodiversity. On land, they harbour important ecosystems such as freshwater or estuarine wetlands, which are important for bird populations and other terrestrial animals. In wave-protected areas they harbor saltmarshes, mangroves or seagrasses, all of which can provide nursery habitat for finfish, shellfish, and other aquatic species. Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for a wide range of sessile animals (e.g. mussels, starfish, barnacles) and various kinds of seaweeds. Along tropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, coral reefs can often be found between depths of 1–50 meters (3.3–164.0 ft). +According to a United Nations atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea. Because of their importance in society and high concentration of population, the coast is important for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many ecosystem services to humankind. For example, important human activities happen in port cities. Coastal fisheries for commercial, recreational, and subsistence purposes, and aquaculture are major economic activities and provide jobs, livelihoods, and protein for the majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces like beaches and seaside resorts generate economic activity through tourism. Marine coastal ecosystems can also provide protection against sea level rise and tsunamis. In many countries, the coastal mangrove is the primary source of wood for fuel (e.g. charcoal) and building materials. Coastal ecosystems have a much higher capacity for carbon sequestration than many terrestrial ecosystems, and as such can play a critical role in the near future to help mitigate climate change effects by uptake of atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide. +A subcontinental area of land surrounded by water is an island, and a chain of islands is an archipelago. The smaller the island, the larger the percentage of its land area will be adjacent to the water, and subsequently will be coast or beach. Islands can be formed by a variety of processes. The Hawaiian islands, for example, even though they are not near a plate boundary, formed from isolated volcanic activity. Atolls are ring-shaped islands made of coral, created when subsidence causes an island to sink beneath the ocean surface and leaves a ring of reefs around it. + +=== Mountains and plateaus === + +Mountains are features that usually rise at least 300 metres (980 ft) higher than the surrounding terrain. The formation of mountain belts is called orogenesis, and results from plate tectonics. For example, where a plate at a convergent plate boundary pushes one plate above the other, mountains could be formed by either collisional events, such that Earth's crust is pushed upwards, or subductional events, where Earth's crust is pushed into the mantle, causing the crust to melt, rise due to its low density, and solidify into hardened rock, thickening the crust. +A plateau, also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side, creating steep cliffs or escarpments. Both volcanic activity such as the upwelling of magma and extrusion of lava, or erosion of mountains caused from water, glaciers, or aeolian processes, can create plateaus. Plateaus are classified according to their surrounding environment as intermontane, piedmont, or continental. A few plateaus may have a small flat top while others are wider. Buttes are smaller, with less extrusive and more intrusive igneous rock, while plateaus or highlands are the widest, and mesas are a general-sized plateau with horizontal bedrock strata. + +=== Plains and valleys === + +Wide, flat areas of land are called plains, which cover more than one-third of Earth's land area. When they occur as lowered areas between mountains, they can create valleys, canyons or gorges, and ravines. A plateau can be thought of as an elevated plain. Plains are known to have fertile soils and be important for agriculture due to their flatness supporting grasses suitable for livestock and facilitating the harvest of crops. Floodplains provided agricultural land for some of the earliest civilizations. Erosion is often a main driver for the creation of plains and valleys, with rift valleys being a noticeable exception. Fjords are glacial valleys that can be thousands of meters deep, opening out to the sea. + +=== Caves and craters === +Any natural void in the ground which can be entered by a human can be considered a cave. They have been important to humans as a place of shelter since the dawn of humanity. +Craters are depressions in the ground, but unlike caves, they do not provide shelter or extend underground. There are many kinds of craters, such as impact craters, volcanic calderas, and isostatic depressions. Karst processes can create both solution caves, the most frequent cave type, and craters, as seen in karst sinkholes. + +== Layers == +The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. Below it, the lithosphere encompasses both Earth's crust and the uppermost layer of the mantle. The lithosphere rests, or "floats", on top of the mantle below it via isostasy. Above the solid ground, the troposphere and humans' use of land can be considered layers of the land. + +=== Land cover === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e8dc685b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Land cover refers to the material physically present on the land surface, for example, woody crops, herbaceous crops, barren land, and shrub-covered areas. Artificial surfaces (including cities) account for about a third of a percent of all land. Land use refers to human allocation of land for various purposes, including farming, ranching, and recreation (e.g. national parks); worldwide, there are an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland, and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland. +Land cover change detection using remote sensing and geospatial data provides baseline information for assessing the climate change impacts on habitats and biodiversity, as well as natural resources, in the target areas. Land cover change detection and mapping is a key component of interdisciplinary land change science, which uses it to determine the consequences of land change on climate. Land change modeling is used to predict and analyze changes in land cover and use. + +=== Soil === + +Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and organic matter (the soil matrix), as well as a porous phase that holds gases (the soil atmosphere) and water (the soil solution). Accordingly, soil is a three-state system of solids, liquids, and gases. Soil is a product of several factors: the influence of climate, relief (elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain), organisms, and the soil's parent materials (original minerals) interacting over time. It continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering and erosion. +Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness, soil ecologists regard soil as an ecosystem. Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling system for nutrients and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric composition, and a medium for plant growth, making it a critically important provider of ecosystem services. Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains a prominent part of the Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored. +Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, with effects ranging from ozone depletion and global warming to rainforest destruction and water pollution. With respect to Earth's carbon cycle, soil acts as an important carbon reservoir, and it is potentially one of the most reactive to human disturbance and climate change. As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased biological activity at higher temperatures, a positive feedback (amplification). This prediction has, however, been questioned on consideration of more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover. + +=== Continental crust === + +Continental crust is the layer of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks that forms the geological continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as continental shelves. This layer is sometimes called sial because its bulk composition is richer in aluminium silicate and has a lower density compared to the oceanic crust, called sima which is richer in magnesium silicate. Changes in seismic wave velocities have shown that at a certain depth (the Conrad discontinuity), there is a reasonably sharp contrast between the more felsic upper continental crust and the lower continental crust, which is more mafic in character. +The composition of land is not uniform across the Earth, varying between locations and between strata within the same location. The most prominent components of upper continental crust include silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, and magnesium. The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite. Less common is basalt, a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors. Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and compacted together. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust. +The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth's surface include quartz, feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine. Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and dolomite. The rock that makes up land is thicker than oceanic crust, and it is far more varied in terms of composition. About 31% of this continental crust is submerged in shallow water, forming continental shelves. + +== Life science == + +Land provides many ecosystem services, such as mitigating climate change, regulating water supply through drainage basins and river systems, and supporting food production. Land resources are finite, which has led to regulations intended to safeguard these ecosystem services, and a set of practices called sustainable land management. + +=== Land biomes === + +A biome is an area "characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife." There are five major types of biomes on land: grasslands, forests, deserts, tundras, and freshwater. Other types of biomes include shrublands, wetlands, and polar ice caps. An ecosystem refers to the interaction between organisms within a particular environment, and a habitat refers to the environment where a given species or population of organisms lives. Biomes may span more than one continent, and contain a variety of ecosystems and habitats. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8fcffb5c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Deserts have an arid climate, generally defined to mean that they receive less than 25 centimetres (9.8 in) of precipitation per year. They make up around one fifth of the Earth's land area, are found on every continent, and can be very hot or very cold (see polar desert). They are home to animals and plants which evolved to be tolerant of droughts. In deserts, most erosion is caused by running water, usually during violent thunderstorms, which cause flash floods. Deserts are expanding due to desertification, which is caused by excessive deforestation and overgrazing. +Tundra is a biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are types of tundra associated with different regions: Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and Antarctic tundra. +A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Many definitions of "forest" are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as: "land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Types of forests include rainforests, deciduous forests, and boreal forests. +Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found, along with variable proportions of legumes like clover and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. Types include natural, semi-natural, and agricultural grasslands. Savannas are grasslands with occasional, scattered trees. + +=== Fauna and flora === +Land plants evolved from green algae, and are called embryophytes. They include trees, shrubs, ferns, grass, moss, and flowers. Most plants are vascular plants, meaning that their tissues distribute water and minerals throughout the plant. Through photosynthesis, most plants nourish themselves from sunlight and water, breathing in carbon dioxide and breathing out oxygen. Between 20 and 50% of oxygen is produced by land vegetation. +Unlike plants, terrestrial animals are not a monophyletic group—that is, a group including all terrestrial animals does not encompass all lineages from a common ancestor. This is because there are organisms, such as the whale, that evolved from terrestrial mammals back to an aquatic lifestyle. Many megafauna of the past, such as non-avian dinosaurs, have become extinct due to extinction events, e.g. the Quaternary extinction event. + +== Humans and land == +Land is "deeply intertwined with human development." It is a crucial resource for human survival, humans depend on land for subsistence, and can develop strong symbolic attachments to it. Access to land can determine "survival and wealth," particularly in developing countries, giving rise to complex power relationships in production and consumption. Most of the world's philosophies and religions recognize a human duty of stewardship towards land and nature. + +=== Culture === + +Many humans see land as a source of "spirituality, inspiration, and beauty." Many also derive a sense of belonging from land, especially if it also belonged to their ancestors. Various religions teach about a connection between humans and the land (such as veneration of Bhumi, a personification of the Earth in Hinduism, and the obligation to protect land as hima in Islam), and in almost every Indigenous group there are etiological stories about the land they live on. For Indigenous peoples, connection to the land is an important part of their identity and culture, and some religious groups consider a particular area of land to be sacred, such as the Holy Land in the Abrahamic religions. +Creation myths in many religions involve stories of the creation of the world by a supernatural deity or deities, including accounts wherein the land is separated from the oceans and the air. The Earth itself has often been personified as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures, the mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility deity. To the Aztecs, Earth was called Tonantzin—"our mother"; to the Incas, Earth was called Pachamama—"mother earth". In Norse mythology, the Earth giantess Jörð was the mother of Thor and the daughter of Annar. Ancient Egyptian mythology is different from that of other cultures because Earth (Geb) is male and the sky (Nut) is female. +Ancient Near Eastern cultures conceived of the world as a flat disk of land surrounded by ocean. The Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts reveal that the ancient Egyptians believed Nun (the ocean) was a circular body surrounding nbwt (a term meaning "dry lands" or "islands"). The Hebrew Bible, drawing on other Near Eastern ideas, depicts the Earth as a flat disc floating on water, with another expanse of water above it. A similar model is found in the Homeric account of the 8th century BC in which "Okeanos, the personified body of water surrounding the circular surface of the Earth, is the begetter of all life and possibly of all gods." +The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early Greek philosophers, a belief espoused by Pythagoras. Contrary to popular belief, most educated people in the Middle Ages did not believe the Earth was flat: this misconception is often called the "Myth of the Flat Earth". As evidenced by thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, the European belief in a spherical Earth was widespread by this point in time. Prior to circumnavigation of the planet and the introduction of space flight, belief in a spherical Earth was based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels drawn with the shape of other planets. + +=== Travel === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e3ace7b1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Humans have commonly traveled for business, pleasure, discovery, and adventure, all made easier in recent human history as a result of technologies like cars, trains, planes, and ships. Land navigation is an aspect of travel and refers to progressing through unfamiliar terrain using navigational tools like maps with references to terrain, a compass, or satellite navigation. Navigation on land is often facilitated by reference to landmarks – enduring and recognizable natural or artificial features that stand out from their nearby environment and are often visible from long distances. Natural landmarks can be characteristic features, such as mountains or plateaus, with examples including Table Mountain in South Africa, Mount Ararat in Turkey, the Grand Canyon in the United States, Uluru in Australia, and Mount Fuji in Japan. +Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of divergence, and one of convergence. The former saw humans moving out of Africa, settling in new lands, and developing distinct cultures in relative isolation. Early explorers settled in Europe and Asia; 14,000 years ago, some crossed the Ice Age land bridge from Siberia to Alaska and moved southbound to settle in the Americas. For the most part, these cultures were ignorant of each other's existence. The second period, occurring over roughly the last 10,000 years, saw increased cross-cultural exchange through trade and exploration, marking a new era of cultural intermingling. + +=== Trade === + +Human trade has occurred since the prehistoric era. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from c. 150,000 years ago. Major trade routes throughout history have existed on land, such as the Silk Road which linked East Asia with Europe and the Amber Road which was used to transfer amber from Northern Europe to the Mediterranean Sea. The Dark Ages led trade to collapse in the West, but it continued to flourish among the kingdoms of Africa, the Middle East, India, China, and Southeast Asia. During the Middle Ages, Central Asia was the economic centre of the world, and luxury goods were commonly traded in Europe. Physical money (either barter or precious metals) was dangerous to carry over a long distance. To address this, a burgeoning banking industry enabled the shift to movable wealth or capital, making it far easier and safer to trade across long distances. After the Age of Sail, international trade mostly occurred along sea routes, notably to prevent intermediary countries from being able to control trade routes and the flow of goods. +In economics, land refers to a factor of production. It can be leased in exchange for rent, and use of its various raw material resources (trees, oil, metals). + +=== Land use === + +Land is the foundation of agriculture, supporting over 95% of food production while providing essential ecosystem services that sustain life on Earth. As a finite resource, it faces pressures from competing demands including urban expansion, biofuel production, and changing consumption patterns driven by rising incomes and shifting diets. Land is the basis of food security, biodiversity conservation, climate regulation and in 2025 the livelihoods of 892 million agricultural workers worldwide. +For more than 10,000 years, humans have engaged in activities on land such as hunting, foraging, controlled burning, land clearing, and agriculture. Beginning with the Neolithic Revolution and the spread of agriculture around the world, human land use has significantly altered terrestrial ecosystems, with an essentially global transformation of Earth's landscape by 3000 years ago. From around 1750, human land use has increased at an accelerating rate due to the Industrial Revolution, which created a greater demand for natural resources and caused rapid population growth. +Agriculture includes both crop farming and animal husbandry. A third of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, with estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland. This has had significant impacts on Earth's ecosystems. When land is cleared to make way for agriculture, native flora and fauna are replaced with newly introduced crops and livestock. Excessively high agricultural land use is driven by poor management practices (which lead to lower food yields, necessitating more land use), food demand, food waste, and diets high in meat. +Urbanization has led to greater population growth in urban areas in the last century. Although urban areas make up less than 3 percent of Earth's land area, the global population shifted from a majority living in rural areas to a majority living in urban areas in 2007. People living in urban areas depend on food produced in rural areas outside of their cities, which creates greater demand for agriculture and drives land use change well beyond city boundaries. Urbanization also displaces agricultural land because it mainly takes place on the most fertile land. Urban expansion in peri-urban areas fragments agricultural and natural lands, forcing agriculture to move to less fertile land elsewhere. Because this land is less fertile, more land is needed for the same output, which increases the total agricultural land use. +Another form of land use is mining, whereby minerals are extracted from the ground using a variety of methods. Evidence of mining activity dates back to around 3000 BCE in Ancient Egypt. Important minerals include iron ore, mined for use as a raw material; coal, mined for energy production; and gemstones, mined for use in jewellery and currency. + +=== Law === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c3ab65db0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The phrase "the law of the land" first appeared in 1215 in Magna Carta, inspiring its later usage in the United States Constitution. The idea of common land also originated with medieval English law, and refers collective ownership of land, treating it as a common good. In environmental science, economics, and game theory, the tragedy of the commons refers to individuals' use of common spaces for their own gain, deteriorating the land overall by taking more than their fair share and not cooperating with others. The idea of common land suggests public ownership; but there is still some land that can be privatized as property for an individual, such as a landlord or king. In the developed world, land is expected to be privately owned by an individual with legal title, but in the developing world the right to use land is often divided, with the rights to land resources being given to different people at different times for the same area of land. Beginning in the late 20th century, the international community has begun to recognise Indigenous land rights in law, for example, the Treaty of Waitangi for Māori people, the Act on Greenland Self-Government for Inuit, and the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act in the Philippines. + +=== Geopolitics === + +Borders are geographical boundaries imposed either by geographic features (oceans, mountain ranges, rivers) or by political entities (governments, states, or subnational entities). Political borders can be established through warfare, colonization, or mutual agreements between the political entities that reside in those areas; the creation of these agreements is called boundary delimitation. +Many wars and other conflicts have occurred in efforts by participants to expand the land under their control, or to assert control of a specific area of considered to hold strategic, historical, or cultural significance. The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries became the largest contiguous land empire in history through war and conquest. +In the 19th-century United States, a concept of manifest destiny was developed by various groups, asserting that American settlers were destined to expand across North America. This concept was used to justify military action against the indigenous peoples of North America and of Mexico. +The aggression of Nazi Germany in World War II was motivated in part by the concept of Lebensraum ("living space"), which had first became a geopolitical goal of Imperial Germany in World War I (1914–1918) originally, as the core element of the Septemberprogramm of territorial expansion. The most extreme form of this ideology was supported by the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Lebensraum was one of the leading motivations Nazi Germany had in initiating World War II, and it would continue this policy until the end of World War II. + +== Environmental issues == + +Land degradation is "the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity" of land as a result of human activity. Land degradation is driven by many different activities, including agriculture, urbanization, energy production, and mining. Humans have altered more than three-quarters of ice-free land through habitation and other use, fundamentally changing ecosystems. Human activity is a major factor in the Holocene extinction, and human-caused climate change is causing rising sea levels and ecosystem loss. Environmental scientists study land's ecosystems, natural resources, biosphere (fauna and flora), troposphere, and the impact of human activity on these. Their recommendations have led to international action to prevent biodiversity loss and desertification, and encourage sustainable forest and waste management. The conservation movement lobbies for the protection of endangered species and the protection of natural areas, such as parks. International frameworks have focused on analyzing how humans can meet their needs while using land more efficiently and preserving its natural resources, notably under the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals framework. + +=== Soil degradation === + +Human land use can cause soil to degrade, both in quality and in quantity. Soil degradation can be caused by agrochemicals (such as fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides), infrastructure development, and mining among other activities. There are several different processes that lead to soil degradation. Physical processes, such as erosion, sealing, and crusting, lead to the structural breakdown of the soil. This means water cannot penetrate the soil surface, causing surface runoff. Chemical processes, such as salinization, acidification, and toxication, lead to chemical imbalances in the soil. Salinization in particular is detrimental, as it makes land less productive for agriculture and affects at least 20% of all irrigated lands. Deliberate disruption of soil in the form of tillage can also alter biological processes in the soil, which leads to excessive mineralization and the loss of nutrients. +Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which fertile areas become increasingly arid as a result of natural processes or human activities, resulting in loss of biological productivity. This spread of arid areas can be influenced by a variety of human factors, such as deforestation, improper land management, overgrazing, anthropogenic climate change, and overexploitation of soil. Throughout geological history, desertification has occurred naturally, though in recent times it is greatly accelerated by human activity. + +=== Pollution === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..eaaf0ff01 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Land" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ground pollution is soil contamination via pollutants, such as hazardous waste or litter. Ground pollution can be prevented by properly monitoring and disposing of waste, along with reducing unnecessary chemical and plastic use. Unfortunately, proper disposal of waste often is not economically beneficial or technologically viable, leading to short-term solutions of waste disposal that pollute the earth. Examples include dumping harmful industrial byproducts, overusing agricultural fertilizers and other chemicals, and poorly maintaining landfills. Some landfills can be thousands of acres in size, such as the Apex Regional landfill in Las Vegas. +Water pollution on land is the contamination of non-oceanic hydrological surface and underground water features such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands, aquifers, reservoirs, and groundwater as a result of human activities. It may be caused by toxic substances (e.g., oil, metals, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, industrial waste products), stressful conditions (e.g., changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures, excessive turbidity, unpleasant taste or odor, and changes of salinity), or pathogenic organisms. + +=== Biodiversity loss === + +The biodiversity of Earth—the variety and variability of life—is threatened by climate change, human activities, and invasive species. Due to an increase in the rate of extinction, biodiversity loss is increasing. Agriculture can cause biodiversity loss as land is converted for agricultural use at a very high rate, particularly in the tropics, which directly causes habitat loss. The use of pesticides and herbicides can also negatively impact the health of local species. Ecosystems can also be divided and degraded by infrastructure development outside of urban areas. +Biodiversity loss can sometimes be reversed through ecological restoration or ecological resilience, such as through the restoration of abandoned agricultural areas; however, it may also be permanent (e.g. through land loss). The planet's ecosystem is quite sensitive: occasionally, minor changes from a healthy equilibrium can have dramatic influence on a food web or food chain, up to and including the coextinction of that entire food chain. Biodiversity loss leads to reduced ecosystem services, and can eventually threaten food security. Earth is currently undergoing its sixth mass extinction (the Holocene extinction) as a result of human activities which push beyond the planetary boundaries. So far, this extinction has proven irreversible. + +=== Resource depletion === + +Although humans have used land for its natural resources since ancient times, demand for resources such as timber, minerals, and energy has grown exponentially since the Industrial Revolution due to population growth. When a natural resource is depleted to the point of diminishing returns, it is considered the overexploitation of that resource. Some natural resources, such as timber, are considered renewable, because with sustainable practices they replenish to their previous levels. Fossil fuels such as coal are not considered renewable, as they take millions of years to form, with the current supply of coal expected to peak in the middle of the 21st century. Economic materialism, or consumerism, has influenced destructive patterns of modern resource usage, in contrast with pre-industrial usage. + +== Gallery == +Different varieties of landscapes: + +== See also == +Public land +Solid earth + +== Notes == + +== Sources == + This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of Food and Agriculture 2025​, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..933f27fb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Landmark" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:46.360078+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A landmark is a recognizable natural or artificial feature used for navigation, a feature that stands out from its near environment and is often visible from long distances. +In modern-day use, the term can also be applied to smaller structures or features that have become local or national symbols. + + +== Etymology == + +In Old English, the word landmearc (from land + mearc (mark)) was used to describe a boundary marker, an "object set up to mark the boundaries of a kingdom, estate, etc." Starting around 1560, this interpretation of "landmark" was replaced by a more general one. A landmark became a "conspicuous object in a landscape". +A landmark literally meant a geographic feature used by explorers and others to find their way back to their departure point, or through an area. For example, Table Mountain near Cape Town, South Africa, was used as a landmark to help sailors navigate around the southern tip of Africa during the Age of Exploration. Artificial structures are also sometimes built to assist sailors in navigation. The Lighthouse of Alexandria and the Colossus of Rhodes are ancient structures built to lead ships to the port. +In modern usage, a landmark includes anything that is easily recognizable, such as a monument, building, or other structure. In American English it is the main term used to designate places that might be of interest to tourists, due to notable physical features or historical significance. Landmarks in the British English sense are often used for casual navigation, such as giving directions. This is done in American English as well. +In urban studies as well as in geography, a landmark is furthermore defined as an external point of reference that helps orientation in a familiar or unfamiliar environment. Landmarks are often used in verbal route instructions ("Turn left at the big church and then right over the bridge.") + + +== Types == +Landmarks are usually classified as either natural landmarks or human-made landmarks, both are originally used to support navigation on finding directions. A variant is a seamark or daymark, a structure usually built intentionally to aid sailors navigating featureless coasts. + + +=== Natural === +Natural landmarks can be characteristic features, such as mountains or plateaus. Examples of natural landmarks are Mount Everest in the Himalayas, Table Mountain in South Africa, Mount Ararat in Turkey, Uluru in Australia, Mount Fuji in Japan and the Grand Canyon in the United States. Trees might also serve as local landmarks, such as jubilee oaks or conifers. Some landmark trees may be named, such as Queen's Oak, Hanging Oak and Centennial Tree. + +Bases of fallen trees, known in this context as rootstocks, are used as navigational aids on high-resolution maps and in the sport of orienteering. Because most woods have many fallen trees, generally only very large rootstocks are mapped. + + +=== Human made === +In the modern sense, landmarks are usually referred to as monuments or prominent distinctive buildings, used as the symbol of a certain area, city, or nation. Examples include: + +Church spires and mosque minarets are often very tall and visible from many miles around and thus often serve as built landmarks. Also town hall towers and belfries often have a landmark character. + + +== See also == +Boundary marker – Physical marker that identifies a land boundary +Contemporary history – Era from 1945–present +Cultural heritage management – Vocation and practice of managing cultural heritage +Daymark – Daytime aid to navigation +Heritage tourism – Tourism based on cultural heritage sites +National landmark (disambiguation) +National symbol – Symbol of a national community + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmass-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmass-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..94b635b12 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmass-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Landmass" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmass" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:02.140535+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A landmass, or land mass, is a large region or area of land that is in one piece and not noticeably broken up by oceans. The term is often used to refer to lands surrounded by an ocean or sea, such as a continent or a large island. In the field of geology, a landmass is a defined section of continental crust extending above sea level. +Continents are often thought of as distinct landmasses and may include any islands that are part of the associated continental shelf. When multiple continents form a single contiguous land connection, the connected continents may be viewed as a single landmass. Earth's largest landmasses are (starting with largest): + +Afro-Eurasia (main landmass of the geoscheme region of the same name and its continental parts Africa and Eurasia, or Europe and Asia; the center of Earth's land hemisphere, comprising more than half of Earth's landmass) +Americas (main landmass of the geo-region of the same name and its continental parts North and South America; comprising most of the landmass of the Western Hemisphere) +Antarctica (main landmass of the geo-region and continent of the same name) +Mainland Australia (main landmass of the geo-region Oceania, its subregion Australasia, the continent Australia and the country Australia) + + +== Continental landmasses == + + +== See also == +Coastline paradox +Continent +Boundaries between the continents of Earth +Island +List of islands by area +Landform +Glossary of landforms +Mainland +Supercontinent +Pangaea + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaverite-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaverite-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..19669f7d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaverite-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Leaverite" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaverite" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:03.396042+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Leaverite is a slang term used by geologists, mineralogists, archaeologists, and amateur rock collectors to identify a specimen in the field that may look interesting or valuable but not worth removing. Rocks identified as such are generally left where they were found, as there is not sufficient reason to attempt to remove them. The term leaverite derives from the phrase "leave 'er right there". +There are several kinds of leaverites: + +Man-made features +Unrocks; objects that may initially appear to be geologic in origin (also referred to as anthropogenicite). +Large fossils and pseudofossils +Additional forms of leaverites include: + +Specimens that are too large to move or transport +Legality of the removal of the specimen is questionable or outright illegal +Collection of the specimen may result in death or dismemberment (e.g. the specimen is hanging on the side of a 300 ft cliff, removal of the specimen would result in a boulder falling on the collector, a rattlesnake is sunning itself on the specimen) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_financial_districts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_financial_districts-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b3c872e40 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_financial_districts-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,342 @@ +--- +title: "List of financial districts" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_financial_districts" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:48.889586+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A financial district is usually a central area in a city where financial services firms such as banks, insurance companies, and other related finance corporations have their headquarters offices. In major cities, financial districts often host skyscrapers and other buildings of architectural importance and are called financial centres; such major centres also include important financial utilities such as stock exchanges and the offices of the main financial regulatory authorities. + + +== List == +Notable financial districts around the world include the following: + + +=== Africa === + + +==== Algeria ==== +Algiers (الجزائر): Bab Ezzouar (باب الزوار) Belouizdad, Algiers (بلوزداد) Hydra, Algiers (حيدرة) + + +==== Egypt ==== +Cairo: Downtown Cairo +Giza: Mohandessin +Alexandria: Central District +Port Said: East Port Said +New Capital: Central Business District + + +==== Kenya ==== +Nairobi: Upper Hill + + +==== Nigeria ==== +Lagos: Lagos Island, Marina +Lagos is a financial district. + + +==== Mauritius ==== +Port Louis: Place D'armes +Place D’ armes is financial district in Port Louis + + +==== Morocco ==== +Casablanca (الدار البيضاء): Anfa (أنفا), Maârif (المعاريف), Sidi Belyout (سيدي بليوط), Sidi Maârouf (سيدي معروف), Bouskoura (بو سكورة) + + +==== South Africa ==== +Johannesburg: Sandton +Cape Town: Cape Town CBD + + +=== Americas === + + +==== Argentina ==== +Buenos Aires: Microcentro and Diagonal Norte +Córdoba: Central Area (Centro, Alto Alberdi, Alberdi, Barrio Nueva Córdoba, Gral. Pueyrredón) +Rosario: Puerto Norte and Córdoba Avenue + + +==== Brazil ==== +Rio de Janeiro: Centro +São Paulo: Alphaville, Brooklin Novo, Central Zone, Brigadeiro Faria Lima Avenue, Paulista Avenue, and Vila Olímpia + + +==== Canada ==== +Montreal: Saint Jacques Street +Toronto: Financial District (Bay Street, a metonym for the district) +Vancouver: Financial District + + +==== Chile ==== +Santiago: Sanhattan + + +==== Mexico ==== +Guadalajara: Puerta de Hierro +Mexico City: Polanco, Paseo de la Reforma, and Santa Fe +Monterrey: Valle Oriente +Puebla: Angelópolis + + +==== Paraguay ==== +Asunción: Aviadores del Chaco Avenue + + +==== Peru ==== +Lima: San Isidro, Miraflores and Historic Centre +Arequipa: Cayma + + +==== United States ==== +Atlanta: Buckhead +Boston: Financial District +Charlotte: Uptown +Chicago: the Loop +Cincinnati: Financial District +Denver: Financial District +Detroit: Financial District +Greenwich, Connecticut: Downtown Greenwich +Hartford, Connecticut: Financial District +Houston: Downtown, Uptown +Jacksonville: Laura Street +Los Angeles: Financial District +Miami: Brickell +New Orleans: Central Business District +New York City: Financial District +New York City: Midtown Manhattan +Philadelphia: Penn Center +Salt Lake City: Financial District +San Francisco: Financial District +San Juan: Milla de Oro +Seattle: Financial District +Stamford, Connecticut: Downtown Stamford +Des Moines: Financial District + + +==== Uruguay ==== +Montevideo: Centro and Ciudad Vieja + + +=== Oceania === + + +==== Australia ==== +Sydney: Sydney central business district +Melbourne: Melbourne central business district +Brisbane: Brisbane central business district +Perth: Perth central business district +Adelaide: Adelaide central business district +Darwin: Darwin central business district + + +==== New Zealand ==== +Auckland: Central Business District (CBD) + + +=== Asia === + + +==== Azerbaijan ==== +Baku: Sabail +Baku: Keshla + + +==== Bangladesh ==== +Chittagong: Agrabad +Dhaka: Motijheel +Dhaka: Gulshan +Dhaka: Kawran Bazar + + +==== China ==== +Beijing: Beijing Financial Street +Shanghai: Lujiazui in Pudong +Shenzhen: Futian District +Guangzhou: Zhujiang New Town + + +==== Hong Kong ==== +Central and Sheung Wan + + +==== India ==== +Delhi: Connaught Place +Gandhinagar: GIFT International Financial Services Centre, GIFT City +Mumbai: Dalal Street, Bandra-Kurla Complex, Fort, Nariman Point, Colaba, Worli and South Mumbai +Kolkata: B.B.D. Bagh, Park Circus, Salt Lake Sector V, New Town CBD +Hyderabad: Financial District, Hyderabad, Bank Street, Hyderabad and Gachibowli +Trivandrum: Technopark +Navi Mumbai: CBD Belapur + + +==== Indonesia ==== +Jakarta: Jalan H.R. Rasuna Said, Jalan Jenderal Gatot Subroto, Jalan Jenderal Sudirman, and Jalan M.H. Thamrin + + +==== Israel ==== +Tel Aviv: Rothschild Boulevard + + +==== Japan ==== +Nagoya: Naka-ku +Osaka: Chūō-ku +Tokyo: Marunouchi, Nihonbashi, and Otemachi + + +==== Lebanon ==== +Beirut: Central District + + +==== Malaysia ==== +George Town: George Town CBD +Kuala Lumpur: Kuala Lumpur City Centre and Tun Razak Exchange (TRX) +Shah Alam, Selangor: i-City Finance Avenue and i-City (i-City) + + +==== Pakistan ==== +Karachi: I. I. Chundrigar Road + + +==== Philippines ==== +Makati: Makati Central Business District +Pasig: Ortigas Center +Taguig: Bonifacio Global City + + +==== Saudi Arabia ==== +Riyadh: King Abdullah Financial District, King Fahad Road, Al Olaya District, Digital City, Riyadh Front, Business Gate and Granada Business. + + +==== Singapore ==== +Shenton Way, Raffles Place + + +==== South Korea ==== +Seoul: Downtown Seoul, Yeouido and Teheranno(Gangnam) +Busan: Nam District + + +==== Taiwan ==== +Taipei: Xinyi, Taipei Station and East End, Banqiao. +Taichung: Taichung's 7th Redevelopment Zone +Kaohsiung: Lingya, Cianjin + + +==== Thailand ==== +Bangkok: Sathorn and Silom + + +==== Turkey ==== +Istanbul: Istanbul Financial Center, Levent, Maslak and Ümraniye + + +==== Vietnam ==== +Ho Chi Minh City: District 1, Thủ Thiêm new urban area + + +==== United Arab Emirates (UAE) ==== +Abu Dhabi: Al Maryah Island +Dubai: Business Bay + + +=== Europe === + + +==== Austria ==== +Vienna: Wienerberg and Donau City + + +==== Belgium ==== +Brussels: Northern Quarter + + +==== France ==== +Lille: Euralille +Lyon: La Part-Dieu +Marseille: Euroméditerranée +Paris: La Défense + + +==== Germany ==== +Berlin: Potsdamer Platz +Frankfurt: Bankenviertel + + +==== Greece ==== +Athens: Sofokleous Street +Thessaloniki, Egnatia Street + + +==== Ireland ==== +Dublin: International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) + + +==== Italy ==== +Milan: Centro Direzionale di Milano, Porta Nuova and City life +Naples: Centro Direzionale di Napoli +Rome: EUR +Brescia: Brescia Due +Livorno: viale Cairoli + + +==== Lithuania ==== +Vilnius: Vilnius Central Business District + + +==== Netherlands ==== +Amsterdam: Zuidas and Damrak + + +==== Norway ==== +Oslo: Sentrum +Bergen: Bergenhus + + +==== Poland ==== +Warsaw: +Downtown +Służewiec (Mordor) +Wola +Katowice: Śródmieście + + +==== Portugal ==== +Lisbon: Lisbon Baixa, Parque das Nações, Avenidas Novas + + +==== Romania ==== +Bucharest: Floreasca + + +==== Russia ==== +Moscow: Moscow International Business Centre, Presnensky District, and Tverskoy District + + +==== Spain ==== +Barcelona: 22@ and Granvia l'Hospitalet +Madrid: AZCA and CTBA + + +==== Switzerland ==== +Zurich: Paradeplatz + + +==== Turkey ==== +Istanbul: Levent, Maslak + + +==== United Kingdom ==== +London: City of London, Lombard Street, London and Canary Wharf +Leeds: Financial Quarter +Glasgow: International Financial Services District + + +== See also == +Central business district +Financial centre \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7e3653588 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,121 @@ +--- +title: "List of natural phenomena" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:04.294720+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A natural phenomenon is an observable event which is not man-made. Examples include: sunrise, weather, fog, thunder, tornadoes; biological processes, decomposition, germination; physical processes, wave propagation, erosion; tidal flow, and natural disasters such as electromagnetic pulses, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes and earthquakes. + + +== History == +Over many intervals of time, natural phenomena have been observed by a series of countless events as a feature created by nature. + + +== Physical phenomena == +The act of: + +Freezing +Boiling +Gravity +Magnetism + + +=== Gallery === + + +== Chemical phenomena == +Oxidation +Fire +Rusting + + +== Biological phenomena == +Metabolism +Catabolism +Anabolism +Decomposition – by which organic substances are broken down into a much simpler form of matter +Fermentation – converts sugar to acids, gases and/or alcohol. +Growth +Birth +Death +Population decrease + + +=== Gallery === + + +== Astronomical phenomena == +Supernova +Gamma ray bursts +Quasars +Blazars +Pulsars +Cosmic microwave background radiation + + +== Geological phenomena == + +Mineralogic phenomena +Lithologic phenomena +Rock types +Igneous rock +Igneous formation processes +Sedimentary rock +Sedimentary formation processes (sedimentation) +Quicksand +Metamorphic rock +Endogenic phenomena +Plate tectonics +Continental drift +Earthquake +Oceanic trench +Phenomena associated with igneous activity +Geysers and hot springs +Bradyseism +Volcanic eruption +Earth's magnetic field +Exogenic phenomena +Slope phenomena +Slump +Landslide +Weathering phenomena +Erosion +Glacial and peri-glacial phenomena +Glaciation +Moraines +Hanging valleys +Atmospheric phenomena +Impact phenomena +Impact crater +Coupled endogenic-exogenic phenomena +Orogeny +Drainage development +Stream capture + + +=== Gallery === + + +== Meteorological phenomena == + +Violent meteorological phenomena are called storms. Regular, cyclical phenomena include seasons and atmospheric circulation. climate change is often semi-regular. + + +=== Atmospheric optical phenomena === + + +=== Oceanographic === +Oceanographic phenomena include tsunamis, ocean currents and breaking waves. + + +==== Gallery ==== + + +== See also == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_bridging_point-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_bridging_point-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ae4a92a61 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_bridging_point-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Lowest bridging point" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_bridging_point" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:50.046334+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The lowest bridging point (or lowest crossing point) is the location on a river which is crossed by a bridge at its closest point to the sea. +Historically—that is, before the development of engineering technology that allowed the construction of tunnels and high-level road bridges—the lowest bridging point of a river was frequently the point at which an important town or city grew up, and particularly where trade and commerce took place. The place could be served by roads on either side of the river, allowing access from a wide hinterland; had river transport available upstream; and often was at a location that allowed seagoing traffic to approach it from a downstream direction. + + +== Examples == + + +=== Britain === +Examples of historic lowest bridging points in Britain include: + +London (London Bridge), the lowest bridging point on the Thames; +Lancaster, the lowest bridging point on the Lune; +York, the lowest bridging point on the Ouse; +Exeter (the Old Exe Bridge) on the River Exe; +Gloucester, the lowest bridging point on the Severn. +Glasgow grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Clyde, which was about 19 kilometres (12 mi) upstream from its lowest fording point at Dumbuck. +Matthew Paris's map of 1247 appears to show only one bridge in the whole of Britain: at Stirling, the lowest bridging point on the River Forth. + + +=== Italy === +Medieval Venice was centred either side of the Rialto Bridge, which was the lowest bridging point of the Grand Canal until the Ponte dell'Accademia of 1854. + + +== See also == +Head of navigation – Farthest navigable point up a waterway +Fall line – Meeting point of uplands and coastal plain +Spring line + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d87e034ea --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Macedonia (terminology)" +chunk: 1/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The name Macedonia is used in a number of competing or overlapping meanings to describe geographical, political and historical areas, languages and peoples in a part of south-eastern Europe. It has been a major source of political controversy since the early 20th century. The situation is complicated because different ethnic groups use different terminology for the same entity, or the same terminology for different entities, with different political connotations. + +Historically, the region has presented markedly shifting borders across the Balkan peninsula. Geographically, no single definition of its borders or the names of its subdivisions is accepted by all scholars and ethnic groups. Demographically, it is mainly inhabited by four ethnic groups, three of which self-identify as Macedonians: two, a Bulgarian and a Greek one at a regional level, while a third ethnic Macedonian one at a national level. Linguistically, the names and affiliations of languages and dialects spoken in the region are a source of controversy. Politically, the rights to the extent of the use of the name Macedonia and its derivatives has led to a diplomatic dispute between Greece and the then-Republic of Macedonia, now North Macedonia. After using the provisional reference of the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM), Greece and the then-Republic of Macedonia reached an agreement that the latter would change its official name to Republic of North Macedonia. It came into effect on 12 February 2019. + +== Etymology == +The name Macedonia derives from the Greek Μακεδονία (Makedonía), a kingdom (later, region) named after the ancient Macedonians, from the Greek Μακεδόνες (Makedones), 'Macedonians', explained as having originally meant either 'the tall ones' or 'highlanders'. The word Μακεδνόν (Makednon) is first attested in Herodotus as the name which the Greek ethnos was called (which was later called Dorian) when it settled around Pindus mountain range. Makednon is related to the Ancient Greek adjective μακεδνός (makednós), meaning 'tall, slim', attested in Homer and Hesychius of Alexandria in its feminine form μακεδνή (makednē), meaning 'long, tall'. It is cognate with the words μακρός (makros, 'long, large') and μήκος (mēkos, 'length'), both deriving from the Indo-European root *mak-, meaning 'long, slender'. Linguist Robert S. P. Beekes claims that both terms are of Pre-Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European morphology; however, De Decker argues the arguments are insufficient. + +== History == + +The region of Macedonia has been home to several historical political entities, which have used the name Macedonia; the main ones are given below. The borders of each of these entities were different. + +=== Early history === + +==== Ancient Macedonia ==== + +Macedonia or Macedon, the ancient kingdom, was located on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, and later became the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. It was centered on the fertile plains west of the Gulf of Salonica (today north-western Greece); the first Macedonian state emerged in the 8th or early 7th century BC. Its extent beyond the center varied; some Macedonian kings could not hold their capital; Philip II expanded his power until it reached from Epirus, across Thrace to Gallipoli, and from Thermopylae to the Danube. His son Alexander the Great conquered most of the land in southwestern Asia stretching from what is currently Turkey in the west to parts of India in the east. However, while Alexander's conquests are of major historical importance as having launched the Hellenistic Age, Macedon as a state had no significant territorial gains due to them. Alexander's kingdom fell apart after his death in 323 BC; several of his Successors attempted to form a kingdom for themselves in Macedonia; the kingdom formed by Antigonus Gonatas contained all the land Philip II had started with and controlled much of what is now modern Greece; it lasted until the Romans divided it into four republics in 168 BC. + +==== Roman Macedonia ==== + +The ancient Romans had two different entities called Macedonia, at different levels. Macedonia was established as a Roman province in 146 BC. Its boundaries were shifted from time to time for administrative convenience, but during the Roman Republic and the Principate it extended west to the Adriatic and south to Central Greece. +Under Diocletian, Thessaly, including parts of West Macedonia, was split off to form a new province, and the central and southern Balkan provinces were grouped into the Diocese of Moesia. At some point in the 4th century (first securely attested in 370) this was divided into two new dioceses, the mostly Latin-speaking Diocese of Dacia in the north and the mostly Greek-speaking Diocese of Macedonia in the south. Under Constantine the Great, the western part of the province of Macedonia was also split off to form the new province of Epirus nova. After Constantine's death, the western Balkans, Macedonia included, became part of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. +With the exception of a short-lived division between Macedonia Prima in the south and Macedonia Salutaris in the north towards the end of the 4th century (attested only in the Notitia Dignitatum), Macedonia formed a single province until re-divided into southern and northern parts sometime in the late 5th century (the division is first securely attested in 482), although the province seems to have been reunified by 535. According to the 6th-century Synecdemus, Macedonia Prima, with Thessalonica as its capital and governed by a consularis, counted 32 cities, and Macedonia Secunda in the north, with Stobi as its capital and governed by a praeses, only eight. The approximate boundary between the two ran on a rough line from north of Bitola (which belonged to Macedonia Prima) to the area of Demir Kapija. + +==== Byzantine Macedonia ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3994fb2d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Macedonia (terminology)" +chunk: 2/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +During the 7th century, most of the Balkans were overrun by Slavic invasions, which left only the fortified towns and the coasts in the hands of the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire. "Macedonia" was then used for a new theme in the late 8th century under Irene of Athens. Geographically however it was located in Thrace and not in Macedonia, which was under the themes of Thessalonica, Strymon and other smaller commands such as Boleron or Drougoubiteia. Themes were not named geographically and the original sense was "army". They became districts during the military and fiscal crisis of the seventh century, when the Byzantine armies were instructed to find their supplies from the locals, wherever they happened to be. Thus the Armeniac theme was considerably west of Armenia; the Thracesian Theme was in Asia Minor, not in Thrace. The Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire acquired its name from its founder, Basil I the Macedonian, an Armenian by descent, who was born in the theme of Macedonia. +The interior of Macedonia remained in Slavic and later Bulgarian hands until the campaigns of Basil II, which ended the existence of the Bulgarian state and extended Byzantine authority across the central and northern Balkans. Thereafter Macedonia remained under Byzantine control until the Fourth Crusade (1204). A short-lived Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica was established which survived until 1224, when it was captured by Epirus. Most of Macedonia then came under the control of the Empire of Nicaea in 1246, although its northern regions remained disputed with the Serbs and the Bulgarians. Most of the region was conquered by the Serbs under Stephen Dushan during the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347. Only Thessalonica and its environs remained in Byzantine hands. By the late 14th century, the Ottoman Turks in turn had conquered the region, although Thessalonica held out under Byzantine and later Venetian control until 1430. + +==== Ottomans and geographical Macedonia ==== + +The Ottomans did not keep Macedonia as an administrative unit: since 1864 parts of geographical Macedonia lay in three vilayets, which also comprised some non-Macedonian areas. The northern part was the Kosovo vilayet and then of Skopje; the Thessaloniki (south), and the Monastir Vilayet (western) were also created. This administrative division lasted until 1912–13, when Macedonia was divided among the Balkan states. In April 1903, by Sultan's decree, the term "Macedonia" was banned in all forms of official and private usage. In June 1903, the Ottoman authorities requested from the American Bible Society to replace the term "Macedonia" in the New Testament with the "vilayets of Salonica and Monastir". + +=== Modern history === + +Since the early stages of the Greek Revolution, the provisional government of Greece claimed Macedonia as part of Greek national territory, but the Treaty of Constantinople (1832), which established a Greek independent state, set its northern boundary between Arta and Volos. When the Ottoman Empire started breaking apart, Macedonia was claimed by all members of the Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria), and by Romania. Under the Treaty of San Stefano that ended the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78 the entire region, except Thessaloniki, was included in the borders of Bulgaria, but after the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the region was returned to the Ottoman Empire. The armies of the Balkan League advanced and occupied Macedonia in the First Balkan War in 1912. Because of disagreements between the allies about the partition of the region, the Second Balkan War erupted, and in its aftermath the arbitrary region of Macedonia was split into the following entities, that existed or still exist in this region: + +Macedonia (as a region of Greece) refers to three regions in northern Greece, incorporated in 1913, as a result of the Balkan Wars between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan League. +Macedonia (as a People's Republic within Yugoslavia) used to refer to the People's Republic of Macedonia established in 1946, later known as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia, one of the constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, renamed in 1963. Between 1929 and 1941 this region was part of Vardar Banovina province in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. +Macedonia (as a recent sovereign state) referred to the conventional short form name of the Republic of Macedonia, after the aforementioned Socialist Republic held a referendum and established its independence from Yugoslavia on 8 September 1991. On 12 February 2019 the name of the state was changed to Republic of North Macedonia following the ratification of the Prespa agreement negotiated with Greece, thus settling the Macedonia naming dispute. + +== Geography == +Macedonia (as a current geographical term) refers to a region of the Balkan peninsula in south-eastern Europe, covering some 60,000 or 70,000 square kilometers. Although the region's borders are not officially defined by any international organization or state, in some contexts, the territory appears to correspond to the basins of (from west to east) the Haliacmon (Aliákmonas), Vardar / Axios and Struma / Strymónas rivers, and the plains around Thessaloniki and Serres. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9c4e58502 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Macedonia (terminology)" +chunk: 3/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In a historic context, the term Macedonia was used in various ways. Macedonia was not an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire; its entire territory was part of the beylerbeylik of Rumelia. The geographer H. R. Wilkinson suggests that the region "defies definition" but that many mappers agree "on its general location". Macedonia was well enough defined in 1897 for Gladstone to propose "Macedonia for the Macedonians"; philhellenes argued that the phrase could not be used by a man of impartiallity, while Turcophiles asserted that there are six different kinds of Macedonians, and only Turkish rule could prevail total anarchy in the region. The Balkan nations began to proclaim their rights to it after the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 and its revision at the Congress of Berlin. +Many ethnographic maps were produced in this period of controversy; these differ primarily in the areas given to each nationality within Macedonia. This was in part a result of the choice of definition: an inhabitant of Macedonia might well have different nationalities depending on whether the basis of classification was denomination, descent, language, self-identification or personal choice. In addition, the Ottoman census, taken on the basis of religion, was misquoted by all sides; descent, or "race", was largely conjectural; inhabitants of Macedonia might speak a different language at the market and at home, and the same Slavic dialect might be called Serbian "with Bulgarian influences", Macedonian, or West-Bulgarian. +These maps also differed somewhat in the boundaries given to Macedonia. Its only inarguable limits were the Aegean Sea and the Serbian and Bulgarian frontiers (as of 1885); where it bordered Old Serbia, Albania, and Thrace (all parts of Ottoman Rumelia) was debatable. +The Greek ethnographer Nicolaides, the Austrian Meinhard, and the Bulgarian Kǎnčev placed the northern boundary of Macedonia at the Šar Mountains and the Crna hills, as had scholars before 1878. The Serb Spiridon Gopčević preferred a line much further south, assigning the entire region from Skopje to Strumica to "Old Serbia"; and some later Greek geographers have defined a more restricted Macedonia. In addition, maps might vary in smaller details: as to whether this town or that was Macedonian. One Italian map included Prizren, where Nicolaides and Meinhard had drawn the boundary just south of it. On the south and west, Grevena, Korçë, and Konitsa varied from map to map; on the east, the usual line is the lower Mesta / Nestos river and then north or northwest, but one German geographer takes the line so far west as to exclude Bansko and Nevrokop / Gotse Delchev. + +=== Subregions === + +The region of Macedonia is commonly divided into three major and two minor sub-regions. The name Macedonia appears under certain contexts on the major regions, while the smaller ones are traditionally referred to by other local toponyms: + +==== Major regions ==== +The region of Macedonia is commonly split geographically into three main sub-regions, especially when discussing the Macedonian Question. The terms are used in non-partisan scholarly works, although they are also used in ethnic Macedonian literature of an irredentist nature. +Aegean Macedonia (or Greek Macedonia) refers to an area in the south of the Macedonia region. The borders of the area are, overall, those of ancient Macedonia in Greece. It covers an area of 34,200 square kilometres (13,200 sq mi) (for discussion of the reported irredentist origin of this term, see Aegean Macedonia). +Pirin Macedonia (or Bulgarian Macedonia) is an area in the east of the Macedonia region. The borders of the area approximately coincide with those of Blagoevgrad Province in Bulgaria. It covers an area of 6,449 square kilometres (2,490 sq mi). +Vardar Macedonia (formerly Yugoslav Macedonia) is an area in the north of the Macedonia region. The borders of the area are those of North Macedonia. It covers an area of 25,333 square kilometres (9,781 sq mi). + +==== Minor regions ==== +In addition to the above-named sub-regions, there are also three smaller regions, in Albania, Kosovo and Serbia respectively. These regions are also considered geographically part of Macedonia. They are referred to by ethnic Macedonians as follows, but typically are not so referred to by non-partisan scholars. +Mala Prespa and Golo Brdo is a small area in the west of the Macedonia region in Albania, mainly around Lake Ohrid. It includes parts of the Korçë, Pogradec and Devoll districts. These districts wholly occupy about 3,000 square kilometres (1,158 sq mi), but the area concerned is significantly smaller. +Gora (part of the municipality of Dragaš) and Prohor Pčinjski are minor parts in the north of the Macedonia region in Serbia. + +== Demographics == + +The region, as defined above, has a total population of about 5 million. The main disambiguation issue in demographics is the self-identifying name of two contemporary groups. The ethnic Macedonian population of North Macedonia self-identify as Macedonian on a national level, while the Greek Macedonians self-identify as both Macedonian on a regional, and Greek on a national level. According to the Greek arguments, the ancient Macedonians' nationality was Greek and thus, the use of the term on a national level lays claims to their history. This disambiguation problem has led to a wide variety of terms used to refer to the separate groups, more information of which can be found in the terminology by group section. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3acb5913e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Macedonia (terminology)" +chunk: 4/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The self-identifying Macedonians (collectively referring to the inhabitants of the region) that inhabit or inhabited the area are: +As an ethnic group, Macedonians refers to the majority (58.4%, 2021) of the population of North Macedonia. Statistics for 2021 indicate the population of ethnic Macedonians within the country as c. 1,100,000. On the other hand, as a legal term, it refers to all the citizens of the Republic of North Macedonia, irrespective of their ethnic or religious affiliation. However, the preamble of the constitution distinguishes between "the Macedonian people" and the "Albanians, Turks, Vlachs, Romanics and other nationalities living in the Republic of Macedonia", but for whom "full equality as citizens" is provided. As of 2021 the total population of the country is 1,836,713. +As a regional group in Greece, Macedonians refers to ethnic Greeks (98%, 2001) living in regions referred to as Macedonia, and particularly Greek Macedonia. This group composes the vast majority of the population of the Greek region of Macedonia. The 2001 census for the total population of the Macedonia region in Greece shows 2,625,681. +The same term in antiquity described the inhabitants of the kingdom of Macedon, including their notable rulers Philip II and Alexander the Great who self-identified as Greeks. +As a regional group in Bulgaria, Macedonians refers to the inhabitants of Bulgarian Macedonia, who in their vast majority self-identify as Bulgarians at a national level and as Macedonians at a regional, but not ethnic level. As of 2001, the total population of Bulgarian Macedonia is 341,245, while the ethnic Macedonians living in the same region are 3,117. The Bulgarian Macedonians also self-identify as Piriners (пиринци, pirintsi) to avoid confusion with the neighboring ethnic group. +Macedo-Romanians can be used as an alternative name for Aromanians, people living throughout the southern Balkans, especially in northern Greece, Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria, and as an emigrant community in Northern Dobruja, Romania. According to Ethnologue, their total population in all countries is 306,237. This not very frequent appellation is the only one with the disambiguating portmanteau, both within the members of the same ethnic group and the other ethnic groups in the area. To make matters more confusing, Aromanians are often called Machedoni by Romanians, as opposed to the citizens of North Macedonia, who are called Macedoneni. "Macedo-Romanian" is also used for the Megleno-Romanians. +The ethnic Albanians living in the region of Macedonia, as defined above, are mainly concentrated in North Macedonia (especially in the northwestern part that borders Kosovo and Albania), and less in the Albanian minor sub-region of Macedonia around the Lake Ohrid. As of 2021, the total population of Albanians in North Macedonia is 446,245 or 24.3% of the country's total population. + +== Linguistics == + +As language is one of the elements tied in with national identity, the same disputes that are voiced over demographics are also found in linguistics. There are two main disputes about the use of the word Macedonian to describe a linguistic phenomenon, be it a language or a dialect: + +The classification of Ancient Macedonian is still debated. At this time it is not conclusively determined whether it was an ancient Greek dialect, either Northwest Greek or Aeolic Greek, a sister language of Ancient Greek forming a Hellenic (i.e. Greco-Macedonian) supergroup, or viewed as an Indo-European language which is a close cousin to Greek (and perhaps somewhat related to Thracian or Phrygian languages) by some older theories. The epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in the Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which are the first texts written in Macedonian, such as the Pella curse tablet. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings, Emilio Crespo and most scholars suggest that Ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect. Nonetheless, the volume of surviving public and private inscriptions that have been discovered shows that the main language of formal discourse and official communication in Ancient Macedonia was Attic and then Koine Greek. +Modern Macedonian language, a South Slavic language, is not related to Ancient Macedonian, except for both belonging to the Indo-European family. It is currently the subject of two major disputes. The first is over the name (alternative ways of referring to this language can be found in the terminology by group section and in the article Macedonian language naming dispute). The second dispute is over the existence of a Macedonian language distinct from Bulgarian, the denial of which is a position supported by nationalist groups, Bulgarian and other linguists and also by many ordinary Bulgarians. +Macedonian is also the name of a dialect of Modern Greek, a language of the Indo-European family. Additionally, Aromanian (or "Macedo-Romanian") is an Eastern Romance language, spoken in Southeastern Europe by the Aromanians. The Megleno-Romanians, who speak Megleno-Romanian, are also known sometimes as "Macedo-Romanians". + +== Politics == + +The controversies in geographic, linguistic and demographic terms, are also manifested in international politics. Among the autonomous countries that were formed as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, was the (until then) subnational entity of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, by the official name of "Socialist Republic of Macedonia", the others being Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. The peaceful break-away of that nation resulted in the change of its name to "Republic of Macedonia". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b0cd32eb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Macedonia (terminology)" +chunk: 5/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +For almost three decades, Republic of Macedonia was the constitutional name of North Macedonia, the sovereign state which occupies the northern part of the geographical region of Macedonia, which roughly coincides with the geographic subregion of Vardar Macedonia. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) was a term used for this state by the main international organisations, including the United Nations, +European Union, +NATO, +IMF, +WTO, +IOC, +World Bank, +EBRD, +OSCE, +FIFA, +and FIBA. +The term was introduced in 1993 by the United Nations, following a naming dispute with Greece. Some countries used this term as a stop-gap measure, pending resolution of the naming dispute. +Greece and North Macedonia each considered this name a compromise: it was opposed by some Greeks for containing the Greek self-identifying name Macedonia, and by many in North Macedonia for not being the short self-identifying name. For years Greece used it in both the abbreviated (FYROM or ΠΓΔΜ) and spellout form (Πρώην Γιουγκοσλαβική Δημοκρατία της Μακεδονίας). +The Macedonia naming dispute ended on 12 February 2019 when the two countries reached the Prespa agreement and the then-Republic of Macedonia changed its name to North Macedonia. +Macedonia refers also to a geographic region in Greece, which roughly coincides with the southernmost major geographic subregion of Macedonia. It is divided into the three administrative sub-regions (regions) of West, Central, and East Macedonia and Thrace. The region is overseen by the Ministry for Macedonia–Thrace. The capital of Greek Macedonia is Thessaloniki, which is the largest city in the region of Macedonia; Greeks often call it the "co-capital" of Greece. + +=== Ethnic Macedonian nationalism === + +Ethnic Macedonian irredentists following the idea of a "United Macedonia" have expressed claims to what they refer to as "Aegean Macedonia" (in Greece), "Pirin Macedonia" (in Bulgaria), "Mala Prespa and Golo Bardo" (in Albania), and "Gora and Prohor Pčinjski" (in Serbia). +Loring Danforth, a professor of anthropology at Bates College, asserts that ethnic Macedonian nationalists, who are concerned with demonstrating the continuity between ancient and modern Macedonians, deny they are Slavs and claim to be the direct descendants of Alexander the Great and the ancient Macedonians. Danforth stresses, however, that the more moderate Macedonian position, publicly endorsed by Kiro Gligorov, the first president of the Republic of Macedonia, is modern Macedonians have no relation to Alexander the Great, but are a Slavic people whose ancestors arrived in Macedonia in the sixth century AD. Proponents of both the extreme and the moderate Macedonian positions stress that the ancient Macedonians were a distinct non-Greek people. In addition to affirming the existence of the Macedonian nation, Macedonians are concerned with affirming the existence of a unique Macedonian language as well. They thus emphasize that the Macedonian language has a history dating to the Old Church Slavonic used by Saints Cyril and Methodius in the ninth century. +Although ethnic Macedonians agree Macedonian minorities exist in Bulgaria and Greece and these minorities have been subjected to harsh policies of forced assimilation, there are two different positions with regard to what their future should be. These were summarized by Danforth: + +The goal of more extreme Macedonian nationalists is to create a "free, united, and independent Macedonia" by "liberating" the parts of Macedonia "temporarily occupied" by Bulgaria and Greece. More moderate Macedonian nationalists recognize the inviolability of the Bulgarian and Greek borders and explicitly renounce any territorial claims against the two countries. They do, however, demand that Bulgaria and Greece recognize the existence of Macedonian minorities in their countries and grant them the basic human rights they deserve. +Schoolbooks and official government publications in the Republic have shown the country as part of an "unliberated" whole, although the constitution of the Republic, especially after its amendment in 1995, does not include any territorial claims. + +=== Greek nationalism === + +Danforth describes the Greek position on Macedonia as follows: because Alexander the Great and the ancient Macedonians were Greeks, and because ancient and modern Greece are bound in an unbroken line of racial and cultural continuity, it is only Greeks who have the right to identify themselves as Macedonians. According to Danforth, this is why Greeks generally refer to Ethnic Macedonians as "Skopians", a practice comparable to calling Greeks "Athenians". Danforth asserts that the negation of Macedonian identity in Greek nationalist ideology focuses on three main points: the existence of a Macedonian nation, a Macedonian language, and a Macedonian minority in Greece. More specifically, Danforth says: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a4dc4e843 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Macedonia (terminology)" +chunk: 6/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +From the Greek nationalist perspective there cannot be a Macedonian nation since there has never been an independent Macedonian state: the Macedonian nation is an "artificial creation", an "invention", of Tito, who "baptized" a "mosaic of nationalities" with the Greek name "Macedonians". Similarly Greek nationalists claim that because the language spoken by the ancient Macedonians was Greek, the Slavic language spoken by the "Skopians" cannot be called "the Macedonian language." Greek sources generally refer to it as "the linguistic idiom of Skopje" and describe it as a corrupt and impoverished dialect of Bulgarian. Finally, the Greek government denies the existence of a Macedonian minority in northern Greece, claiming that there exists only a small group of "Slavophone Hellenes" or "bilingual Greeks", who speak Greek and "a local Slavic dialect" but have a "Greek national consciousness". +Thus from the Greek nationalist perspective the use of the term "Macedonian" by the "Slavs of Skopje" constitutes a "felony", an "act of plagiarism" against the Greek people. Greek nationalists believe that, by calling themselves "Macedonians", the ethnic Macedonians are "stealing" a Greek name, "embezzling" Greek cultural heritage, and "falsifying" Greek history. Greek fears that the use of the name "Macedonia" by the ethnic Macedonians will inevitably lead to the assertion of irredentist claims to territory in Greek Macedonia are heightened by fairly recent historical events. +From a different point of view, Demetrius Andreas M.-A. Floudas, of Hughes Hall, Cambridge, a leading commentator on the naming dispute from the Greek side, sums up this nationalistic reaction as follows: the Republic of Macedonia was accused of usurping the historical and cultural patrimony of Greece "in order to furnish a nucleus of national self-esteem for the new state and provide its citizens with a new, distinct, non-Bulgarian, non-Serbian, non-Albanian identity". The Republic emerged thus to Greek eyes as a country with a personality crisis, "a nondescript parasitic state" that lived off the history of its neighbours, because it allegedly lacked an illustrious past of its own, for the sake of achieving cohesion for what Greeks regarded as an "unhomogeneous little new nation". +Although generally supportive of the Greek position, Floudas criticises some elements of the Greek stance as follows: + +What appeared to go unquestioned in Greece nevertheless was whether there was indeed substance in the claims of FYROM that their citizens do feel members of a distinct 'Macedonian' nationality. To answer this appropriately, neither the decades of persistent indoctrination [during Tito's time] should be left out of consideration, nor Greece's violent struggle since 1991 in contrast to her complacency for the 45 years before this. If it was a common bond that the people in Skopje wanted, they found it by claiming this name and rallying the whole population in a united resistance front under a common cause against pugnacious Greece. After this bitter and protracted struggle, even the ones in FYROM who might have not initially been infused with any distinct Macedonian ethnic identity must be feeling very Macedonian now, thanks to Greece +As of early 2008, the official position of Greece, adopted unanimously by the four largest political parties, has made a more moderate shift towards accepting a "composite name solution" (i.e. the use of the name "Macedonia" plus some qualifier), so as to disambiguate the former Yugoslav Republic from the Greek region of Macedonia and the wider geographic region of the same name. + +== Names in the languages of the region == +Albanian: Maqedonia +Aromanian: Machidunia/Machedonia +Bulgarian: Македония (Makedonia) +Greek: Μακεδονία (Makedonia) +Ladino: Makedonia, מקדוניה +Macedonian: Македонија (Makedonija) +Megleno-Romanian: Machedonia +Romany: Makedoniya +Serbian: Македонија, Makedonija +Serbian (archaic): Маћедонија, Maćedonija +Turkish: Makedonya + +== Terminology by group == + +=== Bulgarian === +Gărkomani (Гъркомани) is a derogatory term used to refer to the largest portion of the Slavic-speaking minority of Macedonia in Greece who self-identify as Greeks. +Macedonian (Македонец) is a person originating from the region of Macedonia – the term has only regional, not ethnic meaning, and it usually means a Bulgarian, or a clarification is made (Greek, Albanian...). +Macedonian (Македонски) and the Slavic dialects of Greece are considered dialects of Bulgarian by Bulgarian linguists; not independent languages or dialects of other languages (e.g. Serbian). This is also the popular view in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian government, therefore, has officially recognized the language merely as "the constitutional language of the Republic of North Macedonia". Translations are officially called "adaptations". +Macedonism (Македонизъм) is the political ideology or simply views that the Slavs of Macedonia are an ethnic group separate from Bulgarians, with their own separate language, history and culture. It is also used to describe what Bulgarians view as the falsification of their history whether by Macedonian or foreign scholars who subscribe to the Macedonist point of view. It carries strong negative connotations. +Macedonian studies (Македонистика) is a term generally synonymous with disciplines such as the study of the origins of the Macedonian language and history of the Macedonian people conducted in North Macedonia and in the former Yugoslavia. It is generally considered in Bulgaria to be a kind of pseudoscience. +Macedonist (Македонист) is a person (typically Macedonian Slav) who believes that Macedonian Slavs are not ethnic Bulgarians but a separate ethnic group, directly descended from the ancient Macedonians. It is a more negatively charged synonym of "Macedonian nationalist". More rarely it is used for someone associated with the study of the origins of the Macedonian language and history of the Macedonian people (not necessarily from North Macedonia or Yugoslavia), whose studies support the official historical doctrine of North Macedonia or former Yugoslavia. +Sărbomani (Сърбомани) is a derogatory term used to refer to people in North Macedonia self-identifying as Serbian, or having a pro-Serb orientation. It is also used pejoratively by Bulgarians to refer to Macedonians who refuse the Bulgarian national idea. +Old Bulgarian (Старобългарски) is the name Bulgarians give to the Old Church Slavonic language used in the Ohrid Literary School among others. In contrast, Old Church Slavonic is rarely referred to by ethnic Macedonians as "Old Macedonian" or "Old Slavic". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..826b43b72 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Macedonia (terminology)" +chunk: 7/7 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Greek === +Macedonia (Μακεδονία) usually refers to the region of Greek Macedonia. It can also refer to the modern general definition of Macedonia, but rarely so. +Macedonian or Makedon (Μακεδόνας, Μακεδών) refers to an ethnically Greek Macedonian. +Ancient Macedonian or Makedon (Αρχαίος Μακεδόνας, Μακεδών) refers to an Ancient Macedonian. +Macedonian Slav, Slavic Macedonian or Slavomacedonian (Σλαβομακεδόνας) refers to a member of the Macedonian ethnic group. +Macedonian Slavic, Slavic Macedonian or Slavomacedonian language (Σλαβομακεδονικά) refers to the Macedonian language. +Republic of Skopje or State of Skopje (Δημοκρατία των Σκοπίων, Κράτος των Σκοπίων) refers to North Macedonia. +Skopje (Σκόπια) refers to either North Macedonia or its capital city of Skopje. +Skopjan (Σκοπιανός) refers to a member of the ethnic Macedonian group living in North Macedonia or outside it, but not to any group native to Greece. +Skopjan language or language of Skopje (Σκοπιανά, γλώσσα των Σκοπίων) refers to the Macedonian language. +Slavophone (Σλαβόφωνος), meaning Slavic speaker, refers to a member of the Slavic speaking minority in Greece. +The last six terms are often considered offensive in North Macedonia. + +=== Ethnic Macedonian === +Macedonia (Македонија) can refer to either the region of Macedonia or the Republic of North Macedonia. +Macedonians (Македонци) generally refers to the Macedonian ethnic group associated with North Macedonia, neighbouring countries and abroad. +Aegean Macedonia (Егејска Македонија – Egejska Makedonija) refers to Macedonia in Greece (as defined by the administrative division of Greece). +Pirin Macedonia (Пиринска Македонија – Pirinska Makedonija) refers to the Blagoevgrad Province of Bulgaria (as defined by the administrative division of Bulgaria). +Bugaraši (бугараши) or bugarofili (бугарофили) are derogatory terms used to refer to people in North Macedonia self-identifying as Bulgarian, or having a pro-Bulgarian orientation. +Egejci (Егејци) refers to people living in North Macedonia and abroad that are originating from Aegean Macedonia (Greek Macedonia), mainly refugees from the Greek Civil War, also known as Aegean Macedonians. +Grkomani (гркомани) is a derogatory term used to refer to the largest portion of the Slavic-speaking minority of Macedonia in Greece who self-identify as Greeks. +Srbomani (србомани) or srbofili (србофили) are derogatory terms used to refer to people in North Macedonia self-identifying as Serbian, or having a pro-Serb orientation. +The first three terms are often considered offensive in Greece. + +== See also == + +List of homonymous states and regions +Macedonians (obsolete terminology) + +== Notes == + +== References == + +=== Sources === + +== External links == + The dictionary definition of Macedonia at Wiktionary \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massenerhebung_effect-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massenerhebung_effect-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c36c8a56d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massenerhebung_effect-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Massenerhebung effect" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massenerhebung_effect" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:54.199026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Massenerhebung effect (German for "mountain mass elevation") describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location. In general, mountains surrounded by large ranges will tend to have higher tree lines than more isolated mountains due to heat retention and wind shadowing. This effect is important for determining weather patterns in mountainous regions, as regions of similar altitude and latitude may nonetheless have much warmer or colder climates based on surrounding mountain ranges. +For example, in Borneo, Gunung Palung, located on the coast, has moss forest at 900 m, while the montane forest on Gunung Mulu starts at 1200 m and at 1800 m on Mount Kinabalu. + + +== See also == + +Altitudinal zonation +Elevational diversity gradient +Krummholz + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafan-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafan-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c6d9445e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafan-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Megafan" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafan" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:55.408814+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An alluvial megafan is a large cone or fan-shaped deposit built up by complex deposition patterns of stream flows originating from a single source point known as an apex. Megafans differ from alluvial fans in their sheer size. Due to their larger size, they may be formed by different geomorphic processes. The criterion of what differentiates megafans from typical alluvial fans is an artificial one of scale. The scale divide varies in the literature, with the most common being a 100-km apex-to-toe length. Alternative values as little of 30-km apex-to-toe length have been proposed, as well as alternative metrics like coverage areas of greater than 10,000 square-km. + + +== Formation == +The flow source from the apex occupies a portion of the fans apron, building up that portion with depositions. Through complex processes like avulsion, the stream changes course over time occupying different areas of the fan. Over long periods of time, sediment builds up creating a fan formation. Generally the three-dimensional architecture of megafan deposits consists of multi-storied sandsheets, gravel in upper reaches, interbedded with overbank muddy layers, thickness and facies distribution vary from upstream to downstream reaches +Rivers forming large fans happen in various settings around the world most notably, in foreland settings (e.g. Kosi, Gandak, Pastaza), intracratonic basins (e.g. Pantanal, Taquari, Cuiaba), and in complex settings like in the case of Pilcomayo. Although the distribution of megafans occur throughout many environments, the tropics are home of the largest megafans of the world in the Chaco Plain, with the largest being the Pilcomayo. + + +=== Examples of Megafans === +Pilcomayo - Chaco Plain +Grande - Chaco Plain +Bermejo - Argentina +Kosi - Gangetic plain of India +Gandak - Gangetic plain of India +Okavango - the Okavango delta in Botswana +Taquari + + +== Gallery == + + +== See also == +Alluvium +Alluvial plain +Alluvial fan +Avulsion +Floodplain +Placer deposit +River delta +Subaqueous fan + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..461eafd16 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,174 @@ +--- +title: "Mesa" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:56.665563+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A mesa is an isolated, flat-topped elevation, ridge, or hill, bounded from all sides by steep escarpments and standing distinctly above a surrounding plain. Mesas consist of flat-lying soft sedimentary rocks, such as shales, capped by a resistant layer of harder rock, like sandstone or limestone, forming a caprock that protects the flat summit. The caprock may also include dissected lava flows or eroded duricrust. +Unlike a plateau, which is a broader, elevated region that may not have horizontal bedrock (e.g., Tibetan Plateau), a mesa is defined by flat-lying strata and steep-sided isolation. Large, flat-topped plateaus with horizontal strata, less isolated and often part of extensive plateau systems, are called tablelands. A butte is a smaller, eroded mesa with a limited summit, while a cuesta has a gentle dip slope and one steep escarpment due to tilted strata. + + +== Names, definition and etymology == +As noted by geologist Kirk Bryan in 1922, mesas "...stand distinctly above the surrounding country, as a table stands above the floor upon which it rests". It is from this appearance that the term mesa was adopted from the Spanish word mesa, meaning "table". +A mesa is similar to, but has a more extensive summit area than, a butte. There is no agreed size limit that separates mesas from either buttes or plateaus. For example, the flat-topped mountains which are known as mesas in the Cockburn Range of North Western Australia have areas as large as 350 km2 (140 mi2). In contrast, flat topped hills with areas as small as 0.1 km2 (0.039 mi2) in the Elbe Sandstone Mountains, Germany, are described as mesas. +Less strictly, a very broad, flat-topped, usually isolated hill or mountain of moderate height bounded on at least one side by a steep cliff or slope and representing an erosion remnant also have been called mesas. +In the English-language geomorphic and geologic literature, other terms for mesa have also been used. For example, in the Roraima region of Venezuela, the traditional name, tepui, from the local Pomón language, and the term table mountains have been used to describe local flat-topped mountains. Similar landforms in Australia are known as tablehills, table-top hills, tent hills, or jump ups (jump-ups). The German term Tafelberg has also been used in the English scientific literature in the past. + + +== Formation == +Mesas form by weathering and erosion of horizontally layered rocks that have been uplifted by tectonic activity. Variations in the ability of different types of rock to resist weathering and erosion cause the weaker types of rocks to be eroded away, leaving the more resistant types of rocks topographically higher than their surroundings. This process is called differential erosion. The most resistant rock types include sandstone, conglomerate, quartzite, basalt, chert, limestone, lava flows and sills. Lava flows and sills, in particular, are very resistant to weathering and erosion, and often form the flat top, or caprock, of a mesa. The less resistant rock layers are mainly made up of shale, a softer rock that weathers and erodes more easily. +The differences in strength of various rock layers are what give mesas their distinctive shape. Less resistant rocks are eroded away on the surface into valleys, where they collect water drainage from the surrounding area, while the more resistant layers are left standing out. A large area of very resistant rock, such as a sill, may shield the layers below it from erosion while the softer rock surrounding it is eroded into valleys, thus forming a caprock. +Differences in rock type also reflect on the sides of a mesa, as instead of smooth slopes, the sides are broken into a staircase pattern called "cliff-and-bench topography". The more resistant layers form the cliffs, or stairsteps, while the less resistant layers form gentle slopes, or benches, between the cliffs. Cliffs retreat and are eventually cut off from the main cliff, or plateau, by basal sapping. When the cliff edge does not retreat uniformly but instead is indented by headward eroding streams, a section can be cut off from the main cliff, forming a mesa. +Basal sapping occurs as water flowing around the rock layers of the mesa erodes the underlying soft shale layers, either as surface runoff from the mesa top or from groundwater moving through permeable overlying layers, which leads to slumping and flowage of the shale. As the underlying shale erodes away, it can no longer support the overlying cliff layers, which collapse and retreat. When the caprock has caved away to the point where only little remains, it is known as a butte. + + +== Examples and locations == + + +=== Australia === +Cockburn Range, Western Australia +Mount Conner, Northern Territory + + +=== Czechia === +Děčínský Sněžník, Ústí nad Labem Region + + +=== France === +Mont Aiguille, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes + + +=== Germany === +Königstein, Saxony +Lilienstein, Saxony +Papststein, Saxony +Pfaffenstein, Saxony +Quirl, Saxony + + +=== India === +Several near Owk mandal, Andhra Pradesh + + +=== Iraq === +Amadiya, Kurdistan Region + + +=== Ireland === +Kings Mountain, County Sligo +Knocknarea, County Sligo +Knocknashee, County Sligo + + +=== Israel === +Masada, Southern District +Har Qatum + + +=== Italy === +Monte Santo, Sardinia + + +=== Poland === +Szczeliniec Wielki, Lower Silesian Voivodeship + + +=== United Kingdom === + + +==== England ==== +Castle Folds, Cumbria +Cross Fell, Cumbria +Goldsborough Carr, County Durham +Higger Tor, South Yorkshire +Ingleborough, North Yorkshire +Pen-y-ghent, North Yorkshire +Shacklesborough, County Durham + + +==== Scotland ==== +Healabhal Mhòr, Isle of Skye + + +=== United States === +Many but not all American mesas lie within the Basin and Range Province. + + +==== Arizona ==== +Anderson Mesa +Black Mesa (Apache-Navajo Counties) +Black Mesa (Navajo County) +Black Mesa (Warm Springs) +Black Mountain +Cummings Mesa +First Mesa +Horseshoe Mesa +Indian Mesa +Second Mesa + + +==== Arkansas ==== +Mount Magazine + + +==== California ==== +Redonda Mesa + + +==== Colorado ==== +Battlement Mesa +Grand Mesa - largest flat-topped mountain in the world. +Green Mountain +Log Hill Mesa +North Table Mountain +Raton Mesa + + +==== Nevada ==== +Mormon Mesa +Pahute Mesa + + +==== Oklahoma ==== +Black Mesa +Mesa de Maya + + +==== Texas ==== +Floating Mesa +Llano Estacado + + +==== Utah ==== +Checkerboard Mesa +Crazy Quilt Mesa +Hurricane Mesa +Sams Mesa +Smith Mesa +South Caineville Mesa +Thompson Mesa +Wildcat Mesa +Wingate Mesa + + +==== Wisconsin ==== +Gibraltar Rock +Grandad Bluff +Mile Bluff +Quincy Bluff +Rattlesnake Mound + + +== On Mars == + +A transitional zone on Mars, known as fretted terrain, lies between highly cratered highlands and less cratered lowlands. The younger lowland exhibits steep walled mesas and knobs. The mesa and knobs are separated by flat lying lowlands. They are thought to form from ice-facilitated mass wasting processes from ground or atmospheric sources. The mesas and knobs decrease in size with increasing distance from the highland escarpment. The relief of the mesas range from nearly 2 km (1.2 mi) to 100 m (330 ft) depending on the distance they are from the escarpment. + + +== See also == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cf60efb7d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,170 @@ +--- +title: "Monolith" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:57.896574+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A monolith is a geological feature consisting of a single massive stone or rock, such as some mountains. Erosion usually exposes the geological formations, which are often made of very hard and solid igneous or metamorphic rock. Some monoliths are volcanic plugs, solidified lava filling the vent of an extinct volcano. +In architecture, the term has considerable overlap with megalith, which is normally used for prehistory, and may be used in the contexts of rock-cut architecture that remains attached to solid rock, as in monolithic church, or for exceptionally large stones such as obelisks, statues, monolithic columns or large architraves, that may have been moved a considerable distance after quarrying. It may also be used of large glacial erratics moved by natural forces. +The word derives, via the Latin monolithus, from the Ancient Greek word μονόλιθος (monólithos), from μόνος (mónos) meaning "one" or "single" and λίθος (líthos) meaning "stone". + + +== Geological monoliths == +Large, well-known monoliths include: + + +=== Africa === +Aso Rock, Nigeria +Ben Amera, Mauritania +Brandberg Mountain, Namibia +Sibebe, Eswatini +Zuma Rock, Nigeria +Mount Lubiri, Angola +Mount Poi, Kenya +Great Sphinx of Giza +Oruku Rock, Ososo, Edo State, Nigeria + + +=== Antarctica === +Scullin monolith + + +=== Asia === + +Batu Caves, Selangor, Malaysia +Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India +Gilbert Hill, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India +Kailasa temple, Ellora, Maharashtra, India +Namakkal Fort, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India +Malaikottai, Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India +St. Thomas Mount, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India +Bellary Fort, Bellary, India +Madhugiri Betta, Karnataka, India +Yana, Karnataka, India +Bhongir, Telangana, India +Ekasila, Warangal, India +Mount Kelam, Indonesia +Mount Pico de Loro, Philippines +Mount Pulumbato, Philippines +Sangla Hill, Pakistan +Savandurga, Karnataka, India +Sigiriya, Sri Lanka + + +=== Australia === +Bald Rock, near Tenterfield, New South Wales +Mount Augustus (Burringurrah), Western Australia (NOTE: this is not actually monolith as popularly claimed, but, rather, a monocline) +Mount Coolum, Queensland +Mount Wudinna, South Australia +Pine Mountain, Victoria +Uluru, Northern Territory + + +=== Europe === + +Kalamos, Anafi, Greece +Katskhi Pillar, Georgia +Levski G., Sofia, Bulgaria +Logan Rock, Treen, Cornwall, United Kingdom +Monolithe de Sardières, Sollières-Sardières, France +Penyal d'Ifac, Calpe, Valencian Community, Spain +Peña de Arcos, Arcos de la Frontera, Andalusia, Spain +Peña de los Enamorados, Antequera, Andalusia, Spain (a World Heritage Site) +Rauk, Sweden +Rock of Gibraltar, Gibraltar +Rock of Monaco, Monaco-Ville, Monaco +Rock Cappa, San Luca, Italy + + +=== North America === + + +==== United States ==== + +Angels Landing, Zion National Park, Utah +Beacon Rock, Columbia River Gorge, Washington +Bottleneck Peak, Sids Mountain, Utah +Castle Rock, Pineville, West Virginia +Chimney Rock, Bayard, Nebraska +Chimney Rock, Chimney Rock, North Carolina +Courthouse and Jail Rocks, Bridgeport, Nebraska +Devils Tower, Wyoming +El Capitan, Yosemite National Park, California +Enchanted Rock, Llano County, Texas +Frog Woman Rock, Mendocino County, California +Great White Throne, Zion National Park, Utah +Half Dome, Yosemite National Park, California +Haystack Rock, Clatsop County, Oregon +Looking Glass Rock, Transylvania County, North Carolina +Moro Rock, Sequoia National Park, California +Quincy Quarries Reservation, Quincy, Massachusetts +Scotts Bluff National Monument, Gering, Nebraska +Shiprock, San Juan County, New Mexico +Stone Mountain, Stone Mountain, Georgia +Stone Mountain, Stone Mountain, North Carolina +Tooth of Time, Cimarron, New Mexico +Wolf Rock, Linn County, Oregon + + +==== Canada ==== +Stawamus Chief, Squamish, British Columbia +Mingan Archipelago National Park Reserve, Quebec' ' ' + + +==== Mexico ==== +La Peña de Bernal, Queretaro; claimed to be the world's third-largest monolith +Las Piedrotas, near the town of Tapalpa, Jalisco. + + +=== South America === + +Cochamó Valley, Several granitic monoliths, Chile +El Peñón, also known as El Peñol Stone or simply La Piedra, Colombia +Pão de Açúcar, Brazil +Pedra da Gávea, Brazil the world's largest monolith on the coastline +Pedra da Galinha Choca, Brazil +Torres del Paine, Chile + + +=== Outside Earth === +Phobos monolith on Phobos +Mars monolith + + +== Monumental monoliths == + +A structure which has been excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcropping of rock. + +Aztec calendar stone – "Stone of the Sun" +The Church of Saint George in Lalibela, Ethiopia, is one of a number of monolithic churches in Ethiopia. +The vast monoliths which went into the walls of Osaka Castle, Japan. +Coyolxauhqui Stone another Aztec monolith +Ellora Caves – UNESCO World Heritage Site +Great Sphinx of Giza – "The Egyptian Sphinx" +Gommateshwara statue of Bahubali at Sravanabelagola, Carnataca, India +Obelisks – see this article for a list +Ogham stones, inscribed standing stones throughout Ireland +Vishapakar, ancient dragon stones in the Armenian highlands +Runestones +Standing stones +Stelae +Stone circle +Stone of the Pregnant Woman, Baalbek +Stonehenge in present-day England +The Longstones or the Devil's Quoits, Avebury, Wiltshire, England +Architecture of Vijayanagar in present-day south India + + +== See also == + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Regarding Uluru/Ayers Rock and earlier representations of it as the largest monolith: GA.gov.au, ABC.net.au, Wayoutback.com.au \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab3bd541c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Mountain" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:59.225811+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A mountain is an elevated portion of the surface of a planet, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although there are no universally accepted definitions, a mountain is usually considered higher than a hill. Minimum height requirements range from 300 m (984 ft) above the surrounding land, 610 m (2,001 ft) above sea level and average elevations between 1,000 m (3,281 ft) and 3,500 m (11,483 ft) or higher. It may either have a limited summit area or be a smaller plateau with high elevation and steep sides. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges. +Mountains are formed through tectonic forces, erosion, or volcanism, which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years. Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through the action of weathering, through slumping and other forms of mass wasting, as well as through erosion by rivers and glaciers. +High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction, such as mining and logging, along with recreation, such as mountain climbing and skiing. +The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171 m (69,459 ft). The highest mountain on Earth from base to peak is Mauna Kea in Hawaii, which rises 9,330 m (30,610 ft) from its base at the bottom of the ocean; some scientists consider it to be the tallest on Earth. + +== Definition == + +There is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain. In the Oxford English Dictionary a mountain is defined as "a natural elevation of the earth surface rising more or less abruptly from the surrounding level and attaining an altitude which, relatively to the adjacent elevation, is impressive or notable." +Whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. John Whittow's Dictionary of Physical Geography states "Some authorities regard eminences above 600 metres (1,969 ft) as mountains, those below being referred to as hills." Conversely, some lower mountain ranges with an average elevation between 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) and 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) may instead be called hills, such as the Sivalik Hills in the Himalayas and the Black Hills in the United States. +In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, a mountain is usually defined as any summit at least 2,000 feet (610 m) high, which accords with the official UK government's definition that a mountain, for the purposes of access, is a summit of 2,000 feet (610 m) or higher. In addition, some definitions also include a topographical prominence requirement, such as that the mountain rises 300 metres (984 ft) above the surrounding terrain. At one time, the United States Board on Geographic Names defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet (305 m) or taller, but has abandoned the definition since the 1970s. Any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill. However, today, the United States Geological Survey concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the US. + +The UN Environmental Programme's definition of "mountainous environment" includes any of the following: + +Class 1: Elevation greater than 4,500 m (14,764 ft). +Class 2: Elevation between 3,500 and 4,500 m (11,483 and 14,764 ft). +Class 3: Elevation between 2,500 and 3,500 m (8,202 and 11,483 ft). +Class 4: Elevation between 1,500 and 2,500 m (4,921 and 8,202 ft), with a slope greater than 2 degrees. +Class 5: Elevation between 1,000 and 1,500 m (3,281 and 4,921 ft), with a slope greater than 5 degrees or 300 m (984 ft) elevation range within 7 km (4.3 mi). +Class 6: Elevation between 300 and 1,000 m (984 and 3,281 ft), with a 300 m (984 ft) elevation range within 7 km (4.3 mi). +Class 7: Isolated inner basins and plateaus less than 25 km2 (9.7 mi2) in area that are completely surrounded by Class 1 to 6 mountains, but do not themselves meet criteria for Class 1 to 6 mountains. +Using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous. + +== Geology == + +There are three main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, and block. All three types are formed from plate tectonics: when portions of the Earth's crust move, crumple, and dive. Compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain. Major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity. + +=== Volcanoes === + +Volcanoes are formed when a plate is pushed below another plate, or at a mid-ocean ridge or hotspot. At a depth of around 100 km (60 mi), melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms magma that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a shield volcano or a stratovolcano. Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the United States. + +=== Fold mountains === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4052040df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Mountain" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:59.225811+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Fold mountains occur when two plates collide: shortening occurs along thrust faults and the crust is overthickened. Since the less dense continental crust "floats" on the denser mantle rocks beneath, the weight of any crustal material forced upward to form hills, plateaus or mountains must be balanced by the buoyancy force of a much greater volume forced downward into the mantle. Thus the continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines: in asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and overturned folds. The Balkan Mountains and the Jura Mountains are examples of fold mountains. + +=== Block mountains === + +Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a plane where rocks have moved past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. This kind of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges and Rhine valley, and the Basin and Range Province of Western North America. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned. + +=== Erosion === + +During and following uplift, mountains are subjected to the agents of erosion (water, wind, ice, and gravity) which gradually wear the uplifted area down. Erosion causes the surface of mountains to be younger than the rocks that form the mountains themselves. Glacial processes produce characteristic landforms, such as pyramidal peaks, knife-edge arêtes, and bowl-shaped cirques that can contain lakes. Plateau mountains, such as the Catskills, are formed from the erosion of an uplifted plateau. + +== Climate == + +Climate in the mountains becomes colder at high elevations, due to an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height. +However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature dependence. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or 5.4 °F (3.0 °C) per 1000 feet) of altitude. +The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses to form clouds and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometre or 3 °F (1.7 °C) per 1000 feet) +The actual lapse rate can vary by altitude and by location. +Therefore, moving up 100 m (330 ft) on a mountain is roughly equivalent to moving 80 kilometres (45 miles or 0.75° of latitude) towards the nearest pole. This relationship is only approximate, however, since local factors such as proximity to oceans (such as the Arctic Ocean) can drastically modify the climate. As the altitude increases, the main form of precipitation becomes snow and the winds increase. +The effect of the climate on the ecology at an elevation can be largely captured through a combination of amount of precipitation, and the biotemperature, as described by Leslie Holdridge in 1947. Biotemperature is the mean temperature; all temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) are considered to be 0 °C. When the temperature is below 0 °C, plants are dormant, so the exact temperature is unimportant. The peaks of mountains with permanent snow can have a biotemperature below 1.5 °C (34.7 °F). + +=== Climate change === +Mountain environments are particularly sensitive to anthropogenic climate change and are currently undergoing alterations unprecedented in last 10,000 years. The effect of global warming on mountain regions (relative to lowlands) is still an active area of study. Observational studies show that highlands are warming faster than nearby lowlands, but when compared globally, the effect disappears. Precipitation in highland areas is not increasing as quickly as in lowland areas. Climate modeling give mixed signals about whether a particular highland area will have increased or decreased precipitation. +Climate change has started to affect the physical and ecological systems of mountains. In recent decades mountain ice caps and glaciers have experienced accelerating ice loss. The melting of the glaciers, permafrost and snow has caused underlying surfaces to become increasingly unstable. Landslip hazards have increased in both number and magnitude due to climate change. Patterns of river discharge will also be significantly affected by climate change, which in turn will have significant impacts on communities that rely on water fed from alpine sources. Nearly half of mountain areas provide essential or supportive water resources for mainly urban populations, in particular during the dry season and in semiarid areas such as in central Asia. +Alpine ecosystems can be particularly climatically sensitive. Many mid-latitude mountains act as cold climate refugia, with the ecosystems occupying small environmental niches. As well as the direct influence that the change in climate can have on an ecosystem, there is also the indirect one on the soils from changes in stability and soil development. + +== Ecology == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5b5d624c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Mountain" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:59.225811+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The colder climate on mountains affects the plants and animals residing on mountains. A particular set of plants and animals tend to be adapted to a relatively narrow range of climate. Thus, ecosystems tend to lie along elevation bands of roughly constant climate. This is called altitudinal zonation. +In regions with dry climates, the tendency of mountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which enhances zonation. +Some plants and animals found in altitudinal zones tend to become isolated since the conditions above and below a particular zone will be inhospitable and thus constrain their movements or dispersal. These isolated ecological systems are known as sky islands. +Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be present will be of the alpine type, resembling tundra. Just below the tree line, one may find subalpine forests of needleleaf trees, which can withstand cold, dry conditions. Below that, montane forests grow. In the temperate portions of the earth, those forests tend to be needleleaf trees, while in the tropics, they can be broadleaf trees growing in a rainforest. + +== Mountains and humans == + +The highest known permanently tolerable altitude is at 5,950 metres (19,520 ft). At very high altitudes, the decreasing atmospheric pressure means that less oxygen is available for breathing, and there is less protection against solar radiation (UV). Above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) elevation, there is not enough oxygen to support human life. This is sometimes referred to as the "death zone". The summits of Mount Everest and K2 are in the death zone. + +=== Mountain societies and economies === +Mountains are generally less preferable for human habitation than lowlands, because of harsh weather and little level ground suitable for agriculture. While 7% of the land area of Earth is above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), only 140 million people live above that altitude and only 20–30 million people above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) elevation. About half of mountain dwellers live in the Andes, Central Asia, and Africa. + +With limited access to infrastructure, only a handful of human communities exist above 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) of elevation. Many are small and have heavily specialized economies, often relying on industries such as agriculture, mining, and tourism. An example of such a specialized town is La Rinconada, Peru, a gold-mining town and the highest elevation human habitation at 5,100 metres (16,700 ft). A counterexample is El Alto, Bolivia, at 4,150 metres (13,620 ft), which has a highly diverse service and manufacturing economy and a population of nearly 1 million. +Traditional mountain societies rely on agriculture, with higher risk of crop failure than at lower elevations. Minerals often occur in mountains, with mining being an important component of the economics of some mountain-based societies. More recently, tourism has become more important to the economies of mountain communities, with developments focused around attractions such as national parks and ski resorts. Approximately 80% of mountain people live below the poverty line. +Most of the world's rivers are fed from mountain sources, with snow acting as a storage mechanism for downstream users. More than half of humanity depends on mountains for water. +In geopolitics, mountains are often seen as natural boundaries between polities. + +=== Mountaineering === + +=== Mountains as sacred places === + +Mountains often play a significant role in religion. There are for example a number of sacred mountains within Greece such as Mount Olympus which was held to be the home of the gods. In Japanese culture, the 3,776.24 m (12,389.2 ft) volcano of Mount Fuji is also held to be sacred with tens of thousands of Japanese ascending it each year. Mount Kailash, in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, is considered to be sacred in four religions: Hinduism, Bon, Buddhism, and Jainism. In Ireland, pilgrimages are made up the 952 metres (3,123 ft) Mount Brandon by Irish Catholics. The Himalayan peak of Nanda Devi is associated with the Hindu goddesses Nanda and Sunanda; it has been off-limits to climbers since 1983. Mount Ararat is a sacred mountain, as it is believed to be the biblical landing place of Noah's Ark. In Europe and especially in the Alps, summit crosses are often erected on the tops of prominent mountains. + +== Superlatives == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..494560493 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Mountain" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:20:59.225811+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Heights of mountains are typically measured above sea level. Using this metric, Mount Everest is the highest mountain on Earth, at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). There are at least 100 mountains with heights of over 7,200 metres (23,622 ft) above sea level, all of which are located in central and southern Asia. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, but Denali, Mount Kilimanjaro and Nanga Parbat are possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration Mauna Kea (4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and volcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from the Pacific Ocean floor. +The highest mountains are not generally the most voluminous. Mauna Loa (4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 2,000 sq mi or 5,200 km2) and volume (about 18,000 mi3 or 75,000 km3). Mount Kilimanjaro is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (245 sq mi or 635 km2) and volume (1,150 mi3 or 4,793 km3). Mount Logan is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (120 sq mi or 311 km2). +The highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several miles farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit of Chimborazo, Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarán, is another contender. Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 kilometres (6,600 ft) less than that of Everest. + +== See also == + +List of mountain ranges +List of peaks by prominence +List of ski areas and resorts +Lists of mountains +Mountain hut – Building for food and shelter at high elevation +Seven Summits + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_territory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_territory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5b8b210ca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_territory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Municipal territory" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_territory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:00.472902+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Municipal territory (in Spanish: término municipal), ejido or municipal radius is the territory over which the administrative action of a local government (city council or municipality) extends. + + +== Spain == +A municipal territory (in Spanish: término municipal, T.M.), in Spain, is the territory, perfectly delimited, of a municipality; the territory to which the administrative action of a city council extends. Law 7/1985, of April 2, 1985, Regulating the Bases of the Local Regime, in its Article 12.1 defines it as follows:The municipal district is the territory in which the municipality exercises its competences.Each Spanish province is defined as the territorial grouping of its municipalities. Practically the entire national territory is divided into municipalities. There are currently 8131 municipalities in Spain. +The extension of a municipality, according to the National Statistics Institute, is the extension of its municipal area. +Within the municipal area there may be one or several singular population entities. One of these, where the town hall is located, is the capital of the municipality. +The singular entities can be grouped into collective population entities, which receive different names depending on the area: parishes, pedanías, elizates, etc. + + +== Argentina == +The municipal territory in Argentina is called ejido or municipal radius and in its origin, which dates back to the viceroyalty, they were public spaces at the exit of the urban layout. They were first administered by the cabildo, then by the provincial treasury and, from 1857, by the newly formed municipality. In the last decades of the 19th century, they were privatized. +The general guidelines for the division of the territory of the provinces and the establishment of the limits of the municipalities are established in the provincial constitutions and the definitive establishment of limits is delegated to the Legislative Power. +There are various systems for the territorial determination of the municipality: + +Urban ejido: according to which the limits of the municipality coincide with those of the urbanized space. The management of territories outside the ejidos is the responsibility of the provincial state. This system is applied in the provinces of San Luis and Santa Cruz. +Adjoining ejidos: in which the ejidos include an urban and a rural area so that the entire provincial territory is included within local governments with common limits. This is the regime adhered to by half of the provinces in Argentina. +Mixed: In which the ejidos include an urban area and a rural area surrounding it, but between them there are areas not included in any municipality. This system is dominant in 10 provinces: 6 in the north: Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Chaco, Formosa, Corrientes and Entre Ríos; and 4 in Patagonia: Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Tierra del Fuego. +Each system has advantages and disadvantages. The urban ejido system is in line with the traditional concept of municipality, in charge of city affairs and with a direct management with own neighbors. With respect to the dispersed rural population or small towns, the system of neighboring ejidos has the possibility of integrating and attending to them from the municipal level. The mixed system does so with the population of its closest surroundings. On the other hand, these systems subordinate these localities even when they have reached the conditions to become a municipality. With respect to territorial planning, this is facilitated if the municipality has jurisdiction over the surrounding rural area (as in the system of adjacent ejidos or the mixed system). +The provincial division into municipal ejidos coexists with the division into second level entities called departments in 22 provinces and partidos in the province of Buenos Aires. This territorial element is often empty of content, since there is no equivalent institutional body or it has no effective power in the territory. In general, the departments group several local governments, except in the provinces of Buenos Aires and the Cuyo provinces of Mendoza, San Juan and La Rioja, where the department (or partido) coincides with the municipal district. + + +== See also == +List of municipalities of Spain + + +== References == + + +== Bibliography == +Law 7/1985, of April 2, Regulating the Local Regime Bases in noticias.juridicas.com (in Spanish). +Término municipal in www.enciclopedia-juridica.biz14.com (in Spanish). + + +== External links == +Population, area and density by municipalities. National Statistics Institute of Spain (in Spanish). +Viewer of municipalities in Spain (in Spanish). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_barrier-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_barrier-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4f119277a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_barrier-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Natural barrier" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_barrier" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:01.657592+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A natural barrier is a physical feature that protects or hinders travel through or over. Mountains, swamps, deserts and ice fields are among the clearest examples of natural barriers. Rivers are a more ambiguous example, as they may obstruct large-scale movement across them (especially by armies) but may facilitate smaller-scale movement along them in boats, once some of the people in the region have developed the relevant technologies. Seas have likewise been an obstacle at first, then a convenient medium for transport along coastlines, and finally a medium for intercontinental transport. Water can protect island states like the Venetian Republic or Great Britain from dangerous neighbors, and simultaneously connect them to the wider world. +Natural barriers have been important factors in human history, by obstructing migration and invasion. For example, Jared Diamond argues that West European nations have been the dominant powers of the last 500 years because Europe's many natural barriers divided it into competing nation-states and this competition forced the European nations to encourage innovation and avoid technological stagnation. Natural barriers are similarly important to biogeography. +Some examples of natural barriers are the: + +Himalayas +Grand Canyon +Dead Sea +Mississippi River +Sierra Madre + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-0.md index 7dc54c546..1e612ba25 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:04.505812+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:03.025164+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-1.md index cbdd5689b..c15a5ad64 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:04.505812+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:03.025164+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7d946ae90 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Occident" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:05.523221+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Occident is a term for the West, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Western world. It is the antonym of the term Orient, referring to the Eastern world. In English, it has largely fallen into disuse. The term occidental is often used to describe objects from the Occident but can be considered an outdated term by some. The term originated with geographical divisions mirroring the cultural divide between the Greek East and the Latin West, and the political divide between the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. + + +== Etymology == +The term "Occident" derives from the Latin word occidens meaning "west" (lit. "setting" (where the sun sets) < occido "fall/set"). +In Arabic, the Maghreb (maḡrib, Arabic: مَغْرِب < Arabic ḡarb غَرْب‎ "to go down, to set") literally means "the sunset", "the west". Historically, the Maghreb was the southern part of the Western Roman Empire. +Another word for Occident in German is Abendland (rarely: Okzident), now mainly poetic, which literally translates as "evening land". The antonym "Morgenland" is also mainly poetic, and refers to Asia. +The opposite term "Orient" derives from the Latin word oriens, meaning "east" (lit. "rising" < orior "rise"). + + +== History of the term == + +The adjectival term "Occidental" has been used to mean cultures, peoples, countries, European rugs, and goods from the Occident. "Occidental" means generally "western". It is a traditional designation (especially when capitalized) for anything belonging to the Occident or "West" (for Europe), and especially of its Western culture. It indicated the western direction in historical astronomy, often abbreviated "Occ". +In Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of its Enemies (2004), Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit said that nationalist and nativist resistance to the West replicates Eastern-world responses against the socioeconomic forces of modernization, which originated in Western culture, among utopian radicals and conservative nationalists who viewed capitalism, liberalism, and secularism as forces destructive of their societies and cultures. While the early responses to the West were a genuine encounter between alien cultures, many of the later manifestations of Occidentalism betray the influence of Western ideas upon Eastern intellectuals, such as the supremacy of the nation-state, the Romantic rejection of rationality, and the spiritual impoverishment of the citizenry of liberal democracies. +Buruma and Margalit trace that resistance to German Romanticism and to the debates, between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles in 19th century Russia, and show that like arguments appear in the ideologies of Zionism, Maoism, Islamism, and Imperial Japanese nationalism. Nonetheless, Alastair Bonnett rejects the analyses of Buruma and Margalit as Eurocentric, and said that the field of Occidentalism emerged from the interconnection of Eastern and Western intellectual traditions. + + +== Notes == + + +== Further reading == +Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and West. INU societal research. Vol. 1. Global communication without universal civilization. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. +Hanafi, Hassan, Muqaddimah fi 'ilm al-istighrab (Introduction to Occidentalism), Cairo, Madbuli, 1991. +König, Daniel G., Arabic-Islamic Views of the Latin West. Tracing the Emergence of Medieval Europe, Oxford, OUP, 2015. +Souza, Teotonio R. de, "Orientalism, Occidentosis and Other Viral Strains: Historical Objectivity and Social Responsibilities", in The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads, Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K.S. Mathew, eds Pius Malekandathil & Jamal Mohammed, Fundação Oriente, India, 2001. ISBN 978-81-900166-5-0. pp. 452–479. https://web.archive.org/web/20160422180612/https://pt.scribd.com/doc/30027278/Orientalism-Occidentosis-and-Other-Viral-Strains-Historical-Objectivity-and-Social-Responsibilities + + +== External links == + +The Western Tradition homepage at Annenberg/CPB Archived 20 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine – where you can watch each episode on demand for free (Pop-ups required) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5759646f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Orient" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:06.763632+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Orient is a term referring to the East in relation to Europe, traditionally comprising anything belonging to the Eastern world. It is the antonym of the term Occident, which refers to the Western world. +In English, it is largely a metonym for, and coterminous with, the continent of Asia – loosely classified into Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, and sometimes including the Caucasus. Originally, the term Orient was used to designate only the Near East, but later its meaning evolved and expanded, designating also Central Asia, Southwest Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, or the Far East. +The term oriental is a dated term which was often used to describe objects and people coming from the Orient/eastern Asia. + +== Etymology == + +The term "Orient" derives from the Latin word oriens, meaning "east" (lit. "rising" < orior "rise"). The use of the word for "rising" to refer to the east (where the sun rises) has analogues from many languages: compare the terms "Arevelk" in Armenian: Արեւելք (Armenian Arevelk means "East" or "Sunrise"), "Levant" (< French levant "rising"), "Vostok" Russian: Восток (< Russian voskhod Russian: восход "sunrise"), "Anatolia" (< Greek anatole), "mizrah" in Hebrew ("zriha" meaning sunrise), "sharq" Arabic: شرق (< Arabic yashriq يشرق "rise", shurūq Arabic: شروق "rising"), "shygys" Kazakh: шығыс (< Kazakh shygu Kazakh: шығу "come out"), Turkish: doğu (< Turkish doğmak to be born; to rise), "xavar" Persian: خاور (meaning east), Chinese: 東 (pinyin: dōng, a pictograph of the sun rising behind a tree) and "The Land of the Rising Sun" to refer to Japan. In Arabic, the Mashriq literally means "the sunrise", "the east", the name is derived from the verb sharaqa (Arabic: شرق "to shine, illuminate, radiate" and "to rise"), from sh-r-q root (ش-ر-ق), referring to the east, where the sun rises. Historically, the Mashriq was the southern part of the Eastern Roman Empire. +Many ancient temples, including pagan temples, Hindu temples, Buddhist temples, Jain temples, and the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, were built with their main entrances facing the East. This tradition was carried on in Christian churches. +The opposite term "Occident" derives from the Latin word occidens, meaning west (lit. setting < occidere "fall/set"). This term meant the west (where the sun sets) but has fallen into disuse in English, in favour of "Western world". + +== History of the term == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..21aa747df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Orient" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:06.763632+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Territorialization of the Roman term Orient occurred during the reign of emperor Diocletian (284–305), when the Diocese of the Orient (Latin: Dioecesis Orientis) was formed. Later in the 4th century, the Praetorian prefecture of the Orient (Latin: Praefectura Praetorio Orientis) was also formed, including most of the Eastern Roman Empire, from the Thrace eastwards; its easternmost part was the original Diocese of the Orient, corresponding roughly to the region of Syria. +Over time, the common understanding of "the Orient" has continually shifted eastwards, as European people travelled farther into Asia. It finally reached the Pacific Ocean, in what Westerners came to call "the Far East". These shifts in time and identification sometimes confuse the scope (historical and geographic) of Oriental Studies. Yet there remain contexts where "the Orient" and "Oriental" have kept their older meanings (e.g., "Oriental spices" typically are from the regions extending from the Middle East to sub-continental India to Indo-China). Travellers may again take the Orient Express train from Paris to its terminus in the European part of Istanbul, a route established in the early 20th century. +In European historiography, the meaning of "the Orient" changed in scope several times. Originally, the term referred to Egypt, the Levant, and adjoining areas as far west as Morocco. During the 1800s, India, and to a lesser extent China, began to displace the Levant as the primary subject of Orientalist research, while the term also appears in mid-century works to describe an appearance or perceived similarity to "Oriental" government or culture, such as in Tolstoy's 1869 novel War and Peace, in which Napoleon, upon seeing the "oriental beauty" of Moscow, calls it "That Asiatic city of the innumerable churches, holy Moscow!", while in 1843 the American historian William Prescott uses the phrase "barbaric pomp, truly Oriental" to describe the court life of Aztec nobility in his history of the conquest of the Aztec Empire. As late as 1957 Karl Wittfogel included Rome and the Incan Empire in his study of what he called Oriental Despotism, demonstrating the term still carries a meaning in Western thought that transcends geography. By the mid-20th century, Western scholars generally considered "the Orient" as just East Asia, Southeast Asia, and eastern Central Asia. As recently as the early 20th century, the term "Orient" often continued to be used in ways that included North Africa. Today, the term primarily evokes images of China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Philippines, Indonesia, Timor-Leste and Brunei. "The Orient" being largely a cultural term, large parts of Asia—Siberia most notably—were excluded from the scholarly notion of "the Orient". +Equally valid terms for the Orient still exist in the English language in such collocations as Oriental studies (now Asian Studies in some countries). +The adjectival term Oriental has been used by the West to mean cultures, peoples, countries, Asian rugs, and goods from the Orient. "Oriental" means generally "eastern". It is a traditional designation (especially when capitalized) for anything belonging to the Orient or "East" (for Asia), and especially of its Eastern culture. It indicated the eastern direction in historical astronomy, often abbreviated "Ori". In contemporary American English, Oriental usually refers to things from the parts of East Asia traditionally occupied by East Asians and most Central Asians and Southeast Asians racially categorized as "Mongoloid". This excludes Jews, Indians, Arabs, and most other South or West Asian peoples. Because of historical discrimination against Chinese, Korean and Japanese, in some parts of the United States, some people consider the term derogatory. For example, Washington State prohibits the word "Oriental" in legislation and government documents and prefers the word "Asian" instead. +In more local uses, "oriental" is also used for eastern parts of countries such as Morocco's Oriental Region. "Oriental" may also be used as a synonym of "eastern", especially in Romance languages. Examples include the "oriental" and "occidental" provinces of Mindoro and Negros in the Philippines, and the French département of Pyrénées-Orientales. Between 1830 and 1962 the French Army used the term tenue orientale in reference to the distinctive indigenous uniforms of the various regiments (spahis, zouaves and tirailleurs) recruited in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. +Since the 19th century, "orientalist" has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies; however, the use in English of "Orientalism" to describe academic "Oriental studies" is rare: the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. "Orientalism" is more widely used to refer to the works of the many 19th-century artists who specialized in "Oriental" subjects and often drew on their travels to North Africa and Western Asia. Artists, as well as scholars, were already described as "Orientalists" in the 19th century. In 1978, the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism, and used the term to describe a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the Arab and Muslim worlds that has been shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and the 19th centuries. + +== Current usage == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8040dee94 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Orient" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:06.763632+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== British English === +In British English, the term Oriental is sometimes still used to refer to people from East and Southeast Asia (such as those from China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Philippines, Indonesia, Timor-Leste and Brunei). Judges in the United Kingdom have been issued with guidelines to encourage political correctness where oriental should be avoided because it is imprecise and may be considered racist or offensive. Oriental is still a common name for Chinese takeaways and traditional chip shops in Britain. +"Asian" in Great Britain usually refers to people who come specifically from South Asia (in particular Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives, Bhutan, and Afghanistan), since British Asians as a whole make up approximately 9.3% of the population within the United Kingdom, and people of an ethnically South Asian background comprise the largest group within this category. "Orientals" refers exclusively to people of East and Southeast Asian origin, who constitute approximately 0.7% of the UK population as a whole. Of these, the majority are of Chinese descent. +Orient is also a word for the lustre of a fine pearl. Hong Kong, a former British colony, has been called "Pearl of the Orient" along with Shanghai. In the UK, and much of the commonwealth, it is not considered a pejorative term, with many East Asian people choosing to use it themselves - notably in the names of East Asian businesses such as restaurants and takeaway outlets. +People in the United Kingdom from Southwest Asia, Asia Minor and Near East are often referred to by the term, "Middle Eastern". These can include Arabs, Kurds, Turks, Assyrians, West Asian Armenians, Yezidis, Egyptians (including Copts), Mandaeans, among others. +In some specific contexts, for example the carpet and rug trade, the older sense of "oriental" to cover not just East Asia but Central Asia, South Asia and Turkey may still be used; an Oriental rug may come from any of these areas. + +=== American English === + +The term Oriental may sound dated or even be seen as a pejorative, particularly when used as a noun. John Kuo Wei Tchen, director of the Asian/Pacific/American Studies Program and Institute at New York University, said the basic criticism of the term began in the U.S. during a cultural shift in the 1970s. He has said: "With the U.S.A. anti-war movement in the '60s and early '70s, many Asian Americans identified the term 'Oriental' with a Western process of racializing Asians as forever opposite 'others'", by making a distinction between "Western" and "Eastern" ancestral origins. +This is particularly relevant when referring to lands and peoples not associated with the historic "Orient": outside of the former Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and Sasanian Empire (Persia), including the former Diocese of the Orient, as well as others lands sharing cultural legacies with the Oriental Orthodox churches and Oriental Catholic Churches. In contrast, regions of Asia further East, outside of the cultural domination of Abrahamic religions, do not share these same historical associations, giving way for the term "oriental" to have different connotations. +In 2016, President Obama signed New York Congresswoman Grace Meng's legislation H.R. 4238 replacing the word with Asian American in federal law. + +=== China === +The Chinese word 东方 (東方 dongfang, tungfang) is translated as "oriental" in the official English names of several entities, e.g. Oriental Art Center, Oriental Movie Metropolis. In other cases, the same word is more literally translated as "eastern", e.g. China Eastern Airlines. + +=== Uruguay === +The official name of Uruguay is Oriental Republic of Uruguay; the adjective Oriental refers to the geographic location of the country, east of the Uruguay River. +The term Oriental is also used as Uruguay's demonym, usually with a formal or solemn connotation. The word also has a deep historical meaning as a result of its prolonged use in the region, since the 18th century it was used in reference to the inhabitants of the Banda Oriental, the historical name of the territories that now compose the modern nation of Uruguay. + +=== German === +In German, Orient is usually used synonymously with the area between the Near East and East Asia, including Israel, the Arab world, and Greater Persia. +The term Asiaten (English: Asians) means Asian people in general. Another word for Orient in German is Morgenland (now mainly poetic), which literally translates as "morning land". The antonym "Abendland" (rarely: "Okzident") is also mainly poetic, and refers to (Western) Europe. + +== See also == +Orientalizing period of Archaic Greek art + +== Notes == + +== Further reading == +[Ankerl, Guy] Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western (INUPRESS), Geneva, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5 +Bitar, Amer (2020). Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Power of Aesthetics and Practical Implications. Springer Nature. ISBN 9783030573973. + +== External links == + +The American Oriental Society Archived 15 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine +Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, West Asia & North Africa, formerly the Oriental Institute at University of Chicago +On Asian and Oriental Model Minority posting by Alan Hu. +The Critic in the Orient by George Hamlin Fitch +What's the Matter with Saying the Orient? Archived 21 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine by Christopher Hill for "About Japan: A Teacher's Resource" Archived 28 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-region-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-region-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c509e431e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-region-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Pan-region" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-region" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:08.081930+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A pan-region is a geographic region or state's sphere of economic, political and cultural influence extending beyond that state's borders. For example, the pan-region of the United States of America (US) regions both bordering the US and its close neighbours including, Canada, Mexico, and many other South America states. + + +== Origin of term == +The idea of pan-regions or spheres of economic and cultural influence was first developed by Karl Ernst Haushofer (August 27, 1869 – March 10, 1946), a German general, geographer and geo-politician. Pan-regions contributed to Geopolitic or the German theories of foreign policy during the interwar period (1918–1939) or the time from the end of World War I and the beginning of World War II. Haushofer's pan-regions divided the world under three supreme leading states in economy, politics and culture. Those three states included the USA who controlled North America and much of South America, Germany who controlled Europe, much of Africa and western Asia and Japan who controlled central, eastern, and the islands of southern Asia. These leading states could expect their regions to develop economic and political alliance with their leading state as well as yield to sanctions and major cultural designations. + + +== Historical examples == +Historically, the world was divided into three spheres of control; however, after the end of World War II, Germany and Japan's control over their various regions have diminished with the success of other nations. For example, German control over Europe has suffered with the development of the European Union and emergence of other foreign powers. Japan also is beginning to lose economic dominance over its pan-region with the emergence of a thriving Chinese economy. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralithic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralithic-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c5683f2cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralithic-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Paralithic" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralithic" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:06.822156+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A paralithic horizon is a weathered layer of bedrock. The term comes from the Greek words para, meaning "akin to", and lithic, meaning "stony". + + +== References == +Pietrasiak, Nicole (7 October 2008). "Mineralogy of a Paralithic Horizon (Well Weathered Bedrock) in the Mojave Desert". The 2008 Joint Annual Meeting. +Soil Survey Staff (2010). "Paralithic contact". Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 2010 (11th ed.). Washington: Agriculture Department. p. 26. ISBN 9780160854279. +Soil Survey Staff (2010). "Paralithic material". Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 2010 (11th ed.). Washington: Agriculture Department. p. 26. ISBN 9780160854279. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b8a30984d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ +--- +title: "Partial differential" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:50.785154+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The character ∂ (Unicode: U+2202) is a stylized cursive d mainly used as a mathematical symbol, usually to denote a partial derivative such as + + + + + ∂ + z + + + / + + + ∂ + x + + + + {\displaystyle {\partial z}/{\partial x}} + + (read as "the partial derivative of z with respect to x"). It is also used for boundary of a set, the boundary operator in a chain complex, and the conjugate of the Dolbeault operator on smooth differential forms over a complex manifold. +It should be distinguished from other similar-looking symbols such as lowercase Greek letter delta (δ) or the lowercase Latin letter eth (ð). + + +== History == +The symbol was introduced originally in 1770 by Nicolas de Condorcet, who used it for a partial differential, and adopted for the partial derivative by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1786. +It represents a specialized cursive type of the letter d, just as the integral sign originates as a specialized type of a long s (first used in print by Leibniz in 1686). +Use of the symbol was discontinued by Legendre, but it was taken up again by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi in 1841, whose usage became widely adopted. + + +== Names and coding == +The symbol is variously referred to as "partial", "curly d" or "Jacobi's delta", or as "del" (but this name is also used for the "nabla" symbol ∇). It may also be pronounced simply "dee", "partial dee", "doh", "dow" or "die". +The Unicode character U+2202 ∂ PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL is accessed by HTML entities ∂ or ∂, and the equivalent LaTeX symbol (Computer Modern glyph: + + + + ∂ + + + {\displaystyle \partial } + +) is accessed by \partial. + + +== Uses == +∂ is also used to denote the following: + +The Jacobian + + + + + + + ∂ + ( + x + , + y + , + z + ) + + + ∂ + ( + u + , + v + , + w + ) + + + + + + {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial (x,y,z)}{\partial (u,v,w)}}} + +. +The boundary of a set in topology. +The boundary operator on a chain complex in homological algebra. +The boundary operator of a differential graded algebra. +The conjugate of the Dolbeault operator on complex differential forms. +The boundary ∂(S) of a set of vertices S in a graph is the set of edges leaving S, which defines a cut. + + +== See also == +d'Alembert operator +Differentiable programming +Differential operator § Notations +List of mathematical symbols +Notation for differentiation +𝒹 (Unicode MATHEMATICAL SCRIPT SMALL D) +ꝺ (lowercase d in Insular script) +δ (lowercase Greek Delta) +д (lowercase Cyrillic De, looks similar when italicized in some typefaces) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiographic_province-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiographic_province-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f4b08c191 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiographic_province-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Physiographic province" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiographic_province" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:09.310080+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A physiographic province is a geographic region with a characteristic geomorphology, and often specific subsurface rock type or structural elements. The continents are subdivided into various physiographic provinces, each having a specific character, relief, and environment which contributes to its distinctiveness. The physiographic provinces are then subdivided into smaller physiographic sections. + + +== Examples == +In eastern North America, the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge Mountains, Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and Appalachian Plateau are specific physiographic provinces. +In the Western United States of western North America: the Basin and Range Province, Cascade Range, Colorado Plateau, Rio Grande rift, Great Basin, Central Valley (California), Peninsular Ranges, Los Angeles Basin, and Transverse Ranges are examples of physiographic provinces. + + +== See also == +Physiographic provinces — index +Physiographic sections — index +Physiographic regions of the world — chart with physiographic provinces and sections by continent. +Physiographic regions of Mexico +Physiographic regions of the United States +Geologic province +Geologic provinces of the United States + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placer_(geography)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placer_(geography)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67bf58d74 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placer_(geography)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Placer (geography)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placer_(geography)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:10.464421+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Placer (Portuguese: parcel or pracel) is a term used by Portuguese and Spanish navigators and cartographers to refer to a certain kind of submerged bank or reef. Commonly the bottom of such a reef is sandy, but there are some where the bottom is muddy or stoney. Although most reefs designated as placer are flat and shallow, exceptionally there are some that do not share those characteristics and are known as placer acantilado. A placer usually provides an anchorage for seagoing vessels. + + +== Etymology == +The word placer derives from the Spanish placer, meaning shoal or alluvial/sand deposit, from plassa (place) from Medieval Latin placea (place) the origin word for "place" and "plaza" in English. The word in Spanish is thus derived from placea and refers directly to an alluvial or glacial deposit of sand or gravel. +Spanish navigator and explorer Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa commented that placer likely originated as a term derived from placer mining in the Antilles, where pearl fishing was done mostly on shallow sandy reefs, which were compared to the sandy grounds in rivers where gold nuggets were found. +Since the word Placer in Spanish means 'pleasure', according to 16th century scientist Juan Pérez de Moya a placer is every dangerous submerged shallow bank. Moya claims that the landforms that received this denomination did so in an ironical manner, for it would be everything but a pleasure to navigate those treacherous waters under the constant risk of running aground. +However, other navigators contradict Moya by claiming that such a shallow ground would provide mariners with a much welcome anchorage after a long open sea journey, for in some placeres the waters are not as rough as in the open seas. + + +== Use of the term == +The term appears in Spanish nautical charts as placer, although Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa writes it as placel. +The Portuguese language equivalent and derived term is pracel or parcel. In present times some of the geographical names used by the Spanish cartographers, such as Placer de los Colorados, Placer de los Estudios, Placer de Playa Grande, Placer de Montechristi, Placer de Quatro Cayos, Placer de la Gallega, Placer de las Tortugas and Placer de los Siete Hermanos have become obsolete or have been superseded by English terms. Still, many other placeres mentioned in 19th-century Spanish Navigation Instruction Manuals were not even named. Not all placeres are in the open sea; the Isla Cangrejos in the Orinoco Delta was described as having a placer that stretched from its NE point composed of ground-coffee coloured hard sand. + +Paracel Islands. Portuguese navigators whose vessels frequented the South China Sea as early as at the beginning of the 16th century, were the first to refer to the Paracel Islands as Ilhas do Pracel. French explorers and cartographers used the Portuguese terms Pracel or Parcel. In the "Map of the coast of Tonquin and Cochinchina", made in 1747 by Pierre d'Hondt, the dangerous cluster of reefs of the Ilhas do Pracel was labeled "Le Paracel". +Parcel dos Abrolhos and Parcel das Paredes, in the Abrolhos Archipelago area off the Brazilian coast in the Atlantic Ocean. +Placer de los Roques, also known as Cay Sal Bank. +Placer de la Serranilla, historical name of the Serranilla Bank. +Placer de la Víbora, former name of Pedro Bank. +Placer de Rosalinda, Spanish name of Rosalind Bank. +Placer de la Misteriosa, Spanish name of Misteriosa Bank. +Placer de la Guaira, Spanish name of La Guaira Bank. +Placer de los Caicos, Spanish name of the Caicos Bank. +Placer de las Bóvedas, in the Mediterranean Sea east of Estepona, a good fishing and scuba diving site. + + +=== Cartography === + + +== See also == +Ocean bank +Reef + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Fishing in the Placer de la Guaira \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f517394a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ +--- +title: "Plain" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:11.780194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geography, a plain, commonly known as flatland, is a flat expanse of land that generally has few rapid or steep changes in elevation. Natural vegetation in plains can include prairies/grasslands, forests, savanah, tundra, and desert biomes, among others. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands. Plains are one of the major landforms on earth, being present on all continents and covering more than one-third of the world's land area. Plains in many areas are important for agriculture. There are various types of plains, and biomes on them. + +== Description == + +A plain or flatland is a flat expanse of land with few rapid or steep changes in elevation. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands. Plains are one of the major landforms on earth, where they are present on all continents, and cover more than one-third of the world's land area. +In a valley, a plain is enclosed on two sides, but in other cases a plain may be delineated by a complete or partial ring of hills, by mountains, or by cliffs. Where a geological region contains more than one plain, they may be connected by a pass (sometimes termed a gap). Coastal plains mostly rise from sea level until they run into elevated features such as mountains or plateaus. Plains can be formed from flowing lava; from deposition of sediment by water, ice, or wind; or formed by erosion by the agents from hills or mountains. +Biomes on plains include grassland (temperate or subtropical), steppe (semi-arid), savannah (tropical) or tundra (polar). In a few instances, deserts may also be considered plains. +Plains in many areas are important for agriculture because where the soils were deposited as sediments they may be deep and fertile, and the flatness facilitates mechanization of crop production; or because they support grasslands which provide good grazing for livestock. + +== Types of plain == + +=== Depositional plains === +The types of depositional plains include: + +Abyssal plains, flat or very gently sloping areas of the deep ocean basin. +Planitia , the Latin word for plain, is used in the naming of plains on extraterrestrial objects (planets and moons), such as Hellas Planitia on Mars or Sedna Planitia on Venus. +Alluvial plains, which are formed by rivers and which may be one of these overlapping types: +Alluvial plains, formed over a long period of time by a river depositing sediment on their flood plains or beds, which become alluvial soil. The difference between a flood plain and an alluvial plain is: a flood plain represents areas experiencing flooding fairly regularly in the present or recently, whereas an alluvial plain includes areas where a flood plain is now and used to be, or areas which only experience flooding a few times a century. +Flood plain, adjacent to a lake, river, stream, or wetland that experiences occasional or periodic flooding. +Scroll plain, a plain through which a river meanders with a very low gradient. +Glacial plains, formed by the movement of glaciers under the force of gravity: +Outwash plain (also known as sandur; plural sandar), a glacial out-wash plain formed of sediments deposited by melt-water at the terminus of a glacier. Sandar consist mainly of stratified (layered and sorted) gravel and sand. +Till plains, plain of glacial till that form when a sheet of ice becomes detached from the main body of a glacier and melts in place depositing the sediments it carries. Till plains are composed of unsorted material (till) of all sizes. +Lacustrine plains, plains that originally formed in a lacustrine environment, that is, as the bed of a lake. +Lava plains, formed by sheets of flowing lava. + +=== Erosional plains === +Erosional plains have been leveled by various agents of denudation such as running water, rivers, wind and glacier which wear out the rugged surface and smoothens them. Plain resulting from the action of these agents of denudation are called peneplains (almost plain) while plains formed from wind action are called pediplains. + +=== Structural plains === +Structural plains are relatively undisturbed horizontal surfaces of the Earth. They are structurally depressed areas of the world that make up some of the most extensive natural lowlands on the Earth's surface. + +== Notable examples == + +=== America === + +==== Caribbean and South America ==== +Altiplano (Bolivia, Peru, Chile) +Altiplano Cundiboyacense (Colombia) +Caroni Plain (Trinidad and Tobago) +Chilean Central Valley +Cancha Rayada +Los Llanos +Gran Chaco (Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay) +Llanos (Colombia and Venezuela) +Pampas (Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil) +Coastal plains of Chile + +==== North America ==== +Atlantic coastal plain (United States) +Carrizo Plain (California, United States) +Great Plains (Canada and United States) +Guatemala South Coast (Guatemala) +Gulf Coastal Plain (Mexico and United States) +Interior Plains (Canada and United States) +Lake Superior Lowland (Wisconsin, United States) +Laramie Plains (Wyoming) +Mississippi Alluvial Plain (Mississippi) +Oxnard Plain (Ventura County, California) +Snake River Plain (Idaho) +Hempstead Plains (Long Island, New York) + +=== Asia === + +==== Eastern Asia ==== +Chianan Plain (Taiwan) +Depsang Plains (China and India) +Honam Plain (South Korea) +Kantō Plain (Japan) +Kedu Plain (Indonesia) +Kewu Plain (Indonesia) +Mallig Plains (Philippines) +Nōbi Plain (Japan) +North China Plain (China) +Osaka Plain (Japan) +Pingtung Plain (Taiwan) +Sarobetsu plain (Japan) +Sendai Plain (Japan) +Yilan Plain (Taiwan) + +==== North Asia ==== +West Siberian Plain (Russia) + +==== South Asia ==== +Bhuikhel (Nepal) +Depsang Plains (India and China) +Dooars (India and Bhutan) +Eastern coastal plains (India) +Indo-Gangetic Plains (Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan) +More plains (India) +North Bengal plains (Bangladesh and India) +Punjab Plains (Pakistan and India) +Terai (India and Nepal) +Utkal Plains (India) +Western coastal plains (India) + +==== Western Asia ==== +Al-Ghab Plain (Syria) +Aleppo plateau (Syria) +Ararat Plain (Armenia and Turkey) +Israeli coastal plain (Israel) +Khuzestan Plain (Iran) +Mugan plain (Azerbaijan and Iran) +Nineveh Plains (Iraqi Kurdistan) +Shiraki Plain (Georgia) + +=== Europe === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..81a896458 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ +--- +title: "Plain" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:11.780194+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Central Europe ==== +Limagne (France) +North German Plain +Ochsenfeld (France) +Pannonian Basin (Central Europe) +Parndorf Plain (Austria) +Westphalian Lowland (Germany) + +==== Eastern Europe ==== +Bărăgan Plain (Romania) +Danubian Plain (Bulgaria) +Dnieper Lowland (Ukraine) +East European Plain +European Plain +Great Hungarian Plain +Kosovo field (Kosovo) +Little Hungarian Plain (Austria, Hungary, and Slovakia) +Pannonian Steppe (Hungary) +Polesian Lowland (Ukraine and Belarus) +Upper Thracian Plain (Bulgaria) +Wallachian Plain (Romania) + +==== Northern Europe ==== +Cheshire Plain (England) +Hardangervidda (Norway) +Kaffiøyra (Svalbard, Norway) +Muddus plains (Sweden) +North European Plain +North Northumberland Coastal Plain (Northern England) +North Somerset Levels (North Somerset, England) +Salisbury Plain (England) +Solway Plain (Cumbria, England) +Somerset Levels (Somerset, England) +South Coast Plain (Hampshire and Sussex, England) +South Småland peneplain (Sweden) +Stora Alvaret (Öland, Sweden) +Strandflat (Norway) +Sub-Cambrian peneplain (Nordic countries) +Central Swedish lowland +Ostrobothnian Plain (Finland) +The Fylde (Lancashire, England) + +==== Southern Europe ==== +Agro Nocerino Sarnese (Italy) +Campidano (Italy) +Lelantine Plain (Greece) +Mesaoria (Cyprus) +Messara Plain (Greece) +Nurra (Sardinia, Italy) +Po Valley (Italy) +Rieti Valley (Central Italy) +Tavoliere delle Puglie (Southern Italy) + +=== Oceania === + +==== Australia ==== +Bogong High Plains (Victorian Alps, Australia) +Cumberland Plain (Sydney, Australia) +Esperance Plains (Western Australia) +Molonglo Plain (Australian Capital Territory) +Mulga Lands (eastern Australia) +Nullarbor Plain (Southern Australia) +Ord Victoria Plain (Northern Australia) +Swan Coastal Plain (Perth, Australia) + +==== New Zealand ==== +Awarua Plains (Southland) +Canterbury Plains (Canterbury) +Hauraki Plains (Waikato) +Maniototo (Otago) +Taieri (Otago) + +== See also == + +Field – Area of land used for agricultural purposes +Flooded grasslands and savannas – Terrestrial biome +Flood-meadow – Land adjacent to a river subject to seasonal flooding +Machair – Fertile low-lying grassy plain +Meadow – Open habitat vegetated primarily by non-woody plants +Pasture – Land used for grazing +Prairie – Ecosystems considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome +Rangeland – Biomes that can be grazed by animals +Water-meadow – Artificially irrigated meadow +Wet meadow – Type of wetland + +== References == + +== External links == + + Media related to Plains at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..677bba828 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Polynya" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:13.001767+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A polynya () is an area of open water surrounded by sea ice. It is now used as a geographical term for an area of unfrozen seawater within otherwise contiguous pack ice or fast ice. It is a loanword from the Russian word polynya (полынья; IPA: [pəɫɨˈnʲja]), which refers to a natural ice hole and was adopted in the 19th century by polar explorers to describe navigable portions of the sea. +There are two main types of polynyas: coastal polynyas, which can be found year-round near the Antarctic and Arctic coasts and are mainly created by strong winds pushing the ice away from the coast, and mid-sea or open-ocean polynyas, which may be found more sporadically in the middle of ice pack in certain locations, especially around Antarctica. These locations are generally preconditioned by certain oceanic dynamics. +One of the most famous mid-sea polynyas is the Weddell Polynya, also known as the Maud Rise Polynya, which occurs in the Lazarev Sea over the Maud Rise seamount. It was first spotted in September 1973, persisted through multiple winters (1974–1976), and recently recurred in September 2017. + +== Formation == +Coastal polynyas are formed through two main processes: + +A sensible heat polynya is thermodynamically driven, and typically occurs when warm water upwelling keeps the surface water temperature at or above the freezing point. This reduces ice production and may stop it altogether. +A latent heat polynya is formed through the action of katabatic winds, which act to drive ice away from a fixed boundary such as a coastline, fast ice, or an ice bridge. The polynya forms initially when first-year pack ice is driven away from the coast, which leaves an area of open water within which new ice is formed. This new ice is then also herded downwind toward the first-year pack ice. When it reaches the pack ice, the new ice is consolidated onto the pack ice. This process continues over time. Latent heat polynyas are therefore a major source of sea ice production in the Antarctic. +Latent heat polynyas are regions of high ice production and therefore are possible sites of dense water production in both polar regions. The high ice production rates within these polynyas leads to a large amount of brine rejection into the surface waters; this salty water then sinks. It is an open question as to whether the polynyas of the Arctic can produce enough dense water to form a major portion of the dense water required to drive the thermohaline circulation. +Mid-sea polynyas are formed when specific atmospheric conditions occur over preconditioned oceanographic areas. Such atmospheric conditions should favor ice drift in opposite directions to open the ice pack. Polar cyclones are a typical atmospheric trigger for the occurrence of mid-sea polynyas as the cyclonic winds push the ice in opposite directions away from the cyclone center. Also, cold fronts, where two opposite flows in direction are found, are ideal for creating a mid-sea polynya. + +=== Antarctic bottom water === +Antarctic bottom water (AABW) is the dense water with high salinity that exists in the abyssal layer of the Southern Ocean. It plays a major role in the global overturning circulation. Coastal polynyas (latent heat polynyas) are a source of AABW as brine rejection during the formation of sea ice at these polynyas increases the salinity of the seawater, which then sinks down to the ocean bottom as AABW. Antarctic polynyas form when ice masses diverge from the coast and move away in the direction of the wind, creating an exposed area of sea water which subsequently freezes over, with brine rejection, to form another mass of ice. + +== Ecology == +Some polynyas, such as the North Water Polynya between Canada and Greenland, occur seasonally at the same time and place each year. Because animals can adapt their life strategies to this regularity, these types of polynyas are of special ecological research significance. In winter, marine mammals such as walruses, narwhals, and belugas that do not migrate south remain there. Polar bears are known to be able to swim as far as 65 kilometres (35 nautical miles) across open waters of a polynya. + +=== Polynya blooms === +The presence of open water in an otherwise ice-covered area can result in a localized marine algal bloom, also referred to as a polynya bloom. While algal communities are often found under sea ice, as evidenced by ice algae, the rate of phytoplankton growth is substantially higher in the open water of a polynya. The primary drivers of polynya blooms are sunlight and nutrients. Specifically, the lack of sea ice allows light, a necessary component for photosynthesis, to penetrate deeper into the water and enable elevated phytoplankton growth compared to the surrounding ice-covered waters. Furthermore, polynya formation is typically associated with upwelling, a process that transports nutrient-rich water from the ocean bottom towards the surface. This influx of nutrients coupled with increased light levels often results in polynya blooms. + +=== Biological production === + +In general, polynyas tend to be more biologically productive as a result of containing more phytoplankton than the surrounding water. Therefore, due to the role of primary producers as the foundation of the marine food web, polynyas are a critical food source for a variety of organisms such as fish, birds, and marine mammals. Listed below are several examples of the importance of polynyas to polar communities. + +Increased seal mortality rates were observed during years when the Ross Sea Polynya did not open. +In eastern Antarctica, 91% of Adélie penguin colonies are linked to a coastal polynya, where polynya size often correlates to colony size. +The presence of polynyas in McMurdo Sound provides an ice-free area where penguins can feed, directly effecting the survival of the Cape Royds penguin colony. +The downward transport of carbon (in the form of marine snow) from the surface to the seafloor associated with polynya blooms provides the nutrients necessary to sustain rich benthic communities. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba516121e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Polynya" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:13.001767+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Human dependency == +Polynyas have also supported human populations throughout history. For example, the North Water Polynya, the largest and most biologically productive Arctic polynya, serves as a critical source of food in an otherwise barren region, enabling the existence of high-latitude human communities in the region for thousands of years. It may have served as a stepping stone for the original settlers of Greenland as they traversed through what is now northern Canada 4500 years ago. There are also indications that the North Water Polynya has aided Thule, Inuit, Norse, and western explorers throughout history. Today, the North Water Polynya enables the existence of Greenland's northernmost towns, such as Qaanaaq, Qeqertat, Savissivik and Siorapaluk. + +== Arctic navigation == + +When submarines of the U.S. Navy made expeditions to the North Pole in the 1950s and 1960s, there was significant concern about surfacing through the thick pack ice of the Arctic Ocean. In 1962, both the USS Skate and USS Seadragon surfaced within the same large polynya near the North Pole for the first polar rendezvous of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet and the U.S. Pacific Fleet. + +== See also == +Lead (sea ice) + +== References == + +== External links == +Francis, Diana; Eayrs, Clare; Cuesta, Juan; Holland, David (24 April 2019), "Polar cyclones at the origin of the reoccurrence of the Maud Rise Polynya in austral winter 2017 (NOW)", Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 124 (10): 5251–5267, Bibcode:2019JGRD..124.5251F, doi:10.1029/2019JD030618 +International North Water Polynya Study (NOW) at the Wayback Machine (archived 11 February 2009) +Polynya north of Alaska at NASA Earth Observatory \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..115047620 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +--- +title: "Population density" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:14.289017+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Population density is a measurement of population size per unit land area. It is mostly applied to humans, but sometimes to other living organisms too. It is a key concept in population geography. +In botany and agronomy, it's known as plant density. + + +== Biological population densities == +Population density is population divided by total land area, sometimes including seas and oceans, as appropriate. +Low densities may cause an extinction vortex and further reduce fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it. Examples of the causes of reduced fertility in low population densities are: + +Increased problems with locating sexual mates +Increased inbreeding + + +=== Human densities === + +Population density is the number of people per unit of area, usually transcribed as "per square kilometre" or square mile, and which may include or exclude, for example, areas of water or glaciers. Commonly this is calculated for a county, city, country, another territory or the entire world. + +World population is around 8,000,000,000 and the Earth's total area (including land and water) is 510,000,000 km2 (200,000,000 sq mi). Therefore, the worldwide human population density is approximately 8,000,000,000 ÷ 510,000,000 = 16/km2 (41/sq mi). However, if only the Earth's land area of 150,000,000 km2 (58,000,000 sq mi) is taken into account, then human population density is 53/km2 (140/sq mi). This includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. However, if Antarctica is excluded, then population density rises to over 58 per square kilometre (150/sq mi). +The European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) has developed a suite of (open and free) data and tools named the Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL) to improve the science for policy support to the European Commission Directorate Generals and Services and as support to the United Nations system. +Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates and urban dependencies. In fact, 95% of the world's population is concentrated on just 10% of the world's land. These territories have a relatively small area and a high urbanization level, with an economically specialized city population drawing also on rural resources outside the area, illustrating the difference between high population density and overpopulation. + +Deserts have very limited potential for growing crops as there is not enough rain to support them. Thus, their population density is generally low. However, some cities in the Middle East, such as Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Kuwait City, have been increasing in population and infrastructure growth at a fast pace.Cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Very densely populated cities are mostly in Asia (particularly Southeast Asia); Africa's Lagos, Kinshasa, and Cairo; South America's Bogotá, Lima, and São Paulo; and Mexico City and Saint Petersburg also fall into this category.City population and especially area are, however, heavily dependent on the definition of "urban area" used: densities are almost invariably higher for the center only than when suburban settlements and intervening rural areas are included, as in the agglomeration or metropolitan area (the latter sometimes including neighboring cities). +In comparison, based on a world population of 8 billion, the world's inhabitants, if conceptualized as a loose crowd occupying just under 1 m2 (10 sq ft) per person (cf. Jacobs Method), would occupy an area of 8,000 square kilometres (3,100 sq mi) a little less than the land area of Puerto Rico, 8,868 square kilometres (3,424 sq mi). + + +=== Countries and dependent territories === + + +=== Other methods of measurement === + +Although the arithmetic density is the most common way of measuring population density, several other methods have been developed to provide alternative measures of population density over a specific area. + +Arithmetic density: The total number of people / area of land +Physiological density: The total population / area of arable land +Agricultural density: The total rural population / area of arable land +Residential density: The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land +Urban density: The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land +Ecological optimum: The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources +Population weighted density: Also known as living density, population density at which the average person lives + + +== See also == +Distance sampling +Demography +Human geography +Idealised population +List of population concern organizations +Population dynamics +Population decline +Population growth +Population genetics +Population health +Population momentum +Population pyramid +Rural transport problem +Significant figures +Small population size + + +=== Lists of entities by population density === +List of Australian suburbs by population density +List of countries by population density +List of cities by population density +List of city districts by population density +List of English districts by population density +List of European Union cities proper by population density +List of islands by population density +List of states and territories of the United States by population density + + +== Explanatory notes == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density +Duncan Smith / UCL Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis. "World Population Density". exploratory map shows data from the [...] Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL) produced by the European Commission JRC and the CIESIN Columbia University \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potamal-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potamal-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b7fe87ee3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potamal-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Potamal" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potamal" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:15.528127+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Potamal is a technical geographical term of limnology and hydrology of the lower stretches of a stream or river. It describes the overall habitat, stability and ecology of the biomass. + + +== Further reading == +The FILION ., Pienitz R., "Physical Geography: Natural environments" General Documents, Winter 2007, Université Laval, pp 30–31. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precordillera-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precordillera-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e4b673a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precordillera-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Precordillera" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precordillera" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:16.814534+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Precordillera is a Spanish geographical term for hills and mountains lying before a greater range, similar to foothills. The term is derived from cordillera (mountain range)—literally "pre-mountain range"—and applied usually to the Andes. +Some places usually called precordillera are: + +Andean mountains east of the main ranges of Andes in Argentina. It is separated from the much higher Frontal Cordillera to the west by Uspallata Valley in Argentina. Precordillera mountains reach around 3,000 m a.s.l. in Sierras de Villavicencio. +Used all over Chile from north to south as a morphological unit lying just between the Andes and the Intermediate Depression. + + +== See also == +Geological history of the precordillera terrane +Cuyania – Ancient microcontinent now part of Argentina + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservation_of_meaning-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservation_of_meaning-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4cd8045a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservation_of_meaning-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "Preservation of meaning" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservation_of_meaning" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:34.255393+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Preservation of meaning in library, archival or museum collections involves understanding spiritual, ritual, or cultural perceptions of value for specific objects, and ensuring these values are maintained and respected. Meaning is something assigned to objects of cultural or spiritual significance based on interpretations and perceived values by user populations, a process known as social construction of an object. When moved to memory institutions such as libraries or museums, these objects of social construction require unique approaches to preservation and maintenance in order to remain relevant as representations of cultural or spiritual societies. +In many memory institutions of the Western World, including libraries and museums, focus is often placed on the informational content and physical attributes, or artifactual value, of collected materials. Preservation policies are primarily concerned with the maintenance of these two things, either through reformatting to preserve textual information, or repairs and environmental controls to ensure continued existence of their physical structure. However, it is necessary to look beyond the physical and informational aspects of objects in order to ensure we are also preserving the integrity of the spiritual or cultural values which may be fundamental in defining the object. +Concerns arise when actions taken to preserve the physical object may compromise the spiritual or cultural integrity of a given object. Artifacts, including books, throughout history and the present were created and utilized according to rules and taboos that may not be inherently understood in today's world of mass consumer goods and material culture. While not all books, documents, and artifacts have rituals or socially constructed beliefs associated with their continued existence, it is a relevant issue for many cultural and religious collections. + + +== Examples == + + +=== Religion === + +An extreme example of how efforts to physically preserve may compromise the socially constructed meaning of the object is the Shinto Shrines of Ise Jingu, in Japan. These shrines are of significant cultural and spiritual value to the Japanese people, but every twenty years since the time of Emperor Temmu in the 7th century C.E. the buildings are completely destroyed and rebuilt. The rebuilding process is based on descriptions in the Documents on the rituals of the Great Shrine of Ise which dates from 804 C.E. and ensures that the recreations are exact replicas of the shrines taken down. Physical preservation of these monuments would damage the spiritual and cultural integrity of the process and purpose behind the continuous rebuilding. +Similarly, in the Buddhist faith, materials are considered to have a life, which must be allowed to progress and end naturally. Impermanence (anitya) in the Buddhist faith relates to the natural end of all things, nirvana, and acts of physical preservation would be contrary to this belief. Buddhist shrines are an example of such items that hold spiritual meaning. +However, examples of the significance of meaning and spiritual integrity exist in North America as well. Jish is a Navajo medicine bundle used in religious rituals related to curing or prevention, and specific care and established provenance is necessary to preserve the existence of jish versus a simple bundle of herb and grasses. NAGPRA, or North American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act has helped to highlight this issue of meaning and spiritual integrity in the United States. The act not only covers objects and remains recovered from American Indian graves, but the subsequent literary material developed based on the examination and analysis of these objects. + + +=== Culture === + +Physical preservation can also work to maintain spiritual and culture integrity of an object, especially in the case of musical instruments. At the violin museum in Cremona, Italy, nine instruments crafted by the Amatis, Guarneris, and by Antonio Stradivari are played ceremoniously six days a week – both to keep them in good physical, playable condition, and to maintain their cultural significance and meaning. From the island of Java in Indonesia, the instruments of the gamelan are treated with respect and reverence, and played on a regular basis to maintain their physical and spiritual life. They are played only for certain occasions and only by certain individuals trained in the art. They must also be handled and stored with care to be sure no one should compromise their spiritual integrity by stepping over them. Gamelan instruments can be found in museums throughout North America, but to accurately remain gamelan instruments, they must be treated and respected according to both their physical and spiritual properties. + + +=== Collections === +Preservation of meaning is perhaps most relevant and recognized in museum collections, but this does not mean there are not key books and documents that are defined by their social construction as well as their physical existence. When a book printed on acid paper turns to dust, there is no doubt that it ceases to exist as book. However, when books are stacked on top of a Quran, or a Guru Granth Sahib is repaired rather than ceremoniously cremated, the spiritual integrity of these texts is compromised or destroyed, and the physical object is void of spiritual or cultural meaning. It may at this point actually cease to be what it had been previously identified as, at least in terms of its cultural or spiritual meaning. +Admittedly, more work and research needs to be done in regard to preservation of meaning in the area of Library Science. However, it is necessary for libraries and archival institutions to assess their preservation priorities in consideration of social and cultural meaning in tandem with physical attributes and informational context. Preservation and curatorial policies and activities can take into account how materials are housed, handled, repaired, or analyzed not just in terms of preserving physical qualities, but spiritual and cultural meaning as well. + + +== See also == +Meaning-making +Values (heritage) + + +== Footnotes == + + +== References == +Barker, Alex W. Archaeological ethics: Museums and collections. In Ethical Issues in Archaeology. Ed. Zimmerman, L.J., Vitelli, K.D., and Hollowell-Zimmer, J., 2003. +Foot, Mirjam. Preservation policy and planning. In Preservation Management for Libraries, Archives, and Museums. Ed. Gorman, G.E. and Shep, S.J., 2006. +Karlström, Anna. 2005. Spiritual materiality: Heritage preservation in a Buddhist world? Journal of Social Archaeology, 5(3), 338–354. +Kartomi, Margaret and Mendonça, Maria. "Gamelan: south East Asia. Social Functions." Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 10 June 2007). [1] Archived 2008-05-16 at the Wayback Machine +Maré, Estelle. 2004. Creation and re-creation: The origins and preservation of the Shinto Shrines at Ise, Japan and the Abbey Church of St. Michael at Hildesheim, Germany. Religion & Theology, 11(2), 161–180. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_rock-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_rock-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b6c17e02a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_rock-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Primary rock" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_rock" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:09.228469+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Primary rock is an early term in geology that refers to crystalline rock formed first in geologic time, containing no organic remains, such as granite, gneiss and schist as well as igneous and magmatic formations from all ages. Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary published in 1913 provides the following term as used in geology: + +Primary rocks +(geol.) a term early used for rocks supposed to have been first formed, being crystalline and containing no organic remains, as granite, gneiss, etc.; – called also primitive rocks. The terms Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary rocks have also been used in like manner, but of these the last two only are now in use. +Ninety years later the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms published in 2003 places the term in the geologic field of petrology: + +Primary rocks [′prī‚mer·ē ′räks] +(petrology) Rocks whose constituents are newly formed particles that have never been constituents of previously formed rocks and that are not the products of alteration or replacement, such as limestones formed by precipitation from solution. +The term dates from the late 18th century (see Giovanni Arduino and Abraham Gottlob Werner) when the first attempts to formulate a geologic time scale divided crustal rocks into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Darwin used the phrase "primary rocks" in 1838 in the Geological Introduction to Zoology of The Voyage of HMS Beagle Fossil Mammalia Described by Richard Owen The last two terms have survived on most geological time scales used in the 20th and 21st centuries. For an example of the extensive use and explication of this term as debated in the mid-18th century, see "On the Origin of Eruptive and Primary Rocks" by Thomas Macfarlane and published in three parts in The Canadian Naturalist and Geologist Journal of 1863. And for an example in Australian geology literature, where it is capitalized to stress the unique use of the word, see "Report on Country in the Neighborhood of Lake Eyre" by H.Y.L. Brown, Government Geologist, published in 1892. +Primary rock is also referred to as primitive rock, plutonic rock, and the crystalline basement rock of the Earth's continental cratons. It is also loosely, and less precisely, referred to as bedrock, especially in civil engineering, geophysical surveys and drilling science. +The Austrian-American astrophysicist Thomas Gold used this term in his book The Deep Hot Biosphere in the chapter titled "The Siljan Experiment" regarding the deep drilling project in Sweden to prove the theory of abiotic/abiogenic oil and gas: "...the ground of Sweden, composed almost entirely of primary rock and not of sediments...." + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-0.md index 4dced3e07..1fb0d1bec 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:28:26.711956+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-1.md index 227543515..48a697b5b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:28:26.711956+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-2.md index e154bb0e4..573355e2c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:28:26.711956+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-3.md index 7b635bc01..3b53b6638 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:28:26.711956+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-4.md index 30467cc41..ef5fc5164 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:28:26.711956+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-5.md index 52188797e..5d046296d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:28:26.711956+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af32d7ef8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Realia (library science)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:36.750177+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In library classification systems, realia are three-dimensional objects from real life such as coins, tools, and textiles, that do not fit into the traditional categories of library material. They can be either human-made (artifacts, tools, utensils, etc.) or naturally occurring (specimens, samples, etc.), usually borrowed, purchased, or received as donation by a teacher, library, or museum for use in classroom instruction or in exhibits. +Archival and manuscript collections often receive items of memorabilia such as badges, emblems, insignias, jewelry, leather goods, needlework, etc., in connection with gifts of personal papers. Most government or institutional archives reject gifts of non-documentary objects, unless they have a documentary value. When accepting large bequests of mixed objects, they normally have the donors sign legal documents giving permission to the archive to destroy, exchange, sell, or dispose in any way those objects which, according to the best judgement of the archivist, are not manuscripts (which can include typescripts or printouts) or are not immediately useful for understanding the manuscripts. +Recently, the usage of this term has been criticized by librarians based on the usage of the term realia to refer to artistic and historical artifacts and objects. The noun phrase "real world object" has been suggested as a better term for describing the broader categories of three-dimensional objects in libraries. + +== Treatment in libraries == +Most libraries usually have a well written, legally tight acquisitions policy that rejects beforehand any object which is not some kind of print or text-based document. There are some exceptions. Children's libraries sometimes have a toy collection, whose individual items are lent out after being cataloged as realia, or under a more specific material designation such as toy, or game. Some large libraries have a special mandate to keep objects related to a literary collection. +Some very large libraries have a public relations department, which can find museum objects useful for enhancing or promoting the general collection. Such a library is more likely to prize realia for their associations with writers, subjects, or themes in the library's collections, rather than for their own intrinsic worth, artistic merit, historical significance, or scientific value. Examples might include a feather pen believed to have been owned by John Hancock; lead type from Benjamin Franklin's printing press; or a collection of Vietnam War era canteens, mess kits, uniforms, combat boots, etc. used in a "hands on" exhibit for children to illustrate the war. +Within the restricted domain of cataloging rules in the field of library and information science, the term "realia" is used to describe those mass-produced objects that incorporate documents or significant amounts of text (such as world globes, decks of quiz cards, and board games), but which have a format which makes it hard to incorporate them in the general collection or to describe them easily in the catalog. Special cataloguing rules are available to describe these objects. +Objects of realia, due to their diverse and compound nature, pose unique preservation challenges for libraries and archives. Unlike books and other traditional library materials, the artifactual value of these materials is key. In fact, when such items are unaccompanied by written documentation, as is often the case, the intellectual value sought by most library collections is often uncertain. +“We have a lot of hair,” Saundra Taylor of the Lilly Library told The New York Times, explaining that realia such as locks of hair, toys, and inkwells are often the unsolicited accompaniment to prized acquisitions of personal papers or book collections. Some libraries prize their realia, actively preserving and exhibiting it, while others simply keep it out of light and hope for the best. +Often, realia are seen as a nuisance, difficult not only to catalog, but to care for. Unlike books, which are mostly cellulose (paper, boards, natural fibers) and occasionally leather, realia are often the sum of many parts. One exasperating group of items that might find their way into library collections are textiles and handcrafts: hair, needlework, clothing. + +== Textile fibers == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..60379d9ea --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Realia (library science)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:36.750177+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Hair, wool, and silk === +Little research has been conducted regarding the preservation and conservation of human hair within the context of the archival world. However, much is known of the chemical structure and behavior of human hair, thanks in large part to the cosmetology industry; there is certainly a great deal of scholarship surrounding the care of other protein-based fibers, silk, and wool. +Loose, braided, tied lovingly in silk ribbons, hair was memorialized especially by the Victorians. Often, hair would be encased within a glass or woven with metallic threads, paired with a metal setting to be worn as mourning jewelry, a memento of a friend or loved one. Hairwork, an art still practiced today by the Victorian Hairwork Society Archived 2016-08-23 at the Wayback Machine, was a popular needlework method, often resulting in two-dimensional mourning wreaths and graveyard scenes, worked in hair on a fabric ground. Wool, because of its ability to wick moisture and resist flame, was commonly used in Western textiles throughout history, and might present itself in the form of bed linens, clothing, and needlework. +Hair (both human and animal) mainly consists of a protein, keratin, the fibers of which give the inner core of hair a great deal of strength. Hydrogen bonds and disulfide bonds link the chained amino acids that make up hair. Hydrogen bonds break and re-form easily on exposure to water, but disulfide bonds (responsible for curl, among other properties), can be broken only via chemical means. Under examination with a microspectrophotometer, scientists have discovered that high heat, UV exposure, and even artificial lighting can be quite damaging to human hair. +Wool, too, suffers in the sun—the fleece of sheep allowed to spend too much time in the sun before shearing accepts little dye when sheared from their backs, compared to their underbellies, as a result of disulfide bonds broken by UV light. Heat and a wide variety of insects, too, are deleterious to woolen textiles. Wool has a high resistance, however, to fungi and bacteria, provided it is free from sizing and soaps; further, wool can absorb three times its volume in water and requires a bit of humidity to remain viable. +Silk, another protein-rich fiber, is the most problematic of textiles. Often “weighted” with metallic salts to produce a nicer drape in clothing, silks (especially black silks and silks used in trimmings) rarely hold up to washing and repeated handling. Unlike other proteins, silk is not flame retardant. It quickly becomes brittle when kept in hot, dry conditions, and is highly susceptible to rot when in warm, humid climes. + +=== Compound textiles === +Cellulose fibers, like cotton, linen, and hemp, behave differently from protein-based fibers. Linen and cotton, for instance, comprised most papers for many centuries. Clothing and handcrafts were often made with linen or cotton. Needlework was often done with silk, wool, or hair on a linen or cotton ground. Hairwork, silk embroidery, and wool embroidery pose special problems, due to the makeup of their parts. In diffused light, all fibers deteriorate rapidly, compared to those stored in the dark. However, cotton and linen resist temperature well. Cotton can be stored in temperatures well above 100 degrees and still remain chemically and physically stable. With these varying degrees of chemical and physical degradation, textiles woven from a blend of fibers, or art pieces created using a variety of fibers, deteriorate unevenly. Storage of wool and silk, for example in the ideal condition for one, might have a negative effect on the other. + +=== Preservation of textiles === + +All textiles react negatively to air pollution, light, extremes of temperature, and humidity. Rapid changes in the environment can cause undue stress for these natural fibers, causing them to expand and contract as they take on moisture if kept in humid conditions, to dry out in high heat. Chemical bonds are broken by the machinations of UV light and chemicals in polluted air. As with other, more traditional, library materials, temperature and humidity should be kept within a steady range if at all possible: 70 (± 5 degrees) degrees Fahrenheit and 50% (± 5%) relative humidity is suggested by most sources. Pre-conditioned silica gel used for the purpose of humidity control should never come into direct contact with textiles. +Textiles should be stored in darkness, and exhibited in dim light with UV filtration. To avoid acid-migration, textiles should not come into contact with wood or cardboard. Acid-free tissue or muslin are often used to shield textiles from harmful lignins. +Storage options for textiles are manifold. Small items, such as locks of hair, fragments of cloth, or lace can be stored flat, sandwiched between sheets of tissue or encapsulated in mylar. Larger items tend to deteriorate at points of stress, due to folding or gravity pulling the fibers from one another. Finch and Putnam recommend rolling on plastic tubing or covered cardboard, or shaping over dummies. Clothing is often stored or shaped around specially created forms that support the textile fully while it is displayed or even hanged. + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a020c6a86 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Region" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:18.006092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as areas, zones, lands or territories, are portions of the Earth's surface that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and/or the interaction of humanity and the environment (environmental geography). Geographic regions and sub-regions are mostly described by their imprecisely defined, and sometimes transitory boundaries, except in human geography, where jurisdiction areas such as national borders are defined in law. More confined or well bounded portions are called locations or places. +The areal extent of a geographical region is often expressed in square kilometres or hectares (as in, for example, the largest countries). +Apart from the global continental regions, there are also hydrospheric and atmospheric regions that cover the oceans, and discrete climates above the land and water masses of the planet. The land and water global regions are divided into subregions geographically bounded by large geological features that influence large-scale ecologies, such as plains and features. +As a way of describing spatial areas, the concept of regions is important and widely used among the many branches of geography, each of which can describe areas in regional terms. For example, ecoregion is a term used in environmental geography, cultural region in cultural geography, bioregion in biogeography, and so on. The field of geography that studies regions themselves is called regional geography. Regions are an area or division, especially part of a country or the world having definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries. +In the fields of physical geography, ecology, biogeography, zoogeography, and environmental geography, regions tend to be based on natural features such as ecosystems or biotopes, biomes, drainage basins, natural regions, mountain ranges, soil types. Where human geography is concerned, the regions and subregions are described by the discipline of ethnography. + +== Globalization == + +Global regions are distinguishable from space, and are therefore clearly distinguished by the two basic terrestrial environments, land and water. However, they have been generally recognized as such much earlier by terrestrial cartography because of their impact on human geography. They are divided into the largest of land regions, known as continents and the largest of water regions known as oceans. There are also significant regions that do not belong to either classification, such as archipelago regions that are littoral regions, or earthquake regions that are defined in geology. + +=== Continental regions === +Continental regions are usually based on broad experiences in human history and attempt to reduce very large areas to more manageable regionalization for the purpose of the study. As such they are conceptual constructs, usually lacking distinct boundaries. The oceanic division into maritime regions is used in conjunction with the relationship to the central area of the continent, using directions of the compass. +Some continental regions are defined by the major continental feature of their identity, such as the Amazon basin, or the Sahara, which both occupy a significant percentage of their respective continental land area. +To a large extent, major continental regions are mental constructs created by considering an efficient way to define large areas of the continents. For the most part, the images of the world are derived as much from academic studies, from all types of media, or from personal experience of global exploration. They are a matter of collective human knowledge of their own planet and are attempts to better understand their environments. + +=== Regional geography === +Regional geography is a branch of geography that studies regions of all sizes across the Earth. It has a prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region, which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization, which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions. +Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach to study in geographical sciences (similar to quantitative or critical geographies; for more information, see history of geography). + +== Human geography == +Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various discrete environments. It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects among others that are often clearly delineated. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see physical geography), it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and environmental geography is emerging as a link between the two. Regions of human geography can be divided into many broad categories: + +=== Historical regions === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f2c654d24 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Region" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:18.006092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The field of historical geography involves the study of human history as it relates to places and regions, or the study of how places and regions have changed over time. +D. W. Meinig, a historical geographer of America, describes many historical regions in his book The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History. For example, in identifying European "source regions" in early American colonization efforts, he defines and describes the Northwest European Atlantic Protestant Region, which includes sub-regions such as the "Western Channel Community", which itself is made of sub-regions such as the English West Country of Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, and Dorset. +In describing historic regions of America, Meinig writes of "The Great Fishery" off the coast of Newfoundland and New England, an oceanic region that includes the Grand Banks. He rejects regions traditionally used in describing American history, like New France, "West Indies", the Middle Colonies, and the individual colonies themselves (Province of Maryland, for example). Instead he writes of "discrete colonization areas", which may be named after colonies but rarely adhere strictly to political boundaries. Among other historic regions of this type, he writes about "Greater New England" and its major sub-regions of "Plymouth", "New Haven shores" (including parts of Long Island), "Rhode Island" (or "Narragansett Bay"), "the Piscataqua", "Massachusetts Bay", "Connecticut Valley", and to a lesser degree, regions in the sphere of influence of Greater New England, "Acadia" (Nova Scotia), "Newfoundland and The Fishery/The Banks". +Other examples of historical regions are Iroquoia, Ohio Country, Illinois Country, and Rupert's Land. +In Russia, historical regions include Siberia and the Russian North, as well as the Ural Mountains. These regions had an identity that developed from the early modern period and led to Siberian regionalism. + +=== Tourism region === + +A tourism region is a geographical region that has been designated by a governmental organization or tourism bureau as having common cultural or environmental characteristics. These regions are often named after a geographical, former, or current administrative region or may have a name created for tourism purposes. The names often evoke certain positive qualities of the area and suggest a coherent tourism experience to visitors. Countries, states, provinces, and other administrative regions are often carved up into tourism regions to facilitate attracting visitors. +Some of the more famous tourism regions based on historical or current administrative regions include Tuscany in Italy and Yucatán in Mexico. Famous examples of regions created by a government or tourism bureau include the United Kingdom's Lake District and California's Wine Country. +great plains region + +=== Natural resource regions === +Natural resources often occur in distinct regions. Natural resource regions can be a topic of physical geography or environmental geography, but also have a strong element of human geography and economic geography. A coal region, for example, is a physical or geomorphological region, but its development and exploitation can make it into an economic and a cultural region. Examples of natural resource regions are the Rumaila Field, the oil field that lies along the border or Iraq and Kuwait and played a role in the Gulf War; the Coal Region of Pennsylvania, which is a historical region as well as a cultural, physical, and natural resource region; the South Wales Coalfield, which like Pennsylvania's coal region is a historical, cultural, and natural region; the Kuznetsk Basin, a similarly important coal mining region in Russia; Kryvbas, the economic and iron ore mining region of Ukraine; and the James Bay Project, a large region of Quebec where one of the largest hydroelectric systems in the world has been developed. + +=== Religious regions === +Sometimes a region associated with a religion is given a name, like Christendom, a term with medieval and renaissance connotations of Christianity as a sort of social and political polity. The term Muslim world is sometimes used to refer to the region of the world where Islam is dominant. These broad terms are somewhat vague when used to describe regions. +Within some religions there are clearly defined regions. The Roman Catholic Church, the Church of England, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and others, define ecclesiastical regions with names such as diocese, eparchy, ecclesiastical provinces, and parish. +For example, the United States is divided into 32 Roman Catholic ecclesiastical provinces. The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod is organized into 33 geographic districts, which are subdivided into circuits (the Atlantic District (LCMS), for example). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses regions similar to dioceses and parishes, but uses terms like ward and stake. + +=== Political regions === + +In the field of political geography, regions tend to be based on political units such as sovereign states; subnational units such as administrative regions, provinces, states (in the United States), counties, townships, territories, etc.; and multinational groupings, including formally defined units such as the European Union, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and NATO, as well as informally defined regions such as the Third World, Western Europe, and the Middle East. + +=== Administrative regions === + +The word "region" is taken from the Latin regio (derived from regere, 'to rule'), and a number of countries have borrowed the term as the formal name for a type of subnational entity (e.g., the región, used in Chile). In English, the word is also used as the conventional translation for equivalent terms in other languages (e.g., the область (oblast), used in Russia alongside a broader term регион). +The following countries use the term "region" (or its cognate) as the name of a type of subnational administrative unit: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..67ff3fa19 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,108 @@ +--- +title: "Region" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:18.006092+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Belgium (in French, région; in German, Region; the Dutch term gewest is often mistakenly translated as "regio") +Chile (región) +Côte d'Ivoire (région) +Denmark (effective from 2007) +Eritrea +France (région) +Ghana +Guinea (région) +Guinea-Bissau (região) +Guyana +Hungary (régió) +Italy (regione) +Madagascar (région) +Mali (région) +Malta (reġjun) +Namibia +New Zealand +Peru (región) +Portugal (região) +Philippines (rehiyon) +Senegal (région) +Tanzania +Thailand +Togo (région) +Trinidad and Tobago (Regional Corporation) +The Canadian province of Québec also uses the "administrative region" (région administrative). +Regions of England (not the United Kingdom as a whole) used to be administrative units until 2011. Since then they're only used for statistical purposes. +Scotland had local government regions from 1975 to 1996. +In Spain the official name of the autonomous community of Murcia is Región de Murcia. Also, some single-province autonomous communities such as Madrid use the term región interchangeably with comunidad autónoma. +Two län (counties) in Sweden are officially called 'regions': Skåne and Västra Götaland, and there is currently a controversial proposal to divide the rest of Sweden into large regions, replacing the current counties. +The government of the Philippines uses the term "region" (in Filipino, rehiyon) when it is necessary to group provinces, the primary administrative subdivision of the country. This is also the case in Brazil, which groups its primary administrative divisions (estados; "states") into grandes regiões (greater regions) for statistical purposes, while Russia uses экономические районы (economic regions) in a similar way, as does Romania and Venezuela. +The government of Singapore makes use of the term "region" for its own administrative purposes. +The following countries use an administrative subdivision conventionally referred to as a region in English: + +Bulgaria, which uses the област (oblast) +Greece, which uses the Περιφέρεια (periferia) +Russia, which uses the область (oblast'), and for some regions the край (krai) +Ukraine, which uses the область (oblast') +Slovakia (kraj) +China has five 自治区 (zìzhìqū) and two 特別行政區 (or 特别行政区; tèbiéxíngzhèngqū), which are translated as "autonomous region" and "special administrative region", respectively. + +==== Local administrative regions ==== +There are many relatively small regions based on local government agencies such as districts, agencies, or regions. In general, they are all regions in the general sense of being bounded spatial units. Examples include electoral districts such as Washington's 6th congressional district and Tennessee's 1st congressional district; school districts such as Granite School District and Los Angeles Unified School District; economic districts such as the Reedy Creek Improvement District; metropolitan areas such as the Seattle metropolitan area, and metropolitan districts such as the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago, the Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, the Metropolitan Police Service of Greater London, as well as other local districts like the York Rural Sanitary District, the Delaware River Port Authority, the Nassau County Soil and Water Conservation District, and C-TRAN. + +=== Traditional or informal regions === + +The traditional territorial divisions of some countries are also commonly rendered in English as "regions". These informal divisions do not form the basis of the modern administrative divisions of these countries, but still define and delimit local regional identity and sense of belonging. Examples are: + +England +Finland +Japan +Korea +Norway (landsdeler) +Romania +Slovakia +United States + +=== Functional regions === +Functional regions are usually understood to be the areas organised by the horizontal functional relations (flows, interactions) that are maximised within a region and minimised across its borders so that the principles of internal cohesiveness and external separation regarding spatial interactions are met (see, for instance, Farmer and Fotheringham, 2011; Klapka, Halas, 2016; Smart, 1974). A functional region is not an abstract spatial concept, but to a certain extent it can be regarded as a reflection of the spatial behaviour of individuals in a geographic space. +The functional region is conceived as a general concept while its inner structure, inner spatial flows, and interactions need not necessarily show any regular pattern, only selfcontainment. The concept of self-containment remains the only crucial defining characteristic of a functional region. Nodal regions, functional urban regions, daily urban systems, local labour-market areas (LLMAs), or travel-to-work areas (TTWAs) are considered to be special instances of a general functional region that need to fulfil some specific conditions regarding, for instance, the character of the region-organising interaction or the presence of urban cores, (Halas et al., 2015). + +=== Military regions === + +In military usage, a region is shorthand for the name of a military formation larger than an Army Group and smaller than a Theater. The full name of the military formation is Army Region. The size of an Army Region can vary widely but is generally somewhere between about 1 million and 3 million soldiers. Two or more Army Regions could make up a Theater. An Army Region is typically commanded by a full General (US four stars), a Field Marshal or General of the Army (US five stars), or Generalissimo (Soviet Union); and in the US Armed Forces an Admiral (typically four stars) may also command a region. Due to the large size of this formation, its use is rarely employed. Some of the very few examples of an Army Region are each of the Eastern, Western, and southern (mostly in Italy) fronts in Europe during World War II. The military map unit symbol for this echelon of formation (see Military organization and APP-6A) is identified with six Xs. + +=== Media geography === +Media geography is a spatio-temporal understanding, brought through different gadgets of media, nowadays, media became inevitable at different proportions and everyone supposed to consumed at different gravity. The spatial attributes are studied with the help of media outputs in shape of images which are contested in nature and pattern as well where politics is inseparable. Media geography is giving spatial understanding of mediated image. + +== See also == +Autonomous area § Autonomous region +Committee of the Regions +Continent +Continental fragment +Euroregion +Field (geography) +Latin names of regions +Military district +Regional district +Regionalism (disambiguation) +Regional municipality +Subcontinent +Submerged continents +Subregion +Supercontinent +United Nations geoscheme + +== Notes == + +== References == +Bailey, Robert G. (1996) Ecosystem Geography. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-94586-5 +Meinig, D.W. (1986). The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 1: Atlantic America, 1492-1800. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03548-9 +Moinuddin Shekh. (2017) " Mediascape and the State: A Geographical Interpretation of Image Politics in Uttar Pradesh, India. Netherland, Springer. +Smith-Peter, Susan (2018) Imagining Russian Regions: Subnational Identity and Civil Society in Nineteenth-Century Russia. Leiden: Brill, 2017. ISBN 9789004353497 + +== External links == +Map and descriptions of hydrologic unit regions of the United States +Federal Standards for Delineation of Hydrologic Unit Boundaries +Physiographic regions of the United States \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..89306750e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Relevance" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:38.060447+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Relevance is the connection between topics that makes one useful for dealing with the other. Relevance is studied in many different fields, including cognitive science, logic, and library and information science. Epistemology studies it in general, and different theories of knowledge have different implications for what is considered relevant. + +== Definition == +"Something (A) is relevant to a task (T) if it increases the likelihood of accomplishing the goal (G), which is implied by T." +A thing might be relevant, a document or a piece of information may be relevant. Relevance does not depend on whether we speak of "things" or "information". + +== Epistemology == +If you believe that schizophrenia is caused by bad communication between mother and child, then family interaction studies become relevant. If, on the other hand, you subscribe to a genetic theory of relevance then the study of genes becomes relevant. If you subscribe to the epistemology of empiricism, then only intersubjectively controlled observations are relevant. If, on the other hand, you subscribe to feminist epistemology, then the sex of the observer becomes relevant. + +== Logic == + +In formal reasoning, relevance has proved an important but elusive concept. It is important because the solution of any problem requires the prior identification of the relevant elements from which a solution can be constructed. It is elusive, because the meaning of relevance appears to be difficult or impossible to capture within conventional logical systems. The obvious suggestion that q is relevant to p if q is implied by p breaks down because under standard definitions of material implication, a false proposition implies all other propositions. However though 'iron is a metal' may be implied by 'cats lay eggs' it doesn't seem to be relevant to it the way in which 'cats are mammals' and 'mammals give birth to living young' are relevant to each other. If one states "I love ice cream", and another person responds "I have a friend named Brad Cook", then these statements are not relevant. However, if one states "I love ice cream", and another person responds "I have a friend named Brad Cook who also likes ice cream", this statement now becomes relevant because it relates to the first person's idea. +Another proposal defines relevance or, more accurately, irrelevance information-theoretically. It is easiest to state in terms of variables, which might reflect the values of measurable hypotheses or observation statements. The conditional entropy of an observation variable e conditioned on a variable h characterizing alternative hypotheses provides a measure of the irrelevance of the observation variable e to the set of competing hypotheses characterized by h. It is useful combined with measures of the information content of the variable e in terms of its entropy. One can then subtract the content of e that is irrelevant to h (given by its conditional entropy conditioned on h) from the total information content of e (given by its entropy) to calculate the amount of information the variable e contains about the set of hypotheses characterized by h. Relevance (via the concept of irrelevance) and information content then characterize the observation variable and can be used to measure its sensitivity and specificity (respectively) as a test for alternative hypotheses. +More recently a number of theorists have sought to account for relevance in terms of "possible world logics" in intensional logic. Roughly, the idea is that necessary truths are true in all possible worlds, contradictions (logical falsehoods) are true in no possible worlds, and contingent propositions can be ordered in terms of the number of possible worlds in which they are true. Relevance is argued to depend upon the "remoteness relationship" between an actual world in which relevance is being evaluated and the set of possible worlds within which it is true. + +== Application == + +=== Cognitive science and pragmatics === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ffa6b296 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "Relevance" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:38.060447+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In 1986, Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson drew attention to the central importance of relevance decisions in reasoning and communication. They proposed an account of the process of inferring relevant information from any given utterance. To do this work, they used what they called the "Principle of Relevance": namely, the position that any utterance addressed to someone automatically conveys the presumption of its own optimal relevance. The central idea of Sperber and Wilson's theory is that all utterances are encountered in some context, and the correct interpretation of a particular utterance is the one that allows most new implications to be made in that context on the basis of the least amount of information necessary to convey it. For Sperber and Wilson, relevance is conceived as relative or subjective, as it depends upon the state of knowledge of a hearer when they encounter an utterance. +Sperber and Wilson stress that this theory is not intended to account for every intuitive application of the English word "relevance". Relevance, as a technical term, is restricted to relationships between utterances and interpretations, and so the theory cannot account for intuitions such as the one that relevance relationships obtain in problems involving physical objects. If a plumber needs to fix a leaky faucet, for example, some objects and tools are relevant (e.g. a wrench) and others are not (e.g. a waffle iron). And, moreover, the latter seems to be irrelevant in a manner which does not depend upon the plumber's knowledge, or the utterances used to describe the problem. +A theory of relevance that seems to be more readily applicable to such instances of physical problem solving has been suggested by Gorayska and Lindsay in a series of articles published during the 1990s. The key feature of their theory is the idea that relevance is goal-dependent. An item (e.g., an utterance or object) is relevant to a goal if and only if it can be an essential element of some plan capable of achieving the desired goal. This theory embraces both propositional reasoning and the problem-solving activities of people such as plumbers, and defines relevance in such a way that what is relevant is determined by the real world (because what plans will work is a matter of empirical fact) rather than the state of knowledge or belief of a particular problem solver. + +=== Economics === +The economist John Maynard Keynes saw the importance of defining relevance to the problem of calculating risk in economic decision-making. He suggested that the relevance of a piece of evidence, such as a true proposition, should be defined in terms of the changes it produces of estimations of the probability of future events. Specifically, Keynes proposed that new evidence e is irrelevant to a proposition x, given old evidence q, if and only if ⁠x/eq⁠ = ⁠x/q⁠, otherwise, the proposition is relevant. +There are technical problems with this definition, for example, the relevance of a piece of evidence can be sensitive to the order in which other pieces of evidence are received. + +=== Law === + +The meaning of "relevance" in U.S. law is reflected in Rule 401 of the Federal Rules of Evidence. That rule defines relevance as "having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determinations of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence". In other words, if a fact were to have no bearing on the truth or falsity of a conclusion, it would be legally irrelevant. + +=== Library and information science === + +This field has considered when documents (or document representations) retrieved from databases are relevant or non-relevant. Given a conception of relevance, two measures have been applied: Precision and recall: +Recall = a : (a + c), where + +a is the number of retrieved, relevant documents, +c is the number of non-retrieved, relevant documents (sometimes termed "silence"). +Recall is thus an expression of how exhaustive a search for documents is. +Precision = a : (a + b), where + +a is the number of retrieved, relevant documents, +b is the number of retrieved, non-relevant documents (often termed "noise"). +Precision is thus a measure of the amount of noise in document-retrieval. +Relevance itself has in the literature often been based on what is termed "the system's view" and "the user's view". Hjørland (2010) criticize these two views and defends a "subject knowledge view of relevance". + +=== Politics === +During the 1960s, relevance became a fashionable buzzword, meaning roughly 'relevance to social concerns', such as racial equality, poverty, social justice, world hunger, world economic development, and so on. The implication was that some subjects, e.g., the study of medieval poetry and the practice of corporate law, were not worthwhile because they did not address pressing social issues. + +== See also == +Description – Text for clarification; one of four rhetorical modes +Distraction – Process of diverting the attention of an individual or group +Information-action ratio – Information theory conceptPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Information overload – Decision making with too much information +Intention – Mental state denoting commitment to act +Intuitionistic logic – Various systems of symbolic logic +Kripke semantics – Formal semantics for non-classical logic systems +Relevance theory – Theory of cognitive linguistics +Salience (language) – Property of being noticeable or important +Source criticism – Process of evaluating an information source + +== References == + +== External links == + +Malcolm Gladwell – Blink – full show: TVOntario interview regarding "snap judgements" and Blink \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict-0.md index 20461c36c..cb81aac10 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:16:38.757493+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:10.570192+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_and_isolated_community-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_and_isolated_community-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ed9dce6dc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_and_isolated_community-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "Remote and isolated community" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_and_isolated_community" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:19.277872+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In Canada, the designations remote, isolated, outport and fly-in refer to a settlement that is either a long distance from larger settlements or lacks transportation links that are typical in more populated areas. + + +== Definition == +In responding to the avian flu outbreak of 2009, a Canadian government body (Public Health Network H1N1 Task Force) published the following working definitions. The definition of isolated is borrowed from Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) and the definition of remote is borrowed from Health Canada. + +Remote: describes a geographical area where a community is located over 350 km from the nearest service centre having year-round road access. +Isolated: describes a geographical area that has scheduled flights and good telephone services; however, it is without year-round road access. It is noted that not all homes in a community have phones, and that flights may be cancelled or delayed due to weather. + +Canada also has fly-in communities that lack road, rail, or water connections and rely entirely on bush aviation. Other remote communities lack road and rail but have water access, such as the Newfoundland outports, and those that have road access part of the year on ice roads, or can only be reached by gravel road. One academic measure of remoteness used in Canada is nordicity, i.e. "northerliness". + + +== Healthcare in remote and isolated communities == + +In Canada, there were 79 nursing stations and over 195 health centres servicing remote communities in Northern Canada or on Indian reserves in the south. In about half these facilities, registered nurses are employed by Health Canada, a ministry of the government of Canada. In the other communities, nurses are employed by the Band Council. + + +== Policing in remote and isolated communities == +Policing in remote areas presents many challenges, most obviously logistical, but also social and even psychological. +The Royal Canadian Mounted Police had 268 "isolated posts" in 2009. Isolated posts are defined by the Treasury Board of Canada as communities that face "unique challenges" related to small populations, harsh climates, and/or limited access by commercial transportation or all-weather roads. All posts located in Canada's three northern territories are considered isolated as well as many in the ten provinces. Many of these posts are "fly-in only"; the police force has its own RCMP Air Services, which does everything from ferry prisoners to court to bring in new computers to offices. In 2009, in the territory of Nunavut there were 25 detachments, all fly-in (no roads), and only one RCMP airplane. + + +== See also == +Extreme points of Canadian provinces +Extreme communities of Canada +Nordicity +Outstation (Aboriginal community), a remote Australian community + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sag_pond-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sag_pond-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..640f52130 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sag_pond-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Sag pond" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sag_pond" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:11.868316+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A sag pond is a body of fresh water collected in the lowest parts of a depression formed between two sides of an active strike-slip, transtensional or normal fault zone. + + +== Formation == +A sag pond is formed along a strike-slip fault, which may create a depression in the earth. When water enters the depression from rivers, streams, rainfall or snowfall, it fills the low-lying area, and a pond is the result. + + +== Scientific significance == +Sag pond formation is common in California, and many of them can be found on the San Andreas Fault, which runs through the western part of the state. Aerial photography or high-resolution topography can easily determine their locations. + + +== Uses == +Sag ponds have been converted into stock reservoirs. Larger sag ponds are converted into reservoirs for public water sources, such as San Andreas Lake + + +== Examples == +Sag ponds of various sizes can be found along the San Andreas Fault, most notably within the Carrizo Plain and Sierra Pelona Mountains. Some have been converted into reservoirs like the San Andreas Reservoir near San Bruno, California. Various lagoons on the plateau of Pico Island in the Azores are the result of a graben. + + +== Sources == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandplain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandplain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..df03dceaf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandplain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Sandplain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandplain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:20.475676+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A sandplain is an area where the soil is sand deposited from elsewhere by processes such as wind or ocean, rather than direct weathering of bedrock. +Sandplains are quite flat. There may be dune systems, and given time and the right conditions these may form eolianite ridges, but other than that there is little to give a sandplain any topographical character. +Inland sandplains are often extremely infertile, because the sand is often low in nutrients when deposited, plus the good drainage means any nutrients are rapidly leached away. +Coastal sandplains in intertidal zones like those seen in the Wadden Sea in western Europe for example, are wet with nutrients added continuously, so they can often support a very rich and important fauna of birds, worms, mussels, etc.. +In North America, sandplains are often vegetated by pine barrens. In Western Australia, kwongan is the dominant vegetation. + + +== See also == +Outwash plain + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Sand Plains/Sand Sheets (U.S. Army Geospatial Center) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(geography)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(geography)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c97e30dee --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(geography)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Scale (geography)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(geography)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:21.680186+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In geography, scale is the level at which a geographical phenomenon occurs or is described. This concept is derived from the map scale in cartography. Geographers describe geographical phenomena and differences using different scales. From an epistemological perspective, scale is used to describe how detailed an observation is, while ontologically, scale is inherent in the complex interaction between society and nature. + + +== Scale effect == +The concept of scale is central to geography. To study any geographical phenomenon, one must first determine the scale or resolution, because different scales or resolutions may result in different observations and hence different conclusions. This problem is called scale effect or scale dependency. For example, the answer to the famous question "How Long Is the Coast of Britain" is highly dependent on the choice of cartographic scales. +In cartography and spatial analysis, scale effect and zoning effect (different ways of zoning lead to different statistical outcomes) combined can lead to modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP). + + +== Types == + +In geography, the term "scale" can be spatial, temporal, or spatio-temporal, but often (though not always) means spatial scale in spatial analysis. In different contexts, "scale" could have very different connotations, which could be classified as follows: + +Geographic scale or the scale of observation: the spatial extent of a study. E.g. a spatial analysis of the entire United States might be considered a large-scale one, while a study on a city has a relatively small scale. +Cartographic scale or map scale: a large-scale map covers a smaller area but embodies more detail, while a small-scale map covers a larger area with less detail. +Operational scale: the spatial extent at which a particular phenomena operates. E.g. orogeny operates at a much larger scale than the formation of a river pothole does. + + +== See also == +Geologic time scale +Modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) +Modifiable temporal unit problem (MTUP) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search/Retrieve_Web_Service-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search/Retrieve_Web_Service-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a6a091bc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search/Retrieve_Web_Service-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Search/Retrieve Web Service" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search/Retrieve_Web_Service" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:39.231473+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Search/Retrieve Web service (SRW) is a web service for search and retrieval. SRW provides a SOAP interface to queries, to augment the URL interface provided by its companion protocol Search/Retrieve via URL (SRU). Queries in SRU and SRW are expressed using the Contextual Query Language (CQL). +Standards for SRW, SRU, and CQL are promulgated by the United States Library of Congress. +The SRW service and SRU protocol were both created by as part of the ZING (Z39.50 International: Next Generation) initiative as successors to the Z39.50 protocol. + + +== Example usage == + + +== See also == +Z39.50 + + +=== Implementations === +refbase +RefDB +Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand + + +== External links == +SRU: Search/Retrieve via URL +SRW: Search/Retrieve Web Service +CQL: Contextual Query Language \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_data-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_data-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..35ad588d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_data-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +--- +title: "Secondary data" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_data" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:40.477953+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Secondary data refers to data that is collected by someone other than the primary user. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, information collected by government departments, organizational records and data that was originally collected for other research purposes. Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting the research. +Secondary data analysis can save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly in the case of quantitative data, can provide larger and higher-quality databases that would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition, analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or developments. However, secondary data analysis can be less useful in marketing research, as data may be outdated or inaccurate. + + +== Sources of secondary data == +Secondary data can be obtained from many sources: + +censuses and government departments like housing, social security, electoral statistics, tax records +internet searches and libraries +GPS and remote sensing +km progress reports +journals, newspapers and magazines + + +=== Administrative data and census === +Government departments and agencies routinely collect information when registering people or carrying out transactions, or for record keeping – usually when delivering a service. This information is called administrative data. +It can include: + +personal information such as names, dates of birth, addresses +information about schools and educational achievements +information about health +information about criminal convictions or prison sentences +tax records, such as income +A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. It is a type of administrative data, but it is collected for the purpose of research at specific intervals. Most administrative data is collected continuously and for the purpose of delivering a service to the people. + + +== Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data == +Secondary data is available from other sources and may already have been used in previous research, making it easier to carry out further research. It is time-saving and cost-efficient: the data was collected by someone other than the researcher. Administrative data and census data may cover both larger and much smaller samples of the population in detail. Information collected by the government will also cover parts of the population that may be less likely to respond to the census (in countries where this is optional). +A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has already been carried out, such as literature reviews or case studies. The data may have been used in published texts and statistics elsewhere, and the data could already be promoted in the media or bring in useful personal contacts. Secondary data generally have a pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data. Secondary data is key in the concept of data enrichment, which is where datasets from secondary sources are connected to a research dataset to improve its precision by adding key attributes and values. +Secondary data can provide a baseline for primary research to compare the collected primary data results to and it can also be helpful in research design. +However, secondary data can present problems, too. The data may be out of date or inaccurate. If using data collected for different research purposes, it may not cover those samples of the population researchers want to examine, or not in sufficient detail. Administrative data, which is not originally collected for research, may not be available in the usual research formats or may be difficult to get access to. + + +== Secondary analysis or re-use of qualitative data == +While 'secondary data' is associated with quantitative databases, analysis focused on verbal or visual materials created for another purpose, is a legitimate avenue for the qualitative researcher. Actually one could go as far as claim that qualitative secondary data analysis “can be understood, not so much as the analysis of pre-existing data; rather as involving a process of re-contextualizing, and re-constructing, data.” +In the analysis of secondary qualitative data, good documentation cannot be underestimated as it provides future researchers with the background and context and allows replication. + + +== References == + + +=== Sources === + + +== Further reading == +696 Research Methods, Secondary Data Analysis Archived October 26, 2000, at the Wayback Machine Corti, L. & Bishop, L. (2005) FQS 6(1) 'Strategies in Teaching Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data' +Culot, G., Podrecca, M., Nassimbeni, G., Orzes, G., & Sartor, M. (2023). Using supply chain databases in academic research: A methodological critique. Journal of Supply Chain Management, 59(1), 3-25. +Kelly, M. Primary and Secondary Data. McKinnon Secondary College, 2005. http://www.mckinnonsc.vic.edu.au/vceit/infodata/primarysecondary.htm +McCaston, M. Katherine. Tips for Collecting, Reviewing, and Analyzing Secondary Data. Partnership & Household Livelihood Security Unit(PHLS), February 1998. +Mochmann, Ekkehard. Data Archiving and the Uses of Secondary Analysis. Central Archives for Empirical Social Research, University of Cologne. +O'Sullivan, E. & Rassel, G. R. Research Methods for Public Administrators. 3rd Ed. Longman, 1999. p265,268-269. + + +== External links == +UK Data Archive: curator of the largest UK collection of digital data in the social sciences and humanities +Re-using qualitative data +ESDS Qualidata: access and support for a range of social science qualitative datasets Archived August 9, 2016, at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..57aeb7332 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Secondary source" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:41.737889+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In scholarship, a secondary source is a document or recording that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere. A secondary source contrasts with a primary, or original, source of the information being discussed. A primary source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation or it may be a document created by such a person. +A secondary source is one that gives information about a primary source. In a secondary source, the original information is selected, modified and arranged in a suitable format. Secondary sources involve generalization, analysis, interpretation, or evaluation of the original information. +The most accurate classification for any given source is not always obvious. "Primary" and "secondary" are relative terms, and some sources may be classified as primary or secondary, depending on how they are used. +A third level, the tertiary source, such as an encyclopedia or dictionary, resembles a secondary source in that it contains analysis, but a tertiary source has a different purpose: it aims to elaborate a broad introductory overview of the topic at hand. + +== Classification of sources == + +Making distinctions between primary and secondary symbolic sources (objects meant to communicate information) is both subjective and contextual, such that precise definitions can sometimes be difficult to make. And indeed many sources can be classified as either primary or secondary based upon the context in which they are being considered. For example, if in careful study a historical text discusses certain old documents to the point of disclosing a new historical conclusion, then that historical text may now be considered a primary source for the new conclusion, but it is still a secondary source as regarding the old documents. Other examples for which a source can be assigned both primary and secondary roles would include an obituary or a survey of several volumes of a journal to count the frequency of articles on a certain topic. +Further, whether a source is regarded as primary or secondary in a given context may change over time, depending upon the past and present states of knowledge within the field of study. For example, if a certain document refers to the contents of a previous but undiscovered letter, that document may be considered "primary", because it is the closest known thing to an original source—but if the missing letter is later found, that certain document may then be considered "secondary". +Attempts to map or model scientific and scholarly communications need the concepts of primary, secondary and further "levels" of classification. One such model is provided by the United Nations as the UNISIST model of information dissemination. Within such a model, source classification concepts are defined in relation to each other, and acceptance of a particular way of defining the concepts for classification are connected to efficiently using the model. (Note: UNISIST is the United Nations International Scientific Information System; it is a model of a social system for communications between knowledge producers, knowledge users, and their intermediaries. The system also comprises institutions such as libraries, research institutes, and publishers.) + +== Secondary literature == +Some modern languages use more than one word for the English word "source". For example, German usually uses Sekundärliteratur ("secondary literature") for secondary sources regarding historical facts, leaving Sekundärquelle ("secondary source") to historiography. For example, a treatise on Goethe's Faust (e.g., on characters or motifs of the play) is called Sekundärliteratur. A Sekundärquelle may be a source, perhaps a letter, that quotes from a lost Primärquelle ("primary source")—say a report of minutes that is not known to still exist—such that the report of minutes is unavailable to the researcher as the sought-after Primärquelle. + +== Science, technology, and medicine == +In general, secondary sources in a scientific context may be referred to as "secondary literature", and can be self-described as review articles or meta-analysis. +Primary source materials are typically defined as "original research papers written by the scientists who actually conducted the study." An example of primary source material is the Purpose, Methods, Results, Conclusions sections of a research paper (in IMRAD style) in a scientific journal by the authors who conducted the study. In some fields, a secondary source may include a summary of the literature in the introduction of a scientific paper, a description of what is known about a disease or treatment in a chapter in a reference book, or a synthesis written to review available literature. A survey of previous work in the field in a primary peer-reviewed source is secondary source information. This allows secondary sourcing of recent findings in areas where full review articles have not yet been published. +A book review that contains the judgment of the reviewer about the book is a primary source for the reviewer's opinion, and a secondary source for the contents of the book. A summary of the book within a review is a secondary source. + +=== Library and information science === +In library and information sciences, secondary sources are generally regarded as those sources that summarize or add commentary to primary sources in the context of the particular information or idea under study. + +=== Mathematics === +An important use of secondary sources in the field of mathematics has been to make difficult mathematical ideas and proofs from primary sources more accessible to the public; in other sciences tertiary sources are expected to fulfill the introductory role. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..89253aa8a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Secondary source" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:41.737889+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Humanities and history === +Secondary sources in history and humanities are usually books or scholarly journals, from the perspective of a later interpreter, especially by a later scholar. In the humanities, a peer reviewed article is always a secondary source. +The delineation of sources as primary and secondary first arose in the field of historiography, as historians attempted to identify and classify the sources of historical writing. In scholarly writing, an important objective of classifying sources is to determine the independence and reliability of sources. In original scholarly writing, historians rely on primary sources, read in the context of the scholarly interpretations. +Following the Rankean model established by German scholarship in the 19th century, historians use archives of primary sources. Most undergraduate research projects rely on secondary source material, with perhaps snippets of primary sources. + +==== Law ==== +In the legal field, source classification is important because the persuasiveness of a source usually depends upon its history. Primary sources may include cases, constitutions, statutes, administrative regulations, and other sources of binding legal authority, while secondary legal sources may include books, the headnotes of case reports, articles, and encyclopedias. Legal writers usually prefer to cite primary sources because only primary sources are authoritative and precedential, while secondary sources are only persuasive at best. + +==== Family history ==== +"A secondary source is a record or statement of an event or circumstance made by a non-eyewitness or by someone not closely connected with the event or circumstances, recorded or stated verbally either at or sometime after the event, or by an eye-witness at a time after the event when the fallibility of memory is an important factor." Consequently, according to this definition, a first-hand account written long after the event "when the fallibility of memory is an important factor" is a secondary source, even though it may be the first published description of that event. + +==== Autobiographies ==== +An autobiography or a memoir can be a secondary source in history or the humanities when used for information about topics other than its subject. For example, many first-hand accounts of events in World War I written in the post-war years were influenced by the then prevailing perception of the war, which was significantly different from contemporary opinion. + +== See also == +Original research +Source criticism + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Jules R. Benjamin, A Student's Guide to History (2013) ISBN 9781457621444 +Edward H. Carr, What is History? (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001) ISBN 9780333977019 +Wood Gray, Historian's handbook, a key to the study and writing of history (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1991, ©1964) ISBN 9780881336269 +Derek Harland, A Basic Course in Genealogy: Volume two, Research Procedure and Evaluation of Evidence (Bookcraft Inc, 1958) WorldCat record +Richard Holmes, Tommy (HarperCollins, 2004) ISBN 9780007137510 +Martha C. Howell and Walter Prevenier, From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods (2001) ISBN 9780801435737 +Richard A. Marius and Melvin E. Page, A Short Guide to Writing About History (8th Edition) (2012) ISBN 9780205118601 +Hayden White, Metahistory: the historical imagination in nineteenth-century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973) ISBN 9780801814693 + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_collapse-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_collapse-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c4fde58b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_collapse-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Sector collapse" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_collapse" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:13.195652+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A sector collapse or lateral collapse is the structural failure and subsequent collapse of a minimum volume of 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) of a volcano. Unlike smaller flank collapses, a sector collapse can involve the central volcanic pipe and historically this term had been restricted by some writers to such events in arc stratovolcanoes, but is now used for large events in any volcano. Sector collapses are one of the most hazardous volcanic events, often resulting in lateral blasts, landslides, and changes in volcanic eruptive behavior. Sector collapse can be caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, gradual volcanic deformation, and other processes. Sector collapse events can occur on volcanoes at convergent and divergent plate boundaries. Sector collapses are generally very sudden; however, some attempts have been made to predict collapse events. + + +== Causes == + + +=== Internal === + +Sector collapse can result from internal volcanic processes. Volcanic eruption can damage originally stable magma chambers, causing a portion of the volcano to collapse. While eruption is one cause, sector collapse can occur without any eruption. Magmatic intrusions can also lead to sector collapse. Dikes fracture and deform rock, leaving the volcano weaker and more susceptible to collapse. Hydrothermal activity is another internal cause, likely due to reactions of acid-sulfates weakening volcanic rock. Gravity-induced collapse occurs when the volcanic slope approaches the critical angle of repose. The slope angle is a major factor in collapse events. + + +=== External === +Sector collapse sometimes occurs because of external processes. Seismic activity is a prominent cause of collapse events. Earthquakes can weaken the structural stability of volcanoes, leading to sudden collapse or contributing to a later collapse. Intense weather and heavy rainfall can cause damaging erosion, increasing likelihood of collapse. Glacial melting is another external cause of sector collapse, with the majority of glacial melt induced collapses occurring during the Pleistocene. Glacial melting increases volcanic slope and decreases pore pressure, leading to sector collapse. Sea level change has also been associated with sector collapse. + + +=== Predicting sector collapse === +Because sector collapse events occur suddenly and over small time periods, they are difficult to predict. More often, volcanoes are assessed for risk of sector collapse. Collapse ultimately occurs due to structural instability, which can be determined by volcanic slope angle, composition of the volcano, deformation, and other factors. + + +== Consequences == + + +=== Changes to volcanic systems === +Some volcanoes experience no changes in volcanic behavior while others experience altered rates of eruption and magma composition. Collapse is typically followed by phreatic eruption due to a reduction in magma chamber pressure after sector collapse. Damage caused by collapse can create a new and different volcanic plumbing system, which could impact eruption rates. Sector collapse often results in eruption of more mafic magma. Large overlying surface mass and the denser nature of mafic magma often prevents its rise. Collapse relieves some of the overlying surface mass thus allowing for more mafic magma composition. + + +=== Human impacts === +Sector collapses and landslides caused by them have directly resulted in more than 3,500 fatalities since 1600 and caused extensive property damage. A particularly deadly consequence of sector collapse is tsunami. The Oshima-Oshima collapse led to a tsunami that killed 1,500 people. Sector collapse events can also displace thousands and cause homelessness. + + +=== Identifying sector collapse === +Prehistoric sector collapses are stored in the geological record in the form of debris avalanche deposits and collapse scars. Debris avalanche deposits are found typically up to 20 km (12 mi) from the site of collapse, but in the case of the Hawaiian islands 200 km (120 mi) away. Studying avalanche deposits informs on the time scale of the collapse and the volcano from which it originated. Collapse scars are also an indicator of sector collapse and are often described as "amphitheatre" or "horseshoe" shaped. One such collapse scar is the Sciara del Fuoco formed on the Stromboli volcano due to a sector collapse. + + +== Examples == + + +=== Prehistoric === +Antuco +Chimborazo +Popocatépetl +Mount Rainier +Mount Shasta +Shiveluch +Stromboli + + +=== Historic === +Anak Krakatoa, 2018 +Mount Bandai, 1888 +Bezymianny, 1956 +Oshima-Oshima, 1741 +Ritter Island, 1888: largest historical collapse +Mount St. Helens, 1980 + + +== See also == +Volcanology +Debris flow + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_model-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_model-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cff264df8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_model-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Sector model" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_model" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:22.969492+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The sector model, also known as the Hoyt model, is a model of urban land use proposed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt. It is a modification of the concentric zone model of city development. The benefits of the application of this model include the fact it allows for an outward progression of growth. As with all simple models of such complex phenomena, its validity is limited. + + +== Application == +This model applies to numerous British cities. Also, if it is turned 90 degrees counter-clockwise it fits the city of Mönchengladbach reasonably accurately. This may be because of the age of the cities when transportation was a key, as a general rule older cities follow the Hoyt model and more recent cities follow the Burgess (concentric zone) model. + + +== Limitations == +The theory is based on early twentieth-century rail transport and does not make allowances for private cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city boundaries. This occurred in Calgary in the 1930s when many near-slums were established outside the city but close to the termini of the street car lines. These are now incorporated into the city boundary but are pockets of low-cost housing in medium cost areas. The theory also does not take into account the new concepts of edge cities and boomburbs, which began to emerge in the 1980s, after the creation of the model. Since its creation, the traditional Central Business District has diminished in importance as many retail and office buildings have moved into the suburbs. + +Physical features - physical features may restrict or direct growth along certain wedges +The growth of a sector can be limited by leapfrog land. +The theory too lacks the idea based on land topography. + + +== See also == +Urban structure +Linear city + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Internet Geography Archived 2019-06-30 at the Wayback Machine +BBC GCSE Bitesize Revision \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c5c6e97bf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Selective dissemination of information" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:42.915152+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Selective dissemination of information (SDI) was originally a phrase related to library and information science. SDI refers to tools and resources used to keep a user informed of new resources on specified topics, including the current-awareness services used to inform about new library acquisitions. +SDI services pre-date the World Wide Web, and the term itself is somewhat dated. Contemporary analogous systems for SDI services include alerts, current awareness tools or trackers. These systems provide automated searches that inform the user of the availability of new resources meeting the user's specified keywords and search parameters. Alerts can be received a number of ways, including email, RSS feeds, voice mail, Instant messaging, and text messaging. +Selective dissemination of information was a concept first described by Hans Peter Luhn of IBM in the 1950s. Software was developed in many companies and in government to provide this service in the 1950s and 60s, which allowed distribution of items recently published in abstract journals to be routed to individuals who are likely to be interested in the contents. For example, the system at Ft. Monmouth automatically sent out (by mail) a different set of abstracts to each of about 1,000 scientists and engineers in the army depending on what they were working on. The selection was based on an "interest profile," a list of keywords that described their interests. In some organizations, the 'interest profile' was much more than a simple list of keywords. Librarians or information professionals conducted extensive interviews with their clients to establish a fairly complex profile for each individual. Based on these profiles, the information professionals would then distribute selectively appropriate information to their clients. This labour-intensive operation, while initially costly, over time was made less so. +A survey at the time (1970s) indicated that a large number of projects were affected by the SDI service. The software was developed by Edward Housman at the Signal Corps Laboratories Technical Information Division. + + +== References == + +Hensley, C. B. 1963. Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI): state of the art in May, 1963. AFIPS '63, Proceedings of the May 21–23, 1963 Spring Joint Computer Conference: 257–262. Accessed December 11, 2012, doi:10.1145/1461551.1461584 +Connor, J. H. 1967. Selective Dissemination of Information - review of literature and issues. +The Library Quarterly 37 (4): 373–391. Accessed December 11, 2015, URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4305823. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..92977c37c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Sense of place" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:24.143517+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term sense of place refers to a multidimensional, complex construct used to characterize the relationship between people and spatial settings. It is a characteristic that some geographic places have and some do not, while to others it is a feeling or perception held by people (not by the place itself). It is often used in relation to those characteristics that make a place special or unique, as well as to those that foster a sense of authentic human attachment and belonging. Others, such as geographer Yi-Fu Tuan, have pointed to senses of place that are not "positive," such as fear. +Some students and educators engage in "place-based education" in order to improve their "sense(s) of place," as well as to use various aspects of place as educational tools in general. The term is used in urban and rural studies in relation to place-making and place-attachment of communities to their environment or homeland. The term sense of place is used to describe how someone perceives and experiences a place or environment. Anthropologists Steven Feld and Keith Basso define sense of place as: 'the experiential and expressive ways places are known, imagined, yearned for, held, remembered, voiced, lived, contested and struggled over […]’. Many indigenous cultures are losing their sense of place because of climate change and "ancestral homeland, land rights and retention of sacred places". + +== Geographic place == +Cultural geographers, anthropologists, sociologists and urban planners study why certain places hold special meaning to particular people or animals. Places said to have a strong "sense of place" have a strong identity that is deeply felt by inhabitants and visitors. Sense of place is a social phenomenon. Codes aimed at protecting, preserving and enhancing places felt to be of value include "World Heritage Site" designations, the British "Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty" controls and the American "National Historic Landmark" designation. + +== Placelessness == + +Places that lack a "sense of place" are sometimes referred to as "placeless" or "inauthentic". Edward Relph, a cultural geographer, investigates the "placelessness" of these locations. Anthropologist Marc Augé calls these locations "non-places". In Internet culture, non-places are sometimes called liminal spaces. +Stepping against the kind of reductive thinking that placelessness can lead to, in his book, The Practice of Everyday Life, Jesuit philosopher Michel de Certeau uses the term "space" (French: espace) to refer to these placeless locations as opposed to "place" (lieu). For de Certeau, "space is merely composed of intersections of mobile elements" that are not in stasis. Place, on the other hand, is space that has been ordered in some way to serve some human need. A park, for instance, is a place that has been constructed "in accord with which elements are distributed in relationships of coexistence" and therefore "implies an indication of stability". de Certeau's ideas became instrumental in understanding the intersections of power and social relations in the construction of place. For de Certeau, placelessness, or "space" was a site for freedom or at least it is the site for what Timotheus Vermeulen sees as "potentially anarchic movement" +Placeless landscapes are seen as those that have no special relationship to the places in which they are located—they could be anywhere; roadside strip shopping malls, gas/petrol stations and convenience stores, fast food chains, and chain department stores have been cited as examples of placeless landscape elements. Some historic sites or districts that have been heavily commercialized for tourism and new housing estates are defined as having lost their sense of place. Gertrude Stein's "there is no there there" has been used as a description of such places. + +== Development of sense of place == +Human geographers, social psychologists and sociologists have studied how a sense of place develops. Their approaches include comparisons between places, learning from elders and observing natural disasters and other events. Environmental psychologists have emphasized the importance of childhood experiences and have quantified links between exposure to natural environments in childhood and environmental preferences later in life. Learning about surrounding environments during childhood is strongly influenced by the direct experience of playing, as well as through the role of family, culture, and community. The special bond which develops between children and their childhood environments has been called a "primal landscape" by human geographers. This childhood landscape forms part of an individual's identity and constitutes a key point of comparison for considering subsequent places later in life. As people move around as adults, they tend to consider new places in relation to this baseline landscape experienced during childhood. In an unfamiliar environment, a sense of place develops over time and through routine practices, a process that can be undermined by disruptions in routines or abrupt changes in the environment. +In the context of climate change, sense of place and then the awareness of the changes and disaster related destruction of place is leading to emotional experiences of grief and solastalgia. Research states that these emotional experiences that arise are inherently adaptive and recommends collective processing and reflecting on these in order to increase resilience and a sense of belonging. In post-disaster situations, some programs aim to re-establish a sense of place through a participatory approach. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f28ab10f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Sense of place" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:24.143517+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Music and place == +Ethnomusicologists, among other social scientists (like anthropologists, sociologists, and urban geographers), have begun to point toward music’s role in defining people’s “sense of place.” British ethnomusicologist Martin Stokes suggests that humans can construct an idea of “place” through music that signals their position in the world in terms of social boundaries and moral and political hierarchies. Stokes argues that music does not simply serve as a reflection of existing social structures, but yields the potential to actively transform a given space. Music denoting place can “preform” a knowledge of social boundaries and hierarchies that people use to negotiate and understand the identities of themselves and others and their relation to place. +Examples of music’s role in defining a sense of place include ethnomusicologist George Lipsitz’s research on the performance of Mexican-American cultural identity in Los Angeles. In response to mechanical reproduction and increasingly commodified forms of culture, Walter Benjamin once argued that cultural objects have become increasingly removed from their original context and place of creation. In this context, ethnomusicologist George Lipsitz suggests that a consciousness of invisibility and alienation marks the cultural identity of minority groups excluded from political power and cultural recognition. Lipsitz analyzes the postmodern, cultural strategies (like bifocality, juxtaposition of multiple realities, intertextuality, inter-referentiality, and families of resemblance), Chicano rock-and-roll musicians during the late-1980s in Los Angeles used to define a sense of place within popular culture. By attending to the cultural work of Mexican-American rock-and-roll musicians, Lipsitz identifies how their music actively demonstrates a “conscious cultural politics that seeks inclusion in the American mainstream by transforming it.” + +== See also == +Affordance +Genius loci +Spirit of place +Cultural landscape +Non-place +Liminal space +Activity space +Place identity +Place attachment +Topophilia +Yi-Fu Tuan +Ian Nairn +Marc Augé +Jane Jacobs + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Chigbu, U.E. (2013). Fostering rural sense of place: the missing piece in Uturu, Nigeria. Development In Practice, 23 (2): pp. 264–277. View and download article: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09614524.2013.772120 +Alexander, Christopher. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction, Oxford University Press, 1977. ISBN 0-19-501919-9 +Casey, Edward S. The Fate of Place, University of California Press, 1998. ISBN 0-520-21649-0 +Cresswell, T. (2005) Place: a short introduction, Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0672-7 +Cresswell, T. (2009). Place. In Thrift, N., Kitchen, R., (eds) International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookvolume.cws_home/722034/vol1) pages 384-395. +Gussow, Alan. 1972. A Sense of Place: The Artist and the American Land. San Francisco: Friends of the Earth. ISBN 1559635681 +Hubbard, Phil, Rob Kitchen, and Gil Valentine, eds. 2004. Key Thinkers on Space and Place. London: Sage. ISBN 0-7619-4963-1 +Inge, John A Christian Theology of Place, Ashgate, 2003. ISBN 0-7546-3498-1 +Kunstler, James. Geography of Nowhere: The Rise and Decline of America's Man-Made Landscape, Free Press, 1994. ISBN 0-671-88825-0 +Lippard, Lucy. The Lure of the Local: Senses of Place in a Multicentered Society, New Press, 1998. ISBN 978-156584248-9 +Long, Joshua. 2010. Weird City: Sense of Place and Creative Resistance in Austin, Texas. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72241-9 +Massey, Doreen B. 2005. For Space. London: Sage. ISBN 1-4129-0362-9 +Relph, E. C. Place and Placelessness, Pion, 1976. ISBN 0-85086-111-X +Snyder, Gary. 1996. A Place in Space. Counterpoint. ISBN 1-887178-27-9 +Soja, Edward W. 1996. Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-And-Imagined Places. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-55786-675-9 +Tuan, Yi Fu. 1977. Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3877-2 +Tuan, Yi Fu. 1990. Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes and Values. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-07395-X + +== External links == +A Definition of "Sense of Place" +Research on Place and Space Archived 2018-12-23 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(stratigraphy)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(stratigraphy)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0d4d3f686 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(stratigraphy)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Series (stratigraphy)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(stratigraphy)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:14.371039+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Series are subdivisions of rock layers based on the age of the rock and formally defined by international conventions of the geological timescale. A series is therefore a sequence of strata defining a chronostratigraphic unit. Series are subdivisions of systems and are themselves divided into stages. +Series is a term defining a unit of rock layers formed during a certain interval of time (a chronostratigraphic unit); it is equivalent (but not synonymous) to the term geological epoch (see epoch criteria) which defines the interval of time itself, although the two words are sometimes confused in informal literature. + + +== Series in the geological timescale == + +The geological timescale has all systems in the Phanerozoic eonothem subdivided into series. Some of these have their own names; in other cases a system is simply divided into a Lower, Middle and Upper series, with official series being capitalized and unofficial designations (such as "middle Cretaceous") being left uncapitalized. The Cretaceous system is, for example, divided into the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Cretaceous Series, while the Carboniferous System is divided into the Pennsylvanian and Mississippian Series. As of 2008, the International Commission on Stratigraphy had not yet named all four series of the Cambrian. Currently series are limited to the Phanerozoic, but the ICS has stated its intention of subdividing the three systems of the Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran, Cryogenian and Tonian) into stages too. + + +== Systems and lithostratigraphy == +Systems can include many lithostratigraphic units (for example formations, beds, members, etc.) of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time. In the same way, a lithostratigraphic unit can include a number of systems or parts of them. + + +== See also == +Chronostratigraphy + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelfmark-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelfmark-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3fdd3bd96 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelfmark-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Shelfmark" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelfmark" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:44.090781+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A shelfmark is a mark in a book or manuscript that denotes the cupboard or bookcase where it is kept as well as the shelf and possibly even its location on the shelf. The closely related term pressmark (from press, meaning cupboard) denotes only the cupboard or case. It is distinct from a call number, which is the code under which a book or manuscript is registered and which is used to identify it when ordering it. Sometimes a shelfmark or pressmark may be used as a call number, but in other cases the call number contains no information about the book's physical location. In certain American institutions, shelfmark and call number are combined to create a long code containing information on location, classification, size, binding, author and date. Shelfmarks and pressmarks were usually written, inscribed or stamped on the pastedowns. When a book was moved, the old shelfmark was usually crossed out and a new one added. Old shelfmarks can sometimes provide valuable information about a manuscript's provenance. + +Shelfmarks originated in the early Middle Ages, usually as combinations of numbers and letters, probably indicating the cupboard and shelf. Letters later came to be assigned to specific batch acquisitions. In the modern period, university libraries often organized their collections by subject and indicated the faculty in the shelfmark. As libraries grew larger, alphanumeric shelfmarks were augmented with Greek letters and the symbols of the zodiac. By the seventeenth century the Cotton library incorporates the names of Roman emperors in it shelfmarks, based on the location of imperial busts in Robert Cotton's original library. +Cave Beck introduced a fore-edge shelfmark system for the Town Library of Ipswich in 1651. A diagonal line was drawn across the fore-edge of the books with an additional pressmark to indicate to which shelf of which press the book belonged. +Shelfmarking declined in the 19th century with the rise of classification schemes like Dewey Decimal Classification. + + +== See also == +Accession number (library science) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_valley-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_valley-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..22e464f8f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_valley-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "Side valley" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_valley" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:25.338337+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Side valleys and tributary valleys are valleys whose brooks or rivers flow into greater ones. +Upstream, the valleys can be classified in an increasing order which is equivalent to the usual orographic order: the tributaries are ordered from those nearest to the source of the river to those nearest to the mouth of the river. A confluence is where two or more tributaries or rivers flow together. + + +== Orographic order (e.g. Humber) == +In the orographic classification (order of rivers) the tributary river has order n+1, if n describes the primary (or main) river. A river which flows directly into the ocean (e.g. the English rivers Thames or Humber) has the orographic order n=1, the River Ouse n=2, the Wharfe n=3 and so on. + + +== Geomorphology == +The term "side valley" is used for higher order valleys near mountains (example above: the Pennines), as opposed to lower valleys that do not have a strong relief. This is because the "main stem river" (into which the secondary river flows) passes much more water than its tributaries and therefore + +has a lower current. +has finer sediments that are deposited in a more flat manner. +The higher the order of a valley, the steeper the hillsides. Looking upstream, the steepest slopes are normally near the source of a brook (with the exception of very hard rocks in downstream direction). + + +=== Hanging valleys === +The estuary of broad rivers lies in flat regions (river flats) rather than in regions with higher elevation. Therefore, the stream gradient of the tributary near its mouth is small (e.g. 1 m per km), but much more at waters of higher order (in the Alps up to 100 m per km). This is one reason for the large number of hanging valleys in some mountain ranges (e.g. Salzburg or Graubünden). +Glaciologic or geologic reasons: + +The glaciers of the ice age caused major erosion that resulted in many U-shaped "glacial valleys", especially at an altitude of 400–800 m which is typical for alpine main valleys. +A valley shoulder appears at the place where the tributary flowed into the river before the glacial period. The side valley loses its height and develops into a hanging valley. +In permeable rock like limestone) a side-valley becomes a gorge. +In granite or other crystalline areas a waterfall may result. +These stages of valley genesis can be seen in higher mountain ranges - e.g. in the "young" Rocky Mountains, in the "old" ranges and fjords of Scandinavia, or in the Eastern Alps (Salzach or Inn valley). +Sandbanks often occur at reaches with slow current, especially near river banks. Studying the various gravel rock types is an excellent and cheap survey for a summarized geology of the rivers watershed (catchment area). +Generally the main river and tributary are easily identified, as one stream is both longer and carries more water than the other. Occasionally one stream is longer, but the other carries more water. This case offers no fixed rules, but the longer valley is usually chosen as the main valley. In Switzerland the long Alpine Rhine is chosen as the main stream, although the Aar carries more water. The Mississippi River carries more water while the Missouri River is much longer, but is still rated the tributary. + + +== Shape == + +Whereas the valleys near river flats don't have special forms, the shape of alpine valleys depends much more from the former glaciology and of the rock type. +Side- or secondary valleys can be V-shaped or U-shaped. Valley floors vary - from just a few meters up to some 100 m (e.g. Bad Gastein or St. Moritz, where small towns have been developed instead of 1000 or 1500 m altitude). +Some valleys are stepped in longitudinal direction (German "Talstufe") which means that these zones show a quicker current than average. The brook digs its own canal and the eroded sediments are deposed at the end of each clammy, forming a series of local plains. They are an excellent sites for alpine agriculture or pastures. + + +== References == + + +== See also == +Valleys +Stream +Geography +River \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_population_entity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_population_entity-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9c035b47e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_population_entity-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Singular population entity" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_population_entity" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:26.566087+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +From a statistical point of view, in Spain, a singular population entity (in Spanish: entidad singular de población) is defined as "any inhabited area within a municipality, inhabited or exceptionally uninhabited, clearly differentiated within that municipality and that is known by a specific name that identifies it without the possibility of confusion", according to the definition of the National Statistics Institute. + + +== Population entities == +The gazetteer published by the INE, usually on the dates when the population census was carried out, distinguishes, within each municipality, the following population entities, each of which has a delimited territorial scope. + +Collective population entity (in Spanish: Entidad colectiva de población): a grouping of two or more singular population entities. +Singular population entity (in Spanish: Entidad singular de población): any inhabited area of a municipality, inhabited or exceptionally uninhabited, clearly differentiated within the municipality and known by a specific denomination that identifies it without the possibility of confusion. +Population nucleus (in Spanish: Núcleo de población): is a group of at least ten buildings that form streets, squares and other urban roads. By exception, the number of buildings may be less than 10, as long as the population that inhabits them exceeds 50 inhabitants. The nucleus includes those buildings that, being isolated, are less than 200 meters from the outer limits of the aforementioned complex, although in determining this distance, land occupied by industrial or commercial facilities, parks, gardens, sports areas, cemeteries, parking lots and others, as well as canals or rivers that may be crossed by bridges, must be excluded. +Scattered (in Spanish: Diseminados): These are buildings -inhabited or not- that do not meet the conditions established to form a population nucleus. +The singular population entity can be constituted by several population nuclei, in addition to scattered. If there is no population nucleus within the singular population entity, it is formed by the existing scattered areas in its territory. +Each singular population entity has a category that is the qualification granted, or traditionally recognized, such as city, town, lugar or village, and in the absence thereof, the one that responds to its origin and characteristics, such as baserri, settlement, barrio, monastery, tourist center, residential area, urbanization and others. +Similarly, a population nucleus corresponds to one of the following categories: city, town, lugar or hamlet, settlement, barrio, residential area, urbanization. +Some collective population entities receive, according to the legislation of each Autonomous Community, the consideration of local Entity of territorial scope inferior to the municipality foreseen in the Local Regime Law; these entities according to this law do not have legal personality, and according to the autonomous legislation can receive their own denominations: in the autonomous legislation they can receive other denominations such as hamlets, parishes, villages, barrios, elizates, concejos, pedanías, annexed places and other analogous ones. In Alava and Navarre, these entities are called councils and, in accordance with the corresponding legislation, have legal personality. + + +== INE code of entities and population nuclei == +The entities and population nuclei have been codified by the National Institute of Statistics since 1981. This code is made up of 11 digits: + +The first two for the province; +The third, fourth and fifth for the municipality within the province; +The sixth and seventh for the collective entity within the municipality, if it exists. Otherwise "00" is used; +The eighth and ninth for the singular entity within the collective entity or the municipality, if the collective entity does not exist; and +The last two for the population nuclei within the singular entity, using "99" for the scattered. +Thus, for example, code 33016022002 refers to: + +The codes were re-established in 1991 following the alphabetical order of the population nucleus within each singular entity. Newly created entities are assigned a code correlative to the last existing one, and those that disappear are not reused. The municipalities must review, at least once a year, the list of entidades and population nuclei and send it to the National Statistics Institute, which publishes it annually. +This list serves as the basis for the preparation of the municipal census of inhabitants. + + +== See also == +Minor local entity + + +== Bibliography == +García Sanz, Benjamín (1994). "Alcance y significado de las entidades singulares de población como concepto para cuantificar la población rural" [Scope and Significance of Singular Population Entities as a Concept to Quantify the Rural Population] (PDF). Revista de Estudios Agrosociales (in Spanish) (168): 199–234. ISSN 0034-8155. +González Polledo, Luis Alfonso (2005). "El Nomenclátor de 1986 como fuente documental" [The 1986 Nomenclator as a documentary source]. Polígonos. Revista de Geografía (in Spanish) (1): 181–192. doi:10.18002/pol.v0i1.1281. ISSN 2444-0272. + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Rodríguez Muñoz, Javier (Dir.) (2000). Diccionario Geográfico de Asturias : Ciudades, Villas y Pueblos. Oviedo: Editorial Prensa Asturiana, S.A./La Nueva España. +Sociedad asturiana de estudios económicos e industriales, sadei (2007). "Definiciones". Oviedo. Retrieved July 6, 2007. +Instituto Nacional de Estadística (April 12, 2012). "Nomenclátor. Relación de unidades poblacionales (Metodología)" (in Spanish). Madrid. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_state-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_state-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f43bc4b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_state-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Small state" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_state" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:27.863702+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Small state is a generic term for a small country, that has limited land, population, or resources. The term "small state" is similar to the term microstate or ministate, a sovereign state having a very small population or land area, usually both. However, the meanings of "state" and "very small" are not well-defined in international law. Two important definitions for a small state are World Bank, which defines small state as those with less than 1.5 million people, which is about 40-50 countries, and the U.N. Forum on Small States which has higher threshold and includes about 100 countries, most of which are under 5 million people. +The term small state is a usually inclusive to microstates; while microstates can be considered small states, not all small states are microstates. There is different criteria for defining small states. A small state may be considered a small power if they are able to project political power regionally. + + +== Definitions of a Small State == +Metrics for defining a small state look at aspects of country including area, population, size of the government, territory, and political situation. One of the most common metrics to look at is population, which constraints other aspects, and countries with less than one million people is one common benchmark. However some institutions have used different standards, such as 1.5 million or higher, and especially if the states define themselves and want to be defined that way. Two important listings of small states are the World Bank and the Forum on Small states, which includes about 51 and over 100 nations respectively. +Two thirds of U.N. members can be considered small states by some definitions, while World Bank made a list which is about 50 countries globally. World Bank uses a threshold of 1.5 million population or less to describe a small state, which is about 40 nations, and there is another dozen close to 1.5 million but have similar issues as the other small states. +World Bank lists the following countries as small states using their definition: + +American Samoa, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belize, Bhutan, Botswana, Brunei, Cape Verde, Comoros, Cyprus, Djibouti, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Iceland, Jamaica, Kiribati, Lesotho, Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia, Montenegro, Namibia, Nauru, Palau, Qatar, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Suriname, Swaziland, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. +If a threshold of 1.5 million people was chosen, at one time this included about 30 countries. +The point at which a small state becomes a microstate, has been defined in research as being as low as 100 thousand people but up to 1.5 million, though one million is most common. +The Commonwealth Secretariat defines 42 countries in the world to be small states, and further notes of these 33 of them are part of the Commonwealth of Nations. The Secretariat was founded in the 1980s to advocate for small states, noting their increased vulnerability. +The definition of a small states has been the subject or research, and precise definitions have been elusive. One research paper in 2008, The elusive definition of the small state. states that the reason there is not a consensus definition of small states, is because different criteria have been used to define them, however, they suggest that this flexibility in definition is not a problem and is actually beneficial. + + +== As member of Forum of Small States == + +One noted small states organization, is the UN group Forum of Small States, which as of the 2020s included over 100 nations. + + +== See also == +Forum of Small States +Games of the Small States of Europe +Microstate +Small power +Alliance of Small Island States +Small Island Developing States + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_literature-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_literature-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ef7315ea7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_literature-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Source literature" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_literature" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:45.321851+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Source literature (understood as printed texts) is a kind of information source. It might, for example, be cited and used as sources in academic writings, and then called the literature on the subject. +The meaning of "source literature" is relative. From the point of view of a bibliographic index the indexed papers are "source literature". For example, the Social Sciences Citation Index is a "source index" covering the journals being indexed. These journals are the source literature from the point of view of this index. But from the point of view of the indexed papers they are the bibliographical references contained in the single papers "source literature". +In the humanities, the term "source literature" has a more precise meaning than "published sources": Many archives, for example, publish important sources to be used by historians and other scholars as reliable editions of formerly unpublished sources. The publishing of such sources requires knowledge of text philology and other fields. But this kind of expertise put into the publishing of source literature should be differentiated from the kind of expertise needed in order to use the sources in, for example, historical research. A historian may or may not use such "source literature" and on the basis of his research publish a paper, which in the UNISIST model is considered primary literature. +Søndergaard, Andersen and Hjørland (2003) thus suggest that source literature is a distinct kind of literature to be distinguished from primary literature. + + +== See also == +Sourcebook +Primary source +Secondary source + + +== References == +Trine Fjordback Søndergaard, Jack Andersen and Birger Hjørland (2003): Documents and the communication of scientific and scholarly information. Revising and updating the UNISIST model. "Journal of Documentation", 59 (3), pp. 278–320. + + +== External links == +Hjørland, Birger (ed.). "Source literature" Core Concepts in Library and Information Science. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_scale-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_scale-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e6731e785 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_scale-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Spatial scale" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_scale" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:29.115608+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Spatial scale is a specific application of the term scale for describing or categorizing (e.g. into orders of magnitude) the size of a space (hence spatial), or the extent of it at which a phenomenon or process occurs. +For instance, in physics an object or phenomenon can be called microscopic if too small to be visible. In climatology, a micro-climate is a climate which might occur in a mountain, valley or near a lake shore. In statistics, a megatrend is a political, social, economical, environmental or technological trend which involves the whole planet or is supposed to last a very large amount of time. The concept is also used in geography, astronomy, and meteorology. +These divisions are somewhat arbitrary; where, on this table, mega- is assigned global scope, it may only apply continentally or even regionally in other contexts. The interpretations of meso- and macro- must then be adjusted accordingly. + + +== See also == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatiomap-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatiomap-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e1bd035e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatiomap-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Spatiomap" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatiomap" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:30.307161+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A spatiomap is a document similar to a map, but based on an orthophoto. Often, some annotations are added to the orthophoto. Similar to normal maps, can display a north arrow, a scale bar and cartographical information like the used projection. Spatiomaps are useful when other reliable source are missing for a certain area and/or when a map must be produced in very short time (e.g. for disaster management). Spatiomaps are frequently used during disaster relief. +An image map or orthophotomap is a similar document, but is mostly regarded as an orthophotomosaic with some points, lines or polygon layers of a traditional map drawn over the orthophoto. An image map resembles a standard general purpose map but adds the use of an orthophotomosaic as a background. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_(stratigraphy)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_(stratigraphy)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c9c44e7d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_(stratigraphy)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +--- +title: "Stage (stratigraphy)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_(stratigraphy)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:15.598010+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In chronostratigraphy, a stage is a succession of rock strata laid down in a single age on the geologic timescale, which usually represents millions of years of deposition. A given stage of rock and the corresponding age of time will by convention have the same name, and the same boundaries. +Rock series are divided into stages, just as geological epochs are divided into ages. Stages are divided into smaller stratigraphic units called chronozones or substages, and added together into superstages. +The term faunal stage is sometimes used, referring to the fact that the same fauna (animals) are found throughout the layer (by definition). + + +== Definition == +Stages are primarily defined by a consistent set of fossils (biostratigraphy) or a consistent magnetic polarity (see paleomagnetism) in the rock. Usually one or more index fossils that are common, found worldwide, easily recognized, and limited to a single, or at most a few, stages are used to define the stage's bottom. +Thus, for example in the local North American subdivision, a paleontologist finding fragments of the trilobite Olenellus would identify the beds as being from the Waucoban Stage whereas fragments of a later trilobite such as Elrathia would identify the stage as Albertan. +Stages were important in the 19th and early 20th centuries as they were the major tool available for dating and correlating rock units prior to the development of seismology and radioactive dating in the second half of the 20th century. Microscopic analysis of the rock (petrology) is also sometimes useful in confirming that a given segment of rock is from a particular age. +Originally, faunal stages were only defined regionally. As additional stratigraphic and geochronologic tools were developed, they were defined over ever broader areas. More recently, the adjective "faunal" has been dropped as regional and global correlations of rock sequences have become relatively certain and there is less need for faunal labels to define the age of formations. A tendency developed to use European and, to a lesser extent, Asian stage names for the same time period worldwide, even though the faunas in other regions often had little in common with the stage as originally defined. + + +== International standardization == + +Boundaries and names are established by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of the International Union of Geological Sciences. As of 2008, the ICS is nearly finished with a task begun in 1974, subdividing the Phanerozoic eonothem into internationally accepted stages using two types of benchmark. For younger stages, a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), a physical outcrop clearly demonstrates the boundary. For older stages, a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) is an absolute date. The benchmarks will give a much greater certainty that results can be compared with confidence in the date determinations, and such results will have farther scope than any evaluation based solely on local knowledge and conditions. +In many regions local subdivisions and classification criteria are still used along with the newer internationally coordinated uniform system, but once the research establishes a more complete international system, it is expected that local systems will be abandoned. + + +== Stages and lithostratigraphy == +Stages can include many lithostratigraphic units (for example formations, beds, members, etc.) of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time. In the same way, a lithostratigraphic unit can include a number of stages or parts of them. + + +== See also == +European land mammal age +Geologic record +Geologic time scale +North American land mammal age +Type locality (geology) +List of geochronologic names +List of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points + + +== Notes == + + +== References == +Gehling, James; Jensen, Sören; Droser, Mary; Myrow, Paul; Narbonne, Guy (March 2001). "Burrowing below the basal Cambrian GSSP, Fortune Head, Newfoundland". Geological Magazine. 138 (2): 213–218. Bibcode:2001GeoM..138..213G. doi:10.1017/S001675680100509X. hdl:10662/24314. S2CID 131211543. 1. +Hedberg, H.D., (editor), International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976 +International Stratigraphic Chart from the International Commission on Stratigraphy + + +== External links == +The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP): overview +Chart of The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP): chart +Geotime chart displaying geologic time periods compared to the fossil record, deals with chronology and classifications for laymen (not GSSPs) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphic_unit-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphic_unit-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..23e7f9c46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphic_unit-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Stratigraphic unit" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphic_unit" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:54.692438+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A stratigraphic unit is a volume of rock of identifiable origin and relative age range that is defined by the distinctive and dominant, easily mapped and recognizable petrographic, lithologic or paleontologic features (facies) that characterize it. +Units must be mappable and distinct from one another, but the contact need not be particularly distinct. For instance, a unit may be defined by terms such as "when the sandstone component exceeds 75%". + + +== Lithostratigraphic units == + +Sequences of sedimentary and volcanic rocks are subdivided on the basis of their shared or associated lithology. Formally identified lithostratigraphic units are structured in a hierarchy of lithostratigraphic rank, higher rank units generally comprising two or more units of lower rank. Going from smaller to larger in rank, the main lithostratigraphic ranks are bed, member, formation, group and supergroup. +Formal names of lithostratigraphic units are assigned by geological surveys. Units of formation or higher rank are usually named for the unit's type location, and the formal name usually also states the unit's rank or lithology. A lithostratigraphic unit may have a change in rank over a some distance; a group may thin to a formation in another region and a formation may reduce in rank for member or bed as it "pinches out". + + +=== Bed === + +A bed is a lithologically distinct layer within a member or formation and is the smallest recognisable stratigraphic unit. These are not normally named, but may be in the case of a marker horizon. + + +=== Member === +A member is a named lithologically distinct part of a formation. Not all formations are subdivided in this way and even where they are recognized, they may only form part of the formation. A member need not be mappable at the same scale as a formation. + + +=== Formation === + +Formations are the primary units used in the subdivision of a sequence and may vary in scale from tens of centimetres to kilometres. They should be distinct lithologically from other formations, although the boundaries do not need to be sharp. To be formally recognised, a formation must have sufficient extent to be useful in mapping an area. + + +=== Group === + +A group is a set of two or more formations that share certain lithological characteristics. A group may be made up of different formations in different geographical areas and individual formations may appear in more than one group. Groups are occasionally divided into subgroups, but subgroups are not mentioned in the North American Stratigraphic Code, and are permitted under International Commission on Stratigraphy guidelines only in exceptional circumstances. + + +=== Supergroup === +A supergroup is a set of two or more associated groups and/or formations that share certain lithological characteristics. A supergroup may be made up of different groups in different geographical areas. + + +== Biostratigraphic units == + +A sequence of fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks can be subdivided on the basis of the occurrence of particular fossil taxa. A unit defined in this way is known as a biostratigraphic unit, generally shortened to biozone. The five commonly used types of biozone are assemblage, range, abundance, interval and lineage zones. + +An assemblage zone is a stratigraphic interval characterised by an assemblage of three or more coexisting fossil taxa that distinguish it from surrounding strata. +A range zone is a stratigraphic interval that represents the occurrence range of a specific fossil taxon, based on the localities where it has been recognised. +An abundance zone is a stratigraphic interval in which the abundance of a particular taxon (or group of taxa) is significantly greater than seen in neighbouring parts of the succession. +An interval zone is a stratigraphic interval whose top and base are defined by horizons that mark the first or last occurrence of two different taxa. +A lineage zone is a stratigraphic interval that contains fossils that represent parts of the evolutionary lineage of a particular fossil group. This is a special case of a range zone. + + +== See also == +Chronostratigraphy +Glaciology +Magnetostratigraphy +Sedimentology +Sequence stratigraphy +Stratigraphy + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Stratigraphic Guide - International Commission on Stratigraphy \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaerial-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaerial-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6eab87f76 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaerial-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Subaerial" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaerial" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:17.882294+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In natural science, subaerial (literally "under the air") has been used since 1833, notably in geology and botany, to describe features and events occurring or formed on or near the Earth's land surface. They are thus exposed to Earth's atmosphere. This may be contrasted with subaqueous events or features located below a water surface, submarine events or features located below a sea surface, subterranean events or features located below ground, or subglacial events or features located below glacial ice such as ice sheets. + + +== Geology == +For example, a subaerial eruption of a volcano is one that ejects material in the open but "under the air" (under the atmosphere). Subaerial weathering is weathering by rain, frost, rivers etc. +The term "subaerial" may exclude processes occurring in caves. +The term is often used in sedimentology. + + +== Botany == +Leaves are subaerial organs of plants. +Some plants may have subaerial roots, either totally (epiphytic plants such as some orchids) or more commonly only partly so. The oil palm tree can grow roots into accumulations of decaying leaves on the soil surface; these roots are said to be subaerial. Epiphyte plants growing above ground that do not feed from their tree support (for example through their haustorium or feeding part having dug into the tree, such as Mistletoe) have subaerial roots (for example some Ficus species). +Subaerial stems are the stems that do not rise up but grow just above the ground. As a type of asexual propagation, these subaerial stolons, also called runners, often develop roots and leaves from their nodes. +Some pond plants have subaerial leaves as well as submerged leaves (water plantain, flowering rush). +Subaerial algae are those that live on surfaces above the soil. The surfaces are diverse, and can either be natural (e.g. rocks, bark and leaves of trees, and hair of animals) or artificial (concrete, woodwork, and metal). When on artificial substrates, subaerial algae can be economically significant because they often lead to biodeterioration of the substrates. + + +== See also == +Specialized root types +Velamen – epidermis of subaerial roots in some orchids and other epiphytic plants + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbasin-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbasin-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d207a986d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbasin-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Subbasin" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbasin" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:19.116933+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A subbasin or sub-basin is a structural geologic feature where a larger basin is divided into a series of smaller basins with intervening intrabasinal highs. +The term subbasin has common use in geologic literature, but has yet to be included in the API Glossary of Geology. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad776444e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Subject (documents)" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:46.645452+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In library and information science documents (such as books, articles and pictures) are classified and searched by subject – as well as by other attributes such as author, genre and document type. This makes "subject" a fundamental term in this field. Library and information specialists assign subject labels to documents to make them findable. There are many ways to do this and in general there is not always consensus about which subject should be assigned to a given document. To optimize subject indexing and searching, we need to have a deeper understanding of what a subject is. The question: "what is to be understood by the statement 'document A belongs to subject category X'?" has been debated in the field for more than 100 years (see below) + +== Theoretical view == + +=== Charles Ammi Cutter (1837–1903) === +For Cutter the stability of subjects depends on a social process in which their meaning is stabilized in a name or a designation. A subject "referred [...] to those intellections [...] that had received a name that itself represented a distinct consensus in usage" (Miksa, 1983a, p. 60) and: the "systematic structure of established subjects" is "resident in the public realm" (Miksa, 1983a, p. 69); "[s]ubjects are by their very nature locations in a classificatory structure of publicly accumulated knowledge (Miksa, 1983a, p. 61). Bernd Frohmann adds: +"The stability of the public realm in turn relies upon natural and objective mental structures which, with proper education, govern a natural progression from particular to general concepts. +Since for Cutter, mind, society, and SKO [Systems of Knowledge Organization] stand one behind the other, each supporting each, all manifesting the same structure, his discursive construction of subjects invites connections with discourses of mind, education, and society. The Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), by contrast, severs those connections. Melvil Dewey emphasized more than once that his system maps no structure beyond its own; there is neither a "transcendental deduction" of its categories nor any reference to Cutter's objective structure of social consensus. It is content-free: Dewey disdained any philosophical excogitation of the meaning of his class symbols, leaving the job of finding verbal equivalents to others. His innovation and the essence of the system lay in the notation. The DDC is a poorly semiotic system of expanding nests of ten digits, lacking any referent beyond itself. In it, a subject is wholly constituted in terms of its position in the system. The essential characteristic of a subject is a class symbol which refers only to other symbols. Its verbal equivalent is accidental, a merely pragmatic characteristic... +.... +The conflict of interpretations over "subjects" became explicit in the battles between "bibliography" (an approach to subjects having much in common with Cutter's) and Dewey's "close classification". William Fletcher spoke for the scholarly bibliographer.... Fletcher's "subjects", like Cutter's, referred to the categories of a fantasized, stable social order, whereas Dewey's subjects were elements of a semiological system of standardized, techno-bureaucratic administrative software for the library in its corporate, rather than high culture, incarnation". (Frohmann, 1994, 112–113). +Cutter's early view on what a subject is, is probably wiser than most understandings that dominated the 20th century – and also the understanding reflected in the ISO-standard quoted below. The early statements quoted by Frohmann indicate that subjects are somehow shaped in social processes. When that is said, it should be added that they are not particularly detailed or clear. We only get a vague idea of the social nature of subjects. + +=== S. R. Ranganathan (1892–1972) === +A classification system with an explicit theoretical foundation is Ranganathan's Colon Classification. Ranganathan provided an explicit definition of the concept of "subject": + +Subject – an organized body of ideas, whose extension and intension are likely to fall coherently within the field of interests and comfortably within the intellectual competence and the field of inevitable specialization of a normal person. + +A related definition is given by one of Ranganathan's students: + +A subject is an organized and systematized body of ideas. It may consist of one idea or a combination of several... \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..03a3b9eca --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Subject (documents)" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:46.645452+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Ranganathan's definition of "subject" is strongly influenced by his Colon Classification system. The colon system is based on the combination of single elements from facets to subject designation. This is the reason why the combined nature of subjects are emphasized so strongly. It leads, however, to absurdities such as the claim that gold cannot be a subject (but is alternatively termed "an isolate"). This aspect of the theory has been criticized by Metcalfe (1973, p. 318). Metcalfe's skepticism regarding Ranganathan's theory is formulated in hard words (op. cit., p. 317): "This pseudo-science imposed itself on British disciples from about 1950 on...". +It seems unacceptable that Ranganathan defines the word subject in a way that favors his own system. A scientific concept like "subject" should make it possible to compare different ways of establishing access to information. Whether or not subjects are combined or not should be examined once their definition has been given, it should not determined a priori, in the definition. +Besides the emphasis on the combined, organizing and systematizing nature of subjects contains Ranganathan's definition of subject the pragmatic demand, that a subject should be determined in a way that suits a normal person's competency or specialization. Again we see a strange kind of wishful thinking mixing a general understanding of a concept with demands put by his own specific system. One thing is what the word subject means, quite another issue is how to provide subject descriptions that fulfill demands such as the specificity of a given information retrieval language which fulfill demands put on the system, such as precision and recall. If researchers too often define terms in ways that favor specific kinds of systems, that are such definitions not useful to provide more general theories about subjects, subject analysis and IR. Among other things are comparative studies of different kinds of systems made difficult. +Based on these arguments, as well as additional arguments which have been used in the literature, we may conclude that Ranganathan's definition of the concept "subject" is not suited for scientific use. Like the definition of "subject" given by the ISO-standard for topic maps, may Ranganathan's definition be useful within his own closed system. The purpose of a scientific and scholarly field is, however, to examine the relative fruitfulness of systems such as topic maps and Colon Classification. For such purpose is another understanding of "subject" necessary. + +=== Patrick Wilson (1927–2003) === +In his book Wilson (1968) examined – in particular by thought experiments – the suitability of different methods of examining the subject of a document. The methods were: + +identifying the author's purpose for writing the document, +weighing the relative dominance and subordination of different elements in the picture, which the reading imposes on the reader, +grouping or count the document's use of concepts and references, +construing a set of rules for selecting elements deemed necessary (as opposed to unnecessary) for the work as a whole. +Patrick Wilson shows convincingly that each of these methods are insufficient to determine the subject of a document and is led to conclude ( p. 89): "The notion of the subject of a writing is indeterminate..." or, on p. 92 (about what users may expect to find using a particular position in a library classification system): "For nothing definite can be expected of the things found at any given position". In connection to the last quote has Wilson an interesting footnote in which he writes that authors of documents often use terms in ambiguous ways ("hostility" is used as an example). Even if the librarian could personally develop a very precise understanding of a concept, he would be unable to use it in his classification, because none of the documents use the term in the same precise way. Based on this argumentation is Wilson led to conclude: "If people write on what are for them ill-defined phenomena, a correct description of their subjects must reflect the ill-definedness". +Wilson's concept of subject was discussed by Hjørland (1992) who found that it is problematic to give up the precise understanding of such a basic term in LIS. Wilson's arguments led him to an agnostic position which Hjørland found unacceptable and unnecessary. Concerning the authors' use of ambiguous terms, the role of the subject analysis is to determine which documents would be fruitful for users to identify whether or not the documents use one or another term or whether a given term in a document is used in one or another meaning. Clear and relevant concepts and distinctions in classification systems and controlled vocabularies may be fruitful even if they are applied to documents with ambiguous terminology. + +=== "Content oriented" versus "request oriented" views === +Request oriented indexing is indexing in which the anticipated request from users is influencing how documents are being indexed. The indexer ask himself: "Under which descriptors should this entity be found?" and "think of all the possible queries and decide for which ones the entity at hand is relevant" (Soergel, 1985, p. 230). +Request oriented indexing may be indexing that is targeted towards a particular audience or user group. For example, a library or a database for feminist studies may index documents different compared to a historical library. It is probably better, however, to understand request oriented indexing as policy based indexing: The indexing is done according to some ideals and reflects the purpose of the library or database doing the indexing. In this way it is not necessarily a kind of indexing based on user studies. Only if empirical data about use or users are applied should request oriented indexing be regarded as a user-based approach. + +=== The subject knowledge view === +Rowley & Hartley (2008, p. 109) wrote "In order to achieve good consistent indexing, the indexer must have a thorough appreciation of the structure of the subject and the nature of the contribution that the document is making to the advancement of knowledge within a particular discipline". This is accordance with Hjørland's definition given above. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..02ef1954f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "Subject (documents)" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:46.645452+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Other views and definitions === +In the ISO-standard for topic maps the concept of subject is defined this way: +"Subject +Anything whatsoever, regardless of whether it exists or has any other specific characteristics, about which anything whatsoever may be asserted by any means whatsoever." ISO 13250-1, here cited from draft: http://www1.y12.doe.gov/capabilities/sgml/sc34/document/0446.htm#overview) +This definition may work well with the closed system of concepts provided by the topic maps standard. In broader contexts, however, is not fruitful because it does not contain any specification of what to identify in a document or in a discourse when ascribing subject identification terms or symbols to it. If different methods of subject analysis imply different results, which of these results can then be said to reflect the (true) subject? (Given that the expression "a true subject assignment" is meaningful at all, which is an important part of the problem). Different persons may have different opinions about what the subject of a specific document is. How can a theoretical understanding of the term "subject" be helpful deciding principles of subject analysis? + +== Related concepts == + +=== Indexing words versus concepts versus subjects === +A proposal for the differentiation between concept indexing and subject indexing was given by Bernier (1980). In his opinion subject indexes are different from, and can be contrasted with, indexes to concepts, topics and words. Subjects are what authors are working and reporting on. A document can have the subject of Chromatography if this is what the author wishes to inform about. Papers using Chromatography as a +research method or discussing it in a subsection do not have Chromatography as subjects. Indexers can easily drift into indexing concepts and words rather than subjects, but this is not good indexing. Bernier does not, however, differentiate author's subjects from those of the information seeker. A user may want a document about a subject, which is different from the one intended by its author. From the point of view of information systems, the subject of a document is related to the questions that the document can answer for the users (cf. the distinction between a content oriented and a request-oriented approach). + +=== Isness === +"The FRSAR Working Group is aware that some controlled vocabularies provide terminology to express other aspects of works in addition to subject (such as form, genre, and target audience of resources). While very important and the focus of many user queries, these aspects describe isness or what class the work belongs to based on form or genre (e.g., novel, play, poem, essay, biography, symphony, concerto, sonata, map, drawing, painting, photograph, etc.) rather than what the work is about." (IFLA, 2010, p. 10). + +=== Ofness === +"Those LIS authors who have focused on the subjects of visual resources, such as artworks and photographs, have often been concerned with how to distinguish between the "aboutness" and the "ofness" (both specific and generic depiction or representation) of such works (Shatford, 1986). In this sense, "aboutness" has a narrower meaning than that used above. A painting of a sunset over San Francisco, for instance, might be analyzed as being (generically) "of" sunsets and (specifically) "of" San Francisco, but also "about" the passage of time." (IFLA, 2010, p. 11). +See also: Baca & Harpring (2000) and Shatford (1986). + +== See also == +Aboutness +Document classification +Subject indexing +Subject access +Subject term +Topic-comment + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Drake, C. L. (1960). What is a subject? Australian Library Journal, 9, 34–41. +Englebretsen, George (1987). Subjects. Studia Leibnitiana, Bd. 19, H. 1, pp. 85–90. Published by: Franz Steiner Verlag. JSTOR 40694071 +IFLA (2010).Functional Requirements for Subject Authority Data (FRSAD): A Conceptual Model. By IFLA Working Group on the Functional Requirements for Subject Authority Records (FRSAR). Edited by Marcia Lei Zeng, Maja umer, Athena Salaba. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. Berlin: De Gruyter. Retrieved 2011-09-14 from: http://www.ifla.org/files/classification-and-indexing/functional-requirements-for-subject-authority-data/frsad-final-report.pdf +Miksa, F. (1983b): The Subject in the Dictionary Catalog from Cutter to the Present. Chicago: American Library Association. +Welty, C. A. (1998). The Ontological Nature of Subject Taxonomies. IN: N. Guarino (ed.), Proceedings of the First Conference on Formal Ontology and Information Systems, Amsterdam, IOS Press. http://www.cs.vassar.edu/faculty/welty/papers/fois-98/fois-98-1.html \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synekism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synekism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e209684b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synekism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Synekism" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synekism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:31.623643+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Synekism is a concept in urban studies coined by Edward Soja. It refers to the dynamic formation of the polis state — the union of several small urban settlements under the rule of a "capital" city (or so-called city-state or urban system). Soja's definition of synekism, mentioned in Writing the city spatially, is "the stimulus of urban agglomeration." + + +== Social science == +From the social sciences' view, it is also a "nucleated and hierarchically nested process of political governance, economic development, social order, and cultural identity" Soja. +In densely settled urban places, a critical mass provides potential for innovation that is not typically available in rural environments, therefore synekism can be thought of as the geographical relationships that create and give importance to cities. + + +== Notes == + + +== Further reading == +Bell, Thomas L.; Muller, Peter O. (March 2003). "Book Review". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 93 (1): 248–250. doi:10.1111/1467-8306.93122. S2CID 144744015. (A review of Soja's Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions, ISBN 1-57718-001-1.) +Soja, Edward (2000). Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. +Soja, Edward (November 2003). "Writing the city spatially". City. 7 (3): 269–280. doi:10.1080/1360481032000157478. ISSN 1360-4813. Wikidata Q29997800. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ab82ab6fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "System (stratigraphy)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:20.304965+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A system in stratigraphy is a sequence of strata (rock layers) that were laid down together within the same corresponding geological period. The associated period is a chronological time unit, a part of the geological time scale, while the system is a unit of chronostratigraphy. Systems are unrelated to lithostratigraphy, which subdivides rock layers on their lithology. Systems are subdivisions of erathems and are themselves divided into series and stages. + + +== Systems in the geological timescale == +The systems of the Phanerozoic were defined during the 19th century, beginning with the Cretaceous (by Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in the Paris Basin) and the Carboniferous (by British geologists William Conybeare and William Phillips in 1822). The Paleozoic and Mesozoic were divided into the currently used systems before the second half of the 19th century, except for a minor revision when the Ordovician system was added in 1879. +The Cenozoic has seen more recent revisions by the International Commission on Stratigraphy. It has been divided into three systems with the Paleogene and Neogene replacing the former Tertiary System though the succeeding Quaternary remains. The one-time system names of Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene are now series within the Paleogene and Neogene. +Another recent development is the official division of the Proterozoic into systems, which was decided in 2004. + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Gehling, James; Jensen, Sören; Droser, Mary; Myrow, Paul; Narbonne, Guy (March 2001). "Burrowing below the basal Cambrian GSSP, Fortune Head, Newfoundland". Geological Magazine. 138 (2): 213–218. Bibcode:2001GeoM..138..213G. doi:10.1017/S001675680100509X. hdl:10662/24314. S2CID 131211543. 1. +Hedberg, H.D., (editor), International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976 +International Stratigraphic Chart from the International Commission on Stratigraphy +USA National Park Service +Washington State University Archived 2011-07-26 at the Wayback Machine +Web Geological Time Machine +Eon or Aeon, Math Words - An alphabetical index + + +== External links == +The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP): overview +Chart of The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP): chart +Geotime chart displaying geologic time periods compared to the fossil record - Deals with chronology and classifications for laymen (not GSSPs) +International Commission on Stratigraphy page on Chronostratigraphy : overview \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableland-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableland-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8dd914858 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableland-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Tableland" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:32.903996+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A tableland is an area containing elevated landforms characterized by a distinct, flat, nearly level, or gently undulating surface. They often exhibit steep, cliff-like edges, known as escarpments, that separate them from surrounding lowlands. Depending on either their size, other physical characteristics, or geographic location, the landforms comprising a tableland are individually referred to by a number of names including butte, mesa, plateau, potrero, tepui, or tuya. A homologous landform under the sea is called either a tablemount or guyot. + + +== Sedimentary tablelands == +Sedimentary tablelands are tablelands that typically have developed from the erosion of coarse-grained, clastic, sedimentary rocks in the form of relatively flat-lying sandstones and conglomerates that have not been strongly deformed by tectonics. The primary control on the geomorphology of sedimentary tablelands is the dip of the layers of the sandstones, conglomerates, and associated sedimentary strata. Sedimentary tablelands only form if the dip of the sedimentary layers is negligible. If the sedimentary layers are tilted, although otherwise little deformed, asymmetric ridges known as cuestas develop. +A really extensive sedimentary tablelands are often known as plateaus. As plateaus are dissected by the headward erosion and incision of river and stream courses and the retreat of their bounding escarpments, plateaus are fragmented into tablelands of smaller and smaller extent known as mesas, buttes, or pinnacles. Further erosion eventually reduces these landforms to piles of bouldery rubble as known as rock labyrinths. The tepui of South America are a type of sedimentary tableland composed of erosional outliers of flat-lying Precambrian quartz arenite sandstone that tower over the surrounding jungle underlain by crystalline basement rocks. + + +== Other tablelands == +Flat-lying, coarse-grained, clastic sedimentary rocks are not the only layered rocks that serve as the caprock that form the surface of tablelands. Flat-lying duricrusts and volcanic rocks also form the caprock of various tablelands. In case of duricrusts, e.g. laterite or silcrete, the formation of tablelands involves a three-stage process. First, the formation of a thick indurated surface layer duricrust by deep weathering beneath a relatively flat surface. Second, the breaching and incision of the duricrust layer by rivers or streams. Finally, the inward migration of valley walls and escarpments by slope erosion and denudation of mesas and buttes. An example of such tablelands is the laterite-capped Panchgani Tableland of India. Tablelands formed by the erosion of duricrusts are also quite common in parts of Australia and South America. In addition, the eruption of either lava or pyroclastic flows can deposit a solid surface layer of volcanic rock that is relatively flat. As in case of the duricrusts, the resulting lava or pyroclastic flows are sufficiently tough to form the flat-lying caprock of tablelands when breached and incised by rivers and streams. + + +== See also == +Strandflat +Paleosurface + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Media related to Tables (landform) at Wikimedia Commons \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topocide-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topocide-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3cc82c77b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topocide-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Topocide" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topocide" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:34.092905+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Topocide is the deliberate alteration or destruction of a locale through industrial expansion and change, so that its original landscape and character are destroyed. Topocide can be the result of deliberate industrial expansion, as when industries form, then the people's center of life revolves around that industry. New jobs are formed and the environmental and cultural landscape is forever changed. +A related term is domicide (from Latin domus, meaning home or abode, and caedo, meaning deliberate killing) the destruction of home; the two may be viewed as synonyms or they may be opposed, with topocide referring to destruction from the point of view of the perpetrator(s) and domicide from the perspective of those affected. + + +== See also == +Domicide + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Bibliography of genocide studies \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_city-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_city-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a66b14ecd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_city-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Tourist city" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_city" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:35.302388+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A tourist city is a place where the economy is mainly run by the tourism industry, and a large part of the city consists of areas dedicated to visitors. + +Some cities, such as New York City, Singapore, and London are not exclusively tourist cities, but do have tourist districts and are well known for their reputation as having a lot of international tourists. +A tourist city differs from a regular city in the sense that it is trying to appeal to everyone who is not native to that area. This causes there to be a lot of advertising and attractions to try to draw people to the city. +To regulate tourism, tourist cities also establish regions designed specifically for visitors on vacation. One example of this would be Cancún and its isolated Hotel Zone. + + +== Examples of notable tourist cities == +Entries are listed in the form of "name of city (country name)." Data from Euromonitor. + + +== See also == +List of cities by international visitors - cities ranked by number of visitors in a year +Honeypot (tourism) + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trailhead-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trailhead-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a2acdf572 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trailhead-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Trailhead" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trailhead" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:36.613774+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A trailhead is the point where a trail begins or is accessed, where the trail is often intended for hiking, biking, horseback riding, or off-road vehicles. Modern trailheads often contain restrooms, maps, signposts, and distribution centers for informational brochures about the trail and its features and parking areas for vehicles and trailers. +The United States Access Board defines a trailhead "as an outdoor space that is designated by an entity responsible for administering or maintaining a trail to serve as an access point to the trail." The intersection of two trails is a trail junction and does not constitute a trailhead. + +Historically, the cities located at the terminus of major pathways for foot traffic, such as the Natchez Trace and the Chisholm Trail, were also known as trailheads. +For mountain climbing and hiking, the elevation of the trailhead above sea level is posted to give an idea of how high the mountain is above the average terrain. A trailhead may also feature a trail grade, which determines the walking difficulty of the trail. + + +== See also == +Trail blazing + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Trailheads, a crowd-sourced database of trailheads in the United States \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cf90e49c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Transliteracy" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:47.829817+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Transliteracy is "a fluidity of movement across a range of technologies, media and contexts". It is an ability to use diverse techniques to collaborate across different social groups. +Transliteracy combines a range of capabilities required to move across a range of contexts, media, technologies and genres. Conceptually, transliteracy is situated across five capabilities: information capabilities (see information literacy), ICT (information and communication technologies), communication and collaboration, creativity and critical thinking. It is underpinned by literacy and numeracy. (See figure below) The concept of transliteracy is impacting the system of education and libraries. + +== History == +While the term appears to come from the prefix trans- ('across') and the word literacy, the scholars who coined it say they developed it from the practice of transliteration, which means to use the letters of one language to write down a different language. +The study of transliteracy was first developed in 2005 by the Transliteracies Research Project, directed by University of California at Santa Barbara Professor Alan Liu. The concept of 'transliteracies' was developed as part of research into online reading. It was shared and refined at the Transliteracies conference, held at UC Santa Barbara in 2005. The conference inspired the at the time De Montfort University Professor, Sue Thomas, to create the Production in Research and Transliteracy (PART) group, which evolved into the Transliteracy Research Group. The current meaning of transliteracy was defined in the group's seminal paper Transliteracy: crossing divides as "the ability to read, write, and interact across a range of platforms, tools, and media from signing and orality through handwriting, print, TV, radio, and film, to digital social networks." The concept was enthusiastically adopted by a number of professional groups, notably in the library and information field. Transliteracy Research Group Archive 2006–2013 curates numerous resources from this period. +For a number of years, there was a gap between significant interest in transliteracy among professional groups and the scarcity of research. A group of academics from the University of Bordeaux considered transliteracy mainly in the school context. Freelance writer and consultant, Sue Thomas, studied transliteracy and creativity, while Suzana Sukovic, executive director of educational research and evidence-based practice at HETI, researched transliteracy in relation to digital storytelling. The first book on the topic, Transliteracy in complex information environment by Sukovic, is based on research and experience with practice-based projects. + +== Transliteracy in education == +Transliteracy is making an impact on the classroom setting because of how technologically advanced younger generations are today. In 2012, Adam Marcus, a teacher and librarian at the New York City Department of Education (NYCDOE), decided to incorporate transliteracy into his school's public library summer reading program. He had a desire to enhance the experience of reading for his students by allowing them to connect to the text differently by using social media. He used a tool called VoiceThread in order to have his students "take part in conversations, formulate ideas, and share higher-order thinking through a variety of media channels: video, audio, text, images, and music". Students were also enabled to communicate with the book's author through blogs and websites, and were given multiple modes of media to comprehend and engage with the text on a deeper level. Some of these examples include an audio-video glossary and web links that aimed to bring the details of the text to life. The results of his experiment were deemed to have a positive effect on the program as students responded well to this interactive experience they were given. Marcus believes that it is important for educators and librarians to enhance storytelling for children by providing them with a modern and transliterate experience that one could not receive back then. +The Agence nationale de la recherche funded a program at a French high school from 2013 to 2015, where the transliteracy skills of students were tested and observed. Students were placed in groups of three or four members and were required to use all sorts of media and tools in order to collect data for their projects. They were not allowed to only use digital sources, and were advised to use a diversity of sources. The focus of this experiment was to observe "the possible diversity of media and tools employed, on the ways of and reasons for switching from one to another, on how these different media and tools are distributed within contexts, according to the academic requirements and tasks individually and collectively performed by the students." The conclusions of the experiment dealt with physical space and organization being an issue for students and teachers to deal with. Spatially, it was challenging for students to navigate through different mediums when their space inside the classroom was limited. It was noticed that students were prone to use something that took up less space, rather than focusing on expanding their diversity of sources. Organizationally, it was challenging for students to organize all of the information they collected since everything was not being search and collected for digitally. In addition, students were not allotted a lot of time to complete their projects which also impacted their final product. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..97b5c06ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Transliteracy" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:47.829817+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Transliteracy in libraries == +In 2009, Dr. Susie Andretta, senior lecturer in Information Management at London Metropolitan University, conducted interviews with four different information professionals including an academic librarian, an outreach librarian, a content manager, and a scholar within the library science and information discipline. She was aiming to explore how transliteracy was colliding and combining with the print-world of libraries. Dr. Andretta defines transliteracy as "an umbrella term encompassing different literacies and multiple communication channels that require active participation with and across a range of platforms, and embracing both linear and non-linear messages (3)." The goals of these interviews ranged from the following: to test the information professional's awareness of transliteracy, to have them identify transliteracy and how it is integrated into their work, and to explain the impact transliteracy has had on they library they work at. Andretta found that out of all the information professionals interviewed, it was only the academic librarian who was vaguely familiar with the concept of transliteracy. Bernadette Daly Swanson, an Academic Librarian at UC Davis, expresses in her interview with Dr. Andretta how she would "like to think that the transliterate library is more of an environment where we do different things [...] I would take maybe about a third of the first floor of our library and transform it into a lab [...] where we can start to evolve [..] explore, and experiment in media development, content development, and do it not just with librarians; so open up the space for other people [...] so you don't get people working in isolation." Although the other three candidates that Dr. Andretta interviewed had not heard of the term transliteracy, they responded well to the concept once it was explained to them and agreed with its impact on the workplace. Dr. Michael Stephens, an assistant professor in the Graduate School of Library and Information Science at Dominican University, explains in his interview how the term transliteracy describes the courses he teaches on libraries and Web 2.0 technologies. Dr. Stephens states that students being educated in Web 2.0 technologies gives them "the opportunity to experience what the channel can be and the potential for that sharing learning, for asking questions, just for out loud thinking – I think it's incredibly valuable. [..] this is where this wonderful concept comes in, it was teaching them transliteracy and the fact that they can move across channels without getting worried about it." +Dr. Andretta concluded from her interviews how although transliteracy may not be a very well-known term yet, it has nonetheless established itself into the intuition of libraries while also transforming the traditional library to a world of enhanced and expanded services. "Inherent in this transition are the challenges of having to adapt to a constantly changing technological landscape, the multiple literacies that this generates, and the need to establish a multifaceted library profession that can speak the multiple-media languages of its diverse users." +Thomas Ipri, a librarian at the University of Nevada, advocates for libraries needing to make a change in their literary functions. He argues that the divide between digital and print makes it harder for libraries to accommodate their patrons and to share information. He focuses on how libraries need to establish their relationship with transliteracy because transliteracy "explores the participatory nature of new means of communicating, which breaks down barrier between academia and the wider community and calls into question standard notions of what constitutes authority by emphasizing the benefits of knowledge sharing via social networks." Ipri argues how established experts are no longer the only ones in charge of producing and spreading information, but it is also the personal experiences and knowledge of people that are valuable in expanding and evolving bases. In what he describes, "the heart of librarianship," it is the duty of librarians to undergo this development by modernizing their movements of communication and information. + +== Relationship to other terms == +Related terms are media and information literacy, information literacy, digital literacy, multiliteracies and metaliteracy. Transliteracy is a unifying framework rather than a replacement of existing literacies. It considers "movement across" which requires a range of capabilities. + +== See also == +Digital humanities +Digital media +Digital scholarship + +== References == + +== External links == +Transliteracies Research Project, University of California Santa Barbara \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..59cf5aded --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Tunnel valley" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A tunnel valley is a U-shaped valley originally cut under the glacial ice near the margin of continental ice sheets such as that now covering Antarctica and formerly covering portions of all continents during past glacial ages. They can be as long as 100 km (62 mi), 4 km (2.5 mi) wide, and 400 m (1,300 ft) deep. +Tunnel valleys were formed by subglacial erosion by water and served as subglacial drainage pathways carrying large volumes of meltwater. Their cross-sections often exhibit steep-sided flanks similar to fjord walls. They presently appear as dry valleys, lakes, seabed depressions, and as areas filled with sediment. If they are filled with sediment, their lower layers are filled primarily with glacial, glaciofluvial or glaciolacustrine sediment, supplemented by upper layers of temperate infill. They can be found in areas formerly covered by glacial ice sheets including Africa, Asia, North America, Europe, Australia and offshore in the North Sea, the Atlantic and in waters near Antarctica. +Tunnel valleys appear in the technical literature under several terms, including tunnel channels, subglacial valleys, iceways and linear incisions. + +== Significance == +Tunnel valleys play a role in identifying oil-rich areas in Arabia and North Africa. The Upper Ordovician–Lower Silurian materials there contain a roughly 20 m (66 ft) thick, carbon-rich layer of black shale. Approximately 30% of the world's oil is found in these shale deposits. Although the origin of these deposits is still under study, it has been established that the shale routinely overlies glacial and glacio-marine sediment deposited ~445 million years before the present by the Hirnantian glaciation. The shale has been linked to glacial meltwater nutrient enrichment of the shallow marine environment. Hence the presence of tunnel valleys is an indicator of the presence of oil in these areas. +Tunnel valleys represent a substantial fraction of all meltwater drainage from glaciers. Meltwater drainage influences the flow of glacial ice, which is important in understanding of the duration of glacial–interglacial periods, and aids in identifying glacial cyclicity, a problem that is important to palaeoenvironmental investigations. +Tunnel valleys are typically eroded into bedrock and filled with glacial debris of varying sizes. This configuration makes them excellent at capturing and storing water. Hence they serve an important role as aquifers across much of Northern Europe, Canada and the United States. Examples include Oak Ridges Moraine Aquifer, Spokane Valley-Rathdrum Prairie Aquifer, Mahomet Aquifer, the Saginaw Lobe Aquifer, and the Corning Aquifer. + +== Characteristics == + +=== Buried, open and partially filled === +Tunnel valleys have been observed as open valleys and as partially or totally buried valleys. If buried they may be partially or totally filled with glacial outwash or other debris. The valleys may be incised in bedrock, sand, silt, or clay. +A part of a tunnel valley may go uphill: water can flow uphill if it is under pressure in an enclosed pipe: for example in Doggerland (submerged land which is now part of the bed of the North Sea) are some infilled tunnel valleys that flowed from north to south across the hollow of the Outer Silver Pit. + +=== Dimensions === +They vary in channel depth and width; Danish examples run from 0.5–4 km (0.31–2.49 mi) wide and from 50–350 m (160–1,150 ft) deep. They vary in depth along their course, exhibiting overdeepening; overdeepened sections cut into bedrock and typically are significantly deeper than either upstream or downstream sections of the same tunnel valley. They have steep sides which are frequently asymmetric. +Tunnel valleys frequently include relatively straight individual segments parallel to and independent of one another. Tunnel valley courses may be periodically interrupted; the interruption may include a stretch of elevated esker, indicating the channel ran through ice for a distance. The below-grade sections typically run 5–30 km (3.1–18.6 mi) in length; in some cases the sections form a larger pattern of an interrupted channel composed of strings of depressions which can extend from 70–100 km (43–62 mi). + +=== Structure === +The upstream portion – that section furthest into the glacier – consists of a branching system forming a network, similar to the anastomostic branching patterns of the upper reaches of a river (as contrasted with dendritic patterns). They typically exhibit the largest cross-sectional area in the center of the course and terminate over a relatively short distance in elevated outwash fans at the ice-margin. +Tunnel valleys are found to cross the regional gradient – as a result they may be crosscut by modern stream networks. In one example, tributaries of the Kalamazoo River cut at nearly right angles across buried tunnel channel filled with ice and debris. They frequently terminate at a recessional moraine. Tunnel valleys from successive glaciations may crosscut one another. +Tunnel valleys frequently run along roughly parallel courses. They originate in and run through regions which include clear evidence of glacial erosion through abrasion and may exhibit striations and roche moutonnée. Depositional forms such as terminal moraines and outwash fans are found at their terminal end. In Michigan tunnel valley channels have been observed to diverge slightly with an average spacing between the channels of 6 km (3.7 mi) and a standard deviation of 2.7 km (1.7 mi). + +Tunnel valley channels often start or stop abruptly. They have convex-up longitudinal profiles. They are often occupied by elongated lakes of underfit streams. They frequently show signs of subsequent depositions such as eskers. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e06cabb96 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Tunnel valley" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Evidence of erosion mechanisms === +Evidence suggests that erosion in a tunnel valley is primarily the result of water flow. They erode by meltwater, which it has been argued, episodically drains in repeated jökulhlaups from subglacial lakes and reservoirs; examples of such motion have been observed in Antarctica. Although there is evidence of ice erosion such as linear striations in the bedrock, these are observed only in the widest valleys, and are believed to have played a secondary role. +The subglacial layout of valley tunnels is predominantly oriented parallel to glacial ice flow lines – essentially they stretch from areas of thicker sheet ice toward areas of thinner sheet ice. They can exhibit reverse gradients, which result when pressurized meltwater flows over obstacles such as ridges or hills along the glacier bed. +Tunnel valleys can be formed under extremely thick glacial ice – examples have been observed on the bottom of Lake Superior and in the oceans offshore in Antarctica. The course of a tunnel valley typically runs from thickest glacial ice to the glacier margin; as a result the glacial ice pressurizes the water such that it runs uphill toward its end. + +== Formation of tunnel valleys == +Although there is agreement on the role of meltwater in creation of tunnel valleys, several theories are still under consideration for the role of that meltwater: + +Steady state theory – Boulton and Hindmarsh propose a steady state theory. They suggest tunnel valleys form in unconsolidated sediment when meltwater flows under pressure through an initially narrow subglacial conduit. With progressive removal of sediment by meltwater, ice deforms under its own weight into the cavity to create a tunnel valley through a positive feedback mechanism. +Jökulhlaup driven erosion – Piotrowski argues that ice sheets may, in some instances, be cold-based; that is they contact land that is frozen (permafrost) and they freeze to the permafrost. Meltwater builds up behind this frozen ice terminus until it generates sufficient pressure to lift the ice and break the bond, with a catastrophic meltwater release such as is seen with the Icelandic jökulhlaup. As a consequence of this jökulhlaup a tunnel valley is formed. +Upglacier erosion – Wingfield proposes that tunnel valleys form gradually, with the valley head cutting progressively back toward the source up-glacier during deglaciation. +Periodic outbursts of subglacial water have been observed moving subglacial water between subglacial lakes beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. Satellite data recorded a subglacial discharge totaling two km3 (0.48 mi3) traveling ~260 km (160 mi) over a period of less than a year. As the flow subsided, the weight of ice closed the tunnel and sealed the lake again. The water flow was modeled satisfactorily with channeling in ice and in sediment. The analytic model shows that over some regions, the ice-bedrock geometry included sections which would have frozen, blocking off flow, unless erosion of the sedimentary substrate was the means of creating a channel and sustaining the discharge. Hence, combining this data and analysis with Icelandic jökulhlaup observations, there is experimental evidence that some form of the jökulhlaup hypothesis with features of the steady state model is correct. + +=== Common features of tunnel valley theories === + +Subglacial meltwater flow is common to all theories; hence a key to understanding channel formation is an understanding of subglacial meltwater flow. Meltwater may be produced on the glacier surface (supraglacially), below the glacier (basally) or both. Meltwater may flow either supraglacially or basally as well; the signatures of supraglacial and basal water flow differ with the passage zone. Supraglacial flow is similar to stream flow in all surface environments – water flows from higher areas to lower areas under the influence of gravity. Basal flow exhibits significant differences. In basal flow the water, either produced by melting at the base or drawn downward from the surface by gravity, collects at the base of the glacier in ponds and lakes in a pocket overlain by hundreds of meters of ice. If there is no surface drainage path, water from surface melting will flow downward and collect in crevices in the ice, while water from basal melting will collect under the glacier; either source will form a subglacial lake. The hydraulic head of the water collected in a basal lake will increase as water drains through the ice until the pressure grows high enough to either develop a path through the ice or to float the ice above it. + +=== Steady state theory === +Sources of water and water drainage routes through and below temperate and sub-polar glaciers are reasonably well understood and provide a basis for understanding tunnel valleys. For these glaciers, supraglacial water ponds or moves in rivers across the surface of the glacier until it drops down a vertical crevice (a moulin) in the glacier. There it joins subglacial water created by geothermal heat; some portion of the water drains into aquifers below the glacier. Excess subglacial water that cannot drain through sediment or impermeable bedrock as groundwater, moves either through channels eroded into the bed of sediment below the glacier (called Nye channels) or through channels upward into the glacial ice (called Rothlisberger channels), eventually flowing out at the ice margin. On the simplest level, the tunnel valley can be considered a larger-scale version of these phenomena. +Tunnel valleys or tunnel channels are produced by meltwater flows beneath glacial ice. Tunnel valleys are often buried or partially buried by sediment accumulation during periods of ice advance and retreat. +Although attractive since it scales up the Nye channel formation which has been observed in sediments, a weakness of the steady state theory is that it requires that tunnel valleys be excavated in unconsolidated sediment, in which meltwater is initially forced through an initially narrow subglacial conduit. With progressive sediment erosion by the meltwater, ice deforms under its own weight into the cavity to creating an ever-larger tunnel valley. However the steady state theory appears not to account for erosion into bedrock, which has been extensively observed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..508773b5d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Tunnel valley" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Jökulhlaup driven erosion === +There is evidence that meltwater discharges are episodic. This can result because as water continues to collect, more ice is lifted, and the water moves outward in a growing under-ice lake. Areas where the ice is most easily lifted (i.e., areas with thinner overlying ice sheets) are lifted first. Hence the water may move up the terrain underlying the glacier if it moves toward areas of lower overlying ice. As water collects, additional ice is lifted until a release path is created. +If no preexisting channel is present, the water is initially released in a broad-front jökulhlaup which can have a flow front that is tens of kilometers wide, spreading out in a thin front. As the flow continues, it tends to erode the underlying materials and the overlying ice, creating a channel even as the reduced pressure allows most of the glacial ice to settle back to the underlying surface, sealing off the broad front release and channelizing the flow. The direction of the channel is defined primarily by the overlying ice thickness and secondarily by the gradient of the underlying earth, and may be observed to “run uphill” as the pressure of the ice forces the water to areas of lower ice coverage until it emerges at a glacial face. Hence the configuration of the various tunnel valleys formed by a specific glaciation provide a general mapping of the glacier thickness when the tunnel valleys were formed, particularly if the original surface relief under the glacier was limited. +Analyses by Piotrowski demonstrate that the annual production of water from one typical catchment of 642,000,000 m3 (2.27×1010 cu ft) would normally drain through its associated tunnel valley in less than 48 hours. The debris found in tunnels and at the mouth of tunnels tends to be coarse rocks and boulders – this is indicative of high flow velocities and an extremely erosive environment. This erosive environment is consistent with creation of tunnels over 400 m (1,300 ft) deep and 2.5 km (1.6 mi) wide, as have been observed in the Antarctic. Piotrowski's model predicts a cycle as follows: + +Meltwater is produced as a result of geothermal heating from below. Surface ablation water is not considered as it would be minimal at the glacial maximum and evidence indicates that surface water does not penetrate more than 100 m (330 ft) into a glacier. +Meltwater initially drains through subglacial aquifers. +When the hydraulic transmissivity of the substratum is exceeded, subglacial meltwater accumulates in basins. +Water accumulates sufficiently to open the ice blockage in the tunnel valley which accumulated after the last discharge. +The tunnel valley discharges the meltwater excess – turbulent flow melts out or erodes the excess ice as well as eroding the valley floor. +As the water level drops, the pressure decreases until the tunnel valleys again close with ice and water flow ceases. + +=== Post-erosion infill processes === +Tunnel valleys have similar characteristics, irrespective of whether they are formed on land or in a submerged environment. This is because they are formed by high pressure water under a thick ice sheet – in a submerged environment they still have sufficient pressure to erode tunnel valleys into configurations comparable to those generated on land. +Tunnel valleys may remain open, partially filled or filled, as a function of the glacial recession. The filled configuration is significant because filled tunnel valleys become excellent reservoirs for either water (aquifer) or for oil. This results since relatively coarse-grained sandstones are located on the valley floors and valley margins and valley floor because the coarser-grained sediments settle out more easily and accumulate preferentially in the flowing water common to the tunnel valley fill stages. +The subglacial tunnel valley networks originally formed near the ice margin. Tunnel valleys are likely to fill with sediment as the result of meltwater release during glacial recession. Tunnel valleys fill in two main ways. In the first instance, debris carried by flow settles out and accumulates in the tunnel valley. Subsequently, once the ice has retreated sufficiently, marine deposits may be laid down, depending on the water depth at the ice front. +The tunnel valley sedimentary record is controlled by meltwater release flow rates and sediment burdens during glacial recession. The sediment found in the tunnel valley provides insight into whether it was laid down in a tidal environment, a transitional environment, or an essentially dry environment with good drainage. In the glaciomarine environment, glacially-related deposits are interbedded with to those similar to those on non-glaciated tidal areas; the tidal environment will show undertow dominated fans. The transitional environment is characterized by both mixed marine and fresh water life in a delta environment. In an essentially dry environment, the glacial flow carries sediment which accumulates much as it would in any stream bed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fab2e01b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Tunnel valley" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Large-scale structure === +Ice flow within glaciers results from an increase in the surface slope of the glacier, which result from geographic features combined with an imbalance between the amounts of ice accumulated through precipitation and lost through ablation. The increased gradient increases the shear stress on a glacier until it begins to flow. The flow velocity and deformation are also affected by the slope of the ice, the ice thickness and temperature. +Punkari identified that continental ice sheets typically flow in fan-shaped lobes, which converge from separate sources and move at differing speeds. Lobes are separated by interlobate zones, which have thinner ice coverage. Water collects in this interlobate area. The hydraulic head (pressure) is lower in areas of thinner ice; hence subglacial water tends to converge on the interlobate joint. The separate lobes move at different speeds, generating friction at the ice boundary; the heat released melts ice to release additional water. The surface of the interlobate area is crevassed, allowing surface meltwater, which runs down the ice surface to the lower area, to penetrate into the ice. As a result, the ice-flow patterns and the debris accumulation are different in interlobate zones. Specifically, tunnel valleys and eskers indicate water flow toward the interlobate zones, which are elevated as the result of debris carried and deposited there. + +== Geographic distribution == + +Glacially formed tunnel valleys have been identified on every continent. + +=== Africa === +Tunnel valleys associated with the Late Ordovician glaciation have been observed in north African countries, including Libya. These large-scale channel-fill sandstone bodies (tunnel valleys) are a striking sedimentological feature of the glacially related deposits on the old North Gondwanaland margin. They range from 10–200 m (33–656 ft) in depth, and 500–3,000 m (1,600–9,800 ft) wide. The tunnel valleys are incised into the bedrock and can be traced for 2–30 km (1.2–18.6 mi) in length. In one example, in Mauritania, in the western Sahara, Late Ordovician siliciclastic glacial features and deposits on the North Gondwana continental shelf include incised channels identified as tunnel valleys. The filled tunnel valley are several kilometers long and several hundred meters wide. Reconstructions conclude that these structures were located in glacier ice-margin regions; the cross-sections of the valleys are comparable to those confirmed to have formed glacially, the valleys end in outwash fans similar to tunnel valleys, and the infill is post-glacial typical of that observed for tunnel valleys. +In southern Africa a Permo-Carboniferous tunnel valley system has been identified in northern Cape Province, South Africa. + +=== Antarctica === +The active formation of tunnel valleys is observed in the present period beneath the Antarctic ice. + +=== Asia === +During the late Ordovician, eastern Gondwana was covered with ice sheets. As a consequence, Jordan and Saudi Arabia exhibit regionally-extensive filled tunnel valley structures. + +=== Australia === +Open-pit gold mines near Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, expose an extensive network of glacially-eroded valleys filled with tillite and shale cut below the Late Paleozoic Pilbara ice sheet. + +=== Europe === +Tunnel valleys and related glacial impacts have been identified in Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Northern France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain, Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Norway. They have been studied in detail in Denmark, north Germany and north Poland where the thick ice sheet of the Weichsel and earlier Glaciations, having flowed down from the mountains of Scandinavia, began to rise up the north-European slope, driven by the altitude of the glacial ice accumulation over Scandinavia. Their alignment indicates the direction of ice flow at the time of their formation. They are found extensively in the United Kingdom with several examples reported from Cheshire for example. They are also to be found under the North Sea. +Examples of lakes formed in tunnel valleys include the Ruppiner See (a lake in Ostprignitz-Ruppin, Brandenburg), the Werbellinsee, and the Schwielochsee, all in Germany. + +=== North America === +Okanagan Lake is a large, deep ribbon lake in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia which formed in a tunnel valley from the Okanogan lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. The lake is 135 km (84 mi) long, between 4 and 5 km (2.5 and 3.1 mi) wide, and has a surface area of 351 km2 (136 mi2). Northern Idaho and Montana show evidence of tunnel valley formation under the Purcell lobe and the Flathead Lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. Tunnel valleys in southeast Alberta form an interconnected, anabranching network comprising Sage Creek, the Lost River and the Milk River and generally drain southeast. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4f5aa03be --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Tunnel valley" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Tunnel valleys have been observed in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan at the margins of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Examples of bedrock tunnel valleys in Minnesota include River Warren Falls and several valleys which lie deep beneath till deposited by the glaciers which created them, but can be traced in many places by the Chain of Lakes in Minneapolis and lakes and dry valleys in St. Paul. +The Kawartha lakes of Ontario formed in the Late Wisconsinan glacial period. Ice melt from the Niagara Escarpment flowed through tunnel valleys beneath the ice expanded to form a west-to-east passage between the main Laurentide Ice Sheet and a mass of ice in the Lake Ontario basin. +Cedar Creek Canyon is a tunnel valley located in Allen County, Indiana. It is a very straight, narrow gorge about 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m) deep that contains part of the lower segment of Cedar Creek, the largest tributary of the St. Joseph River. +In the Laurentian Channel offshore eastern Canada, numerous tunnel valleys have been identified originating from the submerged valley of the St. Lawrence River, which is also of glacial origin. Seismic reflection profiles of the fill of tunnel valleys suggest that they are of various ages, with the youngest dating from shortly after the Late Glacial Maximum. They result from erosion by sub-glacial water crossing the eastern Scotian Shelf off Nova Scotia. They originate from the Laurentian Channel south of the Cabot Strait. Additionally, seismic profiles show deeply buried post-Miocene channels, some of which lie 1,100 m (3,600 ft) below modern sea level, cutting across the eastern part of the outer Laurentian Channel which have also tentatively been determined to be tunnel valleys. Seismic profiles have also mapped large tunnel valleys on Banquereau Bank and Sable Island Bank. + +=== South America === +The Perito Moreno Glacier is located in the southern Southern Patagonian Ice Field, terminating in Lake Argentino. It divides Lake Argentino into the Los Témpanos channel, and the Rico branch, blocking the channel and forming an ice dam. Lake Argentino periodically breaks through in outburst floods with drainage initially through a tunnel with subsequent roof collapse to form an open channel. + +== Temporal distribution == +There have been five known ice ages in the Earth's history; the Earth is experiencing the Quaternary Ice Age during the present time. Tunnel valleys formed during four of the five have been identified. + +== See also == +Ledoyom +Moulin (geomorphology) + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_mantle_body-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_mantle_body-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0f449dc05 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_mantle_body-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Upper mantle body" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_mantle_body" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:21.562858+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An upper mantle body is a geological region where upper mantle rocks (peridotite) outcrop on the surface of the Earth (including the ocean floor). +Upper mantle outcrops include: + +upper mantle made at constructive plate boundaries, but preserved in ophiolites, for example Isabela ophiolite in the Philippines +upper mantle above subduction zones, so called suprasubduction ophiolites (such as Troodos Ophiolite, Cyprus) +upper mantle exposed by thinning of continental crust by extension to continental crust removal (Ligurian "Ophiolites" and conjugate margin of Iberia and Newfoundland) +upper mantle exposures on earth's surface above sea-water level in Oceans (whose ocean floor is covered with oceanic crust). Examples are Macquarie Island in the Pacific and the St. Peter and St. Paul Islands in the Atlantic. +upper mantle exposures on earth's surface on the ocean floor. Examples include Gakkel Ridge and Lena Trough. +upper mantle exposures on earth's surface of disputed origin +upper mantle exposure on earth's surface of not understood environment + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstate-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstate-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..315da23bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstate-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Upstate" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstate" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:21:39.233282+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The term upstate may refer to the northerly portions of several U.S. states. On the east coast, upstate generally refers to places away from the Atlantic Ocean. It also can refer to parts of states that have a higher elevation, away from sea level. These regions tend to be rural; exceptions include Delaware and Illinois. + +Places +Maine, except for "Down East" +Upstate California, a 2001 marketing campaign to promote the northern half of Northern California +Upstate New York, much of New York north of the New York City metropolitan area +Upstate South Carolina, the northwestern "corner" of South Carolina +Upstate Pennsylvania, a tourism region that includes much of Northeastern Pennsylvania +Other +SUNY Upstate Medical University, often referred to as "Upstate" +Upstate University Hospital, Syracuse, New York +A term used to refer to going to the penitentiary in New York, as all of New York's state prisons are upstate. + + +== See also == +Articles beginning with "Upstate" +Downstate (disambiguation) +Up North (disambiguation) +Down south (disambiguation) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vug-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vug-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..70136efae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vug-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Vug" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vug" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:22:22.821989+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A vug, vugh, or vugg () is a small- to medium-sized cavity inside rock. It may be formed through a variety of processes. Most commonly, cracks and fissures opened by tectonic activity (folding and faulting) are partially filled by quartz, calcite, and other secondary minerals. Open spaces within breccias formed by an ancient collapse are another important source of vugs. +Vugs may also form when mineral crystals or fossils inside a rock matrix are later removed through erosion or dissolution processes, leaving behind irregular voids. The inner surfaces of such vugs are often coated with a crystal druse. Fine crystals are often found in vugs where the open space allows the free development of external crystal form. +The term vug is not applied to veins and fissures that have become completely filled, but may be applied to any small cavities within such veins. Geodes are a vug-formed rock, although that term is usually reserved for more rounded crystal-lined cavities in sedimentary rocks and ancient lavas. +The word vug was introduced to the English language by Cornish miners, from the days when Cornwall was a major supplier of tin. The Cornish word was vooga, which meant "cave". + + +== Images == + + +== See also == +Amygdule +Rock microstructure +Vesicular texture + + +== References == + + +== External links == + The dictionary definition of vug at Wiktionary \ No newline at end of file