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+title: "CERN ritual hoax"
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+---
+
+The CERN ritual hoax is a found footage video that depicts a faux occult ritual occurring in the grounds of CERN, the intergovernmental organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. The video became popular in August 2016 and shows several people dressed in black cloaks surrounding a statue of the Hindu deity Shiva and apparently performing a human sacrifice, in apparent mockery of existing conspiracy theories which suggest that CERN aims to use the Large Hadron Collider to create a portal to hell, summon the antichrist, or destroy the universe. The video ended with the person filming crying out and running away.
+
+
+== Reactions ==
+A CERN spokesperson stated that the video was a prank and that no one was actually harmed. CERN stated in its FAQ that the video was "fiction" and the actions were outside its professional guidelines and without any official permission. CERN stated that it "doesn't tolerate this kind of spoof" and that it can "give rise to misunderstandings about the scientific nature of our work".
+
+
+== References ==

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+title: "Cognitive science of new religious movements"
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+
+Cognitive science of new religious movements is the study of new religious movements (NRMs) from the perspective of cognitive science. The field employs methods and theories from a variety of disciplines, including cognitive science of religion, sociology of religion, scientific study of religion, anthropology, and artificial life.  Scholars in the field seek to explain the origin and evolution of new religious movements in terms of ordinary universal cognitive processes.
+
+
+== History ==
+The field traces its roots to the beginnings of the field of cognitive science of religion in the 1990s, especially in Harvey Whitehouse's work on  'cargo cults' in Papua New Guinea and cognitivist work by sociologists of religion William Sims Bainbridge and Rodney Stark. 
+In a 2005 article titled "Towards a Cognitive Science of New Religious Movements", Afzal Upal conceptualized the field and proposed agent-based social simulation as a good complement for Whitehouse's anthropological approach to investigate the origin of new religious movements. Upal developed an information entrepreneurship model-based social simulation to study the origin and evolution of new religious movements.  
+In 2008, Kimmo Ketola used an anthropological case study of Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupāda (1896–1977), the founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, the Hare Krishna movement) to identify the cognitive processes that underlie religious charisma. In 2013, building on Whitehouse's work, Olav Hammer studied the transmission of new age religious ideas in the West and identifies the contexts that allow them to flourish. 
+In a series of publications, Upal revised the classic cognitive science of religion account of counterintuitiveness to emphasize the role of context and developed the context-based model of minimal counterintuitiveness. Using this generalized model, Upal argued that novelty of a new religious movement's doctrine gives it memorability advantages over more traditional religious ideas and thus explain constant religious innovation. He carried out an in-depth case study of the origin of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at to highlight how such a cognitive approach can help explain the origin and evolution of new religious movements. 
+In a 2009 article, Justin Lane applied Todd Tremlin’s account of an "Agency Detection Device" mental mechanism to the study of small and innovating religious groups. 
+In a psychological study of members of a variety of new religious movements in Belgium, Coralie Buxant, Vassilis Saroglou, Stefania Casalfiore, and Louis-Léon Christians from the Centre for Psychology of Religion at the Université Catholique de Louvain found that "the pattern of results fit well with what we know from psychology of conversion in general." 
+Alistair Lockhart (2020) carried out the first extensive overview of the field of cognitive science of new religious movements, concluding that the study of cognitive science of religion as applied to new religious movements and quasi-religions shows more common themes than is typically assumed.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Academic study of new religious movements
+Cognitive science of religion
+Cognitive science
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion-0.md

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+title: "Cognitive science of religion"
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+---
+
+Cognitive science of religion is the study of religious thought, theory, and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive sciences. Scholars in this field seek to explain how human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious thoughts, practices, and schemas by means of ordinary cognitive capacities.
+
+== History ==
+Although religion has been the subject of serious scientific study since at least the late nineteenth century, the study of religion as a cognitive phenomenon is relatively recent. While it often relies upon earlier research within anthropology of religion and sociology of religion, cognitive science of religion considers the results of that work within the context of evolutionary and cognitive theories. As such, cognitive science of religion was only made possible by the cognitive revolution of the 1950s and the development, starting in the 1970s, of sociobiology and other approaches explaining human behaviour in evolutionary terms, especially evolutionary psychology.
+While Dan Sperber foreshadowed cognitive science of religion in his 1975 book Rethinking Symbolism, the earliest research to fall within the scope of the discipline was published during the 1980s. Stewart E. Guthrie's "A cognitive theory of religion" was significant for examining anthropomorphism in religion. This work ultimately led to the development of the concept of the hyperactive agency detection device, which is a key concept within cognitive science of religion. The work of Scott Atran on Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science contrasted the cognitive processing of attention-arresting, and therefore memorable and culturally transmissible, aspects of counter-intuitive "mythico-religious beliefs" (e.g., bodiless beings) with counter-intuitive aspects of scientific thinking that also initially violate common-sense ontological assumptions about the structure of the world (e.g., invisible creatures).
+The field was formally established in the 1990s. During that decade, a large number of highly influential and foundational books and articles were published. These included Rethinking Religion: Connecting Cognition and Culture and Bringing Ritual to Mind: Psychological Foundations of Cultural Forms by E. Thomas Lawson and Robert McCauley, Naturalness of Religious Ideas by Pascal Boyer,  Inside the Cult and Arguments and Icons by Harvey Whitehouse, and Guthrie's book-length development of his earlier theories in Faces in the Clouds. In the 1990s, these and other researchers, who had been working independently in a variety of different disciplines, discovered each other's work and found valuable parallels between their approaches, with the result that something of a self-aware research tradition began to coalesce. By 2000, the field was well-enough defined for Justin L. Barrett to coin the term 'cognitive science of religion' in his article "Exploring the natural foundations of religion".
+The field remains somewhat loosely defined, bringing together researchers from various subfields. Much of the cohesion in the field comes not from shared detailed theoretical commitments but from a shared methodological perspective: the willingness to view religion in cognitive and evolutionary terms.
+
+== Theoretical basis ==
+
+Despite a lack of agreement concerning the theoretical basis for work in cognitive science of religion, it is possible to outline some tendencies. Most significant of these is reliance upon the theories developed within evolutionary psychology. That particular approach to evolutionary explanations of human behaviour is particularly suitable to the cognitive byproduct explanation of religion that is most popular among cognitive scientists of religion. This is because of the focus on byproduct and ancestral trait explanations within evolutionary psychology. A particularly significant concept associated with this approach is modularity of mind, used as it is to underpin accounts of the mental mechanisms seen to be responsible for religious beliefs. Important examples of work that falls under this rubric are provided by research carried out by Pascal Boyer and Justin L. Barrett.
+These theoretical commitments are not shared by all cognitive scientists of religion, however. Ongoing debates regarding the comparative advantages of different evolutionary explanations for human behaviour find a reflection within cognitive science of religion with dual inheritance theory recently gaining adherents among researchers in the field, including Armin Geertz and Ara Norenzayan. The perceived advantage of this theoretical framework is its ability to deal with more complex interactions between cognitive and cultural phenomena, but it comes at the cost of experimental design having to take into consideration a richer range of possibilities.
+
+== Main concepts ==
+
+=== Cognitive byproduct ===
+The view that religious beliefs and practices should be understood as nonfunctional but as produced by human cognitive mechanisms that are functional outside of the context of religion. Examples of this are the hyperactive agent detection device and the minimally counterintuitive concepts or the process of initiation explaining Buddhism and Taoism. The cognitive byproduct explanation of religion is an application of the concept of spandrel and of the concept of exaptation explored by Stephen Jay Gould among others. The view that religious beliefs and practices are evolutionary spandrels has a number of critics.
+
+=== Minimally counterintuitive concepts ===
+Concepts that mostly fit human preconceptions but break with them in one or two striking ways. These concepts are both easy to remember (thanks to the counterintuitive elements) and easy to use (thanks to largely agreeing with what people expect). Examples include talking trees and noncorporeal agents. Pascal Boyer argues that many religious entities fit into this category. Upal labelled the fact that minimally counterintuitive ideas are better remembered than intuitive and maximally counterintuitive ideas as the minimal counterintuitiveness effect or the MCI-effect.
+
+=== Hyperactive agency detection device ===
+Cognitive scientist Justin L. Barrett postulates that this mental mechanism, whose function is to identify the activity of agents, may contribute to belief in the presence of the supernatural. Given the relative costs of failing to spot an agent, the mechanism is said to be hyperactive, producing a large number of false positive errors. Stewart E. Guthrie and others have claimed these errors can explain the appearance of supernatural concepts.

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+title: "Cognitive science of religion"
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+---
+
+=== Pro-social adaptation ===
+According to the prosocial adaptation account of religion, religious beliefs and practices should be understood as having the function of eliciting adaptive prosocial behaviour and avoiding the free rider problem. Within the cognitive science of religion this approach is primarily pursued by Richard Sosis. David Sloan Wilson is another major proponent of this approach and interprets religion as a group-level adaptation, but his work is generally seen as falling outside the cognitive science of religion.
+
+=== Costly signaling ===
+Practices that, due to their inherent cost, can be relied upon to provide an honest signal regarding the intentions of the agent. Richard Sosis has suggested that religious practices can be explained as costly signals of the willingness to cooperate. A similar line of argument has been pursued by Lyle Steadman and Craig Palmer. Alternatively, D. Jason Slone has argued that religiosity may be a costly signal used as a mating strategy insofar as religiosity serves as a proxy for "family values".
+
+=== Dual inheritance ===
+In the context of cognitive science of religion, dual inheritance theory can be understood as attempting to combine the cognitive byproduct and prosocial adaptation accounts using the theoretical approach developed by Robert Boyd and Peter Richerson, among others. The basic view is that while belief in supernatural entities is a cognitive byproduct, cultural traditions have recruited such beliefs to motivate prosocial behaviour. A sophisticated statement of this approach can be found in Scott Atran and Joseph Henrich (2010).
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+Religion as Anthropomorphism with Stewart Guthrie.
+Religion is Natural and Science is Not with Robert McCauley.
+God's Mind, Your Mind, and Theory of Mind with Will Gervais.
+Method and Theory in the Cognitive Sciences of Religion with Robert McCauley.
+"Practice What You Preach" : CREDs and CRUDs with Jonathan Lanman.

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+---
+
+The conflict thesis is a historiographical approach in the history of science that originated in the 19th century with John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White. It maintains that there is an intrinsic intellectual conflict between religion and science, and that it inevitably leads to hostility. The consensus among historians of science is that the thesis has long been discredited, which explains the rejection of the thesis by contemporary scholars. Into the 21st century, historians of science widely accept a complexity thesis. The lack of engagement with the advancements in the history of science perpetuates belief in the thesis.
+Global studies on scientists show that most scientists do not see religion and science in conflict  and studies on the views of the general public indicate that the conflict perspective is not prevalent either. 
+
+== Historical conflict thesis ==
+
+Before the 19th century, no one had pitted "science" against "religion" or vice versa in writing. The relationship between religion and science became an actual formal topic of discourse in the 19th century. More specifically, it was around the mid-19th century that discussion of "science and religion" first emerged because before this time, the term science still included moral and metaphysical dimensions, was not inherently linked to the scientific method, and the term scientist did not emerge until 1834. The scientist John William Draper (1811–1882) and the writer Andrew Dickson White (1832–1918) were the most influential exponents of the conflict thesis between religion and science. Draper had been the speaker in the British Association meeting of 1860 which led to the famous confrontation between Bishop Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Henry Huxley over Darwinism, and in America "the religious controversy over biological evolution reached its most critical stages in the late 1870s". In the early 1870s, the American science-popularizer Edward Livingston Youmans invited Draper to write a History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science (1874), a book replying to contemporary issues in Roman Catholicism, such as the doctrine of papal infallibility, and mostly criticizing what he claimed to be anti-intellectualism in the Catholic tradition, but also making criticisms of Islam and of Protestantism. Draper's preface summarises the conflict thesis:
+
+The history of Science is not a mere record of  isolated discoveries; it is a narrative of the conflict of two contending powers, the expansive force of the human intellect on one side, and the compression arising from traditionary faith and human interests on the other.
+
+In 1874 White published his thesis in Popular Science Monthly and in book form as The Warfare of Science:
+
+In all modern history, interference with science in the supposed interest of religion, no matter how conscientious such interference may have been, has resulted in the direst evils both to religion and to science—and invariably. And, on the other hand, all untrammeled scientific investigation, no matter how dangerous to religion some of its stages may have seemed, for the time, to be, has invariably resulted in the highest good of religion and of science.
+Such thesis was not to be intended, as many successively did, as a statement of complete and necessary enmity between science and Christianity at all times. On the contrary White asserted that numerous examples of support from Christianity to science can be observed:
+
+You will not understand me at all to say that religion has done nothing for science. It has done much for it. The work of Christianity has been mighty indeed. Through these two thousand years, despite the waste of its energies on all the things its Blessed Founder most earnestly condemned on fetich and subtlety and war and pomp it has undermined servitude, mitigated tyranny, given hope to the hopeless, comfort to the afflicted, light to the blind, bread to the starving, joy to the dying, and this work continues. And its work for science, too, has been great. It has fostered science often. Nay, it has nourished that feeling of self-sacrifice for human good, which has nerved some of the bravest men for these battles. Unfortunately, a devoted army of good men started centuries ago with the idea that independent scientific investigation is unsafe that theology must intervene to superintend its methods, and the Biblical record, as an historical compendium and scientific treatise, be taken as a standard to determine its results. So began this great modern war.
+In 1896, White published A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, the culmination of over thirty years of research and publication on the subject, criticizing what he saw as restrictive, dogmatic forms of Christianity. In the introduction, White emphasized that he arrived at his position after the difficulties of assisting Ezra Cornell in establishing a university without any official religious affiliation.
+The criticism of White is not entirely recent: historian of medicine James Joseph Walsh criticized White's perspective as anti-historical in The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time (1908), which he dedicated to Pope Pius X:

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+
+[T]he story of the supposed opposition of the Church and the Popes and the ecclesiastical authorities to science in any of its branches, is founded entirely on mistaken notions. Most of it is quite imaginary. Much of it is due to the exaggeration of the significance of the Galileo incident. Only those who know nothing  about the history of medicine and of science continue to harbor it. That Dr. White's book, contradicted as it is so directly by all serious histories of medicine and of science, should have been read by so many thousands in this country, and should have been taken seriously by educated men, physicians, teachers, and even professors of science who want to know the history of their own sciences, only shows how easily even supposedly educated men may be led to follow their prejudices rather than their mental faculties, and emphasizes the fact that the tradition that there is no good that can possibly come out of the Nazareth of the times before the reformation, still dominates the intellects of many educated people who think that they are far from prejudice and have minds perfectly open to conviction.
+In God and Nature (1986), David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers report that "White's Warfare apparently did not sell as briskly as Draper's Conflict, but in the end it proved more influential, partly, it seems, because Draper's work was soon dated, and because White's impressive documentation gave the appearance of sound scholarship". During the 20th century, historians' acceptance of the conflict thesis declined until fully rejected in the 1970s. David B. Wilson notes:
+
+Despite the growing number of scholarly modifications and rejections of the conflict model from the 1950s [...] in the 1970s leading historians of the nineteenth century still felt required to attack it. [...] Whatever the reason for the continued survival of the conflict thesis, two other books on the nineteenth century that were published in the 1970s hastened its final demise among historians of science [...] 1974 [...] Frank Turner [...] Between Science and Religion [...] Even more decisive was the penetrating critique "Historians and Historiography" [...] [by] James Moore [...] at the beginning of his Post-Darwinian Controversies (1979).
+In his course on science and religion, historian Lawrence Principe summarizes Draper's and White's works by saying:
+
+While we can look today with astonishment upon the shoddy character of Draper and White's writings, their books have had enormous impact, and we can't deny that. Much of this is due to their great success in their creating a myth for science as a religion. Their myth of science as a religion is replete with battles, and martyrdoms, and saints, and creeds. And as we know, or should know, myths are often much more powerful than historical realities.
+In the coursebook, Principe writes:
+
+No serious historians of science or of the science–religion issue today maintain the warfare thesis [...] The origins of the warfare thesis lie in the late 19th century, specifically in the work of two men – John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White. These men had specific political purposes in mind when arguing their case, and the historical foundations of their work are unreliable.
+Regarding the scholarship of Draper's work, Principe says:
+
+How does he [John William Draper] support his contention of conflict? Well, unfortunately, with some of the worst historical writing you are ever likely to come across. Historical facts are confected, causes and chronologies twisted to the author's purpose. We find interpretations made merely by declaration. We find quotations violently taken out of context. And instances, quite a few of them where Draper claims a historical writer said something in fact 180 degrees away from what he actually claimed...Much of Draper's book is so ridiculous, so malodramatic, so rabid, it's hard for a knowledgeable person actually to read it without a wry smirk...Let's start with a simple and a notorious example: the idea that before Columbus people thought that the world was flat. Well, in fact, it is Draper and White, specifically, both of them, who bear most of the blame for popularizing this baseless view to the extent that nowadays, 80 percent of school teachers still foist this upon poor innocent school children. The fact is that of course the sphericity of the Earth was well established by the fifth century BC by the Greeks, and a good measure of its circumference made by the third century BC. And these facts were never forgotten in learned Western Culture.
+Principe's summary comment on Draper's work at the end of his coursebook reads: "The book that started the conflict myth. Take a sense of humor and/or a stiff drink with this dated bit of melodrama."
+However, according to historian of science and religion James C. Ungureanu, Draper and White actually hoped their narratives would preserve religious belief, not remove it. For them, science was ultimately a scapegoat for a much older argument that dated back to the Protestant Reformation, where progressive and liberal theologies had their conflict with traditional and orthodox theologies. This would place the notion of "conflict" within the history of theological ideas.
+
+== Modern views ==

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+title: "Conflict thesis"
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+---
+
+=== Academic ===
+Historians of science today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes (those involving Galileo and Darwin) in favor of a "complexity" model, because religious figures took positions on both sides of each dispute and there was no overall aim by any party involved in discrediting religion. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould said: "White's and Draper's accounts of the actual interaction between science and religion in Western history do not differ greatly. Both tell a tale of bright progress continually sparked by science. And both develop and use the same myths to support their narrative, the flat-earth legend prominently among them". In a summary of the historiography of the conflict thesis, Colin A. Russell, the former President of Christians in Science, said that "Draper takes such liberty with history, perpetuating legends as fact that he is rightly avoided today in serious historical study. The same is nearly as true of White, though his prominent apparatus of prolific footnotes may create a misleading impression of meticulous scholarship".
+In Science & Religion, Gary Ferngren proposes a complex relationship between religion and science:
+
+While some historians had always regarded the Draper-White thesis as oversimplifying and distorting a complex relationship, in the late twentieth century it underwent a more systematic reevaluation. The result is the growing recognition among historians of science that the relationship of religion and science has been much more positive than is sometimes thought. Although popular images of controversy continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times the two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule.
+A few modern historians of science (such as Peter Barker, Bernard R. Goldstein, and Crosbie Smith) proposed that scientific discoveries – such as Kepler's laws of planetary motion in the 17th century, and the reformulation of physics in terms of energy, in the 19th century – were driven by religion. Religious organizations and clerics figure prominently in the broad histories of science, until the professionalization of the scientific enterprise, in the 19th century, led to tensions between scholars taking religious and secular approaches to nature. Even the prominent examples of religion's apparent conflict with science, the Galileo affair (1614) and the Scopes trial (1925), were not pure instances of conflict between science and religion, but included personal and political facts in the development of each conflict.
+
+==== Galileo affair ====
+
+The Galileo affair was a sequence of events that begin around 1610, culminating with the trial and house arrest of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633 for his support of heliocentrism. In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus (published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543). Galileo's initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616, the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be formally heretical. Heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas. Part of the verdict on Galileo read "[Heliocentrism] is foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture". Nonetheless, historians note that Galileo never did observe the earth's motion and lacked empirical proof at the time; and that he was placed under house arrest, not imprisoned by the Inquisition.
+The affair is an example commonly used by advocates of the conflict thesis. Maurice Finocchiaro writes that the affair epitomizes the common view of "the conflict between enlightened science and obscurantist religion," and that this view promotes "the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion." Finocchiaro writes, "I believe that such a thesis is erroneous, misleading, and simplistic," and refers to John Draper, Andrew White, Voltaire, Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Karl Popper as writers or icons who have promoted it. Finocchiaro notes that the situation was complex and objections to the Copernican system included arguments that were philosophical and scientific, as well as theological.
+Pope Urban VIII had been an admirer and supporter of Galileo, and there is evidence he did not believe the Inquisition's declaration rendered heliocentrism a heresy. Urban may have rather viewed heliocentrism as a potentially dangerous or rash doctrine that nevertheless had utility in astronomical calculations. In 1632, Galileo published his  Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was popular. Pope Urban VIII had asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book, and were voiced by a character named "Simplicio", who was a simpleton. This angered the Pope and weakened Galileo's position politically. Responding to mounting controversy over theology, astronomy and philosophy, the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633 and found him "vehemently suspect of heresy", sentencing him to house arrest. Galileo's Dialogue was banned and he was ordered to "abjure, curse and detest" heliocentric ideas. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.
+
+==== Index Librorum Prohibitorum ====

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+---
+title: "Conflict thesis"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:06.685537+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In 1559, Pope Paul IV promulgated the Pauline Index which is also known as Index Librorum Prohibitorum. While it has been described by some as "the turning-point for the freedom of enquiry in the Catholic world", the effects of the Index were actually minimal and it was largely ignored. After less than a year, it was replaced by the Tridentine Index which relaxed aspects of the Pauline Index that had been criticized and had prevented its acceptance. It is inaccurate to describe the Index as being an enduring and definitive statement of Catholic censorship. It contained a list of "heretical" or "amoral" publications that were forbidden for Catholics to read or print and included not just heretics but anti-clerical authors and Protestant Christians.
+
+=== Scientists and public perceptions ===
+The conflict thesis is still held to be true in whole or in part by some scientists, including the theoretical physicist and cosmologist Stephen Hawking, who said "There is a fundamental difference between religion, which is based on authority, [and] science, which is based on observation and reason. Science will win because it works." Others, such as Steven Weinberg, grant that it is possible for science and religion to be compatible since some prominent scientists are also religious, but he sees some significant tensions that potentially weaken religious beliefs overall.
+However, global studies on actual beliefs held by scientists show that only about 1⁄3 or less scientists subscribe to conflict perspective and instead most believe that the relation is independence or they believe in collaboration between science and religion. As such, "the conflict perspective on science and religion is an invention of the West". Among nonreligious scientists, very few state that scientific training or knowledge played a role in any declines in personal religiosity.  
+A study done on scientists from 21 American universities showed that most did not perceive conflict between science and religion either. In the study, the strength of religiosity in the home in which a scientist was raised, current religious attendance, peers' attitudes toward religion, all had an impact on whether or not scientists saw religion and science as in conflict. Scientists who had grown up with a religion and retained that identity or had identified as spiritual or had religious attendance tended to perceive less or no conflict. However, those not attending religious services were more likely to adopt a conflict paradigm. Additionally, scientists were more likely to reject conflict thesis if their peers held positive views of religion.
+Science historian Ronald Numbers suggests though the conflict theory lingers in the popular mind due to few sets of controversies such as creation–evolution, stem cells, and birth control, he notes that the history of science reflects no intrinsic and inevitable conflict between religion and science. Many religious groups have made statements regarding the compatibility of religion and science, urging, for example, "school board members to preserve the integrity of the science curriculum by affirming the teaching of the theory of evolution as a core component of human knowledge. We ask that science remain science and that religion remain religion, two very different, but complementary, forms of truth." The Magis Center for Reason and Faith was founded specifically to apply science in support of belief in a deity and the Christian religion. Some scholars such as Brian Stanley and Denis Alexander propose that mass media are partly responsible for popularizing conflict theory, most notably the myth that prior to Columbus, people believed the Earth was flat. David C. Lindberg and Numbers point out that "there was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge Earth's sphericity and even know its approximate circumference". Numbers gives the following as mistakes arising from conflict theory that have gained widespread currency: "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", and "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of the natural sciences". Some Christian writers, notably Reijer Hooykaas and Stanley Jaki, have argued that Christianity was important, if not essential, for the rise of modern science.  Lindberg and Numbers, however, believe this overstates the case for such a connection.
+Research on perceptions of science among the American public concludes that most religious groups see no general epistemological conflict with science, and that they have no differences with nonreligious groups in propensity to seek out scientific knowledge, although there are often epistemic or moral conflicts when scientists make counterclaims to religious tenets. The Pew Center made similar findings and also noted that the majority of Americans (80–90 percent) strongly support scientific research, agree that science makes society and individual's lives better, and 8 in 10 Americans would be happy if their children were to become scientists. Even strict creationists tend to express very favorable views towards science. A study of US college students concluded that the majority of undergraduates in both the natural and social sciences do not see conflict between science and religion. Another finding in the study was that it is more likely for students to move from a conflict perspective to an independence or collaboration perspective than vice versa.
+Some scientific topics like evolution are often seen as a "point of friction" even though there is widespread acceptance of evolution across all 20 countries with diverse religious backgrounds in one study. Age, rather than religion, correlates better on attitudes on relating to biotechnology.
+
+== See also ==

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+---
+title: "Conflict thesis"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_thesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:06.685537+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Antireligion – Opposition to religion
+Antitheism – Opposition to theism, and usually to religion
+Boundary object – Sociology of information science
+Boundary-work – Study of boundaries between disciplines
+Continuity thesis – Hypothesis regarding European intellectual history
+Faith and rationality – Two approaches that exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility
+Fideism – Epistemological theory that faith is independent of reason
+Flat Earth – Archaic conception of Earth's shape
+Non-overlapping magisteria – Concept created by Stephen Jay Gould
+Relationship between religion and science
+Religious intolerance – Intolerance of another's religious beliefs or practices
+Trading zones (metaphor) – Metaphor applied to collaborations in science
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Barbour, Ian G. When Science Meets Religion. HarperSanFrancisco, 2000.
+Brooke, John H., Margaret Osler, and Jitse M. van der Meer, (editors). "Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions," Osiris, 2nd ser., vol. 16 (2001), ISBN 0-226-07565-6
+Mahner, M., Bunge, M. Is religious education compatible with science education?. Sci Educ 5, 101–123 (1996)
+Ferngren, Gary (editor).  Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction.  Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.  ISBN 0-8018-7038-0
+Jones, Richard H., For the Glory of God: The Role of Christianity in the Rise and Development of Modern Science. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2011. ISBN 978-0-7618-5566-8
+Lindberg, David C. and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. University of California Press, 1986.
+Lindberg and Numbers, "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science," Church History 55 (1986): 338–354; reprinted with minor editorial correction and revision in Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 39 (1987):140-49. (Can be found online here)
+Merton, Robert K.  Science, Technology, and Society in Seventeenth Century England.  Osiris 4 (1938): 360–632.  Reprinted New York: Harper & Row, 1970.  (Advances the thesis that Puritanism contributed to the rise of science.)
+Ungureanu, James C. Science, Religion, and the Protestant Tradition: Retracing the Origins of Conflict. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019. ISBN 0822945819
+Westfall, Richard S. Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England.  New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr. 1958.  Reprinted Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Pr., 1973.  ISBN 0822945819
+
+== External links ==
+
+A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science
+The Mythical Conflict between Science and Religion by James Hannam

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+---
+title: "Continuity thesis"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:07.979707+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the history of ideas, the continuity thesis is the hypothesis that there was no radical discontinuity between the intellectual development of the Middle Ages and the developments in the Renaissance and early modern period. Thus the idea of an intellectual or scientific revolution following the Renaissance is, according to the continuity thesis, a myth. Some continuity theorists point to earlier intellectual revolutions occurring in the Middle Ages, usually referring to the European Renaissance of the 12th century as a sign of continuity.
+The continuity thesis has been seen by Paul Freedman and Gabrielle M. Spiegel as characteristic of Medieval studies in North America in the twentieth century. Despite the many points that have been brought up by proponents of the continuity thesis, however, a majority of scholars still support the traditional view of the Scientific Revolution occurring in the 16th and 17th centuries.
+
+== Duhem ==
+The idea of a continuity, rather than contrast between medieval and modern thought, begins with Pierre Duhem, the French physicist and philosopher of science.  It is set out in his ten-volume work on the history of science, Le système du monde: histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic. Unlike many former historians such as Voltaire and Condorcet, who did not consider the Middle Ages to be of much intellectual importance , Duhem tried to show that the Roman Catholic Church had helped foster the development of Western science. His work was prompted by his research into the origins of statics in which he encountered the works of medieval mathematicians and philosophers such as Nicole Oresme and Roger Bacon. He consequently came to regard them as the founders of modern science since, in his view, they anticipated many of the discoveries of Galileo and later thinkers. Duhem concluded that "the mechanics and physics of which modern times are justifiably proud proceed, by an uninterrupted series of scarcely perceptible improvements, from doctrines professed in the heart of the medieval schools."
+
+== Sarton ==
+Another notable supporter of the continuity thesis was George Sarton (1884–1956). In The History of Science and the New Humanism (1931), George Sarton put much stress on the historical continuity of science. Sarton further noted that the development of science stagnated during the Renaissance, due to Renaissance humanism putting more emphasis on form over fact, grammar over substance, and the adoration of ancient authorities over empirical investigation. As a result, he stated that science had to be introduced to Western culture twice: first in the 12th century during the Arabic–Latin translation movement, and again in the 17th century during what became known as the "Scientific Revolution". He said this was due to the first appearance of science being swept away by Renaissance humanism before science had to be re-introduced again in the 17th century.
+Sarton wrote in the Introduction to the History of Science:
+
+It does not follow, as so many ignorant persons think, that the mediaeval activities were sterile. That would be just as foolish as to consider a pregnant woman sterile as long as the fruit of her womb was unborn. The Middle Ages were pregnant with many ideas which could not be delivered until much later. Modern science, we might say, was the fruition of mediaeval immaturity. Vesalius, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton were the happy inheritors who cashed in.
+We shall not be far wrong in saying that it was Occamism combined with Averroism which prepared the gradual dissolution of mediaeval continuity and the beginning of a new age.
+
+== Franklin and Pasnau ==
+More recently the Australian mathematician and historian of science James Franklin has argued that the idea of a European Renaissance is a myth. He characterizes the myth as the view that around the 15th century:

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+title: "Continuity thesis"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:07.979707+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There was a sudden dawning of a new outlook on the world after 1000 years of darkness.
+Ancient learning was rediscovered.
+New ideas about intellectual inquiry and freedom replaced reliance on authority.
+Scientific investigation replaced the sterile disputes of the schools.
+He claims that the Renaissance was in fact a period when thought declined significantly and brought to an end a period of advance in the Late Middle Ages and that the twelfth century was the "real, true, and unqualified renaissance". For example, the rediscovery of ancient knowledge, which the later Italian humanists claimed for themselves, was actually accomplished in the 12th century.
+Franklin cites many examples of scientific advances in the medieval period that predate or anticipate later 'discoveries'. For example, the first advances in geometrical optics and mechanics were in the 12th century. The first steps in understanding motion, and continuous variation in general, occurred in the 14th century with the work of the scientists of the Merton School, at Oxford in the 1330s and 1340s. (Franklin notes that there is no phrase in ancient Greek or Latin equivalent to "kilometres per hour"). Nicole Oresme, who wrote on theology and money, devoted much of his effort to science and mathematics and invented graphs, was the first to perform calculations involving probability, and the first to compare the workings of the universe to a clock. Franklin emphasises how much of later thought, not only in science, was built on a foundation of revived scholasticism, not Renaissance humanism.
+According to Franklin, little of importance occurs in any other branches of science in the two centuries between Oresme and Copernicus. Like other historians of this period, Franklin attributes the decline to the plague of 1348–1350 (the Black Death), which killed a third of the people in Europe. Johan Huizinga's examination of the period, The Waning of the Middle Ages, suggests a tendency towards elaborate theory of signs, which Franklin compares with the degeneracy of modern Marxism. He cites the late Renaissance naturalist Aldrovandi, who considered his account of the snake incomplete until he had treated it in its anatomical, heraldic, allegorical, medicinal, anecdotal, historical and mythical aspects.  He marks the 15th century as coinciding with the decline of literature. Chaucer died in 1400; the next writers that are widely read are Erasmus, More, Rabelais and Machiavelli, just after 1500.  "It is hard to think of any writer in English between Chaucer and Spenser who is now read even by the most enthusiastic students. The gap is almost two hundred years." He points to the development of astrology and alchemy in the heyday of the Renaissance.
+Franklin concedes that in painting the Renaissance really excelled, but unfortunately, the artistic skill of the Renaissance concealed its incompetence in anything else.  He cites Leonardo da Vinci, who was supposed to be good at everything, but who on examination, "had nothing of importance to say on most subjects". (A standard history of mathematics, according to Franklin (E. T. Bell's The Development of Mathematics, 1940), states, "Leonardo's published jottings on mathematics are trivial, even puerile, and show no mathematical talent whatever.") The invention of printing he compares to television, which produced "a flood of drivel catering to the lowest common denominator of the paying public, plus a quantity of propaganda paid for by the sponsors".
+The philosopher and historian Robert Pasnau makes a similar claim that "modernity came in the late twelfth century, with Averroes' magisterial revival of Aristotle and its almost immediate embrace by the Latin West."
+Pasnau argues that in some branches of 17th-century philosophy, the insights of the scholastic era fall into neglect and disrepute. He disputes the modernist view of medieval thought as subservient to the views of Aristotle. By contrast, "scholastic philosophers agree among themselves no more than does any group of philosophers from any historical period." Furthermore, the almost-unknown period between 1400 and 1600 was not barren but gave rise to vast quantities of material, much of which still survives. That complicates any generalizations about the supposedly novel developments in the 17th century. He claims that the concerns of scholasticism are largely continuous with the central themes of the modern era; that early modern philosophy, though different in tone and style, is a natural progression out of later medieval debates; and that a grasp of the scholastic background is essential to an understanding of the philosophy of Descartes, Locke and others.
+
+== Graham and Saliba ==
+In 1973, A. C. Graham criticized the notion of "modern science" and argued, "The question may also be raised whether Ptolemy or even Copernicus and Kepler were in principle any nearer to modern science than the Chinese and the Maya, or indeed than the first astronomer, whoever he may have been, who allowed observations to outweigh numerological considerations of symmetry in his calculations of the month and the year". In 1999, George Saliba, in his review of Toby E. Huff's The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West, also criticised the notion of "modern science" by arguing that one would need to define terms like "modern science" or "modernity". After quoting Graham, Saliba notes that "the empirical emphasis placed by that very first astronomer on the value of his observations set the inescapable course to modern science. So where would the origins of modern science then lie?"
+
+== Grant ==
+In The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages, Edward Grant argues that the origins of modern science lie in the Middle Ages and was due to a combination of four factors:
+
+"Translations into Latin of Greek and Arabic scientific texts in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; the development of universities, which were uniquely Western and used the translations as the basis of a science curriculum; the adjustments of Christianity to secular learning and the transformation of Aristotle's natural philosophy."

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+---
+title: "Continuity thesis"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_thesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:07.979707+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Hatfield ==
+Gary Hatfield, in his "Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution of Science?", argues that while the "Scientific Revolution" of the 17th century did have several individual "revolutions", he does not consider the period to be a "scientific" revolution. Some of his reasons include science still being tied to metaphysics at the time, experimental physics not being separated from natural philosophy until the end of the 18th century, and comparable individual "revolutions" in different sciences continued occurring before and after the 17th century, such as the optical revolution of Faraday and Maxwell.
+
+== Bala ==
+Another contrary view has been recently proposed by Arun Bala in his dialogical history of the birth of modern science. Bala proposes that the changes involved in the Scientific Revolution — the mathematical realist turn, the mechanical philosophy, the atomism, the central role assigned to the Sun in Copernican heliocentrism — have to be seen as rooted in multicultural influences on Europe.  He sees specific influences in Alhazen's physical optical theory, Chinese mechanical technologies leading to the perception of the world as a machine, the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, which carried implicitly a new mode of mathematical atomic thinking, and the heliocentrism rooted in ancient Egyptian religious ideas associated with Hermeticism. Bala argues that by ignoring such multicultural impacts we have been led to a Eurocentric conception of the Scientific Revolution.  Critics note that lacking documentary evidence of transmission of specific scientific ideas, Bala's model will remain "a working hypothesis, not a conclusion".
+
+== See also ==
+Conflict thesis – Concept in history of science
+Renaissance magic – Magical science during the Renaissance
+David Nirenberg – American historian
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "Conversion therapy"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:09.241296+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Conversion therapy is the pseudoscientific practice of attempting to change an individual's sexual orientation, romantic orientation, gender identity, or gender expression to align with heterosexual and cisgender norms. Conversion therapy is ineffective at changing a person's sexual orientation or gender identity and frequently causes significant long-term psychological harm. The position of evidence-based medicine and clinical guidance is that sexualities like homosexuality and bisexuality as well as gender variance are natural and healthy aspects of human sexuality and gender identity.
+When performed, conversion therapy may constitute fraud; when performed on minors it is considered to be a form of child abuse. It has been described by experts as torture; cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment; and contrary to human rights. Laws on conversion therapy vary, ranging from constitutional protection to a criminal offense.
+Conversion therapy often consists of methods that involve, but are not limited to: talk therapy, aversion therapy, brain surgery, chemical castration, surgical castration, hypnosis, psychoanalysis, corrective rape, and various religious practices, including prayer and exorcism.
+
+== Terminology ==
+
+Medical professionals and activists consider "conversion therapy" a misnomer, as it does not constitute a legitimate form of therapy. Alternative terms include "sexual orientation change efforts" (SOCE) and "gender identity change efforts" (GICE). Together they are referred to as "sexual orientation and gender identity change efforts" (SOGICE), or "sexual orientation and gender identity or expression change efforts" (SOGIECE).
+According to researcher Douglas C. Haldeman, SOCE and GICE should be considered together because both rest on the assumption "that gender-related behavior consistent with the individual's birth sex is normative and anything else is unacceptable and should be changed". The American Psychological Association stated in a 2021 resolution that some parts of SOCE also met their definition of GICE, and "intense focus" on gender-normative "conformity is a frequent characteristic of SOCE".
+"Reparative therapy" may refer to conversion therapy in general, or to a subset thereof. Some sources prefer the term "conversion practices" to "conversion therapy", on the grounds that the practices in question are not actually therapeutic.
+Advocates of conversion therapy do not necessarily use the term either, instead using phrases such as "healing from sexual brokenness" and "struggling with same-sex attraction".
+
+=== Evolving phraseology ===
+
+A common term found throughout conversion therapy practices is "same-sex attraction" with various phrases or words connected to it.
+The term "same-sex attraction disorder" (SSAD), or sometimes "same-sex attachment disorder" was coined by Richard Fitzgibbon in the 1990s as a replacement for the term gay and the "ex-gay movement" and subsequently popularized in the 2000s by Richard A. Cohen who, in his book Coming Out Straight, detailed the phrase and invented "diagnosis" that tried to pathologize homosexuality as a condition, concluding that "Homosexuality is a Same-Sex Attachment Disorder." The term was picked up by the ex-gay movement in scripts such as "I used to be gay, but I don't think of myself as gay anymore. Now I just experience same-sex attraction."
+A 2020 report by ILGA tracking bans on conversion therapy worldwide explained that in many countries where "conversion therapy" has been banned, "proponents had to reshape and adapt the way in which they present and offer their 'treatment'." The report further explains that many proponents of "conversion therapy" try to expressly distance themselves from the term "conversion therapy" or saying they support homosexuality or gender variance and referring to their alternative terminology as being something different. The report describes this effort to "make these pseudo-scientific practices 'a constant moving target'."
+The report listed a series of common terms used by proponents of "conversion therapy" for their "services" to provide assistance with "unwanted same-sex attraction"; promoting a "healthy sexuality", addressing "sexual brokenness"; helping clients explore their "gender confusion".
+In 2022, the Global Project Against Hate and Extremism (GPAHE) began tracking terms related to conversion therapy online in a report titled Conversion Therapy Online: The Ecosystem. 
+The report documents practices, techniques and phraseology used by groups providing "conversion therapy" under various names to refer to the practice itself, as well as common phrases such as "same-sex attracted" in relation to conversion therapy targeted at LGBTQ people, in particular gay men and transgender people.
+In January 2024, GPAHE published an updated report for 2023, highlighting that many social media platforms and search engines are still serving a lot of content related to conversion therapy. Listing examples, using the search term "overcoming same-sex attraction" on YouTube led to results from religious and non-religious groups serving videos targeting gay and transgender people, such as videos titled "Former LGBTQers Testify: If You No Longer Want to be Gay or Transgender, You Don't Have to Be."
+In 2022, GPAHE also started creating an ongoing tracking project on organizations connected to the promotion of "conversion therapy" practices online titled Conversion Therapy Online: The Players to document the actors involved in these activities and show the interconnectedness. 
+The report highlights some larger groups at the center of these efforts such as London-based International Federation for Therapeutic and Counseling Choice (IFTCC), chaired by Mike Davidson, founder of related Core Issues Trust (CIT) and several other organizations involved. IFTCC has been hosting annual conferences since its inception in 2015 with the purpose to connect individuals "seeking help with 'same-sex attraction' and 'gender confusion'" with therapists.
+
+== History ==

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+---
+title: "Conversion therapy"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:09.241296+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE) ===
+The term homosexual was coined by German-speaking Hungarian writer Karl Maria Kertbeny and was in circulation by the 1880s. Into the middle of the twentieth century, competing views of homosexuality were advanced by psychoanalysis versus academic sexology. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, viewed homosexuality as a form of arrested development. Later psychoanalysts followed Sandor Rado, who argued that homosexuality was a "phobic avoidance of heterosexuality caused by inadequate early parenting". This line of thinking was popular in psychiatric models of homosexuality based on the prison population or homosexuals seeking treatment. In contrast, sexology researchers such as Alfred Kinsey argued that homosexuality was a normal variation in human development. In 1970, gay activists confronted the American Psychiatric Association, persuading the association to reconsider whether homosexuality should be listed as a disorder. The APA delisted homosexuality in 1973, which contributed to shifts in public opinion on homosexuality.
+Despite their lack of scientific backing, some socially or religiously conservative activists continued to argue that if one person's sexuality could be changed, homosexuality was not a fixed class such as race. Borrowing from discredited psychoanalytic ideas about the cause of homosexuality, some of these individuals offered conversion therapy. In 2001, conversion therapy attracted attention when Robert L. Spitzer published a non-peer-reviewed study asserting that some homosexuals could change their sexual orientation. Many researchers made methodological criticisms of the study, and Spitzer later repudiated his own study.
+
+=== Gender identity change efforts (GICE) ===
+Gender Identity Change Efforts (GICE) refer to practices of healthcare providers and religious counselors with the goal of attempting to alter a person's gender identity or expression to conform to social norms. Examples include aversion therapy, cognitive restructuring, and psychoanalytic and talk therapies. Western medical-model narratives have historically favored a binary gender model and pathologizing gender diversity and non-conformity.  This aided the development and proliferation of GICE.
+Early interventions were rooted in psychoanalytic hypotheses. Robert Stoller advanced the theory that gender-nonconforming behavior and expression in children assigned male at birth (AMAB) was caused by being overly close to their mother. Richard Green continued his research; his methods for altering behavior included having the father spend more time with the child and mother less, expecting both to exhibit stereotypical gender roles, and having them praise their child's masculine behaviors, and shame their feminine and gender-nonconforming ones. These interventions resulted in depression in the children and feelings of betrayal from parents that the treatments failed.
+In the 1970s, UCLA psychologist Richard Green recruited Ole Ivar Lovaas to adapt the techniques of applied behavior analysis (ABA) to attempt to prevent children from becoming transsexual. Deemed the "Feminine Boy Project", the treatments used operant conditioning to reward gender-conforming behaviors, and punish gender non-conforming behaviors.
+
+Kenneth Zucker at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health adopted Richard Green's methods, but narrowed the scope to attempting to prevent the child from identifying as transgender by modifying gender behavior and presentation to conform to the expectations of the assigned gender at birth, which he dubbed the "living in your own skin" model. His model used the same interventions as Green with the addition of psychodynamic therapy.
+
+=== Bans on conversion therapy ===
+In 2020, the United Nations Independent Expert on sexual orientation and gender identity (IESOGI) published a Report on conversion therapy, which documented global practices on conversion therapy against LGBTQ individuals. 
+In the report, the UN IESOGI called for a global ban on "conversion therapy", as an umbrella term describing various interventions practiced to "cure" people, and to "convert" them from non-heterosexual to heterosexual, and from trans or gender diverse to cisgender. The report highlighted a 2015 US court case from New Jersey, "Ferguson v JONAH'", in which a jury unanimously found the defendants guilty of fraud, claiming they were providing "services that could significantly reduce or eliminate same-sex attraction." In March of 2026, laws prohibiting conversion therapy were struck down by the US Supreme Court.
+
+== Motivations ==
+A frequent motivation for adults who pursue conversion therapy is religious beliefs that disapprove of same-sex relations, such as evangelical Christianity, Orthodox Judaism, and conservative interpretations of Islam. These adults prioritize maintaining a good relationship with their family and religious community.
+Adolescents who are pressured by their families into undergoing conversion therapy also typically come from a conservative religious background. Youth from families with low socioeconomic status are also more likely to undergo conversion therapy.
+
+== Theories and techniques ==
+As societal attitudes toward homosexuality have become more accepting over time, the harshest conversion therapy methods, such as aversion therapy, have become less common. Secular conversion therapy is offered less frequently due to the demedicalization of homosexuality and bisexuality, and religious practitioners have become predominant.
+
+=== Aversion therapy ===

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+---
+title: "Conversion therapy"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:09.241296+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aversion therapy used on homosexuals and bisexuals included electric shock and nausea-inducing drugs during presentation of same-sex erotic images. Cessation of the aversive stimuli was typically accompanied by the presentation of opposite-sex erotic images, with the objective of strengthening heterosexual feelings. Another method used is the covert sensitization method, which involves instructing recipients to imagine vomiting or receiving electric shocks. Proponents often write that only single-case studies have been conducted to support their methods and that their results cannot be generalized. For example, Haldeman writes that behavioral conditioning studies tend to decrease homosexual feelings but do not increase heterosexual feelings, citing Rangaswami's "Difficulties in arousing and increasing heterosexual responsiveness in a homosexual: A case report", published in 1982, as typical in this respect. Other methods of aversion therapy, in addition to electric shock, included ice baths, freezing, burning via metal coils, and hard labor. The intent was for the subject to associate homosexual feelings with pain and thus result in them being reduced. These methods have been concluded to be ineffective.
+Aversion therapy was developed in Czechoslovakia between 1950 and 1962 and in the British Commonwealth from 1961 into the mid-1970s. In the context of the Cold War, Western psychologists ignored the poor results of their Czechoslovak counterparts who had concluded that aversion therapy was not effective by 1961 and recommended decriminalization of homosexuality instead. Some men in the United Kingdom were offered the choice between prison and undergoing aversion therapy. It was also offered to a few British women, but was never the standard treatment for either homosexual men or women.
+In the 1970s, behaviorist Hans Eysenck was one of the main advocates of counterconditioning with malaise-inducing drugs and electric shock for homosexuals. He wrote that this therapy was successful in nearly 50% of cases. However, his studies were disputed. Behavior therapists, including Eysenck, used aversive methods. This led to a protest against Eysenck by gay activist Peter Tatchell at a London Medical Group Symposium in 1972. Tatchell said that the therapy promoted by Eysenck was a form of torture. Tatchell denounced Eysenck's form of behavioral therapy as causing depression and suicidal ideation and completion among gay men who were subjected to it.
+
+=== Brain surgery ===
+In the 1940s and 1950s, American neurologist Walter Jackson Freeman II popularized the so-called ice-pick lobotomy as a treatment for homosexuality. He personally performed more than 3,000 lobotomies across 23 US states, of which 2,500 used his transorbital method, despite the fact that he had no formal surgical training. Freeman was banned from performing psychosurgery in 1967.
+In West Germany, a type of brain surgery usually involving destruction of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus was done on some homosexual men during the 1960s and 1970s. The practice was criticized by sexologist Volkmar Sigusch.
+
+=== Castration and transplantation ===
+
+In early twentieth-century Germany, experiments were carried out in which homosexual men were subjected to unilateral orchiectomy and testicles of heterosexual men were transplanted. These operations were a complete failure.
+Surgical castration of homosexual men was widespread in Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. SS leader Heinrich Himmler ordered homosexual men to be sent to concentration camps because he did not consider a time-limited prison sentence sufficient to eliminate homosexuality. Although theoretically voluntary, some homosexuals were subject to severe pressure and coercion to agree to castration. There was no lower age limit: some boys as young as 16 were castrated. Those who agreed to castration after a Paragraph 175 conviction were exempted from being transferred to a concentration camp after completing their legal sentence. Some concentration camp prisoners were also subjected to castration. An estimated 400 to 800 men were castrated. Endocrinologist Carl Vaernet attempted to change homosexual concentration camp prisoners' sexual orientations by implanting a pellet that released testosterone. Most of the victims, non-consenting prisoners at the Buchenwald concentration camp, died shortly thereafter.
+An unknown number of men were castrated in West Germany, and chemical castration was used in other Western countries, notably against Alan Turing in the United Kingdom.
+
+=== Ex-gay/ex-trans ministries ===
+
+Ex-gay ministries are religious groups that attempt to use religion to eliminate or change queer individuals' sexual orientation. The ex-gay umbrella organization Exodus International in the United States ceased activities in June 2013, and the three-member board issued a statement repudiating its aims and apologizing for the harm its pursuit had caused to queer people. Ex-trans organizations often overlap with ex-gay organizations, frequently portraying trans identity as inherently sinful or against God's design and pathologizing gender variance as the result of trauma, social contagion, or "gender ideology".
+
+=== Hypnosis ===
+Hypnosis has been used in conversion therapy since the 19th century, first employed by Richard von Krafft-Ebing and Albert von Schrenck-Notzing. In 1967, Canadian psychiatrist Peter Roper published a case study of treating 15 homosexual individuals—some of whom would probably be considered bisexual by modern standards—with hypnosis. Allegedly, eight showed "marked improvement" (they reportedly lost sexual attraction towards the same sex altogether), four showed mild improvements (decrease of "homosexual tendencies"), and three exhibited no improvement after hypnotic treatment. He concluded that "hypnosis may well produce more satisfactory results than those obtainable by other means", depending on the hypnotic susceptibility of the subjects.
+
+=== Psychoanalysis ===

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+---
+title: "Conversion therapy"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:09.241296+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Haldeman writes that psychoanalytic treatment of homosexuality is exemplified by the work of Irving Bieber and colleagues in Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals. They advocated long-term therapy aimed at resolving the unconscious childhood conflicts that they considered responsible for homosexuality. Haldeman notes that Bieber's methodology has been criticized because it relied upon a clinical sample, the description of the outcomes was based upon subjective therapist impression, and follow-up data were poorly presented. Bieber reported a 27% success frequency from long-term therapy, but only 18% of those deemed successful were exclusively homosexual initially, while 50% had been bisexual. In Haldeman's view, this makes even Bieber's unimpressive claims of success misleading.
+Haldeman discusses other psychoanalytic studies of attempts to change homosexuality. Curran and Parr's "Homosexuality: An analysis of 100 male cases", published in 1957, reported no significant increase in heterosexual behavior. Mayerson and Lief's "Psychotherapy of homosexuals: A follow-up study of nineteen cases", published in 1965, reported that half of the 19 subjects included were exclusively heterosexual in behavior four and a half years after treatment; its outcomes were based on patient self-report and had no external validation. In Haldeman's view, those participants in the study who reported change were bisexual at the outset, and its authors wrongly interpreted the capacity for heterosexual sex as a change of sexual orientation.
+
+=== Reparative therapy ===
+The term "reparative therapy" has been used as a synonym for conversion therapy generally, but according to Jack Drescher, it more correctly refers to a specific kind of therapy associated with the psychologists Elizabeth Moberly and Joseph Nicolosi.  
+For example, he wrote: 
+
+The pursuit of fulfillment through same-sex eroticism is spurred by the fearful anticipation that their masculine self-assertion will inevitably fail and result in humiliation.
+The term reparative refers to Nicolosi's postulate that same-sex attraction is a person's unconscious attempt to "self-repair" feelings of inferiority. After California banned conversion practices, Nicolosi argued that "reparative therapy" did not attempt to change sexual orientation directly but instead encouraged exploration into its underlying causes, which he believed was often childhood trauma.
+A phone study by Robert Spitzer reported that "about 66 percent of the men respondents and 44 percent of the women were able to function as heterosexuals after the therapy," while conceding that "his subjects did not constitute a study population representative of the gay and lesbian population in the U.S."
+
+=== Marriage therapy ===
+
+Previous editions of the World Health Organization's ICD included sexual relationship disorder, in which a person's sexual orientation or gender identity makes it difficult to form or maintain a relationship with a sexual partner. The belief that their sexual orientation causes problems in their relationship may lead some to turn to a marriage therapist for help to change their sexual orientation. Sexual relationship disorder was removed from ICD-11 after the Working Group on Sexual Disorders and Sexual Health determined that its inclusion was unjustified.
+
+=== Gender exploratory therapy ===
+
+Gender exploratory therapy (GET) is a form of conversion therapy characterized by requiring mandatory extended talk therapy attempting to find pathological roots for gender dysphoria while simultaneously delaying social and medical transition and viewing it as a last resort. Practitioners propose that their patients' dysphoria is caused by factors such as homophobia, social contagion, sexual trauma, and autism. Some practitioners avoid using their patients' chosen names and pronouns while questioning their identification. Commenting on GET in 2022, bioethicist Florence Ashley argued that its framing as an undirected exploration of underlying psychological issues bore similarities to conversion practices, such as "reparative" therapy. States that have banned gender-affirming care for minors in the United States have called expert witnesses to argue that exploratory therapy should be the alternative treatment.
+As of 2023, there are no known empirical studies examining psychosocial or medical outcomes following gender exploratory therapy. Concerns have been raised that by not providing an estimated length of time for the therapy, the delays in medical interventions may compound mental suffering in transgender youth, while the gender-affirming care model already promotes gender identity exploration—without favoring any particular identity—and individualized care. GET proponents deny this.
+In 2017, Richard Green published a legal strategy that called for circumventing bans on conversion therapy by labelling the practice "gender identity exploration or development". Multiple groups now exist worldwide to promote gender exploratory therapy and have been successful in influencing legal discussions and clinical guidance in some regions. The Gender Exploratory Therapy Association (GETA) asserts that "psychological approaches should be the first-line treatment for all cases of gender dysphoria", that medical interventions for transgender youth are "experimental and should be avoided if possible", and that social transitioning is "risky". All of GETA's leaders are members of Genspect, a "gender-critical" group that promotes GET and argues that gender-affirming care should not be available to those under 25. In late 2023, GETA changed its name to "Therapy First".
+GETA also shares a large overlap with the Society for Evidence-Based Gender Medicine (SEGM), which promotes GET as first-line treatment for those under 25. GETA co-founder Lisa Marchiano stated US President Joe Biden's executive order safeguarding trans youth from conversion therapy would have a "chilling effect" on GET practices. GETA also opposed Biden's Title IX changes protecting trans students from discrimination, stating allowing trans youth in restrooms would harm the mental health of their peers. The American College of Pediatricians, a small group aligned with the Christian Right, has cited numerous studies from SEGM to support the claim that 'gender exploratory therapy' is necessary to restore transgender people's "biological integrity".

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+---
+title: "Conversion therapy"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:09.241296+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Effects and evaluation ==
+There is a scientific consensus that conversion therapy is ineffective at changing a person's sexual orientation.
+Conversion therapy can cause significant, long-term psychological harm. This includes significantly higher rates of depression, substance abuse, and other mental health issues in individuals who have undergone conversion therapy than their peers who did not, including a suicide attempt rate nearly twice that of those who did not. 
+After conversion therapy has failed to change someone's sexual orientation or gender identity, participants often feel increased shame that they already felt over their sexual orientation or gender identity.
+Modern-day practitioners of conversion therapy—primarily from a conservative religious viewpoint—disagree with evidence-based medicine and clinical guidance that does not view homosexuality and gender variance as unnatural or unhealthy. Advocates of conversion therapy rely heavily on testimonials and retrospective self-reports as evidence of effectiveness. Studies purporting to validate the effectiveness of efforts to change sexual orientation or gender identity have been criticized for methodological flaws.
+According to Bailey et al., claims of successful conversion therapy rely upon self reports of success, however these are unreliable and lack objective evidence, and participants in conversion therapy "may be especially susceptible to believing and reporting that therapy has succeeded regardless of its true effectiveness". According to Bailey et al. measures of men's genital arousal patterns could provide relevant evidence to the efficacy of conversion therapy, however existing studies have not supported its effectiveness. For example, a study by Kurt Freund used penile phallometric testing and found that clients’ reported changes in sexual orientation were not supported; and research by Conrad and Wincze (1976) showed that arousal measurements also failed to support claims of success. According to Bailey, although individuals may choose not to act upon their sexual attractions, "there is no good evidence, however, that sexual orientation can be changed with therapy".
+In 2020, ILGA World published a world survey and report Curbing Deception listing consequences and life-threatening effects by associating specific public testimonies with different types of methods used to practice conversion therapies.
+A 2022 study estimated that conversion therapy of youth in the United States cost $650.16 million annually with an additional $9.5 billion in associated costs such as increased suicide and substance abuse. Youth who undergo conversion therapy from a religious provider have more negative mental health outcomes than those who had consulted a licensed healthcare provider.
+A 2022 research by Outright International found out that half the respondents surveyed from Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa had undergone some form of conversion practice. Some of the forms including force and coercion, which inflict severe physical and mental pain and suffering.
+
+== Legal status ==
+
+Some jurisdictions have criminal bans on the practice of conversion therapy, including Canada, Ecuador, France, Germany, Malta, Mexico and Spain. In other countries, including Albania, Brazil, Chile, Vietnam and Taiwan, medical professionals are barred from practicing conversion therapy.
+In some states, lawsuits against conversion therapy providers for fraud have succeeded, but in other jurisdictions those claiming fraud must prove that the perpetrator was intentionally dishonest. Thus, a provider who genuinely believes conversion therapy is effective could not be convicted.
+Conversion therapy on minors may amount to child abuse.
+
+=== Human rights ===
+In 2020, the International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims released an official statement that conversion therapy is torture. The same year, UN Independent Expert on sexual orientation and gender identity, Victor Madrigal-Borloz, said that conversion therapy practices are "inherently discriminatory, that they are cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, and that depending on the severity or physical or mental pain and suffering inflicted to the victim, they may amount to torture". He recommended that it should be banned across the world. In 2021, Ilias Trispiotis and Craig Purshouse argue that conversion therapy violates the prohibition against degrading treatment under Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights, leading to a state obligation to prohibit it. In February 2023 Commissioner for Human Rights, Dunja Mijatović, qualified those practices as "irreconcilable with several guarantees under the European Convention on Human Rights" and having no place in a human rights-based society urging the Member States of the Council of Europe to ban them for both adults and minors, later in July 2023 she advocated for clear actions during a public hearing at the European Parliament studying different approaches to legally ban "conversion therapies" in the European Union. In September 2024 it was reported that the European Union is considering banning "conversion therapies" across its Member States, while a European Citizens' Initiative that started collecting signatures in May 2024 is also calling on the European Commission to outlaw such practices.
+
+== In media ==
+Efforts to change sexual orientation have been depicted and discussed in popular culture and various media. Some examples include: Boy Erased, But I'm a Cheerleader, The Miseducation of Cameron Post, Book of Mormon musical, Ratched, and the documentary features Pray Away and Homotherapy: A Religious Sickness.
+
+== Medical views ==

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+---
+title: "Conversion therapy"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_therapy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:09.241296+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+National health organizations around the world have uniformly denounced and criticized sexual orientation and gender identity change efforts. They state that there has been no scientific demonstration of "conversion therapy's" efficacy. They find that conversion therapy is ineffective, risky and can be harmful. Anecdotal claims of cures are counterbalanced by assertions of harm, and the American Psychiatric Association, for example, cautions ethical practitioners under the Hippocratic oath to do no harm and to refrain from attempts at conversion therapy. Furthermore, they state that conversion therapy is harmful and that it often exploits individuals' guilt and anxiety, thereby damaging self-esteem and leading to depression and even suicide. A 2025 study completed by the American Medical Association found that 42% of those subjected to conversion therapy attempted suicide, compared to 5% of those not subjected to these practices. For transgender individuals in particular, exposure to conversion therapy before age 10 is associated with a fourfold increase in the risk of lifetime suicide attempts compared to peers who received other forms of therapy. 
+There is also concern in the mental health community that the advancement of conversion therapy can cause social harm by disseminating inaccurate views about gender identity, sexual orientation, and the ability of LGBT people to lead happy, healthy lives. Various medical bodies prohibit their members from practicing conversion therapy.
+
+== Public opinion ==
+Opinion polls have found that conversion therapy bans enjoy popular support among the U.S. population. Surveys in three states (Florida, New Mexico and Virginia) show support varying between 60% and 75%. According to a 2014 national poll, only 8% of the U.S. population believed conversion therapies to be successful.
+A 2020 survey carried out on US adults found majority support for banning conversion therapy for minors. 18% of respondents said it should be legal for minors, 56% said it should be illegal for minors, and 26% said they did not know. The survey also found that LGB contact was positively associated with opposition to conversion therapy.
+A 2022 YouGov poll found majority support in England, Scotland, and Wales for a conversion therapy ban for both sexual orientation and gender identity, with opposition ranging from 13 to 15 percent.
+
+== See also ==
+Christianity and homosexuality
+Corrective rape – Homophobic hate crime
+Recovering from Religion – Non-profit organization supporting people leaving religion
+Sexual orientation change efforts and the LDS Church
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Haldeman, Douglas C. (2021). Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Change Efforts: Evidence, Effects, and Ethics. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-1-939594-36-5.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of Christians in science and technology"
+chunk: 1/17
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:01.455026+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of Christians in science and technology. People in this list should have their Christianity as relevant to their notable activities or public life, and who have publicly identified themselves as Christians or as of a Christian denomination.
+
+== Before the 18th century ==
+
+Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179): also known as Saint Hildegard and Sibyl of the Rhine, was a German Benedictine abbess. She is considered to be the founder of scientific natural history in Germany
+Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175–1253): Bishop of Lincoln, he was the central character of the English intellectual movement in the first half of the 13th century and is considered the founder of scientific thought in Oxford. He had a great interest in the natural world and wrote texts on the mathematical sciences of optics, astronomy and geometry. He affirmed that experiments should be used in order to verify a theory, testing its consequences and added greatly to the development of the scientific method.
+Albertus Magnus (c. 1193–1280): patron saint of scientists in Catholicism who may have been the first to isolate arsenic. He wrote that: "Natural science does not consist in ratifying what others have said, but in seeking the causes of phenomena." Yet he rejected elements of Aristotelianism that conflicted with Catholicism and drew on his faith as well as Neo-Platonic ideas to "balance" "troubling" Aristotelian elements.
+Roger Bacon (1219–c. 1292): medieval English polymath, philosopher, scientist, theologian and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empiricism. Intertwining his Catholic faith with scientific thinking, Roger Bacon is considered one of the greatest polymaths of the medieval period.
+Theodoric of Freiberg (1250–1311): German member of the Dominican order and a theologian, philosopher, and physicist. He is known for his work in optics and was among the first in Europe to provide the correct scientific explanation for the rainbow phenomenon.
+Jean Buridan (1300–1358): French philosopher and priest. One of his most significant contributions to science was the development of the theory of impetus, that explained the movement of projectiles and objects in free-fall. This theory gave way to the dynamics of Galileo Galilei and for Isaac Newton's famous principle of inertia.
+Thomas Bradwardine (1300–1349): Archbishop of Canterbury, mathematician, and physicist who helped develop the mean speed theorem. He was one of the Oxford Calculators.
+Albert of Saxony (1320–1390): German philosopher and mathematician known for his contributions to logic and physics. He was bishop of Halberstadt from 1366 until his death.
+Nicole Oresme (c.1323–1382): Theologian and bishop of Lisieux, he was one of the early founders and popularizers of modern sciences. One of his many scientific contributions is the discovery of the curvature of light through atmospheric refraction.
+Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464): Catholic cardinal and theologian who made contributions to the field of mathematics by developing the concepts of the infinitesimal and of relative motion. His philosophical speculations also anticipated Copernicus' heliocentric world-view.
+Otto Brunfels (1488–1534): A theologian and botanist from Mainz, Germany. His Catalogi virorum illustrium is considered to be the first book on the history of evangelical sects that had broken away from the Catholic Church. In botany his Herbarum vivae icones helped earn him acclaim as one of the "fathers of botany".
+William Turner (c.1508–1568): sometimes called the "father of English botany" and was also an ornithologist. He was arrested for preaching in favor of the Reformation. He later became a Dean of Wells Cathedral, but was expelled for nonconformity.
+Ignazio Danti (1536–1586): As bishop of Alatri he convoked a diocesan synod to deal with abuses. He was also a mathematician who wrote on Euclid, an astronomer, and a designer of mechanical devices.
+Christopher Clavius (1538–1612): Jesuit German mathematician, head of mathematicians at the Collegio Romano, and astronomer who was a member of the Vatican commission that accepted the Gregorian calendar. Wrote one of the most influential astronomy textbooks of his time.
+John Napier (1550–1617): Scottish mathematician, physicist, and astronomer, best known as the discoverer of logarithms and inventor of Napier's bones. He was a fervent Protestant and published The Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John (1593), which he considered his most important work. The work occupies a prominent place in Scottish ecclesiastical history.
+Francis Bacon (1561–1626): Considered among the fathers of empiricism and is credited with establishing the inductive method of experimental science via what is called the scientific method today.
+Galileo Galilei (1564–1642): Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution during the Renaissance.
+Laurentius Gothus (1565–1646): A professor of astronomy and Archbishop of Uppsala. He wrote on astronomy and theology.
+Johannes Kepler (1571–1630): Prominent astronomer of the Scientific Revolution, discovered Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
+Marin Mersenne (1588–1648): French polymath, best known for Mersenne primes and Mersenne's laws describing harmonics, referred to as the "father of acoustics". He was an ordained Catholic priest, a member of the ascetic Minim religious order, and wrote and lectured on theology and philosophy.
+Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655): Catholic priest who tried to reconcile Atomism with Christianity. He also published the first work on the Transit of Mercury and corrected the geographical coordinates of the Mediterranean Sea.
+Anton Maria of Rheita (1597–1660): Capuchin astronomer. He dedicated one of his astronomy books to Jesus Christ, a "theo-astronomy" work was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, and he wondered if beings on other planets were "cursed by original sin like humans are."
+Juan Lobkowitz (1606–1682): Cistercian monk who did work on Combinatorics and published astronomy tables at age 10. He also did works of theology and sermons.
+John Wallis (1616–1703): English clergyman and mathematician, partially credited for the development of infinitesimal calculus. Introduced the symbol ∞ to represent the concept of infinity. He also wrote on theology, logic, grammar, and philosophy.
+Seth Ward (1617–1689): Anglican Bishop of Salisbury and Savilian Chair of Astronomy from 1649 to 1661. He wrote Ismaelis Bullialdi astro-nomiae philolaicae fundamenta inquisitio brevis and Astronomia geometrica.  He also had a theological/philosophical dispute with Thomas Hobbes and as a bishop was severe toward nonconformists.
+Blaise Pascal (1623–1662): Jansenist thinker; well known for Pascal's law (physics), Pascal's theorem (math), Pascal's calculator (computing) and Pascal's Wager (theology).
+John Wilkins, FRS (1614–1672) was an Anglican clergyman, natural philosopher and author, and was one of the founders of the Royal Society. He was Bishop of Chester from 1668 until his death.
+Francesco Redi (1626–1697): Italian physician and Roman Catholic who is remembered as the "father of modern parasitology".
+Robert Boyle (1627–1691): Prominent scientist and theologian who argued that the study of science could improve glorification of God. A strong Christian apologist, he is considered one of the most important figures in the history of Chemistry.
+Isaac Barrow (1630–1677): English theologian, scientist, and mathematician. He wrote Expositions of the Creed, The Lord's Prayer, Decalogue, and Sacraments and Lectiones Opticae et Geometricae.
+Francesco Lana de Terzi (1631–1687): Italian Jesuit priest, mathematician, naturalist and aeronautics pioneer. He first sketched the concept for a vacuum airship and has been referred to as the father of aeronautics for his pioneering efforts.
+Nicolas Steno (1638–1686): Lutheran convert to Catholicism, his beatification in that faith occurred in 1987. As a scientist he is considered a pioneer in both anatomy and geology, but largely abandoned science after his religious conversion.
+Isaac Newton (1643–1727): Prominent scientist during the Scientific Revolution. Physicist, discoverer of gravity.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology-1.md

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+---
+title: "List of Christians in science and technology"
+chunk: 2/17
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:01.455026+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== 18th century (1701–1800) ==
+John Ray (1627–1705): English botanist who wrote The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691) and was among the first to attempt a biological definition for the concept of species. The John Ray Initiative of Environment and Christianity is also named for him.
+Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723): Dutch Reformed Calvinist who is remembered as the "father of microbiology".
+Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716): He was a philosopher who developed the philosophical theory of the Pre-established harmony; he is also most noted for his optimism, e.g., his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one that God could have created. He also made major contributions to mathematics, physics, and technology. He created the Stepped Reckoner and his Protogaea concerns geology and natural history. He was a Lutheran who worked with convert to Catholicism John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg in hopes of a reunification between Catholicism and Lutheranism.
+Pierre Varignon (1654–1722): French mathematician and Catholic priest known for his contributions to statics and mechanics.
+Guido Grandi (1671–1742): Italian monk, priest, philosopher, theologian, mathematician, and engineer.
+Stephen Hales (1677–1761): Copley Medal winning scientist significant to the study of plant physiology. As an inventor designed a type of ventilation system, a means to distill sea-water, ways to preserve meat, etc. In religion he was an Anglican curate who worked with the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge and for a group working to convert black slaves in the West Indies.
+Firmin Abauzit (1679–1767): physicist and theologian. He translated the New Testament into French and corrected an error in Newton's Principia.
+Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772): He did a great deal of scientific research with the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences having commissioned work by him. His religious writing is the basis of Swedenborgianism and several of his theological works contained some science hypotheses, most notably the Nebular hypothesis for the origin of the Solar System.
+Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777): Swiss anatomist, physiologist known as "the father of modern physiology". A Protestant, he was involved in the erection of the Reformed church in Göttingen, and, as a man interested in religious questions, he wrote apologetic letters which were compiled by his daughter under the name .
+Leonhard Euler (1707–1783): significant mathematician and physicist, see List of topics named after Leonhard Euler. The son of a pastor, he wrote Defense of the Divine Revelation against the Objections of the Freethinkers and is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on May 24.
+Roger Joseph Boscovich (1711–1787): Jesuit priest and physicist who produced a precursor of atomic theory
+Maximilian Hell (1720–1792): Jesuit priest and astronomer
+Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765): Russian Orthodox Christian who discovered the atmosphere of Venus and formulated the law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions.
+Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794): considered the "father of modern chemistry". He is known for his discovery of oxygen's role in combustion, developing chemical nomenclature, developing a preliminary periodic table of elements, and the law of conservation of mass. He was a Catholic and defender of scripture.
+Herman Boerhaave (1668–1789): Dutch physician and botanist known as the founder of clinical teaching. A collection of his religious thoughts on medicine, translated from Latin into English, has been compiled under the name Boerhaaveìs Orations.
+John Michell (1724–1793): English clergyman who provided pioneering insights in a wide range of scientific fields, including astronomy, geology, optics, and gravitation.
+Maria Gaetana Agnesi (1718–1799): mathematician appointed to a position by Pope Benedict XIV. After her father died she devoted her life to religious studies, charity, and ultimately became a nun.
+Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778): Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, "father of modern taxonomy".
+Thomas Bayes (1701–1761): British statistician. Known for Bayes' Theorem.
+
+== 19th century (1801–1900) ==

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+
+He is also known for the research he has done related to the Isthmus of Panama and its historical significance on the evolution of South American species. Raina MacIntyre (born 1964): Sri Lankan epidemiologist and Professor of Global Biosecurity and NHMRC Principal Research Fellow at the University of New South Wales, where she leads a research program on the prevention and control of infectious diseases. She is an expert media advisor and commentator on Australia's response to COVID-19. Noella Marcellino (born 1951): American Benedictine nun with a doctorate in microbiology. Her field of interests include fungi and the effects of decay and putrefaction. Joel W. Martin (born 1955): American marine biologist and invertebrate zoologist who is currently Chief of the Division of Invertebrate Studies and Curator of Crustacea at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (NHMLAC). His main area of research is the morphology and systematics of marine decapod crustaceans. Paul R. McHugh (born 1931): American psychiatrist whose research has focused on the neuroscientific foundations of motivated behaviors, psychiatric genetics, epidemiology, and neuropsychiatry. He is Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and former psychiatrist-in-chief at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Kenneth R. Miller (born 1948): molecular biologist at Brown University who wrote Finding Darwin's God ISBN 0-06-093049-7. Simon C. Morris (born 1951): British paleontologist and evolutionary biologist who made his reputation through study of the Burgess Shale fossils. He has held the chair of Evolutionary Palaeobiology in the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge since 1995. He was the co-winner of a Charles Doolittle Walcott Medal and also won a Lyell Medal. He is active in the Faraday Institute for study of science and religion and is also noted on discussions concerning the idea of theistic evolution. William Newsome (born 1952): neuroscientist at Stanford University. A member of the National Academy of Sciences. Co-chair of the BRAIN Initiative, "a rapid planning effort for a ten-year assault on how the brain works". He has written about his faith: "When I discuss religion with my fellow scientists...I realize I am an oddity—a serious Christian and a respected scientist."
+Martin Nowak (born 1965): evolutionary biologist and mathematician best known for evolutionary dynamics. He teaches at Harvard University and is also a member of the Board of Advisers of the Templeton Foundation. Bennet Omalu (born 1968): Nigerian-American physician, forensic pathologist, and neuropathologist who was the first to discover and publish findings of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in American football players. He is a professor in the UC Davis Department of Medical Pathology and Laboratory Medicine. Andrew Pollard (biologist) (born 1965): professor of Pediatric Infection and Immunity at the University of Oxford and a Fellow of St Cross College, Oxford. He is an Honorary Consultant Pediatrician at John Radcliffe Hospital and the Director of the Oxford Vaccine Group. He is the Chief Investigator on the University of Oxford COVID-19 Vaccine (ChAdOx-1 n-CoV-19) trials and has led research on vaccines for many life-threatening infectious diseases. Ghillean Prance (born 1937): botanist involved in the Eden Project. He is a former president of Christians in Science. Christine Rollier (born 1972): PhD in biochemistry, Professor of Vaccinology at the University of Surrey (Profile) and Chevalier dans l'order Des Palmes Academiques (Palmes Académiques)
+Joan Roughgarden (born 1946): evolutionary biologist who has taught at Stanford University since 1972. She wrote the book Evolution and Christian Faith: Reflections of an Evolutionary Biologist. Charmaine Royal: American geneticist and professor of African & African American Studies, Biology, Global Health, and Family Medicine & Community Health at Duke University. She studies the intersections of race, ethnicity, ancestry genetics, and health, especially as they pertain to historically marginalized and underrepresented groups in genetic and genomic research; and genomics and global health. Mary Higby Schweitzer: paleontologist at North Carolina State University who believes in the synergy of the Christian faith and the truth of empirical science. Tyler VanderWeele: American epidemiologist and biostatistician and Professor of Epidemiology in the Departments of Epidemiology and Biostatistics at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. He is also the co-director of Harvard University's Initiative on Health, Religion and Spirituality, the director of their Human Flourishing Program, and a faculty affiliate of the Harvard Institute for Quantitative Social Science. His research has focused on the application of causal inference to epidemiology, as well as on the relationship between religion and health. František Vyskočil (born 1941): Czech neuroscientist, professor at Charles University
+Sir Magdi Yacoub: is a distinguished Egyptian-British cardiothoracic surgeon known for groundbreaking contributions to cardiac surgery and transplantation, particularly in pediatric cases. He has received numerous honors, including a knighthood and the Order of Merit in the UK, for his pioneering work that has significantly advanced the field of heart transplantation He is also the head of the Magdi Yacoub Global Heart Foundation which launched the Aswan Heart project and founded the Aswan Heart Centre the following year he is a coptic Christian 

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+title: "List of Christians in science and technology"
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+
+=== Chemistry ===
+Peter Agre (born 1949): American physician, Bloomberg Distinguished Professor, and molecular biologist at Johns Hopkins University who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (which he shared with Roderick MacKinnon) for his discovery of aquaporins. Agre is a Lutheran.
+Peter Budd (born 1957): British chemist and a professor in the Department of Chemistry at The University of Manchester. His research in general is based on polymer chemistry, energy and industrial separation processes, specifically on the areas of Polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs), energy storage, polyelectrolytes and separation membranes.
+Andrew B. Bocarsly (born 1954): American chemist known for his research in electrochemistry, photochemistry, solids state chemistry, and fuel cells. He is a professor of chemistry at Princeton University.
+Gerhard Ertl (born 1936): 2007 Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry. He has said in an interview that "I believe in God. (...) I am a Christian and I try to live as a Christian (...) I read the Bible very often and I try to understand it."
+Brian Kobilka (born 1955): American Nobel Prize winner of Chemistry in 2012, and is professor in the departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology at Stanford University School of Medicine. Kobilka attends the Catholic Community at Stanford, California. He received the Mendel Medal from Villanova University, which it says "honors outstanding pioneering scientists who have demonstrated, by their lives and their standing before the world as scientists, that there is no intrinsic conflict between science and religion".
+Artem R. Oganov (born 1975): Russian theoretical crystallographer, mineralogist, chemist, physicist, and materials scientist. He is a parishioner of St. Louis Catholic Church in Moscow.
+Jeffrey Reimer: American chemist who is Chair of the Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Department at University of California, Berkeley. He has authored over 250 publications, has been cited over 14,000 times, and has a Google Scholar H-index of 63. His research is primarily focused to generate new knowledge to deliver environmental protection, sustainability, and fundamental insights via materials chemistry, physics, and engineering.
+Henry F. Schaefer, III (born 1944): American computational and theoretical chemist, and one of the most highly cited scientists in the world with a Thomson Reuters H-Index of 116. He is the Graham Perdue Professor of Chemistry and director of the Center for Computational Chemistry at the University of Georgia.
+James Tour: American chemist who is currently the Chao Professor at Rice University
+Troy Van Voorhis: American chemist who is currently the Haslam and Dewey Professor of Chemistry and chair of the Department of Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

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+An aerial of the center is shown. In addition she is a co-discoverer of 114P/Wiseman-Skiff. In religion is a Fellow of the American Scientific Affiliation and on June 16, 2010, became the new director for the American Association for the Advancement of Science's Dialogue on Science, Ethics, and Religion. Antonino Zichichi (born 1929): Italian nuclear physicist and former president of the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare. He has worked with the Vatican on relations between the Church and Science.

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+
+=== Earth sciences ===
+Katey Walter Anthony (born 1976): American aquatic ecologist and biogeochemist researching carbon and nutrient cycling between terrestrial and aquatic systems, and the cryosphere and atmosphere. She is a professor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks.
+Lorence G. Collins (born 1931): American petrologist, best known for his extensive research on metasomatism. He is known for his opposition to creationism and has written several articles presenting his Christian philosophy.
+Katharine Hayhoe (born 1972): atmospheric scientist and professor of political science at Texas Tech University, where she is director of the Climate Science Center.
+Mike Hulme (born 1960): professor of human geography in the department of geography at the University of Cambridge. He was formerly professor of Climate and Culture at King's College London (2013–2017) and is the author of Why We Disagree About Climate Change. He has said of his Christian faith, "I believe because I have not discovered a better explanation of beauty, truth and love than that they emerge in a world created – willed into being – by a God who personifies beauty, truth and love."
+John Suppe (born 1942): professor of geology at National Taiwan University, Geosciences Emeritus at Princeton University. He has written articles like "Thoughts on the Epistemology of Christianity in Light of Science."
+Robert (Bob) White: British geophysicist and Professor of Geophysics in the Earth Sciences department at the University of Cambridge. He is director of the Faraday Institute for Science and Religion.
+Dawn Wright (born 1961): American geographer and oceanographer, professor at Oregon State University, and Chief Scientist of the Environmental Systems Research Institute. She is a leading authority in the application of geographic information system (GIS) technology to the field of ocean and coastal science.
+
+=== Engineering ===
+Audrey Ellerbee Bowden: American engineer and Dorothy J. Wingfield Phillips Chancellor's Faculty Fellow at Vanderbilt University, as well as an associate professor of biomedical engineering and electrical engineering. Her research in biomedical optics focuses on developing new imaging techniques and devices for optical coherence tomography and for applications in medical diagnostics, cancer therapy, and low-cost point-of-care technologies.
+Jennifer Sinclair Curtis (born 1960): American engineer and the Dean of the University of California, Davis' College of Engineering from 2013 until 2020. She is credited with models of particulate flow that have been adopted extensively in commercial and open-source computational fluid dynamics software code.
+John Dabiri (born 1980): Nigerian-American bioengineer and the Centennial Chair Professor at the California Institute of Technology, with appointments in the Graduate Aerospace Laboratories (GALCIT) and Mechanical Engineering. He is a MacArthur Fellow and one of Popular Science magazine's "Brilliant 10" scientists in 2008.
+Steve Furber (born 1953): British computer scientist, mathematician and hardware engineer, currently the ICL Professor of Computer Engineering in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Manchester. He leads research into asynchronous systems, low-power electronics and neural engineering, where the Spiking Neural Network Architecture (SpiNNaker) project is delivering a computer incorporating a million ARM processors optimised for computational neuroscience.
+Pat Gelsinger (born 1962): American computer engineer, architect, and CEO of Intel Corporation and former CEO of VMware. He was the architect and design manager on the Intel 80486 which provided the processing power needed for the personal computer revolution through the 1980s into the 1990s, and also served as the company's Chief technology officer.
+Jeremy Gibbons: British computer scientist and professor of computing at the University of Oxford. He serves as deputy director of the Software Engineering Programme in the Department of Computer Science, Governing Body Fellow at Kellogg College and Pro-Proctor of the University of Oxford.
+Donald Knuth (born 1938): American computer scientist, mathematician, and professor emeritus at Stanford University. He is the author of the multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming and 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (1991), ISBN 0-89579-252-4.
+Michael C. McFarland (born 1948): American computer scientist and president of the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts
+Jelani Nelson (born 1984): American computer scientist and Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of California, Berkeley. He won the 2014 Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers. He specializes in sketching and streaming algorithms.
+Rosalind Picard (born 1962): professor of Media Arts and Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, director and also the founder of the Affective Computing Research Group at the MIT Media Lab, co-director of the Things That Think Consortium, and chief scientist and co-founder of Affectiva. Picard says that she was raised an atheist, but converted to Christianity as a young adult.
+Peter Robinson (computer scientist) (born 1952): British computer scientist who is Professor of Computer Technology at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in England, where he works in the Rainbow Group on computer graphics and interaction.
+Lionel Tarassenko: holder of the chair in electrical engineering at the University of Oxford since 1997, and is most noted for his work on the applications of neural networks. He led the development of the Sharp LogiCook, the first microwave oven to incorporate neural networks.
+James Tour (born 1959): professor of nanotechnology and materials at Rice University, Texas; recognized as one of the world's leading nano-engineers.
+George Varghese (born 1960): currently the chancellor's professor in the department of computer science at UCLA and former principal researcher at Microsoft Research.
+Larry Wall (born September 27, 1954): creator of Perl, a programming language.
+Ian H. White (born 1959): British engineer who is the van Eck Professor of Engineering at the University of Cambridge, as well as Vice-Chancellor for the University of Bath. Highlights of his research have included: the development of the first all-optical laser diode flip-flop, the first negative chirp electroabsorption modulator and the invention of a technique for transmitting radio frequency signals over long distances of multimode optical fibre.

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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+
+=== Others ===
+Justin L. Barrett (born 1971): American experimental psychologist and director of the Thrive Center for Human Development and Professor of Psychology at Fuller Graduate School of Psychology after being a researcher at the University of Oxford, Barrett is a cognitive scientist specializing in the cognitive science of religion. He has published "Cognitive Science, Religion, and Theology" (Templeton Press, 2011). Barrett has been described by the New York Times as "an observant Christian who believes in 'an all-knowing, all-powerful, perfectly good God who brought the universe into being,' as he wrote in an e-mail message. 'I believe that the purpose for people is to love God and love each other.'"
+David A. Booth (born 1938): British applied psychologist whose research and teaching centre on the processes in the mind that situate actions and reactions by people, members of other species, and socially intelligent engineered systems. He is an honorary professor in the School of Psychology at the University of Sussex.
+John Lennox (born 1943): Northern Irish mathematician (Emeritus Professor of Mathematics at the University of Oxford), bioethicist, and Christian apologist. He has written many books on religion, ethics, the relationship between science and God.
+Robert A. Emmons (born 1958): American psychologist who is regarded as the world's leading scientific expert on gratitude. He is a professor of psychology at UC Davis and the editor-in-chief of The Journal of Positive Psychology.
+Nancy E. Hill: American developmental psychologist and the Charles Bigelow Professor of Education at Harvard University. Hill is an expert on the impact of parental involvement in adolescent development, cultural influences on minority youth development, and academic discourse socialization, defined as parents' academic beliefs, expectations, and behaviors that foster their children's academic and career goals.
+William B. Hurlbut: bioethicist and consulting professor in the Department of Neurobiology at the Stanford University Medical Center. He served for eight years on the President's Council on Bioethics and is nationally known for his advocacy of Altered Nuclear Transfer (ANT). He is a Christian of no denomination and did three years of post-doctoral study in theology and medical ethics at Stanford.
+Denis Lamoureux (born 1954): evolutionary creationist. He holds a professorial chair of science and religion at St. Joseph's College at the University of Alberta—the first of its kind in Canada. Co-wrote (with Phillip E. Johnson) Darwinism Defeated? The Johnson-Lamoureux Debate on Biological Origins (1999). Wrote Evolutionary Creation: A Christian Approach to Evolution (2008).
+Alister McGrath (born 1953): prolific Anglican theologian who has written on the relationship between science and theology in A Scientific Theology. McGrath holds two doctorates from the University of Oxford, a DPhil in Molecular Biophysics and a Doctor of Divinity in Theology. He has responded to the new atheists in several books, i.e. The Dawkins Delusion?  He is the Andreas Idreos Professor of Science and Religion at Oxford.
+David Myers (academic) (born 1942): American psychologist and Professor of Psychology at Hope College. He is the author of several books, including popular textbooks entitled Psychology, Exploring Psychology, Social Psychology and general-audience books dealing with issues related to Christian faith as well as scientific psychology.
+Bienvenido Nebres (born 1940): Filipino mathematician, president of Ateneo de Manila University, and an honoree of the National Scientist of the Philippines award
+Andrew Pinsent (born 1966): Catholic priest, is the Research Director of the Ian Ramsey Centre for Science and Religion at the University of Oxford.
+Michael Reiss (born 1960): British bioethicist, science educator, and an Anglican priest. He was director of education at the Royal Society from 2006 to 2008. Reiss has campaigned for the teaching of evolution, and is Professor of Science Education at the Institute of Education, University of London, where he is Pro-Director of Research and Development.
+Gerard Verschuuren (born 1946): human biologist, writer, speaker, and philosopher of science, working at the interface of science, philosophy, and religion.
+Robert J. Wicks (born 1946): clinical psychologist who has written on the intersections of spirituality and psychology. Wicks currently teaches at Loyola University Maryland and has taught at universities and professional schools of psychology, medicine, nursing, theology, and social work. In 1996, he was a recipient of The Holy Cross Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice, the highest medal that can be awarded to the laity by the Papacy for distinguished service to the Roman Catholic Church.
+J. Mark G. Williams (born 1952): British clinical psychologist who is emeritus Professor of Clinical Psychology and Honorary Senior Research Fellow at the University of Oxford. His research is concerned with psychological models and treatment of depression and suicidal behaviour. He is one of the developers of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, and is an ordained priest in the Church of England.
+
+== See also ==
+Christianity and science
+American Scientific Affiliation
+Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences
+Catholic Church and science
+Christians in Science
+Issues in Science and Religion
+List of lay Catholic scientists
+List of Christian Nobel laureates
+Lists of Christians
+List of Jesuit scientists
+List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists
+List of science and religion scholars
+Quakers in science
+Society of Ordained Scientists
+Veritas Forum
+Victoria Institute
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Christians in Science website
+Cambridge Christians in Science (CiS) group Archived 2019-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
+Ian Ramsey Centre, Oxford
+The Society of Ordained Scientists-Mostly Church of England
+American Scientific Affiliation (ASA)
+Canadian Scientific and Christian Affiliation (CSCA)
+The Institute for the Study of Christianity in an Age of Science and Technology (ISCAST) – Australia
+The International Society for Science & Religion's founding members.(Of various faiths including Christianity)
+Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences
+Secular Humanism.org article on Science and Religion Archived 2010-06-19 at the Wayback Machine

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+John Hall Gladstone (1827–1902): served as president of the Physical Society between 1874 and 1876 and during 1877–1879 was president of the Chemical Society. He also belonged to the Christian Evidence Society. George Stokes (1819–1903): minister's son, he wrote a book on Natural Theology. He was also one of the Presidents of the Royal Society and made contributions to Fluid dynamics. Henry Baker Tristram (1822–1906): founding member of the British Ornithologists' Union. His publications included The Natural History of the Bible (1867) and The Fauna and Flora of Palestine (1884). Enoch Fitch Burr (1818–1907): astronomer and Congregational Church pastor who lectured extensively on the relationship between science and religion. He also wrote Ecce Coelum: or Parish Astronomy in 1867. He once stated that "an undevout astronomer is mad" and held a strong belief in extraterrestrial life. Lord Kelvin (1824–1907): At the University of Glasgow he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second laws of thermodynamics. He gave a famous address to the Christian Evidence Society. In science he won the Copley Medal and the Royal Medal. William Dallinger (1839–1909): British minister in the Wesleyan Methodist Church and an accomplished scientist who studied the complete lifecycle of unicellular organisms under the microscope. Emil Theodor Kocher (1841–1917): Swiss physician and medical researcher who received the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work in the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid. Kocher was a deeply religious man and also part of the Moravian Church, Kocher attributed all his successes and failures to God. John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919): English mathematician and physicist, author of several theories and discoveries in the fields of electrodynamics, fluid dynamics and optics, including Rayleigh scattering which explains why sky is blue. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1904. He belonged to Anglican denomination. Georg Cantor (1845–1918): German mathematician who created the theory of transfinite numbers and set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. He was a devout Lutheran whose explicit Christian beliefs shaped his philosophy of science. Joseph Dauben has traced the impact Cantor's Christian convictions had on the development of transfinite set theory. Leonardo Torres Quevedo (1852–1936): Spanish civil engineer, mathematician and inventor, known for his numerous engineering innovations, including aerial trams, airships, catamarans, and remote control. He was also a pioneer in the field of computing and robotics. Torres was a devout Catholic who usually read the catechism and take communion every First Friday of the month. J. J. Thomson (1856–1940): English physicist and Nobel Laureate in Physics, credited with the discovery and identification of the electron; and with the discovery of the first subatomic particle. He was an Anglican. Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923): German engineer and physicist, who, on 8 November 1895, produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range known as X-rays or Röntgen rays, an achievement that earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901
+Giuseppe Mercalli (1850–1914): Italian volcanologist and Catholic priest. He is best remembered for the Mercalli intensity scale for measuring earthquakes. Pierre Duhem (1861–1916): worked on Thermodynamic potentials and wrote histories advocating that the Roman Catholic Church helped advance science. James Britten (1846–1924): botanist who was heavily involved in the Catholic Truth Society. Charles Doolittle Walcott (1850–1927): paleontologist, most notable for his discovery of the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Stephen Jay Gould said that Walcott, "discoverer of the Burgess Shale fossils, was a convinced Darwinian and an equally firm Christian, who believed that God had ordained natural selection to construct a history of life according to His plans and purposes."
+Johannes Reinke (1849–1931): German phycologist and naturalist who founded the German Botanical Society. An opposer of Darwinism and the secularization of science, he wrote Kritik der Abstammungslehre (Critique of the theory of evolution), (1920), and Naturwissenschaft, Weltanschauung, Religion (Science, philosophy, religion), (1923). He was a Lutheran. Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937): Italian inventor and electrical engineer known for his pioneering work on long-distance radio transmission and for his development of Marconi's law and a radio telegraph system. He shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955): French Jesuit paleontologist, co-discoverer of the Peking Man, noted for his work on evolutionary theory and Christianity. He postulated the Omega Point as the end-goal of Evolution and he is widely regarded as one of the most important Catholic theologians of the 20th century. William Williams Keen (1837–1932): first brain surgeon in the United States, and a prominent surgical pathologist who served as president of the American Medical Association. He also wrote I believe in God and in evolution. Francis Patrick Garvan (1875–1937): Priestley Medalist who received a "Mendel Medal" from Villanova University, was mentioned by Catholic Action as a "prominent Catholic layman", and was involved with the Catholic University of America. Pavel Florensky (1882–1937): Russian Orthodox priest who wrote a book on Dielectrics and wrote of imaginary numbers having a relationship to the Kingdom of God. Alfred Young (1873–1940): British mathematician known for his work in group theory and invariant theory. He was an ordained clergyman and parish priest. Eberhard Dennert (1861–1942): German naturalist and botanist who founded in 1907 the Kepler Association, a group of German intellectuals who strongly opposed Ernst Haeckel's Monist League and Darwin's theory. A Lutheran, he wrote Vom Sterbelager des Darwinismus, which had an authorized English translation under the name At The Deathbed of Darwinism (1904). George Washington Carver (1864–1943): American scientist, botanist, educator, and inventor. Carver believed he could have faith both in God and science and integrated them into his life. He testified on many occasions that his faith in Jesus was the only mechanism by which he could effectively pursue and perform the art of science. Arthur Eddington (1882–1944): British astrophysicist of the early 20th century. He was also a philosopher of science and a popularizer of science. The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honor. He is famous for his work regarding the theory of relativity. Eddington was a lifelong Quaker, and gave the Gifford Lectures in 1927. Alexis Carrel (1873–1944): French surgeon and biologist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques. Charles Glover Barkla (1877–1944): British physicist, and the winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1917 for his work in X-ray spectroscopy and related areas in the study of X-rays (Roentgen rays). Barkla was a Methodist and considered his work to be part of the quest for God, the Creator". John Ambrose Fleming (1849–1945): noted for the Right-hand rule and work on vacuum tubes. He also won the Hughes Medal. In religious activities he was president of the Victoria Institute, and preached at St Martin-in-the-Fields. Philipp Lenard (1862–1947): German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties. He was also an active proponent of the Nazi ideology.

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+---
+
+Ernest Walton (1903–1995): Irish physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1951 for his work with John Cockcroft with "atom-smashing" experiments done at Cambridge University in the early 1930s, and so became the first person in history to artificially split the atom, thus ushering the nuclear age. He spoke on science and faith topics. Nevill Francis Mott (1905–1996): Anglican, was a Nobel Prize-winning physicist known for explaining the effect of light on a photographic emulsion. He was baptized at 80 and edited Can Scientists Believe?. Mary Celine Fasenmyer (1906–1996): member of the Sisters of Mercy known for Sister Celine's polynomials. Her work was also important to WZ Theory. Antoinette Rodez Schiesler (1934–1996): American chemist and Director of Research at Villanova University. A former nun, she was ordained as an Episcopal deacon and served as associate to the dean at the Cathedral of St. John in Wilmington, Delaware, until her death. She also served on the executive board of the Episcopal Women's Caucus and on the executive council of the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware. John Eccles (1903–1997): Australian neuropsychologist who won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his work on synapse. Arthur Leonard Schawlow (1921–1999): American physicist who is best remembered for his work on lasers, for which he shared the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physics. Shawlow was a "fairly Orthodox Protestant." In an interview, he commented regarding God: "I find a need for God in the universe and in my own life."
+Carlos Chagas Filho (1910–2000): neuroscientist who headed the Pontifical Academy of Sciences for 16 years. He studied the Shroud of Turin and his "the Origin of the Universe", "the Origin of Life", and "the Origin of Man" involved an understanding between Catholicism and Science. He was from Rio de Janeiro.

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+---
+title: "List of Christians in science and technology"
+chunk: 8/17
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:01.455026+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== 21st century (2001–2100) ==
+Sir Robert Boyd (1922–2004): pioneer in British space science who was vice president of the Royal Astronomical Society. He lectured on faith being a founder of the "Research Scientists' Christian Fellowship" and an important member of its predecessor Christians in Science. Richard Smalley (1943–2005): Nobel laureate in Chemistry known for buckyballs. In his last years he renewed an interest in Christianity and supported Old Earth Creationism
+Mariano Artigas (1938–2006): had doctorates in both physics and philosophy. He belonged to the European Association for the Study of Science and Theology and also received a grant from the Templeton Foundation for his work in the area of science and religion. J. Laurence Kulp (1921–2006): Plymouth Brethren member who led major studies on the effects of nuclear fallout and acid rain. He was a prominent advocate in American Scientific Affiliation circles in favor of an Old Earth and against flood geology. Arthur Peacocke (1924–2006): Anglican priest and biochemist, his ideas may have influenced Anglican and Lutheran views of evolution. Winner of the 2001 Templeton Prize
+John Billings (1918–2007): Australian physician who developed the Billings ovulation method of Natural family planning. In 1969, Billings was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great (KCSG) by Pope Paul VI. Russell L. Mixter (1906–2007): noted for leading the American Scientific Affiliation (ASA) away from anti-evolutionism, and for his advocacy of progressive creationism. C. F. von Weizsäcker (1912–2007): German nuclear physicist who is the co-discoverer of the Bethe–Weizsäcker formula. His The Relevance of Science: Creation and Cosmogony concerned Christian and moral impacts of science. He headed the Max Planck Society from 1970 to 1980. After that he retired to be a Christian pacifist. Peter E. Hodgson (1928–2008): British physicist, was one of the first to identify the K meson and its decay into three pions, and a consultant to the Pontifical Council for Culture. Stanley Jaki (1924–2009): Benedictine priest and Distinguished Professor of Physics at Seton Hall University, New Jersey, who won a Templeton Prize and advocated the idea modern science could only have arisen in a Christian society. Norman Borlaug (1914–2009): American agricultural scientist and winner of the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize. Nicola Cabibbo (1935–2010): Italian physicist, discoverer of the universality of weak interactions (Cabibbo angle), president of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences from 1993 until his death. Allan Sandage (1926–2010): astronomer who did not really study Christianity until after age forty. He wrote the article A Scientist Reflects on Religious Belief and made discoveries concerning the Cigar Galaxy. Ernan McMullin (1924–2011): ordained in 1949 as a catholic priest, McMullin was a philosopher of science who taught at the University of Notre Dame. McMullin wrote on the relationship between cosmology and theology, the role of values in understanding science, and the impact of science on Western religious thought, in books such as Newton on Matter and Activity (1978) and The Inference that Makes Science (1992). He was also an expert on the life of Galileo. McMullin also opposed intelligent design and defended theistic evolution. Edmund Kornfeld (1919–2012): American biochemist who discovered the antibiotic medication vancomycin. Joseph Murray (1919–2012): Catholic surgeon who pioneered transplant surgery. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1990. Ian Barbour (1923–2013): physicist who wrote Christianity and the Scientists in 1960, and When Science Meets Religion ISBN 0-06-060381-X in 2000. Walter Thirring (1927–2014): Austrian physicist after whom the Thirring model in quantum field theory is named. He is the son of the physicist Hans Thirring, co-discoverer of the Lense-Thirring frame dragging effect in general relativity. He also wrote Cosmic Impressions: Traces of God in the Laws of Nature. Edward Nelson (1932–2014): American mathematician known for his work on mathematical physics and mathematical logic. In mathematical logic, he was noted especially for his internal set theory, and views on ultrafinitism and the consistency of arithmetic. He also wrote on the relationship between religion and mathematics. Charles H. Townes (1915–2015): in 1964 he won the Nobel Prize in Physics and in 1966 he wrote The Convergence of Science and Religion. Rod Davies (1930–2015): professor of radio astronomy at the University of Manchester. He was the president of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1987–1989, and director of the Jodrell Bank Observatory in 1988–97. He is best known for his research on the cosmic microwave background and the 21 cm line. R. J. Berry (1934–2018): former president of both the Linnean Society of London and the "Christians in Science" group. He wrote God and the Biologist: Personal Exploration of Science and Faith (Apollos 1996) ISBN 0-85111-446-6 He taught at University College London for over 20 years. Peter Grünberg (1939–2018): German physicist; Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his discovery with Albert Fert of giant magnetoresistance which brought about a breakthrough in gigabyte hard disk drives
+Martin Bott (1926–2018): British geologist and now emeritus professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Durham, England. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1976 and was the 1992 recipient of the Wollaston Medal from the Geological Society of America. Richard H. Bube (1927–2018): emeritus professor of the material sciences at Stanford University. He was a prominent member of the American Scientific Affiliation. Derek Burke (1930–2019): British academic and molecular biologist. Formerly a vice-chancellor of the University of East Anglia. Specialist advisor to the House of Commons Select Committee on Science and Technology since 1985. George Coyne (1933–2020): Jesuit astronomer and former director of the Vatican Observatory. Katherine Johnson (1918–2020): space scientist, physicist, and mathematician whose calculations of orbital mechanics as a NASA employee were critical to the success of the first and subsequent U.S. crewed spaceflights. She was portrayed as a lead character in the film Hidden Figures. Freeman Dyson (1923–2020): English-born American theoretical physicist and mathematician, known for his work in quantum electrodynamics, solid-state physics, astronomy and nuclear engineering. John T. Houghton (1931–2020): British atmospheric physicist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) scientific assessment working group. He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford and former director general at the Met Office. John D. Barrow (1952–2020): English cosmologist based at the University of Cambridge who did notable writing on the implications of the Anthropic principle. He is a United Reformed Church member and won the Templeton Prize in 2006. He once held the position of Gresham Professor of Astronomy as well as Gresham Professor of Geometry. Henri Fontaine (1924–2020): French Roman Catholic missionary, pre-Tertiary geologist/paleontologist, Paleozoic corals specialist, and archaeologist. John Polkinghorne (1930–2021): British particle physicist and Anglican priest who wrote Science and the Trinity (2004) ISBN 0-300-10445-6. He was professor of mathematical physics at the University of Cambridge prior to becoming a priest. Winner of the 2002 Templeton Prize. Antony Hewish (1924–2021): British radio astronomer who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974 (together with Martin Ryle) for his work on the development of radio aperture synthesis and its role in the discovery of pulsars. He was also awarded the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1969. Hewish was a Christian.

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+---
+title: "List of Christians in science and technology"
+chunk: 9/17
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:01.455026+00:00"
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+---
+
+Hewish also wrote in his introduction to John Polkinghorne's 2009 Questions of Truth, "The ghostly presence of virtual particles defies rational common sense and is non-intuitive for those unacquainted with physics. Religious belief in God, and Christian belief ... may seem strange to common-sense thinking. But when the most elementary physical things behave in this way, we should be prepared to accept that the deepest aspects of our existence go beyond our common-sense understanding."
+Paul Farmer (1959–2022): American medical anthropologist, physician and proponent of liberation theology. He was co-founder of Partners In Health, the Kolokotrones University Professor at Harvard University and Chief of the Division of Global Health Equity at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. Lindon Eaves (1944–2022): British behavioral geneticist who published on topics as diverse as the heritability of religion and psychopathology. In 1996, he and Kenneth Kendler founded the Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics at Virginia Commonwealth University, where he was professor emeritus and engaged in research and training. Andrew Wyllie (1944–2022): Scottish pathologist who discovered the significance of natural cell death, later naming the process apoptosis. Prior to retirement, he was head of the Department of Pathology at the University of Cambridge. Russell Stannard (1931–2022): British particle physicist who has written several books on the relationship between religion and science, such as Science and the Renewal of Belief, Grounds for Reasonable Belief and Doing It With God?. Raymond Vahan Damadian (1936–2022): young-earth creationist, medical practitioner and inventor who created the MRI (Magnetic Resonance Scanning Machine). Tom McLeish (1962–2023): theoretical physicist whose work is renowned for increasing our understanding of the properties of soft matter. He was professor in the Durham University Department of Physics and director of the Durham Centre for Soft Matter. He is now the first chair of natural philosophy at the University of York. John White (chemist) (1937–2023): Australian chemist who was Professor of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Research School of Chemistry, at the Australian National University. He was a past president, Royal Australian Chemical Institute and president of Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering. John B. Goodenough (1922–2023): American materials scientist, a solid-state physicist, and a Nobel Prize winner in chemistry. He was a professor of mechanical engineering and materials science at the University of Texas at Austin. He is widely credited with the identification and development of the lithium-ion battery. Fred Brooks (1931–2022): American computer architect, software engineer, and computer scientist, best known for managing the development of IBM's System/360 family of computers and the OS/360 software support package, then later writing candidly about the process in his seminal book The Mythical Man-Month. Brooks has received many awards, including the National Medal of Technology in 1985 and the Turing Award in 1999. Brooks was an evangelical Christian who was active with InterVarsity Christian Fellowship and chaired the executive committee for the Central Carolina Billy Graham Crusade in 1973. Owen Gingerich (1930–2023): Mennonite astronomer who went to Goshen College and Harvard. He was professor emeritus of Astronomy and of the History of Science at Harvard University and Senior Astronomer Emeritus at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Gingerich wrote about people of faith in science history. Charles W. Misner (1932–2023): American physicist and one of the authors of Gravitation. His work provided early foundations for studies of quantum gravity and numerical relativity. He was professor emeritus of Physics at the University of Maryland. Frank Haig (1928–2024): American physics professor
+Wolfgang Smith (1930–2024): mathematician, physicist, philosopher of science, metaphysician, Roman Catholic and member of the Traditionalist School. He wrote extensively in the field of differential geometry, as a critic of scientism and as a proponent of a new interpretation of quantum mechanics that draws heavily from medieval ontology and realism.
+
+== Currently living ==

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+---
+title: "List of Christians in science and technology"
+chunk: 10/17
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:31:01.455026+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Biological and biomedical sciences ===
+Nii Addy: American neuroscientist who is an associate professor of Psychiatry and of Cellular and Molecular Physiology at the Yale School of Medicine. His research considers the neurobiological basis of substance abuse, depression and anxiety. He has worked on various initiatives to mitigate tobacco use and addiction. Denis Alexander (born 1945): Emeritus Director of the Faraday Institute at the University of Cambridge and author of Rebuilding the Matrix – Science and Faith in the 21st Century. He also supervised a research group in cancer and immunology at the Babraham Institute. Werner Arber (born 1929): Swiss microbiologist and geneticist. Along with American researchers Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans, he shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of restriction endonucleases. In 2011, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Arber as president of the Pontifical Academy—the first Protestant to hold that position. Robert T. Bakker (born 1945): paleontologist who was a leading figure in the "dinosaur renaissance" and known for the theory some dinosaurs were warm-blooded. He is also a Pentecostal preacher who advocates theistic evolution and has written on religion. Dan Blazer (born 1944): American psychiatrist and medical researcher who is Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the Duke University School of Medicine. He is known for researching the epidemiology of depression, substance use disorders, and the occurrence of suicide among the elderly. He has also researched the differences in the rate of substance use disorders among races. William Cecil Campbell (born 1930): Irish-American biologist and parasitologist known for his work in discovering a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworms, for which he was jointly awarded the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
+Graeme Clark (born 1935): Australian biomedical engineer who is Professor of Otolaryngology at the University of Melbourne and the founder of the Bionics Institute. He is well known for being the inventor of the multiple-channel cochlear implant. Francis Collins (born 1950): director of the National Institutes of Health and former director of the US National Human Genome Research Institute. He has also written on religious matters in articles and the book The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief. Kizzmekia Corbett (born 1986): American viral immunologist and the Shutzer Assistant Professor at the Harvard Radcliffe Institute and assistant professor of immunology and infectious diseases at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. She has been a leading figure in the development of the Moderna mRNA vaccine and the Eli Lilly therapeutic monoclonal antibody that were first to enter clinical trials in the U.S. Peter Dodson (born 1946): American paleontologist who has published many papers and written and collaborated on books about dinosaurs. An authority on Ceratopsians, he has also authored several papers and textbooks on hadrosaurs and sauropods, and is a co-editor of The Dinosauria. He is a professor of Vertebrate Paleontology and of Veterinary Anatomy at the University of Pennsylvania. Georgia M. Dunston (born 1944): American professor of human immunogenetics and founding director of the National Human Genome Center at Howard University. She was one of the first researchers to join the Visiting Investigator's Program (VIP) in the National Human Genome Research Institute where she collaborated with Francis Collins, publishing work on the genetics of type 2 diabetes in West Africa. Darrel R. Falk (born 1946): American biologist and the former president of the BioLogos Foundation. Rebecca Fitzgerald (born 1968): British medical researcher whose work focuses on the early detection and treatment of esophageal cancers. She is a tenured professor of Cancer Prevention and Program Leader at the Medical Research Council Cancer Unit of the University of Cambridge. In addition to her professorship, Fitzgerald is currently the Director of Medical Studies for Trinity College, Cambridge. Charles Foster (born 1962): science writer on natural history, evolutionary biology, and theology. A Fellow of Green Templeton College, Oxford, the Royal Geographical Society, and the Linnean Society of London, Foster has advocated theistic evolution in his book, The Selfless Gene (2009). Sherita Hill Golden (born 1968): American physician and the Hugh P. McCormick Family Professor of Endocrinology and Metabolism at Johns Hopkins University. Her research considers biological and systems influences on diabetes and its outcomes. She was elected Fellow of National Academy of Medicine in 2021. Joseph L. Graves Jr. (born 1955): American evolutionary biologist and geneticist. He is a professor of biological science at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University. His current work includes the genomics of adaptation, as well as the response of bacteria to metallic nanoparticles. A particular application of this research has been to the evolutionary theory of aging. He is also interested in the history and philosophy of science as it relates to the biology of race and racism in western society. John Gurdon (born 1933): British developmental biologist. In 2012, he and Shinya Yamanaka were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery that mature cells can be converted to stem cells. In an interview with EWTN.com on the subject of working with the Vatican in dialogue, he says "I'm not a Roman Catholic. I'm a Christian, of the Church of England...I've never seen the Vatican before, so that's a new experience, and I'm grateful for it."
+Brian Heap (born 1935): biologist who was Master of St Edmund's College, University of Cambridge and was a founding member of the International Society for Science and Religion. Malcolm Jeeves (born 1926): British neuropsychologist who is emeritus Professor of Psychology at the University of St. Andrews, and was formerly president of The Royal Society of Edinburgh. He established the department of psychology at University of St. Andrews. Harold G. Koenig (born 1951): professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Duke University and leading researcher on the effects of religion and spirituality on health. He is also a senior fellow in the Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development at Duke. Howard Koh (born 1952): American public health expert, physician, and the Harvey V. Fineberg Professor of the Practice of Public Health Leadership at the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health and the Harvard Kennedy School as well as Faculty Co-chair of the Harvard University Advanced Leadership Initiative. From 2009 to 2014, Dr. Koh was the 14th Assistant Secretary for Health for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Larry Kwak (born 1959): renowned American cancer researcher who works at City of Hope National Medical Center. He was formerly chairman of the Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma and co-director of the Center for Cancer Immunology Research at MD Anderson Hospital. He was included on Time's list of 2010's most influential people. Doug Lauffenburger (born 1953): American bioengineer who is the Ford Professor of Biological Engineering, Chemical Engineering, and Biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is a member of the David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and MIT Center for Gynepathology Research. Egbert Leigh (born 1940): American evolutionary ecologist who spends much of his time studying tropical ecosystems. He is a researcher for the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute and is well known for the work he has done on Barro Colorado Island.