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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet-0.md

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+---
+title: "A. W. Peet"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:11.593062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A. W. Peet (born 1968) is a New Zealand professor of physics at the University of Toronto. Peet's research interests include string theory as a quantum theory of gravity, quantum field theory and applications of string theory to black holes, gauge theories, cosmology, and the correspondence between anti-de Sitter space and conformal field theories (Maldacena duality).
+
+== Early life ==
+
+Peet was born in New Zealand in 1968.  As a child, they did both traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine activities, and never fully conformed to gender stereotypes.
+
+== Career ==
+In 1990, Peet received a Bachelor of Science in physics from the University of Canterbury, and a doctorate in physics from Stanford University in 1994. From 1994 to 1997, they worked as a postdoctoral fellow at Princeton University, and as a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara from 1997 to 2000. Since 2000, they have been teaching and conducting research as an established professor at the University of Toronto. Peet is also an affiliate of the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics.
+
+== Personal life ==
+Peet is non-binary, uses they/them pronouns, and is a New Zealand citizen with a passport using an unspecified gender. Peet chose to come out publicly to support queer youth in STEM fields.
+Peet debated their fellow University of Toronto colleague, clinical psychologist Jordan Peterson, about gender identities, on Canadian public television on several occasions, garnering significant public attention. After the debate, Peet faced online harassment that negatively impacted their mental health.
+Peet is disabled and experiences chronic pain.
+
+My primary disability is chronic neuromuscular pain, affecting my neck, shoulders, back, left arm, and left leg. It originates in accident traumas, primarily a bad skiing accident at the end of the 1990s. Almost twenty years after initial diagnosis in a city full of medical expertise, I know that there is no cure for my pain or treatment available worth the risks, so I have had to learn to adapt to it. This has required significant revision of the scope of my physics career ambitions. [...]I also have experience with three mental health (MH) conditions. I developed (mild) depression and (mild to moderate) anxiety as part of my chronic pain odyssey. Then in my early forties, I developed (moderate) PTSD, from six violent crimes committed against me in my twenties and thirties by seven different perpetrators, one of them a coworker. Nowadays, none of these MH histories tends to significantly disrupt my work over an extended period. But my combined experiences do make me more sensitive to students managing mental health conditions than the average physicist.
+Since Peet's disabilities make them unable to comfortably carry bags and heavy objects using their arms and shoulders, they found alternative ways to use and access their belongings in electronic forms.
+
+Since 2003 I have had to profoundly shift my ways of working in order to adapt to long-term chronic pain disability. For example, I cannot comfortably carry a bag in my arms or on my shoulders, so I had to find alternatives. It took me years to find the right gear to reduce my everyday pain without isolating me from students and colleagues or breaking the budget. I am sharing my adaptation solutions here in the hope that they may help someone else find a quicker, cheaper solution to their own acccessibility [sic] conundrum. I scan all papers and acquire electronic copies of books, so that I can carry my briefcase on a USB stick (currently a 512GB USB3 Patriot Magnum 2). I began doing this routinely years before cloud services like Dropbox became commonplace. I also stripped down the gear I carry every day to a bare minimum, which I can usually fit in my pockets.
+
+== Awards ==
+2003: Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study Fellowship, Harvard University
+2002: Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Research Fellowship
+2002: Ontario Premier's Research Excellence Award
+2000-2006: Canadian Institute for Advanced Research Scholar, Cosmology and Gravity Program

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+title: "A. W. Peet"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:11.593062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+"Dilaton black holes near the horizon". Physical Review D. 46 (12): R5223–R5227. arXiv:hep-th/9209116. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.5223K. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.R5223. PMID 10014959. S2CID 12581419. Peet, AW; Susskind, L; Thorlacius, L (1992). "Information loss and anomalous scattering". Physical Review D. 46 (8): 3435–3443. arXiv:hep-th/9205114. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.3435P. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.3435. PMID 10015288. S2CID 16352761. Kallosh, R; Linde, A; Ortín, T; Peet, AW; Van Proeyen, A (1992). "Supersymmetry as a cosmic censor". Physical Review D. 46 (12): 5278–5302. arXiv:hep-th/9205027. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.5278K. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.5278. PMID 10014916. S2CID 15736500.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Centre for Inquiry Canada (11 July 2010). String Theory for the Scientifically Curious with Dr. A. W. Peet. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022.
+Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics (8 May 2015). A.W. Peet Public Lecture: String Theory Legos for Black Holes. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasabani-0.md

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+---
+title: "Al-Qasabani"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasabani"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:16.024188+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Abu Al-Qasim Al-Fadl bin Mohammed bin Ali bin Al-Fadl Al-Qasabani (Arabic: أبو القاسم الفضل بن محمد بن علي بن الفضل القصباني) (died 444 AH), was a well known Arab philologist and grammarian of the Abbasid Caliphate.
+
+
+== Life ==
+He was born in Basra, in the Bani Haram neighborhood, where he spent his entire life. He was blind, and many students of knowledge studied under him, the most famous of whom were: Al-Hariri, Al-Khatib Al-Tabrizi, and the judge of Basra, Abu Al-Faraj Al-Basri.
+He used to sell reeds, so he was nicknamed Al-Qasabani. He was also a poet. He died during the era of the Caliphate of Al-Qa'im bi-amri 'llah in 444 AH/1052 AD.
+
+
+== Works ==
+Among his works are the following:
+
+Muqadimah fi al-Nahw
+Kitab Al-Amali
+Al-Safwa fi Ashaar Al-Arab w Mukhtareha
+Al-Hawashi ala Al-Idhah
+Al-Hawashi ala Al-Sihah
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of pre-modern Arab scientists and scholars
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edna_Paisano-0.md

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+title: "Edna Paisano"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edna_Paisano"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:10.410913+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Edna Lee Paisano (January 1, 1948 – September 3, 2014) was a Nez Perce and Laguna Pueblo demographer and statistician. She worked to improve the representation of Indigenous communities in the United States census. She advocated for accurate representation of the demography of the United States, arguing that without this minority populations would not receive proportional resources. Paisano put this into practice as the first Native American full time employee of the United States Census Bureau. She has been credited with substantially increasing the accuracy of the American Indian and Alaska Native census category between the 1980 census and the 1990 census.
+
+
+== Early life and education ==
+Paisano was born on the Nez Perce Reservation in Sweetwater, Idaho on January 1, 1948. She was one of four children, including an older sister who died in early adulthood. Her mother was active in education efforts on the Reservation, and when Edna Paisano was a child, her mother was awarded the Leo Reano Memorial Award from the National Educational Association for that work.
+Paisano attended school in Lapwai, Idaho, and spent two years at Boise College. She then switched to the University of Washington. Paisano spent most of her junior year in hospital with rheumatoid arthritis. She graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1971. She obtained a master's degree at the University of Washington in social work in 1973, and as part of her graduate work she studied statistics. Paisano had loved mathematics since childhood.
+
+
+== Student activism ==
+
+During her time at the University of Washington, she worked as part of a successful effort to found an American Indian cultural center in Fort Lawton.
+Fort Lawton had not been ceded to the United States government, and when the military base was downsized, a movement of Seattle Indians sought to acquire land in accordance with treaty provisions. During their occupation of the land in 1970, dozens were arrested and briefly imprisoned, including Paisano. The building of the Daybreak Star Cultural Center was completed in 1977.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Paisano's first job in the federal government was working on the federal Head Start program, with Indian tribes nationally. In June 1976, Paisano moved to the United States Census Bureau, becoming the first Native American to work there fulltime. She worked in particular on issues related to the American Indian and Alaska Native census category. There Paisano studied why Native American communities were being dramatically under-counted in the United States census, which caused them to receive disproportionately few government resources and services. Upon arriving at the census bureau, she described realizing "how important it is for American Indians to know demography, computer programming and statistics: first, because there are very few American Indians in these fields; and second, because, the government is always trying to assess things".
+In her work at the Census Bureau, Paisano identified a systematic undercount of regions where there were very large proportions of Native Americans. She attempted to rectify the imbalance using her training in statistics and computer programming, combined with extensive liaison with communities, and a large public information campaign aimed at increasing the number of Native Americans who filled out the census. In particular, she developed a questionnaire to estimate the number of Native Americans who may not have been counted in the 1980 census, and she used her training in statistics to suggest improvements to how the US census attempted to count Native communities. Her efforts led to more accurate counts of Native Americans in the United States Census, which was one of the factors likely to have contributed to an increase in the number of people counted in the American Indian and Alaska Native category in the 1990 census compared to the 1980 census.
+In addition to her work with the Racial Statistics Branch in the Population Division of the Census Bureau, Paisano also participated in the Interagency Task Force on American Indian Women. After 20 years at the Census Bureau, Paisano took a job with the Environmental Protection Agency. After a year, she began serving as principal statistician of the Indian Health Service within the Department of Health and Human Services.
+Paisano retired from the federal government in 2011 and returned to Sweetwater. She died on September 3, 2014, in Lewiston, Idaho.
+
+
+== Selected awards ==
+Bronze Medal Award for Superior Federal Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1987
+Department of Commerce Silver Medal, 1994
+Distinguished Alumnus Award, University of Washington, 2003
+
+
+== Selected works ==
+We the First Americans, US Census Bureau report, 1993
+We the Americans: Pacific Islanders, US Census Bureau report, 1993
+We the American-Asians, US Census Bureau report, 1993
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-0.md

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+title: "Eugen Relgis"
+chunk: 1/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis"
+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:21.362889+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Eugen D. Relgis (backward reading of Eisig D. Sigler; first name also Eugenio, Eugène or Eugene, last name also Siegler or Siegler Watchel; 22 March 1895 – 24 May 1987) was a Romanian writer, pacifist philosopher and anarchist militant, known as a theorist of humanitarianism. His internationalist dogma, with distinct echoes from Judaism and Jewish ethics, was first shaped during World War I, when Relgis was a conscientious objector. Infused with anarcho-pacifism and socialism, it provided Relgis with an international profile, and earned him the support of pacifists such as Romain Rolland, Stefan Zweig and Albert Einstein. Another, more controversial, aspect of Relgis' philosophy was his support for eugenics, which centered on the compulsory sterilization of "degenerates". The latter proposal was voiced by several of Relgis' essays and sociological tracts.
+After an early debut with Romania's Symbolist movement, Relgis promoted modernist literature and the poetry of Tudor Arghezi, signing his name to a succession of literary and political magazines. His work in fiction and poetry alternates the extremes of Expressionism and didactic art, giving artistic representation to his activism, his pacifist vision, or his struggle with a hearing impairment. He was a member of several modernist circles, formed around Romanian magazines such as Sburătorul, Contimporanul or Șantier, but also close to the more mainstream journal Viața Românească. His political and literary choices made Relgis an enemy of both fascism and communism: persecuted during World War II, he eventually took refuge in Uruguay. From 1947 to the moment of his death, Relgis earned the respect of South American circles as an anarchist commentator and proponent of solutions to world peace, as well as a promoter of Latin American culture.
+
+== Biography ==
+
+=== Early life and literary debut ===
+The future Eugen Relgis was a native of Moldavia region, belonging to the local Jewish community. His father, David Sigler, professed Judaism, and descended from tanners settled in Neamț County. Eisig had two sisters, Adelina Derevici and Eugenia Soru, both of whom had careers in biochemistry. Born in either Iași or Piatra Neamț, Eisig was educated in Piatra Neamț, where he became friends with the family of novelist and Zionist leader A. L. Zissu. It was in Zissu's circle that Relgis probably first met his mentor, the Romanian modernist author Tudor Arghezi; at the time, Arghezi was married to Constanța Zissu, mother of his photographer son Eli Lotar. The young writer later noted that he and Zissu were both touched by the wild landscape of the Ceahlău Massif and Piatra's shtetl atmosphere. In another one of his texts, Relgis recalled having been influenced in childhood by selective readings from the Romanian Jewish scholar Moses Schwarzfeld and his Anuarul pentru Israeliți journal (he told that, during later years, he had collected the entire Anuarul collection).
+Taking his first steps in literary life, Eisig Sigler adopted his new name through forms of wordplay which enjoyed some popularity among pseudonymous Jewish writers (the case of Paul Celan, born Ancel). He was from early on a promoter of Symbolist and modernist literature, a cause into which he blended his left-wing perspective and calls for Jewish emancipation. Writing in 2007, literary historian Paul Cernat suggested that Relgis, like fellow humanitarian and Jewish intellectual Isac Ludo, had a "not at all negligible" part to play in the early diffusion of Romanian modernism. Relgis' main contribution in the 1910s was the Symbolist tribune Fronda ("The Fronde"), the three consecutive issues of which he edited, in Iași, between April and June 1912.
+Like Ludo's review Absolutio (which saw print two years later), Fronda stood for the radical branch of the Romanian Symbolist movement in Iași, in contrast to both the left-leaning but traditionalist magazine Viața Românească and the more conventional Symbolism of Versuri și Proză journal. Its editorial board, Relgis included, went anonymous, but their names were known to other periodicals of the day and to later researchers. According to Cernat, Relgis was "the most significant Frondiste", seconded by two future figures in Romanian Jewish journalism: Albert Schreiber and Carol Steinberg. Like Ludo and poet Benjamin Fondane, the Fronda group represented those Romanian Jewish aficionados in Iași who followed the Symbolist-modernist school of Arghezi, and who promoted Arghezi's poetry in northern Romania: Fronda's writers were noted for saluting Viața Românească when it too began hosting poems by Arghezi.
+Fronda put out three issues in all, after which time Relgis became an occasional contributor to more circulated periodicals, among them Rampa (founded by Arghezi and the socialist agitator N. D. Cocea) and Vieața Nouă (led by Symbolist critic Ovid Densusianu). In 1913, he collected his loose philosophical essays, or "fantasies", in the volume Triumful neființei ("The Triumph of Non-Being"). He published his first two books of poems during World War I, but before the end of Romania's neutrality period. The first one was a collection of sonnets, Sonetele nebuniei ("Sonnets of Madness"), printed at Iași in 1914; the second was published in the capital, Bucharest, as Nebunia ("Madness"). Some of these poems were illustrated with drawings in Relgis' own hand.

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+title: "Eugen Relgis"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:21.362889+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== From Umanitatea to Mântuirea ===
+After training in architecture, Relgis was enrolled at the University of Bucharest, where he took courses in Philosophy. During the period, he first left Romania on a trip to the Ottoman Empire and Kingdom of Greece. He interrupted his studies shortly after Romania entered the war, in the second half of 1916. Back in Iași after the Central Powers stormed into southern Romania, he was reportedly drafted into the Romanian Land Forces, but refused to take up arms as a conscientious objector; briefly imprisoned as a result, he was in the end discharged for his deafness.
+Resuming his publishing activity upon the end of war, Eugen Relgis began publicizing his humanitarianist and pacifist agenda. In summer 1918, Relgis became one of the contributors to the Iași-based review Umanitatea ("The Humanity" or "The Human Race"). Historian Lucian Boia, who notes that Umanitatea was published when Romania's temporary defeat seemed to announce sweeping political reforms, believes that the magazine mainly reflected the "nebulous" agenda of a senior editor, the Bessarabian journalist Alexis Nour. In addition to Relgis and Nour, Umanitatea enlisted contributions from Ludo and Avram Steuerman-Rodion. The short-lived magazine, Boia writes, supported land reform, labor rights and, unusually in the context of "pronounced Romanian antisemitism", Jewish emancipation. On his own, Relgis published a magazine of the same title, issued during 1920. According to one account, Umanitatea was closed down by Romania's military censorship, which kept a check on radical publications. In 1921, an unsigned chronicle in the Cluj-based Gândirea journal recognized in Relgis "the kind and enthusiastic young man who was propagating [...] the religion of man through Umanitatea magazine".
+Relgis resumed his literary activity early in the interwar period. He authored his ideological essay Literatura războiului și era nouă (Bucharest, 1919); another such piece, Umanitarism sau Internaționala intelectualilor ("Humanitarianism or the Intellectuals' Internationale"), taken up by Viața Românească in 1922. Viața Românească also published Relgis' abridged translation of The Biology of War, a pacifist treatise by German physician Georg Friedrich Nicolai. 1922 witnessed the birth of Relgis' manifesto Principiile umanitariste ("Humanitarianist Principles"), which offered Relgis' own conclusions on world peace, while reaffirming the need to create an international pacifist forum of intellectuals. It carried a preface by Nicolai.
+Relgis also set up the First Humanitarianist Group of Romania, as well as a leftist library, Biblioteca Cercului Libertatea ("Freedom Circle Library"). Joined in such efforts by the veteran anarchists Han Ryner and Panait Mușoiu, Relgis also circulated an Apel către toți intelectualii liberi și muncitorii luminați ("Appeal to All the Free Intellectuals and the Enlightened Workers"). Before 1932, the Humanitarianist Group created some 23 regional branches in Greater Romania. Beginning 1925, Relgis also represented Romanian pacifists within the War Resisters' International.
+In the meantime, he continued to publish sporadic poems, such as Ascetism ("Asceticism"), featured in Gândirea. The year 1923 witnessed the beginnings of a friendship between Relgis and the aspiring pacifist author George Mihail Zamfirescu. Relgis prefaced Zamfirescu's book Flamura albă ("The White Flag"), and contributed to Zamfirescu's magazine Icoane Maramureșene ("Maramureș Icons"). A prose volume, Peregrinări ("Wanderings"), saw print with Editura Socec the same year. Relgis also published, in 1924, the 3 volumes of his main novel Petru Arbore (a Bildungsroman named after its main protagonist). Two new volumes of his topical essays saw print in later years: the first one, published by the printing offices of fellow journalist Barbu Brănișteanu, was Umanitarism și socialism ("Humanitarianism and Socialism", 1925); the second, printed in 1926, was titled Umanitarismul biblic ("Humanitarianism in the Bible"). His press activity included contributions to Zionist papers: a writer for Știri din Lumea Evreiască, he was also briefly on the staff of Zissu's Mântuirea.

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+---
+title: "Eugen Relgis"
+chunk: 11/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:21.362889+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Poetry ===
+During his time at Fronda, Eugen Relgis and his fellow writers published collective, experimental and unsigned poems, largely echoing the influence of Arghezi and Minulescu, but, according to Cernat, "aesthetically monstrous". This perspective is echoed by Șerban, who notes that Relgis' debut as a poet was largely without "convincing results". In Triumful neființei, the main stylistic reference was, according to Lovinescu, the Romanian Symbolist prose poet Dimitrie Anghel, imitated to the point of "pastiche".
+With time, Relgis developed a style deemed "the poetry of professions" by George Călinescu. According to Călinescu's classification, Relgis the poet is similar in this respect to fellow Symbolists Alexandru Tudor-Miu and Barbu Solacolu, but also to Simona Basarab, Leon Feraru, Cristian Sârbu and Stelian Constantin-Stelian. The same critic notes that Relgis "attempted, with some beautiful poetic suggestions, to establish a modern-era mythology with abstract gods [...] and other machinist monsters." Lovinescu describes the poet in Relgis as one who "survived" through humanitarian propaganda, returning "in a compact Verhaeren form, rhetorical and accumulative." Lovinescu includes the resulting works in a category of "descriptive" and "social" poems, relating Relgis to Feraru, Alice Călugăru, Aron Cotruș, Vasile Demetrius, Camil Petrescu and I. Valerian.
+Relgis' poems, Călinescu notes, were individual portraits of industrial machinery ("The Elevator", "The Cement Mixer") or workers ("The Builder", "The Day Laborer"), as temples and deities; by "natural association", the critic suggests, Relgis applied the same technique in his lyrical homages to the very large animals ("The Giraffe", "The Elephant"), but "this requires greater means of suggestion". In one piece quoted by George Călinescu, Relgis showed a bricklayer contemplating the modern city from the top of a scaffolding structure:
+
+== Legacy ==
+The political ideas of Eugen Relgis were largely incompatible with the totalitarianism prevalent in Romania between World War II and the Romanian Revolution of 1989: as Rose notes, the scholar was persecuted by "four dictatorial regimes in his native country". Before this, Șerban writes, Relgis' intellectual contacts may have stimulated public debate, even though the writer himself could not claim the status of "opinion maker". Likewise, Boris Marian describes Relgis as "almost forgotten" by Romanians after his self-exile. In addition to Iosif Gutman, Relgis' Jewish Romanian disciples included Fălticeni journalist Iacob Bacalu, founder of a Relgis Circle. According to journalist Victor Frunză, Relgis' targeting by communist censorship had a paradoxical antisemitic undertone, as one of the repressive measures which touched Jewish culture in general.
+Attempts to recover Relgis' work were made during the latter half of Romanian communist rule and after the 1989, several of them from within the Romanian Jewish community. In April 1982, the Jewish cultural journal Revista Cultului Mozaic published Leon Volovici's note about Relgis and Judaism. Late in the 1980s, Volovici also contacted Relgis' surviving sisters, then Relgis himself, becoming curator of the manuscripts left behind by the philosopher upon his relocation to South America. These were later donated to the Philippide Institute of the Romanian Academy, where they are kept as the Eugen Relgis library fund.
+Relgis enjoys a more enduring reputation abroad. Initially, his anarchist eugenics enjoyed some popularity among Spanish anarchists; his pacifism also inspired Llorenç Vidal Vidal, the Balearic poet and educator. Some of his tracts have been reissued after 2001, with the Anselmo Lorenzo Foundation (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo). Italian-language versions of his novels, poems and political tracts, including Cosmometápolis, were published by Gaspare Mancuso and his Libero Accordo group, over the 1960s and '70s.
+By then, Relgis' works had been translated into fourteen languages, although they still remained largely unknown in the United States; Principiile umanitariste alone had been translated into some 18 languages before 1982. The popularization of Relgis' ideas in America was first taken up by reviews such as The Humanist and Books Abroad, while Oriole Press reprinted Muted Voices. A second revised edition of Profetas y poetas, prefaced by the Spanish intellectual Rafael Cansinos-Asséns, saw print in Montevideo (1981). At around the same time, in Mexico, his poems were being reprinted in Alfonso Camín's Norte literary review.
+In addition to the Philippide Institute collection, part of Relgis' personal archive is being preserved in Jerusalem, at the National Library of Israel. His other notebooks and letters are kept in the Netherlands, at the International Institute of Social History. Relgis' likeness is preserved in drawings by Marcel Janco, Lazăr Zin, Louis Moreau and Carmelo de Arzadun.
+
+== See also ==
+List of peace activists
+
+== Notes ==

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+---
+title: "Eugen Relgis"
+chunk: 12/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:21.362889+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== References ==
+Trenton W. Batson, Eugene Bergman, preface and notes to Angels and Outcasts: An Anthology of Deaf Characters in Literature, Gallaudet University Press, Washington, 1985.  ISBN 0-930323-17-3
+Lucian Boia, "Germanofilii". Elita intelectuală românească în anii Primului Război Mondial, Humanitas, Bucharest, 2010.  ISBN 978-973-50-2635-6
+Maria Bucur, Eugenics and Modernization in Interwar Romania, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 2002.  ISBN 0-8229-4172-4
+George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1986
+Ángel Cappelletti, "Anarquismo latinoamericano", in Carlos M. Rama, El Anarquismo en América Latina, Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracas, 1990.  ISBN 980-276-117-6
+Paul Cernat, Avangarda românească și complexul periferiei: primul val, Cartea Românească, Bucharest, 2007.  ISBN 978-973-23-1911-6
+(in Romanian) Ion Clopoțel, "Discuții și recensii. Eugen Relgis: Bulgaria necunoscută", in Societatea de Mâine, Nr. 7-9/1933, p. 168–169 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library)
+Ovid Crohmălniceanu, Literatura română între cele două războaie mondiale, Vol. I, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1972.  OCLC 490001217
+(in Romanian) Dorel Dorian, Geo Șerban, "Eugen Relgis: un literat provoacă destinul: îngrijorat de învrăjbirile umanității", Realitatea Evreiască supplement, Nr. 310-311 (1010–1011), December 2008 – January 2009: page I, page II, page III, page IV, page V, page VI, page VII, page VIII
+(in French) Bernard Duchatelet, Liste des publications de correspondances de Romain Rolland, at the French National Centre for Scientific Research, Centre for Study of Correspondence and Diaries [UMR 6563]; retrieved March 7, 2011
+Eugen Lovinescu, Istoria literaturii române contemporane, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1989 (with a postscript by Eugen Simion). ISBN 973-21-0159-8
+Eduard Masjuan, La ecología humana en el anarquismo ibérico: urbanismo "orgánico" o ecológico, neomalthusianismo y naturismo social, Icaria Editorial, Barcelona, 2000.  ISBN 84-86864-42-9
+Andrei Oișteanu, Inventing the Jew. Antisemitic Stereotypes in Romanian and Other Central East-European Cultures, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 2009.  ISBN 978-0-8032-2098-0
+William Rose, "Frontiers. A Voice of Europe in America", in MANAS Journal, Nr. 28/1962, p. 12–14
+(in Romanian) Liviu Rotman (ed.), Demnitate în vremuri de restriște, Editura Hasefer, Federation of Jewish Communities of Romania & Elie Wiesel National Institute for Studying the Holocaust in Romania, Bucharest, 2008.  ISBN 978-973-630-189-6
+Marius Turda, " 'To End the Degeneration of a Nation': Debates on Eugenic Sterilization in Interwar Romania", in Medical History, Nr. 53/2009, p. 77–104
+
+== External links ==
+(in French) Eugen Relgis, "Humanitarisme, n. m.", in the Anarchist Encyclopedia
+(in Spanish) Relgis' works, at the Proyecto filosofía en español:
+Los Principios Humanitaristas
+Individualismo, Estética y Humanitarismo
+Las aberraciones sexuales en la Alemania nazi
+Humanitarismo y Eugenismo

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+
+=== Sburătorul and Umanitarismul ===
+Also during the early 1920s, Eugen Relgis came into contact with the Bucharest-based Sburătorul circle, which stood for modernist literature and aesthetic relativism. The eponymous magazine published samples of his lyrical poetry. With his humanitarian literature, Relgis was a singular figure among the many Sburătorul factions, as later noted by literary historian Ovid Crohmălniceanu in discussing the studied eclecticism of Sburătorul doyen Eugen Lovinescu. Another Romanian researcher, Henri Zalis, notes that Relgis was one of the many Jewish intellectuals whom Lovinescu cultivated in reaction to the tradition of ethno-nationalist discrimination. However, according to critic Eugen Simion, Lovinescu also greatly exaggerated Relgis' literary worth.
+Relgis' contribution to Romanian literature was renewed in 1926, when he published Melodiile tăcerii ("Melodies of Silence") and the collection Poezii ("Poems"), followed in 1927 by Glasuri în surdină ("Muted Voices"). The latter novel, later republished with a foreword by Austrian author Stefan Zweig, chronicled Relgis' own difficulties with his post-lingual deafness.
+At that stage in his career, Eugen Relgis was also a contributor to the Bucharest left-wing dailies Adevărul and Dimineața, part of a new generation of radical or pacifist authors cultivated by the newspaper (alongside Zamfirescu, Ion Marin Sadoveanu and various others). His pieces for Adevărul include insights into medical sociology, such as the September 1922 Înapoi, la biologie! ("Back to Biology!"). The Adevărul publishing house issued his 1925 translation of Knut Hamsun's story Slaves of Love. At around the same time, the Căminul Library, publishers of popular education books, issued Relgis' translation from Thus Spoke Zarathustra, the classic novel of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. It endured as one of two Romanian-language versions of Nietzsche's main works to be published before the 1970s, together with George B. Rateș's The Antichrist. Relgis' work as a translator also included versions of writings by Zweig, Émile Armand, Selma Lagerlöf, Emil Ludwig and Jakob Wassermann.
+After editing the short-lived gazette Cugetul Liber ("Freethought"), Eugen Relgis put out the political and cultural review Umanitarismul ("Humanitarianism"). It enlisted contributions from the Romanian writers Ion Barbu, Alexandru Al. Philippide and Ion Vinea, and was positively reviewed by other cultural figures (Tudor Arghezi, Enric Furtună, Meyer Abraham Halevy, Perpessicius). He published his work in a variety of periodicals, from Vinea's modernist mouthpiece Contimporanul, Ludo's Adam review and the Zionist Cuvântul Nostru to the Romanian traditionalist journal Cuget Clar. With his publishing house Editura Umanitatea, Relgis also contributed a 1929 book of interviews, based on texts previously featured in Umanitarismul: Anchetă asupra internaționalei pacifiste ("An Inquiry about the Pacifist International"). The same year, Relgis lectured at the Zionist Avodah circle about the opportunities of Jewish return to the Land of Israel.

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+
+=== Travels abroad and Șantier affiliation ===
+The Romanian writer traveled extensively to promote his ideas of social change. By 1928, he was in regular correspondence with French writer and human rights activist Romain Rolland, who answered in writing to Relgis' various inquiries. He was a delegate to pacifist reunions in Hoddesdon, England and Sonntagberg, Austria (1928). Relgis also exchanged letters with various other prestigious left-wing intellectuals: Zweig, Upton Sinclair, Henri Barbusse, Max Nettlau etc. His various inquiries also enlisted positive replies from other international supporters of pacifism: physicist Albert Einstein, biologist Auguste Forel, writer Heinrich Mann and anarchist militant Paul Reclus. He became a contributor to Sébastien Faure's Anarchist Encyclopedia, with the "Humanitarianism" entry. In 1929, Delpeuch company published his French-language essay L'Internationale pacifiste ("The Pacifist International"), reissued the same year in Valencia, Spain, as La Internacional Pacifista.
+Around 1930, Relgis was in Paris, where he met with Han Ryner, and in Berlin, where he conversed with his mentor Nicolai. In its new translated editions, Apel către... was signed by a number of leading pacifist intellectuals of various persuasions, among them Zweig, Sinclair, Barbusse, Campio Carpio, Manuel Devaldès, Philéas Lebesgue, Rabindranath Tagore. While in France, where his work was notably popularized by L'En-Dehors magazine and Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers's Bibliothèque de l'Artistocratie book collection, he was for a while close to Barbusse's Clarté circle, but left it after discovering its communist militancy and Soviet connections. His Intellectuals' Internationale therefore took distance from both the Comintern and the International Working Union of Socialist Parties.
+In 1932, he published the German-language collection of interviews Wege zum Friede ("Path toward Peace"). His other travels into Bulgaria, where he represented Romanian vegetarians at an international congress, were discussed in his 1933 volume Bulgaria necunoscută ("Unknown Bulgaria"). The volume Cosmometápolis, about the creation of a world government, was first published in Bucharest by Cultura Poporului imprint, and reissued in Paris by Mignolet et Storz.
+Relgis' participation in left-wing causes was attacked at home by the antisemitic and proto-fascist National-Christian Defense League, whose press organ Înfrățirea Românească alleged that "squire Siegler" and his Umanitarismul, together with the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, were fostering communist agitation. After the 1933 establishment of a Nazi regime in Germany, Relgis' books of interviews became subject to ceremonial burnings.
+By that moment in his career, Relgis became a contributor to Vremea newspaper and to Ion Pas' political and art magazine, Șantier. The latter periodical was close to the Romanian Social Democratic Party, and had a strongly anti-fascist agenda. It published, in 1932, the Relgis essay Europa cea tânără ("Young Europe"), which talked about civilization, imperialism and war. Relgis' contributions to Șantier also include a January 12, 1934 essay about "anonymous works" and their impact on art history, which was later quoted in Viața Românească. The same year, Relgis published the novel Prieteniile lui Miron ("Miron's Friendships") with Editura Cugetarea.
+In his subsequent activity as a journalist and publisher, Relgis combined his humanitarianism with topical interests. He was by then an advocate of eugenics, an interest reflected in his 1934 (or 1935) tract Umanitarism și eugenism ("Humanitarianism and Eugenism"), published by Editura Vegetarianismul company. In 1936, he also released the collection Esseuri despre iudaism ("Essays on Judaism") with Cultura Poporului. He was at the time active within the Jewish Cultural Institute, an annex of the Bucharest Choral Temple. His international activity peaked during the Spanish Civil War, when he helped organize anarchist support for the Spanish Republican regime, elected Councilor of the International Antifascist Solidarity.

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+
+=== World War II, persecution and departure ===
+Eugen Relgis was still active on the literary scene during the first two years of World War II, before Romania formalized its military alliance with the Axis powers. The Phoney War caught him in France, but he returned to Romania shortly after, exposing himself to persecution by the growing Romanian fascist movements. In February 1940, he gave a retrospective lecture, republished by the newspaper L'Indépendance Roumaine, on the work of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Another book of his political prose, Spiritul activ ("The Active Spirit"), saw print the same year.
+The emergence of antisemitic and fascist regimes (see Romania in World War II, Holocaust in Romania) signified the beginning of Relgis' marginalization. During the short-lived National Legionary State, established by the Iron Guard fascists between 1940 and early 1941, the author lived in seclusion. His Biblioteca Cercului Libertatea was banned in 1940, but Relgis secretly moved the books into a stable. After the Guard fell from power, the Ion Antonescu dictatorship still included Relgis on a nationally circulated list of banned Romanian Jewish authors, but Relgis continued to write. His texts of the time include a posthumous praise of his pacifist disciple Iosif Gutman, the son of a Bucharest rabbi, who had been killed during the Bucharest pogrom. The essay was planned as part of Rabbi Gutman's volume Slove de martiri ("Notes by Martyrs"), which, although anti-Guard, was not given Antonescu's imprimatur. Relgis was however able to publish an article in the Jewish-only magazine Renașterea Noastră, on the occasion of Iosif's yahrtzeit, where he compared the Gutmans to Laocoön and His Sons. Relgis' own son fled Romania in 1942, and settled in Argentina.
+A final period in Relgis' Romanian activity came after the August 1944 Coup toppled Antonescu and denounced Romania's Axis alliance. In 1945, he was dedicated a public celebration at the Jewish Cultural Institute, which included a speech by Chief Rabbi Alexandru Șafran. Slove de martiri was eventually published that year, and a revised Romanian edition of Petru Arbore saw print in 1946. Also then, he completed work on an essay about Nazism, The Holocaust and sexuality: Eros în al treilea Reich ("Eros in the Third Reich"). Relgis was again active in the political press, lending his signature to several independent newspapers: Sebastian Șerbescu's Semnalul, Tudor Teodorescu-Braniște's Jurnalul de Dimineață etc. He described himself as diametrically opposed to the process of communization, as well as to the Soviet occupation of Romania.
+With refugee status, having reportedly been singled out for arrest by the Romanian Communist Party officials, Relgis departed from Romania in 1947, shortly before the communist regime took hold. After a brief stay in Paris, he spent some time in Argentina, with his son and his female companion Ana Taubes. He later went to Montevideo, in Uruguay, where he lived the remainder of his life. At home, his works were included in an official Publicații interzise ("Works Forbidden from Publishing") list, published by the communist censorship apparatus.
+During his last decades, Eugen Relgis dedicated himself to sociological research and political activism. He embarked on a series of university lectures, which carried him throughout Uruguay, Argentina and Brazil. In 1950, he founded an international anarchist archive in Montevideo, reportedly one of the few political libraries in South America at the time of its creation. The effort was supported by the exiled Spanish anarchist Abraham Guillén, and received documentary funds from Europe, but reputedly drew suspicion from Uruguay police forces, and was consequently shut down.

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+
+=== South American career ===
+With noted help from anarchist translator Vladimiro Muñoz, Relgis began his new career as a Spanish-language writer and publicist with a succession of works. Umanitarism și eugenism was translated into a Spanish edition: Humanitarismo y eugenismo, Ediciones Universo, Toulouse, 1950. The same imprint released his essay Las aberraciones sexuales en la Alemania nazi ("Sexual Aberrations in Nazi Germany"), which discussed in some depth the characteristics of Nazi eugenics. Also in 1950, with his Montevideo printing office Ediciones Humanidad, Relgis released a Spanish edition of his Principiile, a version of Max Nettlau's World Peace volume, as well as reissuing Cosmometápolis. Two years later, Ediciones Humanidad published Relgis' biographical essay Stefan Zweig, cazador de almas ("Stefan Zweig, the Soul Hunter"), followed in 1953 by a Hachette version of De mis peregrinaciones europeas ("From My Wanderings in Europe"). Relgis also tried to get his contributions translated into Portuguese, asking anarchist philosopher José Oiticica for assistance. He was at the time employed by El Plata daily, editing its Wednesday literary page, and helping to discover, in 1954, the twelve-year-old poet Teresa Porzecanski.
+In 1954, Relgis printed another biographical study, on Romain Rolland: El hombre libre frente a la barbarie totalitaria ("A Free Man Confronts Totalitarian Barbarity"). The following year, he gave a public lecture at the University of the Republic, titled "A Writer's Confession", and reissued Esseuri despre iudaism as Profetas y poetas. Valores permanentes y temporarios del judaísmo ("Prophets and Poets. The Permanent and Timely Values of Judaism"). A Spanish version of Umanitarism sau Internaționala intelectualilor was published, as El Humanitarismo, by Editorial Americalee in Buenos Aires (1956). One edition of the latter was prefaced by Nicolai, who was at the time living in Argentina. In November 1956, the same company issued Relgis' Diario de otoño ("Autumn Diary"), a collection of notes he had kept during the war years. Another tract, Albores de libertad ("Dawns of Freedom"), was prefaced by Rudolf Rocker, the anarcho-syndicalist thinker.
+In 1958, the University of the Republic published Eugen Relgis' acclaimed political essay Perspectivas culturales en Sudamérica ("Cultural Perspectives in South America"), for which he received a prize from the Uruguayan Ministry of Public Instruction and Social Prevision. Relgis' reputation was consolidated in the intellectual circles and, in 1955, his name was unsuccessfully advanced for the Nobel Peace Prize. The same year, a volume of his collected Spanish texts and studies on his work was published in Montevideo, as Homenaje a Eugen Relgis en su 60º aniversario ("Homage to Eugen Relgis on His 60th Anniversary").
+Relgis returned to poetry in 1960 and 1961, with the volumes En un lugar de los Andes ("Some Place in the Andes") and Locura ("Madness"), both translated by Pablo R. Troise. They were followed by two other booklets, also in Troise's translation: Corazones y motores ("Hearts and Engines", 1963), Últimos poemas ("The Last Poems", 1967). His complete Obras ("Works") were published over the next decades, while the essay ¿Qué es el humanitarismo? Principios y acción ("What Is Humanitarianism? Principles and Action") went through several successive editions and featured a prologue by Albert Einstein. Another one of Relgis' Spanish-language volumes, Testigo de mi tiempo ("A Witness of My Time"), with more essays on Judaism, came in 1961. His leading eugenics and sexology treatise, Historia sexual de la Humanidad ("The Sexual History of Humanity"), was also published in 1961 (Libro-Mex Editores, Mexico City), and, in 1965, his biography of Nicolai saw print in Buenos Aires.
+
+=== Final years and death ===
+In 1962, Eugen Relgis visited Israel and Jerusalem, tightening his links with the Romanian Israeli community, including the Menora Association and Rabbi David Șafran. It was in Israel that Relgis published another volume of memoirs, in his native Romanian language: Mărturii de ieri și de azi ("Testimonies of Yesterday and Today"). In 1972, he was made an honorary staff member of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
+From the early 1960s, Relgis was in correspondence with figures in the Italian radical circles, such as the anarchist Gaspare Mancuso. In 1964, Mancuso and Regis' other Italian disciples founded the political journal Quaderini degli amici di Eugen Relgis ("The Friends of Eugen Relgis Notebooks"). He also became an occasional contributor to Mujeres Libres, the Spanish anarcha-feminist tribune in the United Kingdom. During the 1960s and '70s, as a spell of liberalization occurred in Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania, Relgis was again in contact with Romanian intellectuals. Before the massive earthquake of 1977 devastated Bucharest, he was in regular correspondence with scholar Mircea Handoca.
+Eugen Relgis lived the final decade of his life as a pensioner of the Uruguayan state—in 1985, a law raised his pensión graciable to 20,000 new pesos a month. In the 1980s, Relgis was exchanging letters with Romanian cultural historian Leon Volovici, and entertained thoughts about a recovery of his work by Romanian critics and historians. He died before this could happen, in Montevideo, at age 92.
+
+== Political doctrine ==

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+
+=== Main ideas ===
+Throughout his career, Relgis was the proponent of anarchism. The Romanian writer spoke about the negativity of "state fetishism", seeking to overturn it and create "universal fraternity", and, in Diario de otoño, postulated a necessary distinction between Law ("which may be interpreted for or against") and Justice ("elementary" and unavoidable). Relgis likewise believed that war could be overcome once humanity shall have toppled "the three idols: State, Property, Money." Political philosopher Ángel Cappelletti argues: "Relgis was not an anarchist militant, but was always close to libertarian ideas".
+According to Stefan Zweig, Relgis fought "tirelessly for the great goal of spiritual fraternity." The sentiment was echoed by Romain Rolland, who recognized in Relgis his disciple: "There is no other European man in whose hands I could place, with as much confidence, [...] my pacifist and universalist idea, for it to be passed on into the future. For none other has such far-reaching intelligence to this goal, and none other would feel this idea so intimately connected to his being." Speaking from the cultural mainstream, Romanian literary historian George Călinescu observed Relgis' anti-establishment and anti-artistic rhetoric, but described it as mere "idealist reverie", "without any daring proposals that would threaten our self-preservation instincts". Contrarily, scholar William Rose sees Relgis as "an idealist deeply preoccupied by social problems", "a practical and not a utopian thinker", and a theorist aware that social or economic evolution was needed before his goals could be achieved.
+Relgis' humanitarianism (also known as humanism or pan-humanism; Spanish: humanitarismo) was a practical extension of anarcho-pacifism. William Rose describes this doctrine as both "universalist and pacifist", noting that one of its leading purposes was to eliminate those things "which separate man from man and cause wars". Relgis himself spoke of his movement as a form of "active thought", and "a critical method applied to natural, human and social realities", while expressing admiration for the nonviolent resistance tactics advocated in British India by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi or Rabindranath Tagore. At the time, he attacked all forms of pan-nationalism, from Pan-Germanism to Pan-European nationalism, defining pan-humanism as "the only 'pan' that can be accepted as a natural law of the human species". In El humanitarismo, he called all internationalist movements, except his own, corrupted by "the practice of violence and intolerance".
+Writing in 1933, the leftist literary columnist Ion Clopoțel stressed that Relgis' vision combined humanitarianism with "a lively, dynamic and innovating socialism". Although left-wing, Relgis' vision also incorporated militant anti-communism. As noted by literary historian Geo Șerban, he was from early on skeptical about the outcome of "social revolutions" and Bolshevik insurgency. In the first issue of Umanitarianismul, Relgis criticized both the far right and the far left, noting that his ideology was "apolitical, in fact antipolitical". In Europa cea tânără, he referred to the Soviet Union as the home of "proletarian imperialism". These thoughts were detailed by Diario de otoño, which drew a direct comparison between the Red Army, pushing Romania into an "armed peace", and the Wehrmacht.

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+
+=== Judaism, Zionism, Jewish culture ===
+Beginning in the late 1920s, Relgis was also a supporter of Zionism, convinced that the path of Jewish assimilation was unsatisfactory for the affirmation of Jewish talents. He also adhered to philosopher Martin Buber's ideas about reuniting the three paths chosen by diaspora Jews: universalism, Zionism and Conservative Judaism. In his 1929 Avodah conference, he analyzed the ongoing Jewish resettlement into the Land of Israel, and investigated the causes of violent clashes between Jewish migrants and the Palestine Arabs. In other public statements, Relgis proudly stated his Judaic faith, noting that he had never actually left Judaism, "being integrated into its vast reality by the very reality of my own preoccupations, sociological and ethical, humanitarianist and pacifist." However, he explained to Iosif Gutman that joining a Zionist organization was not worth the effort, since membership was a form of captivity, and elsewhere suggested that Zionism was justified only as long as it did not follow "the restrictive methods of vulgar nationalism." The writer also described himself as committed to Romanian culture, and, as late as 1981, noted that Romanian was still his language of choice.
+His essays on Judaism (some of which were dedicated to his father David) speak about the threat of societal collapse, which the author connected with mankind's spiritual decline after World War I. His theory on "dehumanization" postulated: "the spiritual evolution of mankind has proceeded to descent just as mankind is progressing in material terms." As a reversal of this trend, Relgis proposed a return to the roots of Judaism, in whose monotheism and Messianism he decoded the basic representation of moral responsibility, and the immediate precursors of Christianity. The Romanian writer was interested in those aspects of Jewish ethics which anticipated humanitarianism or pacifism, citing the Bible as "that most humane book", and identifying himself with the lament of Malachi 2:10 ("Why do we deal treacherously every man against his brother, profaning the covenant of our fathers?"). He later wrote that Jews, and Israelis in particular, were entrusted with keeping alive "the ancient wisdom, poetry and faith", with creating "new values from the old ones". Defining in his own terms the relationship between Biblical proto-universalism and 20th century humanitarianism, Relgis wrote: "Judaism is comprised into modern humanitarianism like a flame within a crystal globe."
+In tandem, he rejected those aspects of Judaism or Christianity which he believed where bigotry, and his pacifist discourse criticized all religions as potential instigators or ideological props of hawkish rhetoric. He reserved special criticism for the notions of a "vengeful God" and "Jewish chosenness", arguing that they are "primitive", and expressed more sympathy for Buddhist universalism. His texts, including the 1922 Apel către..., are thought by some to be purposefully reusing the pro-universalist vocabulary of Freemasons.
+Relgis' Judaic-themed tracts cover a wide range of subjects. In several of them, Relgis concentrates on the Biblical prophet Moses, in whom he sees the symbol of "great human aspirations". Some texts trace the impact of Moses' teaching on more modern authors (from Baruch Spinoza to Charles Darwin), others talk about secular Jewish culture, and still others focus on individual Jewish personalities: Buber, Edmond Fleg, Theodor Herzl. As a critic, he also investigated the survival of ancient Judaic themes in the modern art of Marcel Janco, Lazăr Zin or Reuven Rubin, and in the literature of Zweig, S. Ansky, Mendele Mocher Sforim and even Marcel Proust. Other such writings are individual portraits of Romanian Jewish men of letters, from A. L. Zissu and Iosif Brucăr to Avram Steuerman-Rodion and Enric Furtună. According to Geo Șerban, Relgis spent much of his later career promoting "a more fertile awareness of the links between Judaism and the modern world."
+A critic of antisemitism, Eugen Relgis also dedicated some of his main works in the essay genre to the cause of anti-fascism. Early on, he exposed claims about Judeo-Masonic domination as canards, and noted that antisemitism was a negative reaction to the Jews' own status as natural innovators in both politics and culture. He wrote: "I take antisemitism to be that psychological disease whose manifestations display the characteristics of a phobia, that is to say an obsession. When someone is obsessed with an image, an individual or even a collective entity, these become the center of their world—and all causes and effects, no matter how far apart and different from each other, are connected to the initial obsession."
+Writing in 1946, shortly after the scale of The Holocaust became known to Romanian Jews, Relgis gave credit to the popular, but since challenged rumor that Nazis fabricated human soap. Historian of ideas Andrei Oișteanu analyzes Relgis' text as more of a reaction to Nazism's own obsessive take on cleanliness, and writes that, at that time, Jews and Christians in Romania had been collecting certain brands of German soap and burying them as human remains.

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+
+=== On Latin America ===
+After his move to Uruguay, Relgis developed a personal theory on Latin America as a "neohumanist" continent. Earlier, in Europa cea tânără, Relgis had claimed that the European continent needed to revisit its "pathetic history" of violence and imperialism, and reconvert by combining the lessons of Eastern philosophy and United States models of industrialization. Both models, he warned, carried risks: Asia's "spiritual renunciations" were mirrored by a "cancer of machinism" in North America.
+With Perspectivas culturales en Sudamérica, he expanded on a distinction between civilization and culture: the former as a transitory phase in human development, the latter as a permanent and characteristic sum of ideas; civilization, he argued, was in existence within the New World, but a Latin American culture was still ahead. Relgis identified this as a merit, describing South America in general and Uruguay in particular as exceptionally fertile and a "healthier" example for the whole world, offering safe haven to independent thinkers and defying the ideological divisions of the Cold War era. Summarizing the future links between the Latin American regions and Europe as envisaged by Relgis, William Rose wrote: "the cultural mission of America consists in a careful selection of the eternal and universal values of Europe and their assimilation [...] to create typically American values that later, transcending the limits of this continent, will carry their message of peace and fraternity to the entire world." Latin America, Relgis cautioned, should leave behind its own traditions of dictatorial government, fanaticism and "utilitarian mentality", while fighting the "false moral" of North America; it could thus contribute to the cultural renaissance of a Europe corrupted by totalitarianism and imperialism. Also important in Relgis' assessment was Latin America's capacity to resist modern dehumanization by granting a social role to its intellectuals, an idea impressed upon him by the writings of Uruguayan humanist José Enrique Rodó.
+Relgis' theory was received with interest by some of his South American colleagues. One was Argentine poet and historian Arturo Capdevila, who wrote about Relgis as a "meritorious" visionary with a "grave and vital message", assuring him: "You can say from now on that you did not suffer in vain, gravely and deeply, the sorrows of the spirit. Your voice will be heard; all of your lesson will be applied." Those Uruguayan public figures who paid homage to Relgis on his 60th anniversary included Socialist Party leader Emilio Frugoni, Colorado Party politician Amílcar Vasconcellos, Zionist academic Joel Gak and poet Carlos Sabat Ercasty. While comparing Relgis' pacifist message with the legendary warnings of Antigone, Frugoni's praise was somewhat skeptical, noting that the Romanian's projects, however grand, could find themselves in disagreement with "the constricting reality". Reviewing such appraisals, Uruguayan philosopher Agustín Courtoisie calls Relgis "eccentric and genial", and sees in him a real-life version of characters in Jorge Luis Borges' fantasy literature.
+
+=== Eugenics ===
+
+Like other intellectuals of his generation, Eugen Relgis believed that biology served to explain the background of "social and cultural problems that influence the intellectual movement." Controversially, he merged his anarchist perspective with support for eugenics, advocating universal birth control and compulsory sterilization in cases of "degeneration". According to Agustín Courtoisie: "Anarchist pacifism and the once fashionable eugenics seem to be the concepts one can associate with [Relgis]". In favoring this option, Relgis identified himself with those of his anarchist forerunners who were also dedicated neo-Malthusians, and especially with Manuel Devaldès. He praised Devaldès' call for vasectomy as a regulatory practice, calling the procedure "a true revolution" in population growth. His works defended other anarchists who recommended the practice, including the tried anarchist eugenists Norbert Bardoseck and Pierre Ramus. According to Romanian biomedicine historian Marius Turda, Relgis was among the social scientists who, in 1930s Romania, "forced [eugenic sterilization] into the realm of public debate".
+Turda also notes that Umanitarism și eugenism went beyond sterilization advocacy to propose the involuntary euthanasia of "degenerate" individuals: those with "pathological characteristics or incurable diseases." Relgis' call to action in eugenics came with a provision: "It is, however, preferable, from all points of view, that degenerates should not be born, or, even better, not conceived." His views on this subject included an economic rationale, since, he argued, the community could not be expected to provide for sexually "prolific", but otherwise "degenerate", individuals. To this goal, he supported abortion, both for eugenic and pro-choice reasons. Relgis also argued: "Instead of natural selection, man should practice rational selection." With Las aberraciones sexuales..., Relgis condemned Nazi eugenics as barbaric, but agreed that those identified as "sub-humans" needed to be reeducated and (if "incurable") sterilized by non-Nazi physicians.
+In this context, Relgis identified multiracial society as a positive paradigm. The emergence of an exemplary Latin American culture was conceived by Relgis as running parallel to a future American racial type. In this, Relgis saw the "integral man" of his humanitarianism, "healthy and strong", with a mind unbound by "super-refined culture", and without the traumatic experience of "tyrannical ideologies". The idea, Rose noted, was somewhat similar to, but "more universal" than, the Cosmic Race theory of Mexican academic José Vasconcelos.
+
+== Literary contribution ==

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+title: "Eugen Relgis"
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+---
+
+=== Literary style and principles ===
+Eugen Relgis blended a critique of capitalism, advocacy of internationalism and modern art interest with all his main contributions to literature. In his essays and "all too cerebral" novels, George Călinescu argues, Eugen Relgis was "obsessed with humanitarianism" and self-help techniques. With his 1934 piece for Șantier, Relgis divided the experience and nature of art into a primordial, collective, form and a newer, individualist one: in the past, Relgis noted, creativity was consumed into creating vast anonymous works ("the pyramid, the temple, the cathedral"), often demanding "the silent and tenacious effort of successive generations." Presently, he thought, the combat against the "imperative of Profit" and "vulgar materialism" justified the "ethical and aesthetic individualism". Relgis' essay described industrial society in harsh terms, as directed by "the bloody gods" of "Capitalism and War", and cautioned that the advocacy of anonymity in modern art could lead to kitsch ("serialized production, without the significance it used to carry in bygone days"). Elsewhere, however, Relgis also argued that books needed to have a formative value, and that literature, unlike journalism, "needs to be the expression of length and depth."
+Some of Relgis' preferences were shaped from his time at Fronda. Its art manifestos, described by Paul Cernat as "virtually illegible", announced radical ideals, such as art for art's sake through Neronian destruction: Qualis artifex pereo. Leon Baconsky, a historian of Romanian Symbolism, notes that all Frondistes were at the time enthusiastic followers of French literary theorist Remy de Gourmont, to whom Cernat adds philosopher Henri Bergson and Epicurean thinker Jean-Marie Guyau (both of them dedicated "prolix-metaphoric commentary" in the review's pages). In matters of poetics, the group declared its deep admiration for the loose Symbolism of Tudor Arghezi (whose poems were amply reviewed by all three Fronda issues) and, to a lesser extent, Ion Minulescu—according to Baconsky, Fronda was the first-ever voice in literary criticism to comment on Arghezi's work as an integral phenomenon.
+The cause of pacifism infused Relgis' work as a writer: a contemporary, the literary critic Pompiliu Păltânea, believed that, with his contribution to Romanian literature, Relgis was part of a diverse anti-war "ideological"  group of writers (alongside Felix Aderca, Ioan Alexandru Brătescu-Voinești, Barbu Lăzăreanu and some others). According to Călinescu, Relgis' literary ideal became "the living book", the immediate and raw rendition of an individual's experience, with such "idols" as Rolland, Zweig, Henri Barbusse, Heinrich Mann and Ludwig Rubiner. An additional influence was, according to poet-critic Boris Marian, European Expressionism, in fashion at the start of Relgis' career.
+In addition to political essays and fiction, Relgis' prose includes contributions to travel literature, deemed "his most characteristic works" by William Rose. These writings include attempts by Relgis to illustrate in plastic terms the application of his ideology: Ion Clopoțel noted that, in his volume about interwar Bulgaria, Relgis went beyond the facade of "savage" Bulgarian militarism to depict the humanist, vegetarian and "Tolstoyan" civil society of that age. Bulgaria necunoscută also worked as a manifesto of anti-intellectualism, chastising the "demagogue" academics and praising the simplicity of "collective life". In a similar way, Relgis' scattered memoirs, among them Strămoșul meu, "David Gugumanul" ("My Ancestor, 'Nitwit David' "), shed intimate light on his ideas about Judaism.
+Other such didactic texts detail Relgis' advice on the art of living. Glasuri în surdină is noted for depicting the disorientation of a young man who becomes deaf: Relgis' alter ego, Miron, finds that such a disability has turned his old friends into opportunistic exploiters, but his imaginative spirit and his (minutely chronicled) self-determination allow him to rebel and start over in life. However, deaf studies experts Trenton W. Batson and Eugene Bergman write, Miron "is not really representative of the deaf majority", leading a life of isolation and, out of despair, seeking out a miracle cure for deafness. Relgis' patron Eugen Lovinescu was especially critical of the work, judging its "self-analyzing" internal monologue as burdensome.
+The Bildungsroman Petru Arbore is noted by Geo Șerban as a "rarity" in Romanian literature, "instructive despite its excessive rhetoricism." Eugen Lovinescu notes its traditional theme of social "inadaptation", which, to him, echoes the right-wing didacticism of Sămănătorul writers. Over the three volumes, the idealistic Arbore falls in love with women of various conditions, and, to the backdrop of World War I, tries to build a business as an army supplier. Relgis himself warned that the book should not be seen as his autobiography, but as the "spiritual mirror" of each reader. Lovinescu believed the work to be heavily influenced by Rolland's Jean-Christophe, lacking "inventiveness".
+Called a "sweet volume of essays" by Clopoțel, Prieteniile lui Miron chronicles love and desire in relation to age and sex. The work shows a young girl losing and then regaining her faith in true love, a daring young man, "who mistakes love for sport", being rejected by his female companions, and lastly a mature couple whose love has undergone the test of friendship. Clopoțel praised the text for its "seriousness", "finesse" and "reflections enlightened by knowledge and responsibility", concluding: "[This is] a literature of moral health."
+These characteristics were also discerned by critics in his various contributions to Latin American literature. Courtoisie found Diario de otoño, a book that is "miscellaneous, multithematic, [moving] between the poetic and the everyday", comparable to the Fermentario essays of Uruguay's Carlos Vaz Ferreira. According to critic William T. Starr, El hombre libre frente a la barbarie totalitaria and other such recollections reveal "more about Relgis than about Rolland".

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+Francisc Iosif Rainer (December 28, 1874 – August 4, 1944) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian pathologist, physiologist and anthropologist. From an immigrant family, he earned early recognition for his experimental work in anatomy, and helped reform Romanian medical science. He spent much of his youth training himself in anatomical pathology and the various areas of natural science, gaining direct experience as a microbiologist, surgeon, and military physician. With teaching positions at the University of Iași and the University of Bucharest, where he established specialized sections, Rainer became a noted promoter of science and an innovator in his field. He notably favored and introduced the anatomical study of "functional structures", and was in particular preoccupied with issues pertaining to ontogenesis and kinesiology. An intellectual influence on several generations of doctors, his wife was Marta Trancu-Rainer, Romania's first female surgeon.
+In addition to his experimental approach, Rainer is remembered as a talented pedagogue and public speaker, who took public stances in defense of his social and cultural ideals. Vilified by the far-right for his left-wing stances, he blended progressivism with genetic determinism, and, although an adept of eugenics, condemned scientific racism. He was notably involved with Dimitrie Gusti's project of rural sociology, contributing an anthropological record of several isolated villages on the Carpathian slopes. During his lifetime, Rainer also set up a large collection of craniums and skeletons, which became the centerpiece of his Bucharest anthropology department.
+
+== Biography ==
+
+=== Early life ===
+Francisc Rainer was a native of Rohozna town, near Czernowitz, in Austrian-ruled Bukovina. His parents were Lutheran, but baptized their son Roman Catholic. His father, Gustav Adolf Ignatz Rainer, emigrated to the Romanian Old Kingdom as an employee of the Strousberg Company that built the Bucharest-Giurgiu railway, the country's first. Remaining there, he obtained a post in the administration of the national railroad company. His mother Maria (or Ana) came from a clerical family, and was a housewife. The boy received his primary education at home from his parents, later attending Saint Sava High School in Bucharest. Among the teachers who were particularly helpful was Sabba Ștefănescu in natural sciences. Rainer read extensively, teaching himself Latin and Ancient Greek, and becoming passionate about the literary works of Goethe and the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. He slowly discarded the latter's influence when he discovered Heraclitus, Ernst Haeckel, and classical materialistic thought. Such works diverted him from his original goal of becoming a Catholic missionary.
+In 1892, he enrolled in the medical faculty of the University of Bucharest. While still a student, Rainer was given important tasks by a professor in his histological laboratory. In 1896, he was named a junior teaching assistant in the medical clinic at Colțea Hospital; he remained there for nearly two decades. During this time, troubled by "the great issues of the Cosmos", he imposed on himself a rigorous program of study and exercise (including cycling, mountaineering, and fencing). Although struggling to make ends meet, Rainer deepened his anatomical research, closely studying human morphology, and experimented with examination techniques during autopsies, founding a Romanian Anatomical Society for the purpose of sharing results. He also attended Anghel Saligny's lectures in chemistry at the School of Bridges, worked as a chemist in Constantin Istrati's lab, then as a pathologist at the Veterinary School. He moved between Colțea, Filaret, and the school of assistant surgeons, taking part in the campaign against tuberculosis. In the summers of 1900 and 1901, he took part in an anti-cholera campaign in the Danube Delta, which also allowed him to study the native flora and fauna.
+He completed his doctorate in 1903, the topic being a particular form of cirrhosis. Having performed numerous autopsies at the hospital, he made an original discovery himself; at the end of the thesis committee's debate, two of its members, Dr. Stoicescu from Colțea and Victor Babeș, extended their collegial greetings to Rainer. Aside from this pair, his professors included Alexandru Obregia, Nicolae Kalinderu, Thoma Ionescu, Gheorghe Marinescu, Ioan Cantacuzino, and Mina Minovici. Also in 1903, Rainer, recently naturalized Romanian, married Marta Trancu, an Armenian Romanian doctor who had worked with him at Colțea. They had corresponded intensely on scientific and cultural subjects, before becoming romantically involved. After completing her studies, Marta became Romania's first female surgeon. Their only child, daughter Sofia, was born on in May 1904.
+
+During that period, Rainer made two visits to Germany. The first, in 1906, involved work at Berlin's Frederick William University in the laboratories of Fedor Krause and Oscar Hertwig, as well as a study of embryology and comparative anatomy. His animal experiments there were primarily focused on the ossification process. At the anatomical institute led by Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer, he analyzed the brains of individuals belonging to different races. The second visit, in 1911, involved a stop at the German Hygiene Museum in Dresden, at the anatomy institute of the University of Jena and at Leipzig. Near the trip's conclusion, while in Weimar, he visited Goethe's House.

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+
+=== Iași career and World War I ===
+Upon his return in 1912, Rainer became assistant professor at Bucharest. The following year, with referrals from Constantin Ion Parhon, he became chairman of the anatomy department at the University of Iași medical faculty. Soon after his appointment, with the outbreak of the Second Balkan War, he was mobilized in the Romanian Land Forces medical service. He barely escaped with his life when his automobile fell off the pontoon bridge at Nikopol. Upon his return, he busied himself with organizing his Iași department, supplying the microscopes, microtomes, thermostats, magazine collections and a projector for the faculty. Meanwhile, during this period, he was involved in scientific publication, sitting on the editorial board of Spitalul, writing for Romania Medicală and, in 1911, helping found the Paris-based Annales de Biologie.
+According to Marta Rainer's own account, her husband's move to Iași at age forty marked the end of a "prolonged adolescence", settling Rainer on the path to professional success. As Rainer himself noted, teaching was a major responsibility: "I have always held the belief that there is no feeling so great, no thought so vast and deep, that they may not reach out to young minds and hearts." He set for himself the goal of answering to some of "the great issues of mankind", with "a prolonged action to strengthen my spirit." In his university lectures, Rainer taught that the purpose of medical science was human progress, "that we may always reach for something that is set higher". He also held that "each of us owes more to society than society owes us."
+While in Iași, Rainer joined the left-wing literary circle formed around Viața Românească magazine, for which he contributed notes on medical science. He befriended the group's doyen, Garabet Ibrăileanu, whom he treated for his lung problems. Rainer persuaded Ibrăileanu, who was Marta's cousin, to hold courses in Romanian language and literature two evenings a week for medical students. His intention was to develop cultured doctors, and the students heard lectures by Mihail Sadoveanu, George Topîrceanu and Titu Maiorescu. He also took them for nature excursions so they could observe biological phenomena outside the laboratory. Rainer himself traveled extensively after 1914: among his earliest trips was a working visit to Odón de Buen's oceanographic institute in Palma de Mallorca.
+In 1916, following Romania's entry into World War I, Rainer returned to Bucharest and rejoined Marta, being called up for medical service as a colonel. During the 1916 counteroffensive, the Rainers set up surgery wards in the hospitals that had become full to overflowing with wounded from the Battle of Turtucaia and the zeppelin attack on Bucharest. Later, during Bucharest's occupation by the Central Powers, Francisc Rainer established temporary hospitals in schools. He continued teaching under the German administration, so that his students would not miss a year, but was also obliged to teach separate courses for German students. He managed to prevent the occupying authorities from requisitioning the faculty's possessions. Viewed as political suspects, the Rainers were singled out for internment in Bulgaria, but spared by Minovici's intervention on his behalf. Marta Rainer, who managed war hospitals, organized teams of surgeons to help deal with the humanitarian crisis, and operated non-stop during the extremely cold winter of 1917–1918.
+Following Romania's withdrawal from the war, Rainer resumed his contacts with Romanian physicians stranded on unoccupied territory. His wartime work in experimental surgery attracted young men and women, including some of his former students at Iași. They included Grigore T. Popa, who was selected for Rainer's permanent team during 1918. Other early members were Florica Cernătescu (Popa's fiancée) and Ilie Th. Riga. By late 1918, Rainer was conceiving of an education reform, aiming to compress theoretical aspects and "routine" work while providing students with as much laboratory experience as possible. His ideas were received with skepticism by the physiologist Ioan Athanasiu, who stood for the classical approach.
+For a while in 1919, Rainer made a return to teaching in Iași, where he also resumed his activity in the fight against tuberculosis. After the Armistice of November signaled a worldwide return to peace, Rainer had to fend off allegations and angry students demonstrations, with allegations that he had been a turncoat and a collaborator of the Germans. During 1919, a commission of inquiry cleared his name, noting that he had displayed "absolute loyalty" to the legitimate Romanian government. He himself vouched for his colleague Ecaterina Arbore, arrested for her revolutionary socialist militancy. After the general strike of 1920 was broken up by the authorities, Rainer was part of the investigative commission which determined that the labor organizer Herșcu Aroneanu had been beaten to death.
+
+=== Bucharest school of anatomy creation ===

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+In 1920, Rainer was employed by the new anatomy and embryology department set up at Bucharest University. Affected by deafness, attributed to his long-term exposure to formaldehyde, he continued to work at the same pace, but was noticeably withdrawn from public life. The anatomy section existed only in name when Rainer took over. Rainer took personal charge of furnishing it, in the end setting up a large collection of craniums and full skeletons that earned the respect of Western colleagues such as Eugène Pittard, Carleton S. Coon, Henri Victor Vallois, and Kurt Warnekros. He was seconded by his devoted disciple and godson, the endocrinologist Ștefan Milcu (he eventually left Rainer's team in 1932, after developing an allergy to formaldehyde). Other important presences among Rainer's students and collaborators were George Emil Palade and Vintilă Ciocâlteu, distinguished for their work in the United States. At various intervals, the team also included surgeon Ion Țurai, pharmacologist Alfred Teitel, embryologist Benedict M. Menkeș, and anatomist Zalman Iagnov.
+After his move, Rainer began expanding the scope of his contribution, and passed on to his students a particular view of science, decisively materialistic, rationalist, and anti-metaphysical. In particular, Rainer rejected the intuitionism of Henri Bergson, which had enjoyed a surge in popularity. His intellectual heroes and models of researchers included Claude Bernard, Rudolf Virchow, and especially Goethe. The physician and left-wing political figure Ion Vitner writes that Rainer's understanding of the human body, heavily influenced by the work of Wilhelm Roux, centered on "life", "movement", "function", and ultimately "ontogenesis", rather than on the "static catalog" of 19th-century anatomy.
+This worldview seeped into Rainer's research, which assumed the existence of a "precise genetic program" in man's somatic development. He centered his attention on correlating the activities of various organs and their understanding as "functional structures". This helped him and his students make groundbreaking discoveries in area such as the dura mater, cranial nerves, the lateral aortic lymph nodes, and the hypophyseal portal system. In his study of spondylopathy, Rainer personally documented the existence of arthritis in the atlas.
+Physician I. Spielmann describes Rainer admiringly as a "polyhistor" with "a passionate image of what truth is". According to a student, the historian of medicine Gheorghe Brătescu, Rainer was an outstanding pedagogue and public speaker, whose anatomy lessons were highly inspirational, but whose neglect for his public appearance could alienate young people. As he writes: "After showing us that medical science is one of observation, but that in practice it involves continuous experimentation, and why it is more of a craft that demands medical instinct, Rainer provided us with the one effective measure to sustain it: uninterrupted self-examination". Vitner also noted Rainer's preference for orality, attributing it to an "extraordinary fear of the written word". Meanwhile, other specialists rejected Rainer's ideas and approach. According to anatomist Victor Papilian (whom Rainer had denounced as a plagiarist), Rainer's was "a sterile and envious school" of self-proclaimed "geniuses". According to Papilian, Rainer moved freely between subjects outside of his competence, including the paleontology of Leonardo da Vinci and the latest discoveries in astronomy.
+Despite his progressive withdrawal from public life, Rainer was slowly being discovered as a public intellectual. In addition to his work at the university, he was again involved with Viața Românească, and, from 1920, was one of the magazine's trustees. He taught kinesiology at the Physical Education Institute, and artistic anatomy at the School of Fine Arts. His lectures in anthropology, hosted by the Physical Education Institute from 1923, are believed to be the oldest form of anthropological education in Romania. Also that year, Rainer made a noted contribution to biological anthropology, publishing his finds on the medieval princely remains dug up in Curtea de Argeș. He pursued other such investigations into the Romanian past, including the craniometry of Michael the Brave and the description of ancient tombs dug up at Turnu Severin.
+Pursuing her own career in Bucharest hospitals, Marta was later a personal physician of Helen of Greece, wife of King Carol II of Romania. In their personal life, the Rainers experienced disappointment: having received her education in Romania, Sofia Rainer left for England, to attend the University of Bristol; she grew estranged from the family after her marriage to an Englishman, Archibald Philip Laing Gordon.
+
+=== Biological anthropology ===

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+Rainer's views eventually placed him at odds with the emerging far-right and antisemitic movement of the 1920s. At a time when the Iași-based National-Christian Defense League (LANC), seeking to purge Jews from Romanian universities, was gaining momentum in Bucharest, a student identified Rainer as a Jew, and issued claims denying merit to his scholarship. According to Vitner, Rainer was the diametrical opposite of a Iași rival, the racist and LANC affiliate Nicolae Paulescu, who stood for "dark and backward scientism". Vitner also recalls that Rainer was even shot at by far-right affiliates, so that he would no longer popularize his "democratic convictions". For a while, Rainer was under the permanent protection of a Gendarme guard.
+Nevertheless, Rainer was himself an active proponent of "hereditary determinism" and eugenics, which he understood as the cornerstone of social welfare policy. As he put it: "In the colorful mass of genes that carry those characteristics we inherit from our forerunners, one may find embedded [...] even our very destinies as men." A committed physiognomist, he believed that "only the phenotype may be influenced, to a certain extent, by our environment and our education." In June 1929, the newspaper Adevărul published one of Rainer's critical essays on the 1923 land reform. In it, Rainer claimed that the system of land reallocation had proved ignorant of eugenic and biopolitical principles. Nevertheless, as readers of his work suggests, Rainer helped preserve a balance in anthropology by also looking into environmental factors, thus questioning the ideological supremacy of scientific racism.
+During the 1920s and early '30s, Rainer was often depressed, believing that his contribution to medical science was largely insignificant. He was also upset that various of his disciples, including Daniel Danielopolu, no longer acknowledged him in their own tracts about the "science of life", which seemed to him a case of plagiarism. He was dividing his time between Bucharest and the resort of Cheia, where he owned a small piece of property.
+Subsequently, Rainer mainly focused on anthropological work and the popularization of anthropological science. Alongside sociologists such as Dimitrie Gusti, Henri H. Stahl, Sabin Manuilă, Mircea Vulcănescu, and Xenia Costa-Foru, he was present on the teaching staff of Veturia Manuilă's private school, where he gave lectures in anatomy to all-female classes preparing for a career in social services. Between 1928 and 1932, Rainer was also involved in Gusti's rural sociology project in the Carpathians. Joining the Gusti team as an anthropometrist, he earned kudos from the scientific community of his day with Enquêtes anthropologiques dans trois villages roumains des Carpathes ("Anthropological Queries in Three Romanian Villages of the Carpathians"). Published in 1937, it remains one of just four testimonials written by members of Gusti's team.
+While on location in Nereju, Drăguș and Fundu Moldovei, he expanded the canon of anthropometry, and began recording blood type, investigated the presence and spread of syphilis, and provided free medical consultations to the peasants. Rainer and his specialist unit, including social hygienists, documented the squalid conditions of rural life. At Fundu Moldovei, where some of the villages were entirely cut off from the outside world, Rainer found that up to 50% of his samples showed contamination with syphilis, forcing him to distribute reserves of neosalvarsan. Stahl, who befriended Rainer in Fundu Moldovei, recalls that the stated purpose of Rainer's visit was an attempt to bridge physiology and sociology: "he did not yet see what that connection might be, but any research should be carried out rigorously, so that, who knows, another generation, more skilled than we are, might come along and use it."
+Rainer's anthropometric work, which used for a permanent record peasant photographs, in large part taken by Milcu, remains a problematic aspect of Gustian sociology. As noted by cultural historian Z. Ornea (based on Stahl's recollections), Rainer "carried out unperturbed his anthropometric research, although he was not an adept of racial science and had no idea of what this anthropometry and blood chemistry [...] were going to be used for. And yet, the great professor of histology would return annually to the villages that were studied by the monographic teams and to carry out this research with no purpose and no finality." Anthropologist Vintilă Mihăilescu also notes that the combination of Gusti's sociology and Rainer's physical anthropology was a "domestic ethnology", "self-referential" and "biased", but nevertheless an "important tool" for later cultural anthropology.
+Rainer also made frequent trips to Western Europe and the Balkans. He was in Sweden during 1930, attending the Physiological Congress as a Physical Education Institute delegate, and paying a visit to the Racial Biology Institute. In 1931 and again in 1933, he was in Greece together with sculptor Mac Constantinescu, gathering material about artistic depictions of humans in the Mycenaean period. In 1935, he lectured at the Romanian Atheneum on the links between Platonism and modern science, being introduced there by zoologist Constantin Kirițescu (one of several popularization conferences Rainer held at the Atheneum, Dalles Hall, and in various provincial cities). He kept his depression under control by taking trips to Turkey, and again to Greece, where he dedicated himself to the study of customs and classical art. Upon his return, Rainer opened his bone collection for the public, as a permanent museum, during the Bucharest International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistorical Archeology, 1937. It comprised some 6,000 bone relics and casts.
+
+=== Final years ===

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+With his activity in academia, Rainer reacted against cronyism, taking a public stand against arbitrary appointments in teaching, and ruining his relationship with the establishment. At a time when the Romanian school of anthropology was being divided between centrists and supporters of the fascist Iron Guard, he was again confronted by the far-right. Rainer was opposed to the fascist youth, whose members instigated in favor of academic censorship in his university curriculum. At one such incident in early 1938, Rainer stood unmoved at his desk as some of his fascist students, including the son of painter Nicolae Tonitza, lit firecrackers and threw eggs in his direction. However, he refused to ask for sanctions against them, and eventually received their letter of apology.
+After 1939, although Romania was formally aligned with Nazi Germany, Rainer spoke out against Nazi racial science. In his public lectures, he dismissed the Nazi claim that cephalic indexes were good predictors of intelligence. His publicized texts, deemed "courageous" by historian Adrian Majuru, accepted the idea of race, but denied the concept of a "pure race", rejected the scientific claims of Aryanism, and argued that European civilization owed its existence to Semitic peoples. According to Rainer, races were rather phenotypical isolates of only one species, the homo sapiens recens, of the same genetic age; there existed no racial hierarchy.
+In 1940, at the height of World War II, Rainer helped establish an anthropological research center of which he was honorary director until his death. That year, he and his institution were admitted into the French Prehistoric Society. In 1941, following Romania's entry, alongside Germany, in the war against the Soviet Union, Rainer obtained that his team of doctors be spared conscription.
+Later that year, Rainer retired from teaching, having reached the age limit. The students demanded and obtained that he be allowed to hold additional lectures in general and human biology, despite Rainer's problematic deafness. Meanwhile, G. T. Popa, who had continued Rainer's anatomical work in Iași between 1928 and 1942, took over his chair in Bucharest. Tensions between Popa and his mentor were already showing in public, with Popa fending off accusations that he had taken credit for Rainer's work on the hypophyseal portal system.
+In May 1943, Rainer was made an honorary member of the Romanian Academy. He continued to publish anthropological contributions, including a 1942 description (with Ion Th. Simionescu as the co-author) of the Cioclovina Skull, the first such paleolithic discovery on Romanian soil. He also contributed a chapter on "the living substance" to Victor Vâlcovici's 1943 synthesis, Materia și viața ("Matter and Life"). He was still an outspoken adversary of the Nazi regime. Maintaining a philosophical correspondence with the medievalist Alphonse Dupront, who was stranded in occupied France, he described the Nazi age as an "empire of suffering", reaffirming his conviction in "the future of mankind". He was among the signers of a letter of protest, addressed to dictator Ion Antonescu, which questioned Romania's participation in the anti-Soviet war.
+During the same months, Rainer diagnosed himself with lung cancer, which was another probable effect of his long exposure to formaldehyde fumes. He tried to hide this from his wife and his friends, claiming his problem was a mere case of paresis. His house was narrowly missed by the April 1944 bombardment, and he had to move into the house of a former assistant, Ion Țurai. He was later moved to Hospital No. 303, where he developed metastasis in the brain.
+Rainer asked to be relocated to his townhouse, where he died on the morning of August 4, 1944. He had predicted the exact time of his death, and written precise instructions for his body's embalming. This occurred just nineteen days before the Palace Coup that ended Romania's alliance with the Axis powers. With the onset of Soviet occupation, Rainer's left-wing stances were highlighted in his official commemoration. Brătescu, who was also a Communist Youth militant, published such homages in the newspaper Tribuna Poporului, and spoke about Rainer at the Students' Society. In the latter address, he emphasized that Rainer had been an antifascist and a reader of political works by Joseph Stalin.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-5.md

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+---
+title: "Francisc Rainer"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:18.807273+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Legacy ==
+Rainer was generally well regarded by the communist regime, which existed in Romania until the 1989 Revolution. His texts on science and society were collected and preserved, against Rainer's final wish that they should all be burned.  Some were carried in the first issues of Contemporanul review, from September 1946. In 1948, the corpus was published by the academy as four volumes, together with critical essays and memoirs edited by Marta Rainer and Mihail Sevastos. However, his anthropological museum, assigned to Popa and later to Milcu, was poorly staffed by the communist supervisors and faced closure. Communist supervisors such as Mihail Roller suspected that Rainer had created the anthropology research center to promote racism, but Milcu was able to convince them otherwise, and even obtained funds for an anthropological study of Romanian ethnogenesis. Despite other political obstacles and the communist rejection of anthropology as an "abstract intellectual game", cultural anthropologist Vasile Caramelea was able to obtain approval for further research, and expanded the institute's contribution to social science.
+A biography of Rainer was published by Ilie Th. Riga, in 1966, at Editura Științifică. It revealed to the public glimpses of Rainer's diaries, which had been preserved by Marta Rainer. Another encomium, signed by Th. Enăchescu, saw print in the academic journal Studii și Cercetări Antropologice in 1970. In 1979, at Editura Eminescu, Brătescu and Mihai Neagu Basarab published Rainer's diaries and letters, which were received with great interest by the intellectual community, including Geo Bogza, Constantin Noica, and Nicolae Steinhardt, but less enthusiastically by the general public. As later noted by Brătescu, regular readers found Rainer's thoughts on "the coherence of the Cosmos" to be "pretentious banalities".
+Rainer continued to be held in high regard after the Revolution, when light was shed on various other aspects of his work. A 2001 exhibit of his skulls collection at Galeria Catacomba made a point of reintroducing his work to the cultural circles of the day. The anthropological center that Rainer helped established was renamed in his honor in 2007. A street in the Cotroceni neighborhood of Bucharest is also named after him.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+Constantin Bălăceanu-Stolnici, "Ștefan Milcu, un model", in Andrei Kozma, Cristiana Glavce, Constantin Bălăceanu-Stolnici (eds.), Antropologie și interdisciplinaritate. Editura Niculescu, Bucharest, 2014, p. 7 ff., ISBN 978-973-748-855-8
+Gheorghe Brătescu, Ce-a fost să fie. Notații autobiografice. Humanitas, Bucharest, 2003, ISBN 973-50-0425-9OCLC 54985202
+Maria Bucur, Eugenie și modernizare în România interbelică. Polirom, Iași, 2005, ISBN 973-681-806-3
+M. Hînganu, "Francisc Iosef Rainer", in Eugen Târcoveanu, Constantin Romanescu, Mihai Lițu (eds.), 125 de ani de învăţământ medical superior la Iași. Ed. Gr. T. Popa, Iași, 2004, ISBN 978-973790-670-0
+Adrian Majuru, "Rainer. Biografia unei personalități universale", in Revista Medicală Română, n.4/2013, p. 281 ff.
+Vintilă Mihăilescu, "The Legacies of a 'Nation-Building Ethnology': Romania", in Dorle Dracklé, Iain R. Edgar, Thomas K. Schippers (eds.), Educational Histories of European Social Anthropology. Berghahn Books, New York City & Oxford, 2003, p. 208 ff., ISBN 1-57181-905-3
+Grigore T. Popa, "Note. Asupra descoperirii sistemului portal hipofizar", in Revista Fundațiilor Regale, n.1/1945, p. 229 ff.
+Ilie Th. Riga, Gheorghe Călin, Dr. Fr. I. Rainer. Editura Științifică, Bucharest, 1966
+Henri H. Stahl, Amintiri și gînduri din vechea școală a monografiilor sociologice. Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1981
+Florentina Țone, "Exercițiu de recuperare: Portretul sanitar al comunei Fundul Moldovei în vara anului 1928", in Transilvania, n.11–12/2012, p. 64 ff.
+Ion Vitner, "Filosofia științifică a Prof. Francisc J. Rainer", in Studii. Revistă de Științe-Filosofie-Arte, I, n.1/1948, p. 100 ff.
+Ion Zamfirescu, "Fr. J. Reiner (1874–1944)", in Revista Română de Sociologie, IX, n.1–2/1998, p. 155 ff.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Nguyen-0.md

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+---
+title: "Jordan Nguyen"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_Nguyen"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:05.919062+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Jordan Nguyen is an Australian biomedical engineer and inventor whose achievements include creating a mind-controlled wheelchair, and whose technological innovations are targeted at improving the lives of those living with physical disabilities. He is a Keynote Speaker and futurist, with strong views on using technology for maximum positive global impact. His work has gained considerable media attention across Australia, featuring on ABC's Catalyst and Channel 10's The Project.
+
+
+== Education ==
+Growing up in Sydney, Australia, Jordan Nguyen attended Normanhurst Boys' High School on the Upper North Shore.
+He went on to the University of Technology Sydney, where he graduated in 2008 with a Bachelor of Engineering and First Class Honours. In 2012, he completed his PhD in Biomedical Engineering, and was awarded into the UTS Chancellor's List. For his PhD project, Nguyen developed a mind-controlled wheelchair for people with high-level physical disability. The wheelchair used cameras to observe its surroundings and provided navigation assistance to the operator whilst scanning the user's retinas as the means of delivering commands.
+
+
+== Work ==
+Nguyen has spoken at a range of events across Australia, including TEDx events across Sydney, Think Inc., Wired For Wonder, and the international Engineering for Medicine and Biology Conference.
+Nguyen has worked as a Software engineer for ResMed, served on the board of directors for Object: Australian Design Centre, and is currently a member of the board for the NSW Medical Technology Knowledge Hub. He has taught project development in Artificial intelligence design, co-founded Remarkable, a technology incubator for disability, and founded Psykinetic, a company aiming to make life-improving technology affordable and accessible.
+Nguyen has worked closely with the Cerebral Palsy Alliance and with a range of individuals with Cerebral palsy. In 2016, ABC's Catalyst broadcast a two-part documentary on his work to increase 13-year-old Riley's physical independence in spite of his cerebral palsy.
+In 2016, Nguyen was nominated for Australian of the Year and awarded one of Australia's most innovative engineers He is currently working on improving the early diagnosis of disabilities in infants.
+
+
+== Personal life ==
+Nguyen's father is Hung Nguyen, the former Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology at UTS and co-director for the Centre of Health Technologies. Nguyen has three younger siblings, a sister and two brothers, who are triplets.
+In his third year of university, Nguyen dived into a friend's swimming pool, hit the bottom, and damaged the muscles in his neck. Although he did not break his spine, Nguyen began exploring the options available to quadriplegics. When he discovered how limited they were, he decided to persevere in engineering to help develop technologies for disabilities.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Opie-0.md

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+---
+title: "June Opie"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Opie"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:08.511315+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alice June Norma Opie (27 June 1924 – 25 August 1999), known as June Opie, was a New Zealand polio survivor, writer, campaigner and clinical psychologist.
+
+
+== Early life and education ==
+Opie was born in New Plymouth on 27 June 1924, and lived as a child in Mōkau, north Taranaki. She was educated at New Plymouth Girls' High School and then qualified in teaching at Auckland Training College and in speech therapy at Christchurch Training College. She worked as a speech therapist for Whāngārei education department, before setting sail for England in 1947, planning to stay two years to teach and to observe speech therapy clinics.
+
+
+== Polio and later life ==
+Opie contracted polio during the voyage, falling ill after two days in London. She was admitted to St Mary's Hospital and spent ten weeks in an iron lung. She then spent over a year in a plaster cast, and a total of two years in the hospital. She learned to walk with crutches and calipers, which was considered "a remarkable achievement given the extent of her initial paralysis". In 1949 she sailed back to New Zealand. At Auckland Hospital she was told she would spend the rest of her life living in institutions, at which point she left the hospital and moved first to her mother's home and then to a friend's spa-hotel in Helensville. In 1954 she graduated from the University of Auckland with a BA in philosophy.
+She worked as a speech therapist and clinical psychologist, despite prejudice about her disability, and then had a research post with the Dadley trust, part of the Crippled Children's Society, before working in a prison and in a boys' welfare home.
+In 1957 she published a memoir Over my dead body, to thank the many hospital staff and others who had helped her during her time at St Mary's. It became an international best-seller and was serialised in New Zealand Woman's Weekly, whose editor said it was "one of the finest books we have ever serialised". She produced a followup Over my dead body: Forty years on in 1996.
+After the stress of fame brought by the book, and a car accident, doctors advised her to take a break. She travelled to England, and settled in Cornwall, where she lived until 1988. She supported herself by writing book reviews and magazine articles, and in 1986 published a biography of composer Priaulx Rainier: Come and Listen to the Stars Singing: Priaulx Rainier – A Pictorial Biography. She travelled widely, driving alone through Europe and the Middle East, including reaching Petra on horseback.
+She campaigned for disability rights, was one of the founders in 1971 of the Association of Disabled Professionals, and spoke at Speakers' Corner in Hyde Park to oppose, successfully, Margaret Thatcher's government's plan to tax Mobility Allowance.
+After 1988 she divided her time between Australia, where she had a home in New South Wales, and New Zealand, where she stayed with friends. Opie died from cancer on 25 August 1999, in Bulahdelah, New South Wales, Australia.
+
+
+== Legacy ==
+Opie established the June Opie Rose Trust in 1961, using the proceeds from the sale of a rose which had been named in her honour by Wilhelm Kordes II. The trust supported young disabled people with grants to buy a car or wheelchair, or for a mortgage. The trust was later combined with the Alan Cook Memorial Trust to form the Cook Opie Trust, which supports the purchase of IT equipment for people with physical disabilities in New Zealand.
+The University of Auckland awards an annual June Opie Memorial Fellowship to offer financial support to a student with a severe disability.
+
+
+== Selected publications ==
+Opie, June (1957). Over my dead body. Methuen.
+Opie, June (1988). Come and Listen to the Stars Singing: Priaulx Rainier – A Pictorial Biography. Alison Hodge. ISBN 9780906720172.
+Opie, June (1996). Over my dead body: Forty years on. Raupo. ISBN 978-0790004884.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Pontryagin-0.md

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+---
+title: "Lev Pontryagin"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Pontryagin"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:12.762848+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lev Semyonovich Pontryagin (Russian: Лев Семёнович Понтрягин, also written Pontriagin or Pontrjagin, first name sometimes anglicized as Leon) (3 September 1908 – 3 May 1988) was a Soviet mathematician. Completely blind from the age of 14, he made major discoveries in a number of fields of mathematics, including algebraic topology, differential topology and optimal control.
+
+
+== Early life and career ==
+Pontryagin was born in Moscow and lost his eyesight completely due to an unsuccessful eye surgery after a primus stove explosion when he was 14. His mother Tatyana Andreyevna, who did not know mathematical symbols, read mathematical books and papers (notably those of Heinz Hopf, J. H. C. Whitehead, and Hassler Whitney) to him, and later worked as his secretary. His mother used alternative names for math symbols, such as "tails up" for the set-union symbol 
+  
+    
+      
+        ∪
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \cup }
+  
+.
+In 1925 he entered Moscow State University, where he was strongly influenced by the lectures of Pavel Alexandrov who would become his doctoral thesis advisor. After graduating in 1929, he obtained a position at Moscow State University. In 1934 he joined the Steklov Institute in Moscow. In 1970 he became vice president of the International Mathematical Union.
+
+
+== Work ==
+Pontryagin worked on duality theory for homology while still a student. He went on to lay foundations for the abstract theory of the Fourier transform, now called Pontryagin duality. Using these tools, he was able to solve the case of Hilbert's fifth problem for abelian groups in 1934.
+In 1935, he was able to compute the homology groups of the classical compact Lie groups, which he would later call his greatest achievement.
+With René Thom, he is regarded as one of the co-founders of cobordism theory, and co-discoverers of the central idea of this theory, that framed cobordism and stable homotopy are equivalent. This led to the introduction around 1940 of a theory of certain characteristic classes, now called Pontryagin classes, designed to vanish on a manifold that is a boundary. 
+In 1942 he introduced the cohomology operations now called Pontryagin squares. Moreover, in operator theory there are specific instances of Krein spaces called Pontryagin spaces.
+Starting in 1952, he worked in optimal control theory. His maximum principle is fundamental to the modern theory of optimization. He also introduced the idea of a bang–bang principle, to describe situations where the applied control at each moment is either the maximum positive 'steer', or the maximum negative 'steer'.
+Pontryagin authored several influential monographs as well as popular textbooks in mathematics.
+
+Pontryagin's students include Dmitri Anosov, Vladimir Boltyansky, Revaz Gamkrelidze, Yevgeny Mishchenko, Mikhail Postnikov, Vladimir Rokhlin, and Mikhail Zelikin.
+
+
+== Controversy and antisemitism allegations ==
+Pontryagin participated in a few notorious political campaigns in the Soviet Union. In 1930, he and several other young members of the Moscow Mathematical Society publicly denounced as counter-revolutionary the Society's head Dmitri Egorov, who openly supported the Russian Orthodox Church and had recently been arrested. They then proceeded to follow their plan of reorganizing the Society. 
+Pontryagin was accused of anti-Semitism on several occasions. For example, he attacked Nathan Jacobson for being a "mediocre scientist" representing the "Zionism movement", while both men were vice-presidents of the International Mathematical Union. When a prominent Soviet Jewish mathematician, Grigory Margulis, was selected by the IMU to receive the Fields Medal at the upcoming 1978 ICM, Pontryagin, who was a member of the executive committee of the IMU at the time, vigorously objected. Although the IMU stood by its decision to award Margulis the Fields Medal, Margulis was denied a Soviet exit visa by the Soviet authorities and was unable to attend the 1978 ICM in person. 
+Pontryagin rejected charges of antisemitism in an article published in Science in 1979. In his memoirs Pontryagin claims that he struggled with Zionism, which he considered a form of racism.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+Pontrjagin, L. (1939), Topological Groups, Princeton Mathematical Series, vol. 2, Princeton: Princeton University Press, MR 0000265 (translated by Emma Lehmer)
+1952 - Foundations of Combinatorial Topology (translated from 1947 original Russian edition) 2015 Dover reprint
+1962 - Ordinary Differential Equations (translated from Russian by Leonas Kacinskas and Walter B. Counts)
+Pontryagin, L. S. (15 May 2014). Ordinary Differential Equations: Adiwes International Series in Mathematics. Elsevier. ISBN 9781483156491.
+1962 - with Vladimir Boltyansky, Revaz Gamkrelidze, and Evgenii Mishchenko: The Mathematical Theory of Optimal Processes
+
+
+== See also ==
+Andronov–Pontryagin criterion for planar dynamical systems
+Kuratowski's theorem, also called the Pontryagin–Kuratowski theorem, on planar graphs
+Pontryagin class
+Pontryagin duality
+Pontryagin's maximum principle
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Lev Pontryagin at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
+Autobiography of Pontryagin (in Russian)
+Kutateladze S. S., Sic Transit... or Heroes, Villains, and Rights of Memory.
+Kutateladze S. S., The Tragedy of Mathematics in Russia

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mildred_K._Nobles-0.md

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+---
+title: "Mildred K. Nobles"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mildred_K._Nobles"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:07.361753+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mildred Katherine Nobles (7 June 1903 – 26 March 1993) was a Canadian mycologist. Born in Colborne, Northumberland County, Ontario, the only surviving child of William Harold and Ethel Nobles, she spent her early life at the family farm in Vernonville. She was an authority of the culture and identification of wood-rotting fungi, and developed a numerical identification system today known as the "Nobles Species Code". Nobles died in Ottawa, Ontario after a short illness. She was awarded the "Distinguished Mycologist" award, along with Rolf Singer, by the Mycological Society of America in 1986.
+
+
+== Education ==
+Mildred's family relocated to Regina Saskatchewan due to her father's poor health, where she attended public schools and the Collegiate Institute. She later taught in multigrade schools around Regina.
+In the fall of 1927, Mildred entered Queen's University then later graduated in May 1929 with a B.A. (Honours) in Biology and Chemistry. She dreamt of working at the Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa so she applied for a summer student position. Initially, she was rejected during her interview due to being a woman however, she ended up getting hired later that day after being introduced to the mycologist Dr. Irene Mounce who advocated for her hire. Working for the summer under Dr. Mounce kicked off her career focus in mycology.
+Mildred then attended graduate school at the University of Toronto. Her graduate studies were carried out under H.S. Jackson and her 1931 M.A. thesis was titled The fungus flora of some local soils. In 1935 she completed her Ph.D. after writing a dissertation on Conidial cycles in the Thelephoraceae.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Nobles' mycological career was spent with the Canadian Department of Agriculture in Ottawa. In 1935 she was appointed Assistant Botanist and Plant Pathologist, and by 1959 she became Principal Mycologist. Despite being born with spina bifida Nobles was not deterred from doing fieldwork and traveling.
+Nobles undertook pioneering research in identifying wood-destroying fungi and was eventually established as a world authority in this field. In 1948 she published a manual for the identification of wood-destroying fungi based on their cultural characteristics. Each species had a numerical code known as Nobles' species code. This key and an identification service was used for investigations in forest management by Forest Pathologists across Canada and contributed to the solution of many decay problems.
+During the 1940s and 1950s Nobles' lab was the centre for identification of cultured wood-destroying fungi for the Canadian Forestry Service. The goal was to determine the quantity and quality of wood decay occurring in forests across Canada.
+In 1965 Nobles published a multiple choice key to replace her 1948 publication to further simplify the identification of wood decay fungi species. This publication alone has been cited in over 200 papers. During her career, she built and maintained over 3000 cultures of 600 different wood-destroying fungi species. She retired from the department in 1969. Nobles died March 26, 1993, after a brief illness.
+
+
+== Honours and awards ==
+Midred K. Nobles was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1963, awarded the George Lawson Medal in 1972 by the Canadian Botanical Association, and the Mycological Society of America awarded her the title Distinguished Mycologist in 1986.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+Nobles MK. (1965). "Identification of cultures of wood-inhabiting Hymenomycetes". Canadian Journal of Botany. 43 (9): 1097–1139. Bibcode:1965CaJB...43.1097N. doi:10.1139/b65-126.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-0.md

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+---
+title: "Sextil Pușcariu"
+chunk: 1/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:14.223615+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Sextil Iosif Pușcariu (4 January 1877 – 5 May 1948) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian linguist and philologist, also known for his involvement in administrative and party politics. A native of Brașov educated in France and Germany, he was active in Transylvania's cultural life and worked as a Romanian-language professor at Czernowitz in the Duchy of Bukovina. He began his scholarly career in 1906, when he was tasked with compiling a general dictionary of the Romanian language. Interested in a variety of disciplines, Pușcariu published widely and brought new ideas into Romania, as well as overseeing two monumental projects related to the language: advancing his dictionary to the letter "L", and creating an atlas of the language.
+As a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I, Pușcariu embraced the creation of Greater Romania at its conclusion, heading the department of foreign affairs in the provisional government representing Bukovina Romanians. He was also the founder of Glasul Bucovinei, a newspaper which helped channel Romanian nationalism in that region, and, with Ion Nistor, oversaw Bukovina's union with Romania in November 1918. Under Romanian rule, he led efforts to create a new university in Cluj, where he also set up a research institute in the same city dedicated to the study of his native language. He promoted interdisciplinary approaches, primarily by attaching a sociological focus to his studies on linguistics.
+Though committed to ethnic nationalism and cultural conservatism, Pușcariu embraced Europeanism during his stint at the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. He radicalized himself during the 1920s and '30s, first by seeking to impose a Jewish quota at his university, and then by more openly supporting fascist politics. Throughout much of the interval, he chaired the Romanian Orthodox Fraternity, which identified with the mainstream church and sometimes clashed with Transylvanian Greek Catholics. With the onset of World War II, he moved to Berlin, where he led a propaganda institute meant to promote Romanian culture in the German Reich, as well as counter Hungary's justifications for absorbing Northern Transylvania in the wake of the Second Vienna Award in 1940.
+Pușcariu raised suspicion from his government employers, who disliked his lavish spending and his continued involvement with the rebellious Iron Guard. He was ultimately pushed to resign in 1943. After his return home, his health deteriorated while the authorities of the new Communist regime initiated legal proceedings. He refused to escape Romania and died at Bran, before he could be sentenced. Pușcariu's work was largely shunned for two decades, and his scholarly legacy was fully revived following the collapse of the regime in 1989.
+
+== Biography ==
+
+=== Origins and early life ===
+According to Pușcariu's own research, the family originated in Maramureș, spending time in Moldavia before ending up in southern Transylvania. Named Iuga in Maramureș, their surname was then Pușcașu, reportedly an occupational surname marking their hunting skills (from pușcaș, meaning "shooter"), before the final form was selected at the suggestion of Bishop Ioan Lemeni (served 1833–1850). In the latter part of the 18th century, one Iuga Pușcașu left Țara Făgărașului and arrived at Sohodol village near Bran; it was from two of his sons that the prominent family was descended. Sextil's grandfather Ioan Pușcașu, a priest from Sohodol, had five sons and five daughters, providing all of them a rigorous education. One son was Ioan Pușcariu, who became a noted jurist and historian, while another, Ilarion, left his mark as a theologian. Sextil's cousins included Emil, a surgeon, who married a sister of the literary historian Ovid Densusianu.
+Sextil's father Iosif (1835–1923) studied at the Transylvanian Saxon high school in Brașov (known then as Brassó and Kronstadt) before being sent to learn Theology in Sibiu. Metropolitan Andrei Șaguna observed that Iosif lacked a priestly vocation and gave him permission to leave the seminary in order to study Law. After graduating from the Saxon Law Academy, where he published a humor newsletter, the elder Pușcariu served as a judge in Zărnești from 1848 to 1867, running his courtroom in Romanian. Upon marrying Eufrosina Ciurcu, who came from a merchant family, he moved to Brașov to work as a lawyer. Applying his literary talent, he founded Cocoșul Roșu, a humor magazine, editing it between 1874 and 1878 and in 1881.
+
+Born in Brașov as Iosif and Eufosina's sixth son, Sextil Iosif Pușcariu would later have two more brothers and a sister. He attended the Romanian high school in his native city, where he picked up Latin and history from teacher Vasile Goldiș, before going to Germany and France for his undergraduate and doctoral degrees. Trained in the spirit of Positivism, he was one of the first Romanian scholars to make a transition from philology to methodical linguistics. At the University of Paris, between 1899 and 1901, he studied under Gaston Paris, while his doctoral adviser at Leipzig University was Gustav Weigand. Weigand introduced him to a Dutch female student of Romanian, whom Pușcariu would later describe as his first love. He also studied at the University of Vienna, teaching there in 1904.
+As a political journalist, Pușcariu joined the informal group, formed around Octavian Goga, Octavian Codru Tăslăuanu, and Ghiță Pop, and known as tinerii oțeliți ("inuered youth"). The main focus of their criticism was the more conservative Romanian National Party (PNR). Through 1901, Pușcariu's writings regularly appeared in Gazeta de Transilvania. He also made important contributions to Luceafărul, headed by Tăslăuanu (whom he had befriended as a schoolmate in Brașov), while it appeared both in Budapest and, after 1906, in Sibiu. In 1902, he was elected a corresponding member of ASTRA's literary section. During the remainder of his life, he undertook activities related to the society, although at varying paces: active that decade in its philological efforts, he found himself largely overtaken by other activities in the 1910s, only to organize a series of conferences starting in the mid-1920s in Transylvania's towns, both large and small.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-1.md

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+title: "Sextil Pușcariu"
+chunk: 2/9
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+category: "reference"
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+
+=== Debut in academia and World War I experience ===
+Pușcariu made frequent crossings into the Kingdom of Romania (the "Old Kingdom", in later reference). He was elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1906, becoming a titular member in 1914. He also became one of several Transylvanian affiliates of Sămănătorul, the Romanian traditionalist and ethnic nationalist review in Bucharest, finding his ideas on linguistics and history challenged by Densusianu and Ion Aurel Candrea. Pușcariu's scholarly work was featured in the mainstream review Convorbiri Literare, signaling the latter's own transition toward Sămănătorist nationalism.
+While at Leipzig, he came into contact with Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, under whom he began his university career and who offered him a post at the University of Fribourg. Pușcariu declined, citing a wish to be closer to the Romanian lands. In 1903 Pușcariu began courting Leonora Maria Dima. In keeping up with the Pușcariu family tradition, which favored consanguine marriage, she was his mother's grandniece. Leonora had studied music in Brașov; her father, a mathematics teacher at Pușcariu's high school, was the elder brother of composer Gheorghe Dima. They were married on 5 September 1905, selecting academics Ion Bianu and Virgil Cioflec as their godfathers. Leonora's dowry included a villa in Bran, which became Sextil's favorite residence. The Pușcarius went on to have three children. At various later junctions, Sextil looked back on his conjugal life as having greatly improved his life, for being a "perfect union of souls".
+In 1906, following earlier attempts by August Treboniu Laurian, I. C. Massim, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, and Alexandru Philippide, the Romanian Academy assigned Pușcariu the task of writing a Dictionary of the Romanian Language, with the latter two personally giving him their notes. Pușcariu took on the challenge at a difficult time: Romania's aging King, Carol I, had asked Philippide to remove all entries for neologisms, causing the latter to resign in protest. Pușcariu taught Romanian language and literature at Czernowitz University in the Duchy of Bukovina from 1906. He replaced the retiring Ion G. Sbiera, and eventually rose to become dean of the Literature and Philosophy Faculty. This period saw him forming a close bond with philologist Alexe Procopovici and historian Ion Nistor. In September 1911, he visited the University of Iași, in Romania, alongside Mathias Friedwagner; he forged a friendship with A. C. Cuza, the jurist and anti-Semitic doctrinaire.
+While in Czernowitz (Romanian name: Cernăuți), Pușcariu refused the chance to teach at Vienna, as he would not have been able to lecture in Romanian, at the same time declaring his adherence to Pan-Germanism. The outbreak of World War I caught Pușcariu in Techirghiol, Romania. A reserve officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army, and overall an Austrian patriot, he rushed back to be mobilized in Brașov, and was later ordered to Cisnădie. In September 1914, after a liturgical music concert in the Sibiu Lutheran Cathedral, he met Onisifor Ghibu, whom he had known since 1905, and who records the deep concern the ongoing conflict was causing Pușcariu. Subsequently, Pușcariu was stationed on the Italian Front. There, his sentiments of loyalty toward the Empire conflicted with the Italophilia he felt toward a country whose inhabitants he saw as the natural allies of the Romanians, a fellow Latin people. Czernowitz, the site of his residence, where he kept his manuscripts and materials, fell to the Imperial Russian Army in the first half of the war. From February to June 1916, he was intermittently hospitalized for eye problems, first at Trieste, where he met Iuliu Maniu, and later at Innsbruck, followed by Brașov.
+When the Romanian Kingdom entered the war in August 1916, on the side of the Triple Entente, he was either at home on leave or at the front, but in either case continued his research. Nevertheless, the situation forced him to interrupt work on the Dictionary of the Romanian Language he had started in 1906. The following January, he began keeping a diary, writing fairly regular entries until his wife's death in 1944. While on the front in early 1918 dealing with military accounting and supplies, he worked on a glossary of the Istro-Romanian language. His older brother, engineer Anton Pușcariu, escaped Austria-Hungary and joined the Romanian Army, dying of typhus at the garrison of Bacău in 1917.
+
+=== Bukovina's unification ===

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+By October 1918, Pușcariu had regained Bukovina, joining the Romanian nationalist caucus forming in that region. As reported by eyewitness Teodor Bălan, his presence there was a "great fortune" for Romanian groups, since Pușcariu indicated the "straight path ahead" for his conationals. On 12 October, he founded the newspaper Glasul Bucovinei, which had as its limited initial goal the protection of rights for the province's Romanians, who formed an overall minority of the local population. However, Glasul also preserved a hidden agenda, namely: "to shatter the respect and fear inspired by the Austrian Empire and to militate for the ideal of pan-Romanian unification." Events quickly evolved, and Pușcariu served as a vice president of the Romanian National Council (CNR) that worked for the union of Bukovina with Romania. This initiative pitted Pușcariu against the loyalist Aurel Onciul, who vetoed all projects for Bukovina's merger with Romania.
+Pușcariu was also co-opted by the General Congress of Bukovina, a CNR body which claimed to be the provisional parliament of Bukovina, in opposition to the Ukrainian assembly; from 27 October 1918, he served on its foreign policy committee, alongside Alexandru Hurmuzachi and Gheorghe Grigorovici. On 9 November, he helped Ilie Lazăr organize armed resistance to the Ukrainian Galician Army, which had occupied Czernowitz. These irregulars held their ground until the arrival of Romanian regulars under Iacob Zadig on 11 November. One day later, Pușcariu, who relinquished his General Congress seat, was sworn in as secretary of state for foreign affairs, under President Iancu Flondor, serving in this capacity to 18 December, when the cabinet transferred powers to a regular Romanian administration. On 17 November, he left on official mission to Iași, addressing thanks for Zadig's intervention. It was here that, on 22 November, he resumed contacts with Nistor, head of the Romanian Mission in Bukovina, with whom he reached an agreement on the recognition of the union. He networked with Romanian nationalists in both Transylvania and the Moldavian Democratic Republic (or Bessarabia). He advised the former "never to reach a compromise with the Hungarians", while announcing the latter that Bukovina had become a Romanian province.
+Pușcariu also met Romanian Premier Ion I. C. Brătianu, who advised him to push ahead with the union, noting that unification needed to be demanded and enacted without waiting on international arbitration. Pușcariu reports that all of Brătianu's decisions on this issue were pre-approved by a bedridden Alexandru C. Constantinescu. Pușcariu and Nistor traveled back to Czernowitz, then known as Cernăuți, where Nistor joined the CNR and drafted the act of union. This document was in fact co-written by Duca and Constantinescu and Ion G. Duca—as Duca himself testified in his memoirs.
+During his absence, Glasul Bucovinei was reorganized into an official daily of the CNR, with Pușcariu as manager. After this recognition, he worked very closely with Nistor, helping him organize the radically nationalistic Democratic Unionist group from a base of Glasul intellectuals. However, he was himself inactive politically, and later stated that he had grown disillusioned with politics. He remained more involved in literary matters. In January 1919, writing in Glasul, Pușcariu penned a strongly positive review of Poemele luminii, the debut volume by Transylvania's Lucian Blaga, helping launch his career. Transylvania united with Romania on 1 December 1918, but Pușcariu was unable to attend the festivities at Alba Iulia, being sick in bed with a case of influenza he had caught at Iași. Disease had also prevented him from welcoming in Cernăuți a Bessarabian unionist delegation on 28 November.

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+=== University administrator and anti-Semitic campaign ===
+Following these events, which marked the culmination of Greater Romania's creation, Pușcariu could return to Transylvania, being named as the first rector of the Superior Dacia University in Cluj. A Franz Joseph University already existed in the city, but its Hungarian faculty departed as a bloc and an entirely new professorial corps and administrative structure were required. The revamped university had two founders, the idealistic Ghibu and the more practical Pușcariu. Chosen by the Directing Council, Transylvania's provisional government, the latter headed a twenty-man committee charged with the seemingly insurmountable task of setting up four faculties (Literature and Philosophy, Medicine, Science, Law) and recruiting professors within a few months. As a native Transylvanian, Pușcariu was familiar with the Austro-Hungarian milieu; he also had relations with academics in Western Europe and was close to a number of figures in the Old Kingdom, especially Nicolae Iorga. Set up in July 1919, the committee included twelve professors from the Universities of Iași and Bucharest, and eight Transylvanians.
+At the time, Pușcariu recommended that intellectuals in Bukovina and Transylvania steer away from any involvement in the Old Kingdom's party politics. Despite pressures from the PNR, he announced a strictly apolitical hiring process, only making an exception for Maniu's brother Cassiu, a law professor he found "slightly ridiculous, but friendly and discreet". The new professors were mainly young, but also included a contingent of established Old Kingdom academics and Romanians working abroad, as well as foreign scholars. Pușcariu had insisted his formal appointment come from within the university rather than the government, which allowed him to deny Iași and Bucharest a greater say in the proceedings. He also advocated against extending to Cluj the same set of laws that governed the Old Kingdom institutions, as he found them unsatisfactory; the laws were not applied uniformly until 1925. Notably, Pușcariu hired Gheorghe Bogdan-Duică over Eugen Lovinescu; the former was, in addition to being a Transylvanian and a scholar of some local renown, Iorga's brother-in-law. It was Pușcariu's idea to bring in foreign academics, mainly from France, including geographer Emmanuel de Martonne, who drew Romania's expanded borders at the Paris Peace Conference; and Jules Guyart of the University of Lyon, who became the medical faculty's first head. Courses began in November 1919, with a grand opening held the following February. Cluj had suddenly become a visible European academic center. Pușcariu left the rectorate in 1920.
+Although he had joined the Freemasonry, Pușcariu remained committed to his identity as a member of the Romanian Orthodox Church; he stood out among his generation for fusing the national and religious identity into a culturally conservative mold. In his Romanian literature history tract of 1921 (Istoria literaturii române. Epoca veche), he concluded that "our Orthodoxism was the most significant event when it came to our cultural development". This, he noted at the time, had both positive and negative effects: Romanians were absent from the Renaissance, but were also free to develop their own culture, one of "measure and harmony". The work was critical of monasticism, especially as embodied in the Catholic Church, alleging that "monasteries have always fostered internationalism". Istoria literaturii..., "very popular with students and men of culture", and heavily influenced by Iorga, made a point of discovering or reclaiming early contributions to fine writing in the medieval principalities. According to literary historian Eugen Negrici, this effort was unconvincing: "The aesthetic gamble is a meek one, and [Pușcariu's] critical insights and interpretative newness are both frail. [...] However, the imposing illustrations and the openness [...] toward other forms of ancient art (architecture, painting, embroidery, miniatures, etc.) are not without consequences. Such rich and motley environs become a resonance box for the hardly perceptible sound of an actual literature. We may now fool ourselves that this literature is one of force and consistency".
+An anti-Semitic campaign swept Romanian universities in the wake of World War I. In this context, at the time the 1920–1921 school year opened, Pușcariu expressed his concern that Jews were disproportionately represented in the Medicine and Law faculties. He suggested they congregated toward those subjects because of surer and more profitable career prospects, given the lack of doctors, administrators and magistrates in Romania's newly acquired provinces. A Jewish quota was enacted in the Kingdom of Hungary in September 1920, leading to a surge in Hungarian Jewish enrollment at Cluj. Prompted by the medical faculty's leadership, the university senate discussed introduction of a similar policy. In early 1921, students, later joined by cultural figures, began demanding that sociologist Eugen Ehrlich be fired from his professorship at Cernăuți. Ehrlich was a Jew who had converted to Catholicism, but the primary motivating factor in his firing appears to have been a campaign to fill teaching posts with ethnic Romanians. Ehrlich, who was rector in 1906–1907, had been instrumental in Pușcariu's being hired at the university. However, no one intervened on his behalf; not even Pușcariu tried to stop his benefactor's dismissal.
+By 1922–1923, as a nationalist, anti-democratic and anti-Semitic student movement centered around Corneliu Zelea Codreanu gained ascendancy, he was not at the forefront of its radical promoters, but rather figured among a group of moderate, respectable academic supporters who countenanced the agitators and lent them an air of general acceptance. In March 1923, he wrote an article applauding the 15,000 student movement participants; praising the cohesion they showed, rare for Romania, he claimed they represented "a healthy and spontaneous reaction of the national preservation instinct". Addressing students from Bukovina, he called the Jewish quota something all those who wished the country well would endorse, for "in our country [which we] gained with so many sacrifices, we no longer have air to breathe; the invasion of the foreign element stifles us, chokes us".
+
+=== Museum of the Romanian Language ===

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+Between 1922 and 1926, Pușcariu served as part of Romania's delegation to the League of Nations. This allowed him to leave the country regularly, and also cemented his friendship with diplomat Nicolae Titulescu, whom Pușcariu called "charming". Together, they defended the Romanian cause against property claims made in Transylvania by Hungarian citizens. In 1923, Pușcariu also helped art historian George Oprescu take office art the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, of which he himself was a member. The following year, Pușcariu put out Cultura magazine from Cluj. It enshrined his affiliation to Europeanism and support for the League of Nations.
+From around 1922, Pușcariu approached various intellectuals and politicians with the goal of creating new institutions for the preservation of cultural identity. With Vintilă Brătianu and Nistor, he set up the Brătianu Foundation, which financed a network of summer schools for adult education. With Iorga's assistance, Pușcariu established the Museum of the Romanian Language, a research institute he had conceived in early 1917, while on the front. The large group of collaborators and students who advanced the language as an academic discipline came to be known as the Cluj School of linguistics. Rather than confine himself to a narrow field, Pușcariu incorporated linguistics, history, sociology and even literature into his studies, constantly referring to research in other disciplines. For instance, in 1927 he penned articles recording how the Romanian War of Independence impacted Transylvanian society, as well as an overview of Hungarian borrowings in Romanian, which saw print in Pásztortűz.
+Pușcariu introduced Romanian linguistics to the theories of Meyer-Lübke, particularly as they related to the form of Latin that underpins the language; to Matteo Bartoli's ideas about the isolated and peripheral position of the language; and to Jules Gilliéron's dialectological notions. In terms of Romanian scholars, he incorporated the archaeological findings of Vasile Pârvan, as well as the sociological and folkloric studies of Simion Mehedinți and Romulus Vuia. His respect for their opinions led him to draw upon the work of Densusianu, Candrea, Constantin C. Giurescu, Iorgu Iordan, Alexandru Rosetti, Alexandru Graur, and others. He had over eight hundred articles and numerous books to his name. In 1930, he helped organize a Folklore Archive within the museum building; led by Ion Mușlea, this was the country's first institution dedicated exclusively to the study of its folklore tradition.
+The museum, associated with the University of Cluj (soon renamed after King Ferdinand I), had as its goals the spread of popular interest in studying and cultivating the Romanian language, the training of Romanian philologists and the publication of monographs, special dictionaries, glossaries and bibliographies. The museum ended up being the nerve center of the great dictionary project, resumed from the 1906 attempts; this project was headed by Constantin Lacea and Theodor Capidan, who in turn were assisted by numerous other linguists in different stages. Lexical and etymological notes were presented in weekly meetings and later published in the museum's Dacoromania magazine, and in this way, practically all active members of the museum contributed to the Dictionary. Pușcariu and his team worked for 43 years, until 1948, completing some 60,000 definitions across over 3,000 pages covering up to the letter "L".
+
+The museum's second great project was a Romanian Linguistic Atlas, conceived and led by Pușcariu but principally executed by two of his associates, Sever Pop and Emil Petrovici. The pair prepared fieldwork in 398 localities, undertook the work between 1930 and 1938, thereafter drawing the maps. By 1943, there had appeared four volumes encompassing Pop's research and three from Petrovici, as well as a volume on dialect texts. Finally, Dacoromania appeared from 1921 to 1948, in eleven enormous volumes totaling some 9,000 pages. The magazine contained studies, articles, notes and reviews, mainly on linguistics (lexicology, dialectology, linguistic geography, language history, onomastics, general linguistics, grammar, phonetics and phonology) and philology, as well as research on history and literary criticism, cultural history and folklore. Each edition included a bibliography that systematically recorded writings on linguistics, philology, folklore, ethnography and literature, connected to Romanian language, culture and literature, both domestically and abroad.
+Three generations of scholars worked on the magazine, with most articles presented at weekly meetings. Pușcariu, in an obituary for Nicolae Drăganu, commented on these sessions' usefulness, noting how the members would benefit from constructive criticism, "sometimes pointed, mainly intelligent, but never bitter, for the critical spirit never originated from a pleasure to destroy, but from a desire to complete, while the joy in another's discovery was always greater than the temptation to persist in a mistake". Despite remaining "enthralled by Latin elements" in onomastics, Pușcariu announced in Dacoromania his conclusion that no Romanian surname had been traced back to a Roman source, contradicting Philippide in this respect. More controversially, the journal segregated its contributors into income classes: while most received fees of 150 lei, Iorga's articles would fetch some 1,000 per page. The institution also provided stable employment to Pușcariu family members, including daughter Lia, daughter-in-law Maria, and nephew Vasile Bologa.

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+=== FOR and Iron Guard ===
+By 1931, Lia Pușcariu had married Grigore Manoilescu, brother of the influential ideologue, Mihail Manoilescu. Encouraged by his Manoilescu in-laws, Pușcariu was briefly a sympathizer of Iorga's Democratic Nationalist Party, and spent some time as director of its regional mouthpiece, Drumul Nou. He is also credited as the newspaper's founder, while schoolteacher Ioan Costea was its editor. The circle he created around him was noted for enthusiastically supporting Romania's authoritarian King, Carol II. Pușcariu also attempted to go into national politics as a university representative in the Senate of Romania. He presented himself in the June 1931 election, but lost to the more popular Nicolae Bănescu; this conflict prolonged itself into a local scandal, with Pușcariu accusing Bănescu of opportunism. Pușcariu had another row with historian Alexandru Lapedatu, whom he challenged to a duel with swords in October 1931. That outcome was eventually averted when they agreed to reconcile. In tandem, Pușcariu was becoming critical of Iorga's behavior—already in 1923, he complained that his former mentor was "dictatorial".
+In keeping with his Orthodoxist agenda, Pușcariu also helped Nicolae Ivan set up the Romanian Orthodox Fraternity (FOR), which, as noted by historian Lucian Nastasă, was under the influence of far-right groups. It existed as a counterpart and rival of AGRU, a lay organization for the Transylvanian Greek Catholic Church. Allegedly, in 1934 he gave orders to boycott public ceremonies marking AGRU's anniversary, though he allowed his colleagues to attend those events where Carol II was also present. Pușcariu served as FOR president from March 1933 to 1939, and hosting its celebratory Congress in October 1935. Around that date, the FOR intervened in trilateral negotiations between Romania, Hungary, and the Holy See, asking for the Concordat of 1932 to be annulled, and demanding that Hungary immediately hand over Emanoil Gojdu's estate. At another Congress, in 1937, he repeated the claim that "our Orthodoxy is our only criterion for differentiation, for we are the only Latin people of the Orthodox faith". His anti-Catholic rhetoric was particularly strong, forcing government to apologize for tolerating the display.
+Immersing himself in the cultural politics of Transylvania, Pușcariu resumed his links with ASTRA, attending its most notorious congress, held in September 1934 at Târgu Mureș. It was here that he presented his paper on "literary perspectives of the era". While his work again took him away from ASTRA in the 1940s, it was to its Brașov chapter's president that he sent the manuscript of his history of the city in 1947. In March 1933, Pușcariu's work was being assessed by government officials in Fascist Italy. This followed suggestions made by historian Francesco Salata, who wanted Pușcariu to receive an Italian state decoration, and who noted that Bartoli had been similarly honored in Romania. The proposal was dropped when it became clear that Pușcariu was opposing Hungarian revisionism, while Italy condoned it.
+During the mid 1930s, Pușcariu became a manifest supporter of Codreanu's semi-legal fascist movement, the Iron Guard (or "Legionary Movement"). Records tend to show that he did not formally register with the Guard itself, although his name appears among the card-carrying members of the Guard's political front, the "Everything for the Country" party. He also signed his name to a list of intellectuals who "believed in Legionary victory". On the occasion, he noted that the Guard had been the surest way of countering a "Jewish movement" at university, but also professed his admiration for Codreanu's "sincere religiosity" and "virtue". Pușcariu was additionally noted for his eulogy upon the deaths of Ion Moța and Vasile Marin, Guardist volunteers among the Spanish Nationalists. He depicted himself as a pious and old supplicant at their grave, and expressed gratitude that a "new spirit sweeps over our country." A contributor to the Guardist magazine, Buna Vestire, he added his voice to the campaign against modernist literature and "Jewish influence" in Romanian letters. The Nazi German consul in Cluj noted that Pușcariu's "decidedly right-wing orientation" may have prevented his obtaining the rectorate or even a post in the academic senate at the latest university elections.
+Under the authoritarian regime established by Carol as the "National Renaissance Front", Romania felt the mounting pressure of Hungarian revisionism. During the FOR rally in November 1937, Pușcariu praised the king for building a chain of forts in Bihor County, on Romania's border with Hungary. At the time, he argued that the Diocese of Oradea was similarly serving as bulwark against foreign infiltration. At the next congress, in November 1938, Pușcariu ordered a toning-down of anti-Catholicism. In a resolution adopted by the group, reference was made to "racial cohesion" between the Greek Catholics and the Orthodox, while still calling on the former to embrace Orthodoxy.

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+=== Berlin institute ===
+A year into World War II, Hungarian territorial demands received backing from Germany, limiting Romania's choices. In August 1940, Pușcariu attended a crisis meeting of Transylvanian notabilities. He took a conciliatory position, supporting a voluntary exchange of territories with Hungary. Following the Nazi-mediated Second Vienna Award, a large area, defined as "Northern Transylvania", was re-annexed by Hungary. The political crisis originating from this event also had the unlikely consequence of bringing the Iron Guard to power, producing the "National Legionary State". Slightly earlier, in August 1940, Pușcariu had proposed the founding of the Berlin-headquartered Romanian Institute in Germany, becoming its first president and serving until 1943. The purpose of this body was to counter Hungarian propaganda, particularly as related to Northern Transylvania.
+Pușcariu, who made generous financial contributions to the Guard's coffers, based his hiring at the institute on whether applicants belonged to the movement, and according to one of his employees there, was a member of the Guard's senate. Grigore Manoilescu, who had returned to politics as an Iron Guard figure, became the institute's director; Maximilian Hacman, former rector at Cernăuți, was an old friend; among the younger hires was Constantin Noica. The order for establishing the institute came on 16 August—still during the National Renaissance Front regime—from the Foreign Ministry, led by Mihail Manoilescu. Meanwhile, Pușcariu, as a symbol of continuity, was offered a renewed mandate as rector of the University of Cluj, which had moved to Sibiu due to the Vienna Award; he accepted and took office in October. Upon relocating to Berlin, he delegated his powers to his ally Procopovici, and later to Iuliu Hațieganu.
+Pușcariu's institute was headquartered in a 26-room building in western Berlin, endowed with furniture of the highest quality ordered by Pușcariu and hosting large receptions attended by politicians and cultural figures. For instance, Education Minister Bernhard Rust paid a visit lasting over six hours in July 1942. Pușcariu held forth on the topic of Romanians' continuous presence in the Danubian space, particularly in Transylvania, and according to an internal memorandum, the visit ended with "exceptionally cordial" remarks toward his country. Pușcariu, in writings and interviews, made flattering remarks about the Nazi regime, calling it "a new chapter in world history" and "a new world, a new era in the life of the German state". Nazi Party figures were invited to receptions, including one in 1941 to commemorate Moța and Marin.
+Meanwhile, Pușcariu undertook to spread knowledge of Romania and its culture in Germany. The institute was subordinate to the Romanian Propaganda Ministry, and as early as 1931, Pușcariu had written an article expressing his concern at the fact that Romania's external propaganda was much weaker than that of its neighbors. He sought to have Romanian works staged in Germany, succeeding, for instance, in having Sabin Drăgoi's opera Năpasta and George Ciprian's play The Man and His Mule presented in Elbing in late 1942. In 1940, it was known that Romania did not enjoy a very positive image in Germany, with the country's consul in Cologne noting that its inhabitants were seen as "gypsies or at best Balkan people, with very primitive habits". Pușcariu attempted to change this through numerous articles appearing in speciality publications that he was able to have printed due to his connections in Germany. The propaganda books and articles that came out under Pușcariu's supervision intended to show Germans that Romanians were an Aryan people, that Romania deserved to win back its lost territories thanks to its alliance with Germany, that Russians were a communist people desiring to use Bessarabia as a beachhead to attack the rest of Europe, while Romanians had been anti-communist since the Hungarian–Romanian War began in 1918 and viewed the disputed province as a line of defense.
+He made similar arguments in Basarabia, an ample 1941 article in Revista Fundațiilor Regale journal that chronicled the province's history from antiquity until its return to Romania during Operation Barbarossa. Expounding on what he saw as Imperial Russian neglect and contempt for the Bessarabia Governorate, he contrasted this with "the land rendered arable by the hard-working arms" of Romanians. Pușcariu also brought up the 271 AD withdrawal of the Roman army into Dacia Ripensis, which left the agricultural population of Roman Dacia vulnerable to barbarian attack, comparing it with the previous year's departure of the Romanian Army from Bessarabia and subsequent Soviet occupation. He suggested that the 3rd century barbarians were "surely not more inhuman than the Bolsheviks who overran Bessarabia in 1940". As an old adherent of Sămănătorism, Pușcariu strongly promoted the peasant as a symbol of Romanianism. He disseminated photographs of ordinary people from Bukovina, made unrealized plans for books on Romanian art and investigated the possibility of founding or reactivating Romanian language programs at a number of leading German universities. For his activities, he was awarded the Order of the German Eagle.
+By 1940, Pușcariu's public offices and various job benefits afforded him a comfortable lifestyle; he collected some 62,000 lei in regular payments from his work in Romania, and an "undisclosed" salary for his activities abroad. However, his work there soon became the focus of investigation, particularly after the Legionnaires' rebellion, which resulted in the Iron Guard's removal from power in early 1941. As early as October 1940, the Education and Culture Ministries had noted Pușcariu's "dictatorial" powers in hiring personnel, but were overruled by General Ion Antonescu, the country's Conducător, in December. The following February, financial issues appeared, with an investigation sought by Mihai Antonescu into the reportedly exorbitant sums being spent by the institute. Pușcariu ended up losing his rector's position at Sibiu and was accused of carrying on a months' long campaign against Ion Antonescu following the Guard's ouster. He often expressed the view that Heinrich Himmler would install the Guard back in power, and that the latter would then depose Antonescu.
+After an audit in 1941–1942, the institute received just over a third of the 15 million lei budgeted; a half for 1942–1943; but zero of the 10 million in 1943. These moves were due not only to Pușcariu's Guard background, but also to his political maneuvers that raised the question of the institute being shut down. The budget cuts were a signal for him to resign and return to Romania. Although for a time he was able to finance the institute out of his salary at the University of Berlin, as well as—it appears—another, unknown source, he did ultimately depart in mid-1943. Nevertheless, Pușcariu gave formal approval to Antonescu's core policies, including Romania's war on the Eastern Front.

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+---
+title: "Sextil Pușcariu"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:14.223615+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Final years ===
+A member of the Permanent Committee of Linguists, Pușcariu was admitted to the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 1936 and in 1939 became the second Romanian, after Dimitrie Cantemir, to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In addition to his activity as a propagandist, he worked on his definitive tract of sociolinguistics, Limba română ("The Romanian Language"), put out by Editura Fundațiilor Regale. According to philologist Pompiliu Constantinescu, the work exceeded "the narrow bounds of specialization", turning the historical development of language and into the ethnographic "mirror" of Romanian culture and civilization. Limba română, which saw print in 1940, investigated proto-Romanian (designated by Pușcariu under the name of străromână), and spoke of a large Sprachbund comprising all Eastern Romance languages; his theory identifying Istro-Romanian as a Western variety of the language was since corrected by his pupil Petrovici. His views on the topic were also being challenged from 1941 by Alexandru Rosetti, who noted that Aromanian was highly distinct from its point of origin. Other parts of the book broke ground in the professional study of the Romanian lexis, with a phonaesthetic retrospective on the national poet Mihai Eminescu and a sociological analysis of neologisms. It also featured Pușcariu's newer musings on onomastics, recording the influence of popular novels on baptismal names for Romanian girls.
+Fleeing aerial bombardments, Pușcariu spent 1944 with his daughter and in-laws in Bran. In August, he heard news of the 1944 Romanian coup d'état and the country's changeover to the Allies. As noted by Maria Pușcariu, the entire family was silent and worried about the future, whereas people in the streets celebrated. In September, the left-leaning Romanian Writers' Society expelled Sextil from its ranks, thus signaling his marginalization. In October, a decree compelled Pușcariu to retire, including from the Museum he had led for a quarter century. The same month, the Communist Party press began targeting Pușcariu for his political affiliations: România Liberă published an article denouncing him as a traitor, while Contemporanul included him on a list of "war criminals not yet on trial", a category also including Ion Petrovici and Gheorghe I. Brătianu. This opened the way to further attacks in the Communist press, where terms such as "fascist" and "enemy of the people" were used to target the linguist.
+In September, Leonora died, reportedly of shock from witnessing the arrival of Soviet occupiers and the deportation of German civilians. Deeply affected by this loss, Sextil remained isolated in Bran. In late December, he had a stroke that left him unable to use his right hand and forced him to learn to type with his left. He still found protection from Princess Ileana, who befriended his son Radu. As Ileana recalls in her memoirs, she and surgeon Cornel Cărpinișan managed to exaggerate Pușcariu's medical condition, which prevented the authorities from arresting him; Cărpinișan also obtained a reprieve from a personal friend, the Communist potentate Ion Gheorghe Maurer.
+During his remaining three years, Pușcariu continued to be active in writing his memoirs and working on the dictionary project. In January 1948, as the Romanian royal family prepared to leave the country permanently, following the establishment of a Communist regime, he was sent an invitation to leave his residence in Bran and join them in exile. However, he refused, stating he wished to remain in his native country. He had been placed on trial by the new regime but not yet sentenced when he died in Bran on 5 May 1948, of heart failure. Two days later, he was buried in Brașov's Groaveri Cemetery. No special honors were on show, though Lapedatu attended and spoke on behalf of the Academy.
+Later that year, Lapedatu was allowed to praising Pușcariu's memory at the Academy's general meeting. The vacant seat was taken up by literary historian George Călinescu, in May 1948. However, in June, Pușcariu was posthumously stripped of his Academy membership, as part of a larger purge of living anti-communists. In November, the self-exiled writer Mircea Eliade still eulogized the deceased, noting: "Almost all the work done in Romanian philology over the last twenty-five years is thanks to him. He organized the University of Cluj, with its admirable Museum of the Romanian Language; he founded Daco-Romania magazine and strove to establish the Folklore Archive. Sextil Pușcariu believed, as did Lucian Blaga's generation, in a major destiny for Romanian spirituality".

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+---
+title: "Sextil Pușcariu"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:03:14.223615+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Legacy ==
+For the first two decades after his death, linguists largely avoided using Pușcariu's work in their publications. Dumitru Macrea cited him as early as 1956, followed by Romulus Todoran and, later, Emil Petrovici. Challenging Communist censorship, Petrovici also attempted to obtain for the second volume of Limba română to be released for print, and earned endorsement from Alexandru Graur and Iorgu Iordan. At the time, the manuscript had been handed back to the Pușcariu family. Other collaborators, many of them facing their own difficulties with the regime, did not bring up their former mentor; these included Capidan and Lacea, as well as George Giuglea and Silviu Dragomir. In 1959, the latter made oblique references to Pușcariu's treatment of Eastern Romance as a single dialect, highlighting yet again that Aromanian was more distantly related to Romanian.
+Work on the dictionary was moved to Bucharest, while the museum and Dacoromania were disbanded. There was a colloquium held about Pușcariu's life at the Brașov County Museum in 1977, to mark the centenary of his birth. His reputation did not fully revive until after the Romanian Revolution of 1989, with his rehabilitation embodied by an international conference held at Cluj-Napoca in 1998. For the community of Romanians living in exile from the communist regime, Pușcariu served as a symbol of refusal to serve the new authorities, and in this spirit, Alphonse Juilland published a series of Cahiers Sextil Pușcariu in Western Europe and in the United States.
+Sextil's son Radu (1906–1978) was a noted surgeon; his wife Maria lived to 1999. Lia Pușcariu Manoilescu continued to work as a linguist until her death in 1965, as did her daughter by Manoilescu, Magdalena Vulpe (1936–2003). Vulpe, drawing on manuscripts left in the family vault at Bran, published four volumes of his memoirs: Călare pe două veacuri (1968), Brașovul de altădată (1977), Memorii (1978) and Sextil Pușcariu. Spița unui neam din Ardeal (1998). The Museum of the Romanian Language ultimately evolved into the Romanian Academy's Sextil Pușcariu Institute of Linguistics and Literary History, which has borne his name since 1990. In 2008, some 19 years after the anti-communist uprising, author Gabriel Vasiliu reestablished the Romanian Orthodox Fraternity. There are streets named after Pușcariu in Bran, Cluj-Napoca, Oradea, and Timișoara, as well as a high school in Bran, and his former home in the village center is preserved as a museum.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==