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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_François-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alessandro François"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_François"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:32.288451+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alessandro François (1796–1857) was an Italian archaeologist. He was also a scholar, artist, engineer, and war commissioner of the Grand Duke of Tuscany in the mid-19th century.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+
+François was born in 1796 in Florence, then part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Throughout his life, François undertook a number of occupations, including as a mining engineer. After travelling widely in his youth, François decided in 1825 to excavate Etruscan sites, including Cosa, Cortona, Volterra, Fiesole, Vetulonia, Populonia, Chiusi and Vulci. He discovered several black-figure vase fragments in 1844 at Fonte Rotelle near Chiusi. He discovered more fragments in 1845, and the pieces were assembled into a complete vase of the highest quality, subsequently named after him, which was purchased by Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in 1846 for the Uffizi Gallery.
+In 1857, François discovered a spectacular painted Etruscan tomb, which has also been named after him.
+François created his own excavation society and kept his finds in his home in Florence. Numerous attempts to found a museum to house his finds failed, despite his appealing to potential sponsors in Italy and to the French government. While in Florence, François fell ill and died at the age of 60 or 61. He left no published writing.
+
+
+== Discoveries ==
+
+
+=== The François Vase ===
+
+François found the large Attic volute krater in 1844 near Chiusi in one of his most famous excavations, and it takes its name from him. This masterpiece of black-figure pottery  is the work of Ergotimos (potter) and Kleitias (painter), and is dated to circa 560-550 BCE. It measures 66 cm (26 in) in height and 57 cm (22 in) in maximum circumference; on it are represented, on horizontal bands, mythological figures and Homeric episodes.
+
+
+=== The François Tomb ===
+
+Another important find by François was the Etruscan tomb at Vulci, Lazio which also takes his name. The tomb is decorated with paintings representing battles between Romans and Etruscans, and scenes of execution of Trojan prisoners. One of the figures in the tomb represents Mastarna (a legendary figure whom the Emperor Claudius identified with Servius Tullius).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Il vaso François (The François Vase), Antonio Minto, Firenze, Leo Olschki, 1960
+François, Alessandro, Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology, Nancy Thomson de Grummond, ed. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996, vol. 1, pp. 461–62
+
+
+== External links ==
+Cristofani, Mauro (2000). Etruschi, una nuova immagine (Etruscans, a New Image). ISBN 9788809017924. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
+Sordi, Marta (2001). Il pensiero sulla guerra nel mondo antico (Thought on War in the Ancient World). ISBN 9788834306895. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
+Naso, Alessandro (2005). La pittura etruschi: guida breve (The Painting of the Etruscans: a short guide ). L'Erma Di Bretschneider. ISBN 978-8882653231. Retrieved 6 April 2010.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Warnick-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alex Warnick"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Warnick"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:51.749881+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alex Clark Warnick (born September 1987) is an American naturalist and scientific illustrator, specializing in avifauna (birds), and a painter. She describes herself as a "natural history artist" and aims to use her artwork to foster appreciation and conservation action for the natural world, stating that she hopes her work will "introduce many others to the significance and beauty of birds so that birds can benefit the lives of people, and in turn, people can benefit the lives of birds."
+
+
+== Early life and education ==
+Warnick grew up in Indiana and began painting and studying birds at a young age. She has said: "Birds have always been my mild obsession. In 5th grade, I delivered my career project on ornithology sitting in a giant nest I'd built from willow sticks. I held a pair of binoculars in my sixth grade yearbook picture."
+She graduated with a degree in Integrated Studio Art from Brigham Young University–Idaho.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Warnick's work is characterized by the integration of scientific accuracy with an aesthetic inspired by historical natural history artists. Her signature style is defined by illustrating "all things crested, spotted, and gilded," a reference to terms found in bird nomenclature. She works in various media including acrylic, watercolor, gouache, and oil. Her illustrations have been published on the covers of specialist ornithological magazines, including Bird Watcher's Digest and the Birder's Guide (published by the American Birding Association).
+Her paintings have been featured in numerous art shows, exhibits, and art websites.
+A profile in Audubon described her as "the Indiana-based artist (who was born in the same town as Roger Tory Peterson) [who] melds vintage styles drawn from Mark Catesby and Jacques Barraband with modern precision, crafting each project around hours of sketching outdoors."
+She frequently exhibits alongside her identical twin sister, Shae Warnick, who is also an established artist and naturalist. Warnick conducts public workshops, hosted by groups such as Artists for Climate Awareness and The Nature Artists Guild.
+
+
+=== Major commissions and conservation projects ===
+In 2016, Warnick was awarded the Donald and Virginia Eckelberry Endowment from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University, funding research on the island of Hispaniola to illustrate 31 endemic bird species.
+She served as the Natural History Artist for the book Alas & Colores (Wings & Colors), published by INICIA, which documents Hispaniola's endemic birds with text from biologists and her illustrations.
+In 2019, Warnick collaborated with the Indiana Arts Commission and the Indiana State Museum to create the traveling exhibit The Artist-Naturalist, celebrating the work and legacy of Indiana author and naturalist Gene Stratton-Porter. She created a series of fifteen watercolors, each inspired by Porter's writings, which were exhibited at the Limberlost State Historic Site and the Gene Stratton-Porter State Historic Site from June to December 2019.
+She has also collaborated with BirdsCaribbean, lending her artwork for use on conference merchandise to support regional conservation efforts.
+
+
+=== Roger Tory Peterson Institute Residency ===
+In 2023, Warnick was selected as the inaugural Artist-in-Residence at the Roger Tory Peterson Institute (RTPI). Concurrent with the residency, RTPI hosted the solo exhibition Alex Warnick: The Art of Observation, which ran from March 18 to June 11, 2023.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Alas & Colores interactive website

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+---
+title: "Alexander Butyagin"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:26.770185+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alexander Mikhailovich Butyagin (Russian: Александр Михайлович Бутягин; born October 12, 1971) is a Russian archaeologist and classical scholar, a Candidate of Historical Sciences, and a science communicator. He is the head of the Sector of Archaeology of the Northern Black Sea region in the Department of the Ancient World at the State Hermitage Museum. Since 1999, he has served as the head of the Myrmekion Archaeological Expedition, which studies the ruins of the ancient (Greek, then Bosporan and Roman) city of Myrmekion in present-day Kerch. 
+In December 2025, Butyagin was detained in Poland at Ukraine's request due to accusations of conducting archaeological excavations in Crimea after 2014 without permission from Ukrainian authorities. In March 2026, he was ordered by the Warsaw District Court to be extradited to Ukraine to stand trial. On April 28, Butyagin was released as part of a prisoner exchange.
+
+== Biography ==
+Butyagin was born in 1971 in Leningrad. From 1978 to 1988 he studied at School No. 67 with an advanced curriculum in the Spanish language. In 1985 he joined an archaeology club at the Leningrad Palace of Pioneers (now the St. Petersburg City Palace of Youth Creativity). In 1988 he entered the Department of Archaeology of the Faculty of History at Leningrad State University (LGU). He graduated in 1993 with honors, defending a thesis entitled Construction complexes of archaic Myrmekion.
+His research interests include the Bosporus in the Archaic and Classical periods, military affairs in the Northern Black Sea region, and methodological issues at the intersection of art history and archaeology in the study of ancient societies. He is the author of more than 150 scholarly works. At various times he has participated in numerous Russian and international academic conferences.
+Since 1993, he has taught at the School Centre of the State Hermitage Museum. On 1 February 1993 he began working in the Hermitage's Department of the Ancient World as a laboratory assistant, and since 1994 as a research associate. Since 2005 he has been head of the Sector of Archaeology of the Northern Black Sea region in the Department of the Ancient World of the Hermitage. He is the executive secretary of the Archaeological Commission and a member of the Academic Council of the State Hermitage Museum. He is also a member of the Multimedia Activities Commission and a member of the International Council of Museums. He serves as curator of the collection of archaeological finds from the smaller cities of the Bosporus (Myrmekion, Iluraton, Tyritake, Porphmion) and from ancient-period kurgans of the Kerch Peninsula.
+He is an assistant at the Department of Archaeology of Saint Petersburg State University. He teaches courses on classical archaeology, as well as a seminar and courses on current issues in modern classical archaeology. At the Department of Art History he taught courses on the art history of the Ancient Near East and on classical art. He also taught at the Department of Art History of the Higher Religious-Philosophical School, offering courses on the art history of Antiquity and the Ancient Near East, fundamentals of archaeology, and museum studies.
+In 2009 he organized the exhibition The Mystery of the Golden Mask. In 2010 he published a book of poems entitled Burial of Unclaimed Ashes. From 2010 to 2022 he headed an expedition excavating villas at Stabiae near Naples. For the educational website Arzamas he prepared a series of lectures devoted to the history of Antiquity and related topics. Together with the Saint Petersburg "Lev Lurie's House of Culture", he organized author-led tours of the Hermitage and lecture meetings.
+In 2024–25, he acted as curator of the Hermitage exhibition "Look into the Eyes of Monsters": Mythical embodiments of terror in Antiquity and their victors. A scholarly catalogue was published for the exhibition.
+
+=== Myrmekion Archaeological Expedition ===
+
+Since 1999, Butyagin has led the Myrmekion Archaeological Expedition. Over the course of its work, the expedition uncovered buildings from the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods of ancient Greek history and from the Roman period; it also investigated a later medieval necropolis dated to the 13th–14th centuries.
+In 2002, Butyagin's expedition found the hoard of 723 bronze coins of Panticapaeum (3rd century BCE), and in 2003 it found the hoard of 99 electrum coins from Cyzicus. In 2006, the Hermitage organized an exhibition entitled Myrmekion, which displayed some of the finds. A catalogue entitled Myrmekion in the light of the latest archaeological research was published for the exhibition; in a joint article with historian Yury Vinogradov, the archaeology of Myrmekion was described in detail.
+The fieldwork begun in 1999 continued after the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 2014. Ukraine considers all excavations conducted in Crimea from 2014 onward to be unlawful, including those carried out by local Crimean archaeologists, if they were not authorized by an official Ukrainian permit under the applicable Ukrainian legal regime.
+In 2022, the Myrmekion expedition discovered a hoard of gold coins. According to reporting, a risk of looting by illegal treasure hunters ("black diggers") arose, aggravated by the fact that the ruins of Myrmekion lie within the city limits of Kerch.

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+---
+title: "Alexander Butyagin"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:26.770185+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Arrest in Poland ===
+In 2024, Ukrainian prosecutors reported that Butyagin had been notified in absentia of suspicion of unlawful excavations, damage to a cultural heritage site, and causing damage estimated at more than 200 million hryvnias, under Part 4 of Article 298 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine ("illegal search work at an archaeological heritage site; destruction, ruin or damage to cultural heritage objects"). The accusations were based on the international cultural heritage law that prohibits any archaeological excavations on occupied territories unless explicitly authorized and permitted by the internationally recognized authorities.
+According to the Kharkiv Human Rights Group, Russia had violated said law by excavating, 'renovating', and causing other irreparable damage to places of Crimean Tatar or Ukrainian cultural heritage in Crimea, such as Bakhchysarai Palace or the Ancient City of Tauric Chersonese and its Chora. In March 2025, Ukraine's Main Directorate of Intelligence (HUR) stated that "hundreds of archaeological artifacts discovered during excavations" had been removed from Crimea, including from the ancient city of Panticapaeum, where Butyagin also carried out archaeological work.
+Meanwhile, Vadim Mayko, director of the Institute of Archaeology of Crimea (Russian Academy of Sciences), said in an interview with a Russian outlet that all objects found by Butyagin, both before and after 2014, were transferred for storage to Crimean museums, and that items taken to Saint Petersburg or Moscow were transported only for necessary restoration and always returned thereafter.The claim that the finds were not removed from Crimea for permanent storage was also mentioned in Meduza's reporting on Butyagin's arrest, citing historian and journalist Arseny Vesnin.
+On 4 December 2025, Butyagin was detained in Warsaw at Ukraine's request. He had entered Poland without obstruction shortly before and was expected to give a public lecture there. After questioning, a court ordered his detention for 40 days. According to information cited from Butyagin's colleagues, Ukrainian authorities opened criminal cases against all archaeologists who worked in Crimea after Russia's annexation of the peninsula.
+In response, the Hermitage issued a statement asserting that finds made during the excavations were not removed from Crimea and were recorded on the balance sheet of the East Crimean Historical and Cultural Museum-Reserve (this institution brings together a number of museums and archaeological sites in Kerch, including the archaeological site of the Myrmekion settlement) After his detention, a number of Russian opposition figures voiced support for Butyagin, including the historian and journalist Arseny Vesnin and the former Russian media manager Demyan Kudryavtsev.
+Against the backdrop of Butyagin's arrest, Russia's Ministry of Education and Science recommended that universities and research institutes coordinate all foreign business trips to unfriendly countries in advance.
+In March 2026, Butyagin was ordered by the Warsaw District Court to be extradited to Ukraine to stand trial. On April 28, Butyagin was released as part of a prisoner exchange between Poland and Belarus.
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+=== Books ===
+Aleksinsky, D. P. (2005). Всадники войны. Кавалерия Европы [Riders of War: The Cavalry of Europe] (in Russian). Klim A. Zhukov; Alexander M. Butyagin; D. S. Korovkin. Moscow; Saint Petersburg: Полигон; АСТ. p. 488. ISBN 5-17-027891-8.
+Butyagin, A. M. (2015). На земле грифона [On the Land of the Griffin] (in Russian). O. Yu. Sokolova; S. L. Solovyov. Saint Petersburg: Изд-во Гос. Эрмитажа. p. 38. ISBN 978-5-93572-626-3.
+Butyagin, A. M. (2019). Помпеи, Геркуланум, Оплонтис, Стабии: краткий очерк истории и археологии [Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Stabiae: a short overview of history and archaeology] (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Изд-во Гос. Эрмитажа. p. 91. ISBN 978-5-93572-851-9.
+«Посмотри в глаза чудовищ»: мифические олицетворения ужаса в Античности и их победители: каталог выставки (Санкт-Петербург, Государственный Эрмитаж) (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Изд-во Гос. Эрмитажа. 2024. p. 403. ISBN 978-5-907653-77-1.

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+---
+title: "Alexander Butyagin"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:26.770185+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Selected articles ===
+Butyagin, A. M. (2004). "Клады античного Мирмекия" [Hoard finds from ancient Myrmekion]. Сообщения Государственного Эрмитажа (in Russian). LXII. Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа: 86–91. ISBN 5-93572-142-2.
+Butyagin, A. M. (2004). "Кизикины: античная валюта Понта" [Cyzicenes: an ancient currency of Pontus] (PDF). Мирмекийский клад. Новые открытия на Боспоре Эрмитажной археологической экспедиции [The Myrmekion hoard: new discoveries on the Bosporus by the Hermitage archaeological expedition] (Exhibition catalogue) (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. pp. 12–15. ISBN 5-93572-143-0.
+Butyagin, A. M. (2004). "Клады кизикинов и Мирмекийский клад" [Hoard finds of Cyzicenes and the Myrmekion hoard] (PDF). Мирмекийский клад. Новые открытия на Боспоре Эрмитажной археологической экспедиции [The Myrmekion hoard: new discoveries on the Bosporus by the Hermitage archaeological expedition] (Exhibition catalogue) (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. pp. 17–21. ISBN 5-93572-143-0.
+Butyagin, A. M. (2004). "Дом под мирмекийскими зольниками" [A house beneath the Myrmekion ash mounds]. Боспорский феномен: проблемы хронологии и датировки памятников [The Bosporan phenomenon: problems of chronology and dating of sites] (Proceedings of an international conference) (in Russian). Vol. I. Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. pp. 126–131. ISBN 5-93572-116-3.
+Butyagin, A. M. (2005). "К интерпретации зольников Мирмекия (свидетельства Павсания и боспорская культовая практика)" [On interpreting the Myrmekion ash mounds (Pausanias' testimony and Bosporan cult practice)] (PDF). Боспорский феномен: проблема соотношения письменных и археологических источников [The Bosporan phenomenon: the problem of correlating written and archaeological sources] (Proceedings of an international conference) (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. pp. 101–107. ISBN 5-93572-194-5.
+Butyagin, A. M. (2005-11-27). "Хранители и грабители (вопросы взаимоотношений)" [Guardians and looters (issues of relations)]. «Археология России» (archaeology.ru) (in Russian). Archived from the original on 2009-09-20. Retrieved 2025-12-11.{{cite web}}:  CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
+Butyagin, A. M.; Chistov, D. E. (2006). "The Hoard of Cyzicenes and Shrine of Demeter at Myrmekion". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 12 (1–2). Leiden: 77–132. ISSN 0929-077X.
+Butyagin, A. M.; Treister, M. Yu. (2010). "Бронзовая ольпа Мирмекийского клада" [The bronze olpe of the Myrmekion hoard]. Античный мир и археология (in Russian) (14). Saratov: Научная книга: 238–246. ISSN 0320-961X.
+Bekhter, A. P.; Butyagin, A. M. (2018). "Остракон из раскопок Мирмекия 2012 г." [An ostracon from the 2012 Myrmekion excavations]. Боспорские исследования (in Russian).
+Smekalova, T. N.; Butyagin, A. M.; Pasumansky, A. E.; Trubnikova, E. D. (2019). "Рентгено-флуоресцентный анализ состава сплава монет Боспора эпохи денежного кризиса III в. до н.э. (по материалам клада 2002 г. из Мирмекия)" [X-ray fluorescence analysis of the alloy composition of Bosporan coins from the 3rd century BCE monetary crisis (based on the 2002 hoard from Myrmekion)] (PDF). Древности Боспора (in Russian). 24. Moscow: Институт археологии РАН: 512–524. ISBN 978-5-94375-287-2.
+Smekalova, T. N.; Bykovskaya, N. V.; Butyagin, A. M.; Pasumansky, A. E. (2019). "Новые данные для изучения кризиса III в. до н.э." [New data for studying the 3rd century BCE crisis] (PDF). In V. N. Zinko; E. A. Zinko (ed.). Боспор Киммерийский и варварский мир в период античности и средневековья. Основные итоги и перспективы исследований. XX Боспорские чтения [The Cimmerian Bosporus and the barbarian world in Antiquity and the Middle Ages: results and research prospects. 20th Bosporan Readings] (Proceedings of an international conference) (in Russian). Simferopol; Kerch: ИП Кифниди Г. И. pp. 528–533. ISBN 978-5-6040450-5-3.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
+
+=== Popular-science materials ===
+Alexander Butyagin. Lecturer page on Arzamas.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+"Butyagin A. M. Biography". myrmekion.ru. Myrmekion Archaeological Expedition. Retrieved 2020-02-04.
+Bibliography of A. M. Butyagin on the Myrmekion Archaeological Expedition website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Marwick-0.md

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+---
+title: "Alice Marwick"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Marwick"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:46.709902+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alice E. Marwick is a communication scholar, academic, and author, who currently works as an Associate Professor in the Communication department and Principal Researcher at the Center for Information, Technology and Public Life at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and an affiliated researcher with the Data and Society Research Institute. Marwick has written for publications such as the New York Times, and the Guardian. Her works include the examination of politics, race, social media and gender. She has been a keynote speaker for various universities throughout the United States.
+
+
+== Education ==
+Marwick graduated with her political science and women's studies bachelor's degree from Wellesley College in Massachusetts in 1998. She received her Master of Arts degree in communication from the University of Washington in 2005. She received her PhD in the Department of Media, Culture and Communication from New York University in 2010. 
+
+
+== Written works ==
+She has written for the New York Review of Books. Marwick has authored two books: Status Update: Celebrity, Publicity and Branding in the Social Media Age (2013) and The Private Is Political: Networked Privacy and Social Media (2023). She also co-edited The Sage Handbook of Social Media (2016) with co-editors, Jean Burgess and Thomas Poell.
+In Status Update, Marwick draws on ethnographic data from people within the San Francisco tech scene and examines how people use social media to obtain attention and popularity to reach a higher social standing. A review from the American Library Association says that her book is important because it takes a needed female perspective on a world that is misogynistic with its technological feats. Status Update includes an extensive examination of the phenomenon of Internet celebrity.
+In The Private is Political, Marwick develops the theory of “networked privacy” to account for the ways that privacy can be compromised in—and across—social media platforms. The book highlights the social justice implications of privacy loss, particularly for marginalized groups.
+In the Sage Handbook of Social Media, the authors emphasize the importance of social media within contemporary societies and examines its history to scholars and students, while examining the use of social media within multiple fields from marketing, to protesting, to political campaigns. 
+
+
+== Other works ==
+Marwick was a postdoctoral researcher at Microsoft Research New England. She was the former director of the McGannon Communication Research Center at Fordham University.
+She has participated in podcasts examining far-right extremism, misinformation online, and the analyzation of the liberal left and the conservative right's social media habits.
+She has also written for publications such as Public Culture and New Media and Society. 
+
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+She is a 2020 Andrew Carnegie Fellowship Award Recipient which is an award that provides support to top researchers in humanities. She was honored in 2017, as a 2017 Global Thinker from Foreign Policy Magazine for her work on examining the social aspects of fake news.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Context collapse
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Balmford-0.md

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+---
+title: "Andrew Balmford"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Balmford"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:56.873268+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Andrew Balmford is a professor of conservation science at the University of Cambridge. His research focuses on planning conservation, comparing the costs and benefits of conservation and how conservation can be reconciled with other activities.
+
+
+== Education and career ==
+Balmford studied for his undergraduate degree, and PhD at the University of Cambridge before becoming a research fellow at the university. He was then a research fellow at the Institute of Zoology before becoming a lecturer at Sheffield University. He returned to Cambridge in 1998 as a member of the zoology department. He was a fellow of Clare College from 2008 to 2024, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2011.
+
+
+=== Research ===
+In 1993, along with two other researchers, he investigated why the tails of birds are shaped as they are, aiming to test Charles Darwin's hypothesis that females have a preference for males with longer and more ornate tails using aerodynamic analysis. They reported that shallow forked shaped tails (such as those of the house martin) are aerodynamically optimal and that species with them had similar lengthed tails, indicating they could have developed through natural selection. In species with longer tails, males tend to have longer tails than females and which also create drag, since this is no advantage except for when courting, the authors suggested long tails may have evolved through sexual selection.
+In 1998, he published a paper in Nature describing how the biodiversity of rainforest in Uganda could be estimated by counting populations of birds and butterflies. In 1999, again in Nature, he reported that the cost of conserving all life on earth would be approximately $320bn a year compared to the $6bn spent then. According to his group's research, this was less than 25% of the cost of environmentally damaging subsidies that governments supported at that time. The Financial Times commented that removing agricultural subsidies was already known to be "fraught with difficulties" and that only $1bn had been channelled into conservation projects since an agreement in 1992. Balmford was quoted as saying that the strongest argument to protect nature is "moral, cultural and philosophical".
+In 2002, he led a research project that found children could name a greater proportion of Pokémon characters than common species of British wildlife; 8-year-olds could identify 80% of Pokémon characters but only 50% of species. Balmford suggested that conservationists could create a game similar to Pokémon to encourage children to learn about the environment, saying "People tend to care about what they know." He also reported in Science that the benefits of conserving nature far outweigh the benefits of development, by a factor of 100 to 1, due to the loss of ecosystem services. It was estimated that humanity loses about $250bn per year due to habitat destruction.
+
+One-third of the world's wild nature has been lost since I was a child and first heard the word 'conservation'. That's what keeps me awake at night.  Andrew Balmford – 2002
+In 2003, he led a study which collected data on the maintenance costs of different conservation projects around the world. It was found that there was huge variation in the cost of conserving nature, ranging from $0.07 per acre to $1.37 million per acre depending on the project. Projects in the developing world were generally cheaper than those in the developed world, boding well for the protection of biodiversity hotspots in poorer countries such as Indonesia and Madagascar. Balmford stated that it is important that the value for money of a conservation project should be taken into account as well as the number of threatened species in the region.
+In 2004, he published as a lead researcher a paper in PNAS which estimated that to protect 30% of the world's oceans by making them protected areas would cost between $12bn and $14bn each year. He told the BBC that, "meeting this commitment to marine protection will require international effort on an unprecedented scale".
+In 2009, a paper that Balmford co-authored was published in Science that found that the benefits gained from deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest were quickly reversed. In recently deforested areas, the Human Development Index (HDI) was higher than other regions, but once deforestation was complete and replaced by other activities, for example farming, the HDI decreased to the same extent as that in areas that had not been deforested. Balmford described the current situation as "disastrous for local people, wildlife and the global climate" but hoped that REDD may allow changes to occur in the future. Another paper published in PLoS Biology found that between 1992 and 2006, the overall number of visitors to 280 protected areas in 20 countries had increased. Visitor numbers in Europe, Africa, Asia and Latin America all grew significantly, while those in North America and Australasia did not change significantly. The results contrasted with an earlier study of visitor numbers to protected areas in Japan and the USA which found they had fallen consistently over a number of decades.
+
+
+=== Other work ===
+Balmford helped to establish the Cambridge Conservation Forum, a network of 1000 conservation professionals from a range of organisations, the Cambridge Conservation Initiative and the annual Student Conference on Conservation Science. He is Principal Investigator on the Valuing the Arc programme, which is focused on the conservation of the Eastern Arc Mountains in Tanzania.
+
+
+== Awards ==
+In 2000, Balmford was awarded the Zoological Society of London Marsh Award for Conservation Biology. In 2003, he was included on a list of the top 50 visionaries building a better world by Scientific American for his work on economic development and its impact on the environment. In 2010 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
+In 2024, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+List of publications
+Scientific American podcast with Professor Balmford

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angélique_Allais-0.md

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+---
+title: "Angélique Allais"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angélique_Allais"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:43.491715+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Marie-Angélique Briceau-Allais (1767–1827) was a French engraver active during the late Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Trained in her family workshop, she became known as one of the foremost crayon engravers in France of the late 18th century. Her work includes anatomical plates for Félix Vicq-d’Azyr’s Traité d’anatomie et de physiologie, as well widely circulated portraits of leading figures of the Revolution.
+
+
+== Early life and training ==
+Marie-Angélique Briceau was born on 24 May 1767 in Paris, the daughter of Suzanne Porcher and the painter and engraver Pierre-Claude Briceau. She received her artistic training within her family, following a common practice among engravers of the time. The Briceau studio was situated on rue Aubri-le-Boucher, near the historic printmaking neighbourhood of rue Montorgueil. 
+By the age of 20 Briceau-Allais was an established printmaker, and a number of sources suggest that around this time she was awarded the title peintre du roi (Painter of the King). 
+Briceau-Allais  married the engraver Louis-Jean Allais in November 1790. Together they had a large number of children, several of whom went on to pursue artistic careers. In addition to her own work, she trained a number of students, including her children Jean Alexandre Allais and Jeanne Augustine Allais, and the Academy member Jean-Pierre Granger.
+She died on 21 August 1827 at her home at 14 rue de la Bûcherie.
+
+
+== Anatomical engraving ==
+In 1786, Briceau-Allais produced her earliest known work, engraving 16 of the 69 plates for Félix Vicq-d’Azyr's medical reference work, Traité d’anatomie et de physiologie. Her plates were signed “Mlle Briceau del. et sculp.”, indicating that she both drew (delineavit) and engraved (sculpsit) the images herself, while the remaining 53 plates were signed by her father. 
+
+Briceau-Allais's engravings focused on the human brain and other anatomical subjects, demonstrating a remarkable attention to detail and technical precision. The plates combined etching, stipple, and aquatint, techniques more commonly associated with portraiture. Some images required multiple layers and hand-colouring, resulting in a delicate, lifelike effect reminiscent of watercolours.As part of the project, Briceau-Allais also made preparatory drawings for future prints, including a study of the clavicle of a hare. These works reveal her careful observation of musculature and skeletal structure, most likely observed from life. Vicq-d'Azyr wrote to Angélique's father thanking him for the work and for the "endurance of foul odours".
+
+
+== Coloured portrait engraving ==
+Angélique Briceau later specialised in coloured line engravings. She created portraits of revolutionary figures including Jean-Paul Marat, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Joseph Barra, and Agricola Vialla. These works, usually in large oval medallions, were noted for their delicate colouring and melodramatic expression.
+She also produced commemorative prints for revolutionary events, such as Les Vingt-cinq préceptes de la raison, dated 28 October Year II (1794), which included allegorical figures and columns of text designed by the draughtsman Grasset de Saint-Sauveur.Beyond political subjects, she created coloured views of gardens and decorative placards, considered more suited to women artists of her time. 
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anka_Krizmanić-0.md

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+---
+title: "Anka Krizmanić"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anka_Krizmanić"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:49.403684+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Anka Krizmanić, also known as Anka Krizmanic-Paulic, (1896–1987) was a Croatian painter and printmaker, and later scientific illustrator. She was active between 1910 and 1946.
+
+
+== About ==
+She attended a private painting school at Krizman School of Painting in Zagreb, where she studied under Tomislav Krizman. From 1913 to 1917, she continued her education at Kunstgewerbeschule in Dresden, Germany. Afterward, she pursued further studies in Paris from 1920 to 1930. In 1921 and 1922, she worked on creating lithographic maps of Dubrovnik, while staying in that city Her painting work had two major series, one of which was "dance" and was inspired dancers by Anna Pavlova, Grete Wiesenthal, and Gertrud Leistikow. The other series was "lovers".
+In 1935, she met German painter Ludwig Weninger (1904–1945) and a romance was started between them. By the beginning of World War II (c.1939), the relationship ended. 
+In 1946, she became a scientific illustrator for the School of Medicine in Zagreb, and she lessened her time painting.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Anka Krizmanić on AskArt.com
+Anka Krizmanic on ArtNet.com

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Sophie_Dielen-0.md

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+---
+title: "Anne-Sophie Dielen"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Sophie_Dielen"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:29.495767+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Anne-Sophie Dielen is a researcher, scientist communicator and policy maker. Her research focuses on generating and regulating sodium/proton antiporters in plant chloroplasts. She is the Founder of The League of Remarkable Women in Science.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Dielen has a bachelor's degree from the Academy of Montpellier. After completing a PhD in Plant Biology and Biochemistry from the Bordeaux II University in France, Dielen then became a postdoctoral fellow at The Australian National University (ANU) as part of its Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency research project.
+The League of Remarkable Women that she founded, is an interview project featuring women in STEM. It aims at profiling role models for the next generation of female scientists and was first supported by a 2014 ANU Gender Institute grants.
+She then became the director of crop biotechnology policy at CropLife Australia.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annemarie_Mol-0.md

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+---
+title: "Annemarie Mol"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annemarie_Mol"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:49.088552+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Annemarie Mol (born 13 September 1958) is a Dutch ethnographer and philosopher. She is the Professor of Anthropology of the Body at the University of Amsterdam.
+Winner of the Constantijn & Christiaan Huijgens Grant from the NWO in 1990 to study 'Differences in Medicine', she was awarded a European Research Council Advanced Grant in 2010 to study 'The Eating Body in Western Practice and Theory'. She has helped to develop post-ANT/feminist understandings of science, technology and medicine. In her earlier work she explored the performativity of health care practices, argued that realities are generated within those practices, and noted that since practices differ, so too do realities. The body, as she expressed it, is multiple: it is more than one but it is also less than many (since the different versions of the body also overlap in health care practices). This is an empirical argument about ontology (which is the branch of philosophy that explores being, existence, or the categories of being.) As a part of this she also developed the notion of 'ontological politics', arguing that since realities or the conditions of possibility vary between practices, this means that they are not given but might be changed.
+Mol has been a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences since 2013.
+Mol has written and worked with a range of scholars including John Law.
+
+
+== Prizes ==
+In 2004 she received the Ludwik Fleck Prize (Society for Social Studies of Science, 4S) for her book The Body Multiple.
+In 2012 she was awarded the Spinoza Prize.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+Mol, Annemarie; Berg, Marc (1998). Differences in medicine: unraveling practices, techniques, and bodies. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822321743.
+Mol, Annemarie; Law, John (2002). Complexities: social studies of knowledge practices. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822328469.
+Mol, Annemarie (2002). The body multiple: ontology in medical practice. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822329176.
+Mol, Annemarie (2008). The logic of care: health and the problem of patient choice. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415453431.
+Mol, Annemarie (2021). Eating in Theory. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 9781478010371.
+
+
+== Lectures ==
+Mol, Annemarie (2013); Alexander von Humboldt Lecture: What Methods Do.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arie_Rip-0.md

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+---
+title: "Arie Rip"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arie_Rip"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:58.677262+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Arie Rip (born 13 June 1941, in Kethel en Spaland) is a Dutch professor emeritus of Philosophy of Science and Technology.
+
+
+== Career ==
+During 1988–1989 he was the President of the international Society for Social Studies of Science.
+From 2000 until 2005 he was the head of WTMC, the Netherlands Graduate School of Science, Technology and Modern Culture. The WTMC is a formal collaboration of Dutch researchers studying the development of science, technology and modern culture. In 2006 Rip formally retired as the Professor of Philosophy of Science and Technology at the University of Twente, a position he held since 1987. He has published extensively on various topics concerning the philosophy and sociology of scientific and technological developments, and on science and innovation policy. Rip has, for example, introduced the widely used Constructive Technology Assessment method. Currently he is among others a Professor at the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa.
+Rip became chairman of the Society for the Study of Nanoscience and Emerging Technologies (S-NET) in 2008.
+In 2022 Rip received for his oeuvre the John Desmond Bernal Prize of the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S), which will be awarded to him in the second week of December, 2022, during a meeting of the Society at the Universidad Iberoamericana Puebla in San Andrés Cholula, Puebla, Mexico.
+
+
+== Key publications ==
+Arie Rip (1981) Maatschappelijke Verantwoordelijkheid van Chemici, PhD-thesis Leiden University, Leiden
+Law, John; Callon, Michel; Rip, Arie (1986). Mapping the dynamics of science and technology: sociology of science in the real world. Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-37223-4.
+Arie Rip (1994) The republic of science in the 1990s, Higher Education, Vol. 28, pp. 3–23
+Arie Rip, Thomas Misa, and Johan Schot (eds.) (1995) Managing Technology in Society: The Approach of Constructive Technology Assessment, Pinter, London/New York.  ISBN 1-85567-340-1
+Johan Schot and Arie Rip (1996) The past and future of constructive technology assessment, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Vol 54, pp. 251–268
+Arie Rip (1997) A cognitive approach to the relevance of science, Social Science Information, Vol. 36 (4), pp. 615–640
+Harro van Lente and Arie Rip (1998) The rise of membrane technology: from rhetorics to social reality, Social Studies of Science, Vol. 28 (2), pp. 221–254
+René Kemp, Arie Rip and Johan Schot (2001) Constructing transition paths through the management of niches, In: Garud, R., Karnoe, P. (Eds.), Path Dependence and Creation, pp. 269–302
+Arie Rip (2002) Science for the 21st century. In: Tindemans, P., Verrijn-Stuart, A., Visser, R. (Eds.), The Future of Science and the Humanities, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, pp 99–148
+Stefan Kuhlmann and Arie Rip (2018) Next-Generation Innovation Policy and Grand Challenges Science and public policy Vol. 45 (4); pp 448–454; https://doi.org/10.1093/scipol/scy011
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+https://people.utwente.nl/a.rip
+https://www.wtmc.net

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryn_Martin-0.md

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+---
+title: "Aryn Martin"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryn_Martin"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:45.579704+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aryn Martin is a sociologist, and historian of biomedicine, as well as a scholar of feminist science and technology studies at York University, where she is an associate professor of sociology. She is affiliated with the graduate programs in social, political, science, technology, and environmental studies. She received her Bachelor of Science in biology at Queen's University, a master's degree in environmental studies at York University, and a PhD in science and technology studies at Cornell University, under the supervision of Michael Lynch. Her work is on feminist theories of the body and biology, especially the implications for identity surrounding the phenomenon of fetomaternal microchimerism and other forms of genetic chimeras. Her dissertation on the history of human chimeras was funded by the National Science Foundation.
+In 2017, Martin became the Associate Dean of Students at York University's Faculty of Graduate Studies.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Aryn Martin publications indexed by Google Scholar

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrid_Andreasen-0.md

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+---
+title: "Astrid Andreasen"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrid_Andreasen"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:42.288482+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Astrid Jóhanna Andreasen (born 31 July 1948 in Vestmanna, Faroe Islands) is a Faroese artist, illustrator and postage stamp designer. As a scientific illustrator, she specialises in marine animals.
+Andreasen grew up in Vestmanna, as the daughter of Andreas Andreasen (1906–1974), a teacher, and Daniella Andreasen, a housewife. Early in her career she produced illustrations for collections of her father's poetry. From 1968 to 1970 she studied at a vocational school in Kerteminde in Denmark to become a teacher of embroidery. In 1974 she studied to become an occupational therapist in Hellerup. In the 1970s she took a job as a therapist in Tórshavn hospital where she worked with mentally handicapped people, teaching them embroidery and other art forms.
+From 1984 to 1986, Andreasen learned illustration and weaving at the Academy of Arts in Århus, and from 1990 to 1991 she specialized in scientific illustration at the Gerlesborg School of Fine Art as well as at the Tjärnö Marine Biological Laboratory.
+Andreasen worked from 1999 until 2016 as a scientific illustrator at the National Museum of the Faroe Islands. She has gained international recognition through her illustrations for Postverk Føroya. As an artist she is especially known for her textile art works, which are held by the collection of the National Gallery of the Faroe Islands. Together with her daughter Katrin (born 1971), she produced the altarpiece of the Vestmanna church, a Tree of Life made out of wood and metal.
+In 2018, Andreasen was awarded the Faroese Award of honor.
+
+
+== Stamps ==
+
+
+=== Fish ===
+
+
+=== Leafhoppers ===
+Date of issue: 6 February 1995
+
+
+=== Raven ===
+Date of issue: 12 June 1995.
+
+
+=== Invasion birds ===
+
+
+=== Mushrooms of the Faroes ===
+
+
+=== Invasion Birds '97 ===
+Date of issue: 17 February 1997.
+
+
+=== Sedentary Birds I ===
+
+
+=== Sedentary Birds II ===
+
+
+=== Molluscs ===
+Date of issue: 11 February 2002
+
+Text on stamps.fo
+
+[ Molluscs]
+
+
+=== Art on posters ===
+Date of issue: 14 April 2003
+
+
+=== Storm Petrel ===
+
+
+=== Deepwater Fishes ===
+
+
+== Other works ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Astrid Andreasen's page on mynd.fo
+Green Renaissance: Itchy Fingers, video about Astrid Andreasen, 2019, youtube.com
+Astrid Andreasen: Robbenbaby Halichoerus grypus, Motivarbeitsgemeinschaft Allgemeine Zoologie e.V., 2020 (in German)
+Scientific article by Dorete Bloch with illustrations by Astrid Andreasen, Frødi, 2004
+Listasavn Føroya (Short biography, in Faroese)
+Nordlysid.com - Astrid Andreasen's Corner (Short biography in English, with photos)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benoît_Godin-0.md

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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benoît_Godin"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T07:08:03.923772+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:34.254989+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_illustration-0.md

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+---
+title: "Biological illustration"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_illustration"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:33.926239+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Biological illustration is the use of technical illustration to visually communicate the structure and specific details of biological subjects of study. This can be used to demonstrate anatomy, explain biological functions or interactions, direct surgical procedures, distinguish species, and other applications. The scope of biological illustration can range from the whole organism level to microscopic.
+
+
+== Subcategories ==
+Types of biological illustrations include:
+
+Medical illustration
+Botanical illustration
+Zoological illustration
+
+
+== History ==
+Historically, biological illustrations have been in use since the beginning of man's exploration and attempts to understand the world. The Paleolithic cave paintings were so detailed that species and breeds of many of the depicted animals can be recognized. For example, in the Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave (circa 30,000 BC), at least 13 different species have been identified. In one prehistoric cave (circa 15,000 BC), there is a drawing of a mammoth with a darkened area where the heart should be. If this is indeed the intention of the illustration, it would be the world's first anatomical illustration.
+During the Renaissance, artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci famously sketched his observations from human dissections, as well as his studies of plants and the flight of birds. In the mid-16th century, the physician Andreas Vesalius compiled and published the De humani corporis fabrica, a collection of textbooks on human anatomy superior to any illustrations that had been produced until that point. In the early 1600s, the explorer Étienne de Flacourt documented his travels to Madagascar, and illustrated the unique fauna there, setting a precedent for future explorers as world travel became a more feasible reality.
+
+During his five-year voyage aboard HMS Beagle, Charles Darwin wrote and illustrated The Voyage of the Beagle, which was published in 1839. In the beginning of the 20th century, one of the most prolific biological illustrators, Ernst Haeckel, discovered, described, and named thousands of new species, and his published work, Kunstformen der Natur, contained hundreds of prints of various organisms, many of which were first described by Haeckel himself.
+
+
+== Education and employment ==
+Biological illustrations can be found in use in history and anatomy textbooks, nature guides, natural history museums, scientific magazines and journals, botanical gardens, zoos and aquariums, surgical training manuals, and many more applications. Biological illustration can be pursued as a degree in the undergraduate, graduate, and technical college levels. Preparation for a biological illustration career can include a background of art or science, or a combination of both. Skills development in biological illustration can involve two-dimensional art, animation, graphic design, and sculpture (such as necessary in custom prosthetics).
+
+It is possible to work in biological illustration without a specific degree, but a degree will significantly enhance an illustrator's employment opportunities. Job applications can be submitted to scientific researchers, publishers of scientific manuscripts, research institutions, museums, scientific foundations, commercial book publishers or university presses, individual authors, hospitals and medical training centers, local and state government offices, park services, environmental control offices, special government committees, printers and commercial publishing houses. Employment opportunities in the biological illustration profession are fairly limited, full-time jobs are not often available, and many experienced illustrators are self-employed, on short-term contracts, or work in science communication careers with few illustration duties. Many illustrators prefer the flexibility of their own working arrangements, but this is only possible when they are well established in the field and capable of locating work when needed. Many freelance illustrators supplement their salary with commercial illustration and graphic design projects, as is common in many art careers.
+
+
+== Technique ==
+Biological illustration has traditionally employed the techniques of using carbon dust, color pencil, stipple pen and ink, lithography, watercolor and gouache; however, digital illustration has recently become more important in the field. Every professional scientific illustration begins with multiple rough sketches. Many details must be discussed between the artist and scientist before a final drawing can be completed, and additional preliminary drawings must be prepared in order to work out aesthetic details.
+Pen and ink (often a flex nib fountain pen) line illustrations are clean, crisp, clear, and inexpensive to produce, making them ideal for biological illustrations. Ink drawings are typically made on a heavy drawing paper, such as Bristol board.
+Digital illustration can be done using a monitor or drawing tablet, computer software such as Adobe Illustrator or Photoshop, or it can be used in post-production after the illustration has been drawn by hand.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Guild of Natural Science Illustrators 
+Association of Medical Illustrators

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-0.md

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+---
+title: "Botanical illustration"
+chunk: 1/11
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Botanical illustration is the art of depicting the form, color, and details of plant species.  They are generally meant to be scientifically descriptive about subjects depicted and are often found printed alongside a botanical description in books, magazines, and other media. Some are sold as artworks. Often composed by a botanical illustrator in consultation with a scientific author, their creation requires an understanding of plant morphology and access to specimens and references.
+Many illustrations are in watercolour, but may also be in oils, ink,  or pencil, or a combination of these and other media. The image may be life-size or not, though at times a scale is shown, and may show the life cycle and/or habitat of the plant and its neighbors, the upper and reverse sides of leaves, and details of flowers, bud, seed and root system.
+The fragility of dried or otherwise preserved specimens, and restrictions or impracticalities of transport, saw illustrations used as valuable visual references for taxonomists. In particular, minute plants or other botanical specimens only visible under a microscope were often identified through illustrations. To that end, botanical illustrations used to be generally accepted as types for attribution of a botanical name to a taxon. However, current guidelines state that on or after 1 January 2007, the type must be a specimen 'except where there are technical difficulties of specimen preservation or if it is impossible to preserve a specimen that would show the features attributed to the taxon by the author of the name.'  (Arts 40.4 and 40.5 of the Shenzen Code, 2018).
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Up to the 15th century ===
+Early herbals and pharmacopoeia of many cultures include illustrations of plants, as in Ibn al-Baytar's Compendium on Simple Medicaments and Foods. Botanical illustrations in such texts were often created to assist with identification of a species for some medicinal purpose. The earliest surviving illustrated botanical work is the Vienna Dioscurides. It is a copy of Dioscorides's De Materia Medica, and was made in the year 512 for Juliana Anicia, daughter of the former Western Roman Emperor Olybrius. The illustrations did not accurately describe the plants, which was potentially hazardous to medicinal preparations.
+The oldest surviving manuscript of the 4th-century Pseudo-Apuleius Herbarius, dates back to the 6th century. It includes stylized plant illustrations and their medicinal uses. Among the first people in Europe to take an interest in plants were monks and nuns, and physicians. Medicinal herbs were grown in monastic gardens and used for self-care and for tending to the sick in local communities. Hildegard von Bingen even wrote about natural medicine and cures in Causae et Curae and Physica. Matthaeus Platearius, a Salerno physician, is credited with the (12th century) "Circa Instans" manuscript, expanded over time into the Treatise on Herbs, containing 500-900 entries depending on version. Later illustrated versions, called Secreta Salernitana, produced from the 14th century onwards influenced later herbals, such as Le Grant Herbier (1498),  and its translation, the Grete Herball (1526 or earlier), the first illustrated herbal in English. The illustrations were in fact copies of a series of woodcuts which first appeared in an earlier German herbal, and the same woodcut could be used to represent several plants.
+Another notable medical and botanical manuscript is the "Tacuinum Sanitatis", derived from the Taqwīm aṣ Ṣiḥḥa (or "Maintenance of Health"), an 11th-century Arabic medical text by Ibn Butlan, a physician from Baghdad. The text was translated into Latin in the mid-13th century. It was profusely illustrated and widely circulated in Europe, especially in the 14th and 15th centuries. Four handsomely illustrated complete late 14th-century manuscripts of the Tacuinum, all produced in Lombardy, survive, including one in Paris. The Tacuinum was first printed in 1531.
+There are many perfectly identifiable flowers in books like The Book of Hours (two volumes) by the Master of Flowers (Maître-aux-fleurs, 15th century) or Jean Bourdichon's Grandes Heures of Anne of Brittany (between 1503 and 1508), with 337 plants from the Queen's garden, captioned in Latin and French. These artists' objective was, though, purely artistic.
+At the end of the 16th century, an illustrated manuscript such as the Erbario Carrarese (British Library, London, Egerton Ms.2020), revealed the increased importance attached to plant observation. It is an Italian translation (produced in Veneto between 1390 and 1404 for Francesco Novello da Carrara) of a Latin translation of the Carrara Herbarium, a medical treatise likely written in Arabic by Serapion the Younger at the end of the 12th century, The Book of Simple Medicaments.
+Botany made great strides from the end of the 15th century onwards. Andrea Amadio's approach was scientific. Like Bourdichon, he was a miniature painter (who was born in Venice and died after 1450) but he illustrated a book written by a physician and scholar from Conegliano, Nicolò Roccabonella (1386–1459), the Liber de Simplicibus (known as the Codice Rinio, after the name of its second owner, Benedetto Rinio), between 1415 and 1449.
+Printed herbals appeared in 1475 ; in 1485 Gart der Gesundheit, by Johannes de Cuba, was published in Mainz: it is the first printed book on natural history.

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+
+=== Sixteenth century ===
+In the 15th and 16th centuries, botany developed as a scientific discipline distinct from herbalism and medicine, although it continued to contribute to both. Several factors contributed to the development and progress of botany during these centuries: the evolution from miniature painting or woodblock printing to more modern techniques; the invention  (and improvements) of the printing press, which facilitated the widespread dissemination of botanical knowledge; the advent of paper for the preparation of herbariums; and the development of botanical gardens, which allowed for the cultivation, observation, and study of plants from diverse regions. These developments were closely tied to advancements in navigation and exploration, which led to botanical expeditions that introduced numerous previously unknown species to Europe. As explorers and botanists traveled to new lands, they collected plants and expanded both the scope of botanical knowledge and the range of plants available. Together, these factors significantly increased the number of known plant species and facilitated the global exchange of local and regional botanical knowledge. During this period, Latin remained the universal language of science, ensuring that botanical discoveries could be shared and understood across national and linguistic boundaries.
+Christian Egenolff attached great importance to the illustrations included in the books he published: Herbarum, arborum, fruticum, frumentorum ac leguminem (Frankfurt, 1546) features 800 woodcuts of plants and animals. Some of the woodcuts used were engraved by Sebald Beham, Heinrich Steiner and Heinrich Köbel while others were reproduced from Otto Brunfels and engraver Hans Weiditz 's Herbarium vivae icones (Botanical Sketch Book, with hand-coloured woodcuts), which prompted Johannes Schott, the printer, to take legal action against him.
+From 1530 onwards (and thanks particularly to German herbalists appeared the first books illustrated with woodcuts based on direct observation of live plants, as opposed to relying on older, often incorrect depictions from ancient texts. Such works included those by Otto Brunfels, illustrated by Hans Weiditz: Herbarum vivae eicones ("Living Images of Plants", 1530–1536, in three parts) and Contrafayt Kräuterbuch (1532–1537, in two parts).

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+Papercutting : (Philipp Otto Runge, 1777–1810). This discipline was also practised in Ottoman Turkey (17th-18th centuries), under the name of Kaat'ı (more or less similar to quilling).
+Collages: (watercolor-enhanced paper collages by Mary Delany).
+Cut-out gouaches (Acanthus by Henri Matisse), 1953.
+Wall-paper and textile designers like Joseph-Laurent Malaine and the Arthur et Robert wallpaper factory, or William Morris, who paid close attention to botanical detail in his botanical patterns (Common hollyhock, 1862).
+Ceramics, such as those from Sèvres, often feature botanical motifs, finely observed from the 18th century onward. In 1790, Frederick VI of Denmark ordered a dinner set made decorated with exact copies of the plates of Flora Danica. Loren L. Zeller notes that Jean-Baptiste Pillement also produced several collections containing exotic floral and botanical designs. This was at a time when many women loved accessories decorated with flowers (flower holders, fans, perfume dispensers such as perfume [14]) and floral wall hangings, wallpaper, textiles and jewels were fashionable.
+Floral marquetry : Jan van Mekeren (Tiel 1658-1733 Amsterdam) is remembered for his cabinets covered with floral marquetry representing more than ten identifiable flowers. Cabinetmaker Jean-François Oeben was renowned for his foral marquetry decorations. Martine Lefèvre suggests that the foliage and flower decor on a table by Oeben may have been inspired by Jacques Daniel Cottin's indiennes as Cottin (who Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf worked for before he founded his toile de Jouy manufacture) was his neighbour in the "cour des Princes" in the Arsenal de Paris. She also writes that Cottin had "a silk sample decorated with twisted columns and small bouquets sent from Lyon in order to copy it". The silk manufactures in Lyon employed skilled artists trained in the local "classe de fleur" (flower drawing school) or in Paris (Gobelins Manufactory). The carved decor of Louis XV furniture featured garlands of flowers, fleurettes, palmettes, and foliage, as well as seashells. The Rocaille, during the reign of Louis XV, included the use of vegetal forms (vines, leaves, flowers) intertwined in complex designs.
+
+=== Three-dimensional representations ===
+wax sculpture : Louis Marc Antoine Robillard d'Argentelle (1777–1828) devoted 25 years of his life to creating the Museum's "Carporama", a collection of 112 tropical wax fruits and plants made between 1803 and 1826. The collection was presented in the Museum's botanical galleries in 1829. Before him, André-Pierre Pinson (1746–1828) had made wax mushrooms inspired by engravings by Pierre Bulliard (1742–1793).
+Papier mâché molded as in the botanical models designed for use in teaching by Louis Auzoux, dating from the 1870s-1880s, now in the Musée national de l'Éducation. Papier mâché and other materials were used for the Robert and Reinhold Brendel's modèles Brendel.
+Glass : In 1886, glass artists Leopold and Rudolf Blaschka were commissioned by the Harvard Botanical Museum to create a collection of Glass Flowers.
+Flowers have inspired many jewellers. In the 19th century, at least, they relied on detailed botanical sketches. "The ... designs, made by [Octave] Loeulliard for Boucheron, were criticized for striving after the exact representation of natural forms at the expense of the actual function of the jewel,... a criticism which could equally well have been levelled at Carl Fabergé and the Art Nouveau jewellers who clearly tended to regard a p iece of jewellery as a work of art rather than as a fashionable accessory". Other examples include jewels by Mellerio dits Meller (Set of jewels called Fuchsias en pluie - shower of Fuchsia flowers), circa 1830, presented at the Redouté exhibition at the Musée de la Vie romantique).
+
+== Notable botanical illustrators ==
+Notable botanical illustrators include:
+
+== Awards ==
+The Linnean Society of London awards the Jill Smythies Award for botanical illustration.
+
+== See also ==
+Florilegium
+Still life
+List of florilegia and botanical codices
+List of American botanical illustrators
+List of Australian botanical illustrators
+List of Irish botanical illustrators
+Illustration
+Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+De Bray, Lys (2001). The Art of Botanical Illustration: A history of classic illustrators and their achievements. Quantum Publishing, London. ISBN 1-86160-425-4.
+Blunt, Wilfrid and Stearn, William T. (1994). The Art of Botanical Illustration. Antique Collector's Club, London. ISBN 1-85149-177-5.
+Morris, Colleen; Louisa Murray: (2016). The Florilegium: the Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney celebrating 200 years: plants of the three gardens of the Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust, The Florilegium Society at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. ISBN 978-099-447790-3
+Sherwood, Shirley (2001). A Passion for Plants: Contemporary Botanical Masterworks. Cassell and Co, London. ISBN 0-304-35828-2.
+Sherwood, Shirley and Rix, Martyn (2008). Treasures of Botanical Art. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 978-1-84246-221-8.
+"Index". Australian Plant Collectors and Illustrators 1780s-1980s. Australian National Herbarium. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
+"Women Illustrators". The Art of Botanical Illustration. University of Delaware Library. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
+"Home page". Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation. Carnegie Mellon University. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
+Lack, H. Walter (2021). A Garden Eden: Masterpieces of Botanical Illustration. Taschen. ISBN 978-3-8365-7739-7.
+
+== External links ==
+
+American Society of Botanical Artists
+Art Serving Science: Solutions for the Preservation and Access of a Collection of Botanical Art and Illustration
+Botanical Art Society of Australia
+Botanical Drawings of carnivorous plants from the John Innes Centre Historical Collection Archived 2018-04-03 at the Wayback Machine
+Plantillustrations.org: searchable database of historic illustrations
+Botany.si.edu: online Smithsonian catalogue
+Flora of New Granada (Colombia) Drawings online, from the Royal Botanical Expedition led by Jose Celestino Mutis 
+Traveling Artist Wildflowers Project
+University of Delaware: 'The Art of Botanical Illustration' exhibit
+"The Science of Art — Why Botanical Illustration Matters". National Tropical Botanical Garden. June 28, 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2025.

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+His Amoris Monumentum Matri Charissimae (1589) shows a floral arrangement that seems to have been perceived at the precise moment when butterflies, caterpillars and snails appeared. The idea was often taken up again. His Archetypa studiaque patris Georgii Hoefnagelii (published by his son Jacob, in Frankfurt, in 1592) contains 48 engravings by Jacob (and perhaps Theodor de Bry or his son) based on studies that seem to have been made from life by Joris (who, according to Filippo Bonanni, had used a microscope).

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+It was John Ray who brought them to light by applying them to his own botanical classification work, and, through Ray, Carl von Linné eventually incorporated them into his own system. Jacob Marrel's stepdaughter Maria Sibylla Merian, who published her first book in 1675, included insects in her floral pictures. Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium (1705) showed caterpillars and the plants to which they are attached. Her daughters Rachel Ruysch and Dorothea Maria Graff were also flower painters. The most important work on plant systematics in the 17th century was the Historia generalis plantarum ('The General History of Plants', 1686) by John Ray (1627–1705), on which Linnaeus based his work and whom he proclaimed the 'founder' of systematics. The botanist and draughtsman Charles Plumier, who made four botanical expeditions (the first one in 1689), brought back a (now lost) herbarium and many drawings: Description des plantes de l'Amérique was published after the second voyage (1693), and Nova plantarum americanarum genera (1703) after the third. These works include plates showing flowers and fruits at different stages of development. A few decades earlier, Flora Sinensis (Vienna, 1656) had been published by a Jesuit missionary, Michał Boym. At the end of the 17th century, the first manuals for amateur painters appeared: in 1679, Claude Boutet published École de la mignature : Dans laquelle on peut facilement apprendre à peindre sans maître (Miniature art school: where you can easily learn to paint without a master'.). Chapters 88 and following are dedicated to the painting of flowers. The idea for the manual was taken up by a former pupil of Nicolas Robert, Catherine Perrot, received at the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture (1682): The Royal Lessons, or the Method of Painting Miniatures of Flowers and Birds, based on an Explanation of the Books on Flowers and Birds by the late Nicolas Robert, Flower painter (1686), recommends (Preface and Chapter I) imitating Robert's works rather than those of one "Baptiste de la Fleur", presumably a nickname for rising star Jean-Baptiste Monnoyer whose Le Livre de toutes sortes de fleurs d'après nature shows flowers with botanical accuracy and served decorative designers for decades. Joseph Pitton de Tournefort published his first work, Éléments de botanique ou méthode pour connaître les plantes, in 1694. In the preliminary notice, he noted that "the method followed is based on the structure of flowers and fruits. One cannot depart from it without getting into strange difficulties...". The book, illustrated with 451 excellent plates by Claude Aubriet, was an immediate success. Tournefort himself translated it into Latin as Institutiones rei herbariae as the use of Latin was still necessary to ensure a wide readership throughout Europe. He introduced a sophisticated hierarchy of classes, sections, genera and species, and was the first to systematically use a polynomial nomenclature. Towards the end of the 17th century, the first microscopic observations of plants were made and the study of plant anatomy developed rapidly, which was to have a major influence on later classifications. Robert Hooke's Micrographia, (1667), contains a large number of observations made with the microscope. Modern plant pathology started with Robert Hooke illustrating a fungal disease, rose rust (1665). Marcello Malpighi used the microscope to study the anatomy of all kinds of organisms; his work, Anatomia Plantarum (1675), contains studies of plant anatomy and systematic descriptions of the different parts of plants. Nehemiah Grew's The Anatomy of Plants (1682) displays detailed anatomical diagrams and cross sections of flowers and other plant structures, including the first known microscopic description of pollen. This makes it all the more curious to see that Abraham Munting's best known work, Naauwkeurige Beschryving Der Aardgewassen (Description of Terrestrial Plants, 1696), shows plants against a background of classic or pastoral landscapes. His Phytographia curiosa, 1702, also has inhabited landscapes in the background, reminiscent of the work of Gherardo Cibo at the end of the 16th century.

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+
+=== 18th century ===
+After the emergence of plant anatomy in the 17th, the 18th century saw that of plant physiology, which has since had a profound influence on the development of all areas of botany. Stephen Hales is considered the father of plant physiology for his many experiments in Vegetable Staticks (1727).
+As for Carl Linnaeus, he is widely recognized as the father of modern botanical nomenclature. Linnaeus introduced several key innovations in taxinomy. First, he applied binomial nomenclature, assigning each species a two-part Latin name, while also emphasizing detailed morphological characterization. This system allowed for clearer, more systematic classification. Additionally, he implemented a precise terminology for describing plant morphology, especially floral and fruit structures. Building on Jungius's work, Linnaeus carefully defined terms that became standard in botanical descriptions. Through his major works—Systema Naturae (1735) and "Species Plantarum" (1753), —he revolutionized taxonomy, creating a framework still used today. In Hortus Cliffortianus (1737), a collaboration between Linnaeus and the illustrator Georg Dionysius Ehret, he described 2536 genres et espèces de plantes. He organised their list according to the system he had established in the Specis Plantarum and in the Systema Naturae. To name the plants, he relied on his Critica Botanica. Ehret used many "exploded details" showing intricate dissections
+As botanical nomenclature became more structured and taxonomic classifications were regularly documented in scientific publications, botanical illustrations remained essential to provide clear, detailed depictions of plants that helped botanists, horticulturists, and enthusiasts accurately identify various species. A growing number of amateur botanists, gardeners, and natural historians provided a market for floras and other botanical publications and illustrations increased the appeal and accessibility of these to the general reader.
+Johann Wilhelm Weinmann, in his Phytanthoza Iconographia (1737–1745), collaborated with Bartholomäus Seutter, Johann Elias Ridinger, and Johann Jakob Haid. These artists produced over 1,000 hand-coloured mezzotint engravings of several thousand plants, including depictions of tulips, and what to Europeans were then exotic, newly discovered flora and fauna, such as the banana tree, making this book one of the most comprehensive and highly regarded color-plate florilegia of its time. Haid also worked on the Plantae selectae (1750) of Christoph Jakob Trew, alongside Georg Dionysius Ehret (who also contributed to Hans Sloane's protégé Mark Catesby's Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands (1729–1747) (also with coloured engravings).
+John Miller published Illustratio Systematis Sexualis Linnaei (Illustration of the Sexual System of Linnaeus, 1770–1777) which helped popularize the work of Linnaeus to English readers.
+In the mid-19th century, extensive horticultural studies emerged, including Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau's Traité des arbres et arbustes qui se cultivent en France en pleine terre, 1755, or Traité des arbres fruitiers, 1768. Robert Sweet, originally trained as a gardener, published a number of works on plants cultivated in British gardens and hothouses with plates mainly drawn by Edwin Dalton Smith, and The Florist's Guide and Cultivator's Directory, both aimed at plant enthusiasts and their gardeners.
+An early pomologist like Jean-Baptiste de La Quintinie, Johann Hermann Knoop published Pomology, or description of the best kinds of apples and pears (1758) and said illustrations were indispensable to help avoid mistakes caused by the fact that the same fruit was (still) often known by different names.
+Jan van Huysum, known for his bouquets of flowers and particularly his tulips, contributed to John Hill's Eden, or, A Compleat Body of Gardening, 1757, written with Thomas Hale. Hill is mostly remembered for The Vegetable System, 1759–1775, a huge botanical work illustrated by 1,600 copper-plate engravings.
+An early mycologist Jacob Christian Schäffer published several richly illustrated volumes on mushrooms "depicted in their natural colors" (1759). Michel Étienne Descourtilz, Des champignons comestibles, suspects et vénéneux... (Edible, suspect and poisonous mushrooms... Accompanied by ten plates of drawings made from life, carefully coloured and representing two hundred species grouped together in the terrain that feeds them, 1827).
+Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin's most influential publication may have been Selectarum Stirpium Americanarum Historia (1763), which detailed many plants from the Americas as he had been sent to the West Indies, Central America, Venezuela and New Granada (1755–1759). He also introduced many exotic species to Europe.
+Pierre-Joseph Buc'hoz, Herbier colorié de l'Amérique (Coloured herbarium of America, 1762) and more usefully, perhaps, Lettres sur la méthode de s'enrichir promptement, et de conserver sa santé, par la culture des végétaux exotiques, 1768.
+There were other botanical expeditions, such as James Cook's first voyage around the world (1768–1771), during which Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander increased the known flora of the world by 25 percent (Banks' Florilegium was published much later).
+The first volumes of Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle's Stirpes Novae (New Plants) were published in Paris in 1784–85, with full-page illustrations of all newly discovered species. Beginning with the second volume, the plates were drawn by Pierre-Joseph Redouté, marking the beginning of his recognition as a talented botanical illustrator.
+Jacob Christoph Le Blon and Jacques Fabien Gautier d'Agoty invented a four-colour printing printing process in Collection des plantes usuelles, curieuses et étrangères... et imprimées en couleur (1767). Pierre Bulliard developed a different and cheaper colour printing process.
+Botanical illustration accompanied the development of agronomy (a term that appeared in the late 18th century) and the seed trade. Johann Simon von Kerner, Illustration of All Economic Plants (Abbildung aller oekonomischen Pflanzen, Stuttgart 1786–96) is a notable example from this period. Vegetables, overlooked by illustrators after the vogue for herbals waned, resurfaced thanks to seed merchants like Vilmorin-Andrieux, who employed botanical artists (before 1783).
+A new genre of books appeared, that of botanical monographs like Carl Wilhelm Ernst Putsche's Versuch einer Monographie der Kartoffeln (on potatoes, 1819) or like Pierre-Joseph Redouté's Geraniologia (1787–1788), Les Liliacées (1802–1816), for which Redouté practised colour-printed stipple engraving or Les Roses (1817–1824), or John Lindley's Rosarum Monographia. Sarah Drake was a major contributor to Lindley's Edwards's Botanical Register.
+The first botanical magazines were published in the late 18th century : "Curtis's Botanical Magazine" (1787 to the present), launched by William Curtis, is one of the most famous and long-running botanical magazines. It has employed many talented illustrators giving detailed views as well as exploded details and cross sections. Sydenham Edwards worked for Curtis's magazine and then to The Botanical Register. With a wider audience and ever increasing publication material, specialized journals such as this one or the Annales de chimie et de physique (Paris, 1789) reflect the growing division between scientific disciplines in the Enlightenment era. The Linnean Society of London, a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and taxonomy, was founded in 1788.
+George Voorhelm Schneevoogt (1775–1850)'s Icones plantarum rariorum (Illustrations of rare and beautiful flowers and plants, drawn, engraved and colored after nature, 1793) has hand-coloured illustrations by Hendrik Schwegman and text in Dutch, French and German.
+Jean Goulin and Labeyrie led the team that created a dictionary of useful plants, trees and shrubs (1793–94).
+Étienne Pierre Ventenat published Description des plantes nouvelles et peu connues, cultivées dans le jardin de J.-M. Cels (1799), a horticulturist, and Jardin de la Malmaison (1803) both with illustrations by Redouté. The Château de Malmaison housed a collection of rare plants.

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+Iwasaki Tsunemasa had already started publishing Honzō Zufu (Iconographia Plantarum or Diagrams and Chronicles of Botany) a woodblock illustrated work (1828–1921). In the 1870s, Leopold Kny created a series of large, detailed botanical wall charts (Botanische Wandtafeln). These charts depicted various plant structures, including roots, flowers, and leaves, in great detail and at a large scale, making them useful for teaching botany in classrooms. Teachers could also use Robert and Reinhold Brendel's papier-mâché models (For more details, see Wikipedia in French: Modèles Brendel, or in German: Robert Brendel (Modellbauer)). Deyrolle also published wall charts (planches didactiques). After several expeditions to South and Central America, Jean Jules Linden made a detailed study of orchid growth conditions in their natural habitat. His findings revolutionised the cultivation of orchids under European conditions. Upon his return to Belgium, he became a prominent commercial orchid grower. Linden published exceptional books on orchids and their cultivation, commissioning leading botanical illustrators to create a number of chromolithographs. His Iconographie des Orchidées (17 volumes, 1885–1903) is monumental. Many of the plates in the first series and all of the plates in the second series were executed by the noted botanical illustrator Walter Hood Fitch, called by Blunt & Stearn "the most outstanding botanical artist of his day in Europe". Fitch was the preferred artist of eminent British botanist William Jackson Hooker, the first director of Kew Gardens. His publishing career lasted at least from 1851 to 1880. Fitch also illustrated Henry John Elwes's Monograph of the Genus Lilium (1880), while his comprehensive The Trees of Great Britain & Ireland (1906–1913), with Augustine Henry, seems to contain primarily photogravures, but their author is not specified. Botanical illustration took a new direction with the rise of Art Nouveau, which was popular between 1890 and 1910. Art Nouveau artists included Eugène Grasset, whose publication Plants and Their Application to Ornament (1896) emphasized the importance of studying natural forms in art . His student, Maurice Pillard Verneuil, wrote Etude de la plante : son application aux industries d'art (1903), which featured real, detailed botanical plates. Another significant figure was Anton Seder, though he is best remembered for his more stylized designs. Particularly noteworthy were the artists of the École de Nancy—including Louis Majorelle, Émile Gallé, and the Daum glassworks—who drew inspiration from the natural flora of the Lorraine region. Despite their regional focus, these artists, like others in the Art Nouveau movement, often popularized exotic plant forms such as orchids. One of the most botanically inclined among them may have been Henri Bergé, a decorator for Daum, who produced many hand-painted botanical plates for the Encyclopédie florale (1895–1930), now preserved at the Musée de l'École de Nancy". These plates served as a source of inspiration for Daum's artisans, who were trained to imitate and incorporate these natural forms into their work.

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+=== 20th and 21st centuries ===
+As the 19th century ended and photography gained popularity, Photoengraving, which used halftone technology instead of traditional illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. The first offset press was introduced in 1907, revolutionizing image reproduction.
+New botanical specialties emerged and developed: Lichenology (pioneered by Erik Acharius), Phycology (William Henry Harvey), Palaeobotany (Kaspar Maria von Sternberg), and Ecology (Eugenius Warming), along with new fields like Cytogenetics.
+Botanical illustrators are still actively working today. Deborah Lambkin, the official illustrator of new orchids described by the RHS since 2005, was awarded the Margaret Flockton Award in 2020. American botanists Nathaniel Lord Britton and Joseph Nelson Rose, with illustrator Mary Emily Eaton, published The Cactaceae (1919–1923). The prolific Matilda Smith was active until the early 1920s. Batty Langley, Pomona, or The Fruit-garden illustrated (London, 1928). Nellie Roberts was the first and longest serving Royal Horticultural Society orchid artist, from 1897 until 1953. In 1972, the Smithsonian Institution hired its first botanical illustrator, Alice Tangerini. In the 1980s, Celia Rosser undertook to illustrate every Banksia species for the masterwork, The Banksias. When another species was described after its publication, Banksia rosserae, it was named to honour her mammoth accomplishment.
+New developments include American hospital radiologist Dr. Dain L. Tasker (1872–1964) making X-ray pictures of flowers in the 1930s.
+The electron microscope (second half of the 20th century) made it possible to classify life into five or six kingdoms, three of which relate to botany (fungi, plants, chromista).
+Adolf Engler's plant classification system outlined in Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (1892) was later modified by the Cronquist system (1968).
+Today, illustrations reveal plant structures at microscopic and molecular levels.
+Field guides, floras, catalogues and magazines produced since the introduction of photography to print material have continued to include illustrations.  A compromise of accuracy and idealized images from several specimens can be easily (re)produced by skilled artists. Illustrations are also at times just preferred for some print/digital audiences or text formats.
+Organizations devoted to furthering botanical art are found in the US (American Society of Botanical Artists), UK (Society of Botanical Artists), Australia (Botanical Art Society of Australia), the Netherlands (Dutch Society for Botanical Artists) and South Africa (Botanical Artists Association of South Africa), among others. There is an increasing interest in the changes occurring in the natural world and in the central role plants play in maintaining healthy ecosystems. A sense of urgency has developed in documenting today's plant life for future generations. Original botanical illustrations rendered in traditional media (with which art conservators are more familiar) can and might serve as reference research materials for endangered species and climate change.
+
+== Chinese illustrators ==
+The Shennong Bencaojing, written between the first and second centuries AD, considered as the oldest book on Chinese herbal medicine, does not seem to have been illustrated originally. It was revised by Tao Hongjing's Bencao jing jizhu c.500, which was itself revised by a team of officials and physicians headed by Su Jing (599-674), also known as Su Gong (Xinxiu bencao or Tang Ben Cao or The Tang Classic of Materia Medica), a Chinese pharmacopoeia. Yaoxing lun, literally Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs, is a 7th-century treatise on herbal medicine. 
+André-Georges Haudricourt and Georges Métailié mention Song Boren, a poet and painter who is best known for Meihua Xishen Pu (Guide to Representing a Plum Blossom), published in 1238. This manual pairs poems with illustrations of plum blossoms at various stages, from buds to full bloom. His approach is purely artistic. On the contrary, Shen Kuo's Bencao is a book on Traditional Chinese medicine (1249).
+On the other hand, the prince and botanist Zhu Su, acted to promote the welfare of his contemporaries in times of famine when he composed his Jiuhuang bencao or Famine Relief Herbal (1406). This text lists 414 edible wild plants, each with an illustration and a brief description of its appearance, pharmacological properties, and culinary uses.
+Li Shizhen(1518–1593) is regarded as a leading scientific figure in China. For Haudricourt and Métailié, his Bencao Gangmu (1596) can be compared to similar European Renaissance works. The illustrations are not always true to life.
+Bencao yuanshi (Origins of Materia Medica), by Li Zhongli, first published in 1612, focuses on plants with medicinal properties. The plants or useful parts of plants are illustrated. 
+Cheng Yaotian (1736-1796) observed plants in nature and cultivated them. The drawings accompanying his text resemble herbarium specimens, emphasizing flower and fruit details. Wu Qijun (1789-1847)'s Illustrated Catalogues of Plants (1848) also relied on direct observation of plants in nature. 
+The authors conclude that despite working in rich plant environments, scholar-officials' inventories rarely exceeded 2000 plants, much less than some European floras did in the 16th century.
+
+== Other types of floral representations ==
+
+=== Two-dimensional representations ===
+An exhibition at the Grand Palais in 2017 displayed other types of botanical illustrations:

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+title: "Bruno Latour"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:40.711013+00:00"
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+
+Bruno Latour (; French: [latuʁ]; 22 June 1947 – 9 October 2022) was a French philosopher, anthropologist and sociologist. He was especially known for his work in the field of science and technology studies (STS). After teaching at the Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation of the École des Mines de Paris from 1982 to 2006, he became a professor at Sciences Po Paris (2006–2017), where he was the scientific director of the Sciences Po Medialab. He retired from several university activities in 2017. He was also a Centennial Professor at the London School of Economics.
+Latour is best known for his books We Have Never Been Modern (1991; English translation, 1993), Laboratory Life (with Steve Woolgar, 1979) and Science in Action (1987). Although his studies of scientific practice were at one time associated with social constructionist approaches to the philosophy of science, Latour diverged significantly from such approaches. He was best known for withdrawing from the subjective/objective division and redeveloping the approach to work in practice. Latour said in 2017 that he is interested in helping to rebuild trust in science and that some of the authority of science needs to be regained. Along with Michel Callon, Madeleine Akrich, and John Law, Latour is one of the primary developers of actor–network theory (ANT), a constructionist approach influenced by the ethnomethodology of Harold Garfinkel, the generative semiotics of Algirdas Julien Greimas, and (more recently) the sociology of Émile Durkheim's rival Gabriel Tarde.
+
+== Biography ==
+Latour was related to a well-known family of winemakers from Burgundy known as Maison Louis Latour, but was not associated with the similarly named Château Latour estate in Bordeaux.
+As a student, Latour originally focused on philosophy. In 1971–1972, he ranked second and then first (reçu second, premier) in the French national competitive exam agrégation/CAPES de philosophie. Latour went on to earn his PhD degree in philosophical theology at the University of Tours in 1975. His thesis title was Exégèse et ontologie: une analyse des textes de resurrection (Exegesis and Ontology: An Analysis of the Texts of Resurrection). 
+Latour developed an interest in anthropology, and undertook fieldwork in Ivory Coast, on behalf of ORSTOM, which resulted in a brief monograph on decolonisation, race, and industrial relations.  In the 1990s, he engaged in a series of dialogues with Michel Serres that were published as Eclaircissements (Conversations on Science, Culture and Time).
+After spending more than twenty years (1982–2006) at the Centre de sociologie de l'innovation at the École des Mines in Paris, Latour moved in 2006 to Sciences Po, where he was the first occupant of a chair named for Gabriel Tarde. In recent years, he also served as one of the curators of successful art exhibitions at the Zentrum für Kunst und Medientechnologie in Karlsruhe, Germany, including "Iconoclash" (2002) and "Making Things Public" (2005). In 2005, he also held the Spinoza Chair of Philosophy at the University of Amsterdam.
+Latour remained religious until the end of his life, reading the Bible "devotedly."
+Latour died from pancreatic cancer on 9 October 2022, at the age of 75. His papers were contributed to the French National Archives and the Municipal Archives of Beaune.
+
+== Awards and honours ==
+On 22 May 2008, Latour was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Université de Montréal on the occasion of an organizational communication conference held in honour of the work of James R. Taylor, on whom Latour has had an important influence. He held several other honorary doctorates, as well as France's Légion d'Honneur (2012).
+
+=== Holberg Prize ===
+On 13 March 2013, he was announced as the winner of the 2013 Holberg Prize. The prize committee stated that "Bruno Latour has undertaken an ambitious analysis and reinterpretation of modernity, and has challenged fundamental concepts such as the distinction between modern and pre-modern, nature and society, human and non-human." The committee states that "the impact of Latour's work is evident internationally and far beyond studies of the history of science, art history, history, philosophy, anthropology, geography, theology, literature and law."
+A 2013 article in Aftenposten by Norwegian philosopher Jon Elster criticised the conferment to Latour, by saying "The question is, does he deserve the prize. ... If the statutes [of the award] had used new knowledge as the main criteria, instead as one of several, then he would be completely unqualified in my opinion."
+
+=== Spinoza and Kyoto Prize ===
+The Dutch "International Spinozaprijs Foundation" awarded the "Spinozalens 2020" to Bruno Latour on 24 November 2020.
+In 2021 he received the Kyoto Prize in the category "Thought and Ethics".
+
+== Main works ==
+
+=== Laboratory Life ===

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+After his early career efforts, Latour shifted his research interests to focus on laboratory scientists. Latour rose in importance following the 1979 publication of Laboratory Life: the Social Construction of Scientific Facts with co-author Steve Woolgar. In the book, the authors undertake an ethnographic study of a neuroendocrinology research laboratory at the Salk Institute. This early work argued that naïve descriptions of the scientific method, in which theories stand or fall on the outcome of a single experiment, are inconsistent with actual laboratory practice.
+In the laboratory, Latour and Woolgar observed that a typical experiment produces only inconclusive data that is attributed to failure of the apparatus or experimental method, and that a large part of scientific training involves learning how to make the subjective decision of what data to keep and what data to throw out. Latour and Woolgar argued that, for untrained observers, the entire process resembles not an unbiased search for truth and accuracy but a mechanism for ignoring data that contradicts scientific orthodoxy.
+Latour and Woolgar produced a highly heterodox and controversial picture of the sciences. Drawing on the work of Gaston Bachelard, they advance the notion that the objects of scientific study are socially constructed within the laboratory—that they cannot be attributed with an existence outside of the instruments that measure them and the minds that interpret them. They view scientific activity as a system of beliefs, oral traditions and culturally specific practices—in short, science is reconstructed not as a procedure or as a set of principles but as a culture. Latour's 1987 book Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society is one of the key texts of the sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) in which he famously wrote his Second Principle as follows: "Scientist and engineers speak in the name of new allies that they have shaped and enrolled; representatives among other representatives, they add these unexpected resources to tip the balance of force in their favor." Some scholars in the SSK tradition reject Latour as a practitioner of SSK.
+Some of Latour's positions and findings in this era provoked vehement rebuttals. Gross and Leavitt argue that Latour's position becomes absurd when applied to non-scientific contexts: e.g., if a group of coworkers in a windowless room were debating whether or not it were raining outside and went outdoors to discover raindrops in the air and puddles on the soil, Latour's hypothesis would assert that the rain was socially constructed. Similarly, philosopher John Searle argues that Latour's "extreme social constructivist" position is seriously flawed on several points, and furthermore has inadvertently "comical results".
+
+=== The Pasteurization of France ===
+After a research project examining the sociology of primatologists, Latour followed up the themes in Laboratory Life with Les Microbes: guerre et paix (published in English as The Pasteurization of France in 1988). In it, he reviews the life and career of one of France's most famous scientists Louis Pasteur and his discovery of microbes, in the fashion of a political biography. Latour highlights the social forces at work in and around Pasteur's career and the uneven manner in which his theories were accepted. By providing more explicitly ideological explanations for the acceptance of Pasteur's work more easily in some quarters than in others, he seeks to undermine the notion that the acceptance and rejection of scientific theories is primarily, or even usually, a matter of experiment, evidence or reason.
+
+=== Aramis, or The Love of Technology ===
+Aramis, or The Love of Technology focuses on the history of an unsuccessful mass-transit project. Aramis PRT (personal rapid transit), a high-tech automated subway, had been developed in France during the 70s and 80s and was supposed to be implemented as a personal rapid transit system in Paris. It combined the flexibility of an automobile with the efficiency of a subway. Aramis was to be an ideal urban transportation system based on private cars in constant motion and the elimination of unnecessary transfers. This new form of transportation was intended to be as secure and inexpensive as collective transportation. The proposed system had custom-designed motors, sensors, controls, digital electronics, software and a major installation in southern Paris. But in the end, the project died in 1987. Latour argues that the technology failed not because any particular actor killed it, but because the actors failed to sustain it through negotiation and adaptation to a changing social situation. While investigating Aramis's demise, Latour delineates the tenets of actor-network theory. According to Latour's own description of the book, the work aims "at training readers in the booming field of technology studies and at experimenting in the many new literary forms that are necessary to handle mechanisms and automatisms without using the belief that they are mechanical or automatic."

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+
+=== We Have Never Been Modern ===
+Latour's work Nous n'avons jamais été modernes : Essai d'anthropologie symétrique was first published in French in 1991, and then in English in 1993 as We Have Never Been Modern.
+Latour encouraged the reader of this anthropology of science to rethink and re-evaluate our mental landscape. He evaluated the work of scientists and contemplated the contribution of the scientific method to knowledge and work, blurring the distinction across various fields and disciplines.
+Latour argued that society has never really been modern and promoted nonmodernism (or amodernism) over postmodernism, modernism, or antimodernism. His stance was that we have never been modern and minor divisions alone separate Westerners now from other collectives. Latour viewed modernism as an era that believed it had annulled the entire past in its wake. He presented the antimodern reaction as defending such entities as spirit, rationality, liberty, society, God, or even the past. Postmoderns, according to Latour, also accepted the modernistic abstractions as if they were real. In contrast, the nonmodern approach reestablished symmetry between science and technology on the one hand and society on the other. Latour also referred to the impossibility of returning to premodernism because it precluded the large-scale experimentation which was a benefit of modernism.
+Latour attempted to prove through case studies the fallacy in the old object/subject and Nature/Society compacts of modernity, which can be traced back to Plato. He refused the concept of "out there" versus "in here". He rendered the object/subject distinction as simply unusable and charted a new approach towards knowledge, work, and circulating reference. Latour considered nonmoderns to be playing on a different field, one vastly different to that of post-moderns. He referred to it as much broader and much less polemical, a creation of an unknown territory, which he playfully referred to as the Middle Kingdom.
+In 1998, historian of science Margaret C. Jacob argued that Latour's politicised account of the development of modernism in the 17th century is "a fanciful escape from modern Western history".
+
+=== Pandora's Hope ===
+Pandora's Hope (1999) marks a return to the themes Latour explored in Science in Action and We Have Never Been Modern. It uses independent but thematically linked essays and case studies to question the authority and reliability of scientific knowledge. Latour uses a narrative, anecdotal approach in a number of the essays, describing his work with pedologists in the Amazon rainforest, the development of the pasteurisation process, and the research of French atomic scientists at the outbreak of the Second World War. Latour states that this specific, anecdotal approach to science studies is essential to gaining a full understanding of the discipline: "The only way to understand the reality of science studies is to follow what science studies do best, that is, paying close attention to the details of scientific practice" (p. 24). Some authors have criticised Latour's methodology, including Katherine Pandora, a history of science professor at the University of Oklahoma. In her review of Pandora's Hope, Katherine Pandora states:
+
+"[Latour's] writing can be stimulating, fresh and at times genuinely moving, but it can also display a distractingly mannered style in which a rococo zeal for compounding metaphors, examples, definitions and abstractions can frustrate even readers who approach his work with the best of intentions (notwithstanding the inclusion of a nine-page glossary of terms and liberal use of diagrams in an attempt to achieve the utmost clarity)".
+
+In addition to his epistemological concerns, Latour also explores the political dimension of science studies in Pandora's Hope. Two of the chapters draw on Plato's Gorgias as a means of investigating and highlighting the distinction between content and context. As Katherine Pandora states in her review:
+
+"It is hard not to be caught up in the author's obvious delight in deploying a classic work from antiquity to bring current concerns into sharper focus, following along as he manages to leave the reader with the impression that the protagonists Socrates and Callicles are not only in dialogue with each other but with Latour as well."
+
+Although Latour frames his discussion with a classical model, his examples of fraught political issues are all current and of continuing relevance: global warming, the spread of mad cow disease, and the carcinogenic effects of smoking are all mentioned at various points in Pandora's Hope. In Felix Stalder's article "Beyond constructivism: towards a realistic realism", he summarizes Latour's position on the political dimension of science studies as follows: "These scientific debates have been artificially kept open in order to render impossible any political action against these problems and those who profit from them".

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+
+=== "Why Has Critique Run Out of Steam?" ===
+In a 2004 article, Latour questioned the fundamental premises on which he had based most of his career, asking, "Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies?" He undertakes a trenchant critique of his own field of study and, more generally, of social criticism in contemporary academia. He suggests that critique, as currently practised, is bordering on irrelevancy. To maintain any vitality, Latour argues that social critiques require a drastic reappraisal: "our critical equipment deserves as much critical scrutiny as the Pentagon budget." (p. 231) To regain focus and credibility, Latour argues that social critiques must embrace empiricism, to insist on the "cultivation of a stubbornly realist attitude – to speak like William James". (p. 233)
+Latour suggests that about 90 per cent of contemporary social criticism displays one of two approaches, which he terms "the fact position and the fairy position." (p. 237) The fairy position is anti-fetishist, arguing that "objects of belief" (e.g., religion, arts) are merely concepts created by the projected wishes and desires of the "naive believer"; the "fact position" argues that individuals are dominated, often covertly and without their awareness, by external forces (e.g., economics, gender). (p. 238) "Do you see now why it feels so good to be a critical mind?" asks Latour: no matter which position you take, "You're always right!" (p. 238–239) Social critics tend to use anti-fetishism against ideas they personally reject; to use "an unrepentant positivist" approach for fields of study they consider valuable; all the while thinking as "a perfectly healthy sturdy realist for what you really cherish." (p. 241) These inconsistencies and double standards go largely unrecognised in social critique because "there is never any crossover between the two lists of objects in the fact position and the fairy position." (p. 241)
+The practical result of these approaches being taught to millions of students in elite universities for several decades is a widespread and influential "critical barbarity" that has—like a malign virus created by a "mad scientist"—thus far proven impossible to control. Most troubling, Latour notes that critical ideas have been appropriated by those he describes as conspiracy theorists, including global warming deniers and the 9/11 Truth movement: "Maybe I am taking conspiracy theories too seriously, but I am worried to detect, in those mad mixtures of knee-jerk disbelief, punctilious demands for proofs, and free use of powerful explanation from the social neverland, many of the weapons of social critique." (p. 230)
+The conclusion of the article is to argue for a positive framing of critique, to help understand how matters of concern can be supported rather than undermined: "The critic is not the one who lifts the rugs from under the feet of the naïve believers, but the one who offers the participants arenas in which to gather. The critic is not the one who alternates haphazardly between antifetishism and positivism like the drunk iconoclast drawn by Goya, but the one for whom, if something is constructed, then it means it is fragile and thus in great need of care and caution."
+Latour's article has been highly influential within the field of postcritique, an intellectual movement within literary criticism and cultural studies that seeks to find new forms of reading and interpretation that go beyond the methods of critique, critical theory, and ideological criticism. The literary critic Rita Felski has named Latour as an important precursor to the project of postcritique.
+
+=== Reassembling the Social ===
+In Reassembling the Social (2005), Latour continues a reappraisal of his work, developing what he calls a "practical metaphysics", which calls "real" anything that an actor (one whom we are studying) claims as a source of motivation for action. So if someone says, "I was inspired by God to be charitable to my neighbours" we are obliged to recognise the "ontological weight" of their claim, rather than attempting to replace their belief in God's presence with "social stuff", like class, gender, imperialism, etc. Latour's nuanced metaphysics demands the existence of a plurality of worlds, and the willingness of the researcher to chart ever more. He argues that researchers must give up the hope of fitting their actors into a structure or framework, but Latour believes the benefits of this sacrifice far outweigh the downsides: "Their complex metaphysics would at least be respected, their recalcitrance recognised, their objections deployed, their multiplicity accepted."
+For Latour, to talk about metaphysics or ontology—what really is—means paying close empirical attention to the various, contradictory institutions and ideas that bring people together and inspire them to act. Here is Latour's description of metaphysics:
+
+If we call metaphysics the discipline inspired by the philosophical tradition that purports to define the basic structure of the world, then empirical metaphysics is what the controversies over agencies lead to, since they ceaselessly populate the world with new drives and, as ceaselessly, contest the existence of others. The question then becomes how to explore the actors' own metaphysics.

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+A more traditional metaphysicist might object, arguing that this means there are multiple, contradictory realities, since there are "controversies over agencies" – since there is a plurality of contradictory ideas that people claim as a basis for action (God, nature, the state, sexual drives, personal ambition, and so on). This objection manifests the most important difference between traditional philosophical metaphysics and Latour's nuance: for Latour, there is no "basic structure of reality" or a single, self-consistent world. An unknowably large multiplicity of realities, or "worlds" in his terms, exists–one for each actor's sources of agency, inspirations for action. In this, Latour is remarkably close to B.F. Skinner's position in Beyond Freedom and Dignity and the philosophy of Radical Behaviourism. Actors bring "the real" (metaphysics) into being. The task of the researcher is not to find one "basic structure" that explains agency, but to recognise "the metaphysical innovations proposed by ordinary actors". Mapping those metaphysical innovations involves a strong dedication to relativism, Latour argues. The relativist researcher "learns the actors' language," records what they say about what they do, and does not appeal to a higher "structure" to "explain" the actor's motivations. The relativist "takes seriously what [actors] are obstinately saying" and "follows the direction indicated by their fingers when they designate what 'makes them act'". The relativist recognises the plurality of metaphysics that actors bring into being, and attempts to map them rather than reducing them to a single structure or explanation.
+
+== In the science wars ==
+
+In Fashionable Nonsense, the physicists Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont quote Latour's claim in Science in Action that "they [scientists and engineers] do not use Nature as the external referee," which Sokal and Bricmont say is false. Scientists "are not relativist..they do 'use Nature as the external referee': that is, they seek to know what is really happening in Nature, and they design experiments for that purpose." Sokal and Bricmont also critically cite an article written by Latour in La Recherche in 1998 that referred to research showing that the pharaoh Ramses II probably died of tuberculosis in which Latour asks "How could he pass away due to a bacillus discovered by Koch in 1882?", claims that "Before Koch, the bacillus has no real existence" and writes that a pharaoh dying of tuberculosis is as much of an anachronism as it would be to claim that the pharaoh died of machine-gun fire.
+
+Latour noted that he had been asked, "Do you believe in reality?", which caused a "quick and laughing answer". Reality, for Latour, is neither something we have to believe in nor do we have lost access to it in the first place. "'Do you believe in reality?' To ask such a question one has to become so distant from reality that the fear of losing it entirely becomes plausible—and this fear itself has an intellectual history [...] Only a mind put in the strangest position, looking at a world from inside out and linked to the outside by nothing but the tenuous connection of the gaze, will throb in the constant fear of losing reality; only such a bodiless observer will desperately look for some absolute life-supporting survival kit."According to Latour, the originality of science studies lies in demonstrating that facts are both real and constructed. The accusation of a postmodern hostility to science, thus, not only fails to recognize that science studies aims at a more robust understanding how science is done in practice, but also shows a fundamental misunderstanding of the methods and insights of science studies. Latour has emphatically problematized the rise of anti-scientific thinking and so-called "alternative facts". Latour states that the recent attacks against climate sciences and other disciplines demonstrate that there is a real war on science going on requiring a more intimate cooperation between science and science studies.
+
+== Selected bibliography ==
+
+=== Books ===
+Latour, Bruno; Woolgar, Steve (1986) [1979]. Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09418-2. Originally published 1979 in Los Angeles, by SAGE Publications
+Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: how to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-79291-3.
+—— (1988). The pasteurization of France. Translated by Alan Sheridan and John Law. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-65761-8.
+—— (1993). We have never been modern. Translated by Catherine Porter. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-94839-6.
+—— (1996). Aramis, or the love of technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04323-7.
+—— (1999). Pandora's hope: essays on the reality of science studies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-65336-8.
+—— (2004). Politics of nature: how to bring the sciences into democracy. Translated by Catherine Porter. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01347-6.
+——; Weibel, Peter (2005). Making things public: atmospheres of democracy. Cambridge, Massachusetts Karlsruhe, Germany: MIT Press ZKM/Center for Art and Media in Karlsruhe. ISBN 978-0-262-12279-5.
+—— (2005). Reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network-theory. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925604-4.
+—— (2010). On the modern cult of the factish gods. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4825-2.
+—— (2010). The making of law: an ethnography of the Conseil d'Etat. Cambridge, UK Malden, Massachusetts: Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-3985-7.
+—— (2013). Rejoicing: or the torments of religious speech. Translated by Julie Rose. Cambridge, UK: Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-6007-3.
+—— (2013). An inquiry into modes of existence: an anthropology of the moderns. Translated by Catherine Porter. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72499-0.
+—— (2017). Facing Gaia: Eight Lectures on the New Climatic Regime. Translated by Catherine Porter. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-8433-8.
+—— (2018). Down to Earth: Politics in the New Climatic Regime. England: Polity Press. ISBN 978-1-5095-3059-5.
+—— (2021). After Lockdown: A Metamorphosis. England: Polity Press. ISBN 978-1-5095-5002-9.
+Latour, Bruno; Schultz, Nikolaj (2022). On the Emergence of an Ecological Class: A Memo. Polity Press. ISBN 978-1-509-55507-9.
+Latour, Bruno (2024). How to Inhabit the Earth. Interviews with Nicolas Truong. Translated by Julie Rose. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN 978-1-5095-5946-6.

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+
+=== Chapters in books ===
+——; Callon, Michel (1992), "Don't throw the baby out with the Bath School! A reply to Collins and Yearley", in Pickering, Andrew (ed.), Science as practice and culture, Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, pp. 343–368, ISBN 978-0-226-66801-7.
+—— (1992), "Where are the missing masses? The sociology of a few mundane artifacts", in Bijker, Wiebe E.; Law, John (eds.), Shaping technology/building society: studies in sociotechnical change, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 225–258, ISBN 978-0-262-52194-9.
+——; Akrich, Madeline (1992), "A summary of convenient vocabulary for the semiotics of human and nonhuman assemblies", in Bijker, Wiebe E.; Law, John (eds.), Shaping technology/building society: studies in sociotechnical change, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 259–264, ISBN 978-0-262-52194-9.
+—— (1992), "Whose cosmos, which cosmopolitics? Comments on the peace terms of Ulrich Beck", in Robertson-von Trotha, Caroline Y. (ed.), Kultur und Gerechtigkeit (Kulturwissenschaft interdisziplinär/Interdisciplinary Studies on Culture and Society, Vol. 2), Baden-Baden: Nomos, ISBN 978-3-8329-2604-5.
+—— (2015), "Les « vues » de l'esprit. une introduction à l'anthropologie des sciences et des techniques" [The "views" of the mind: An introduction to the anthropology of science and technology], in Emmanuel Alloa (ed.), Penser l'image II. Anthropologies du visuel [Think on the image II: Anthropologies of the visual] (in French), Dijon: Les presses du réel, pp. 207–256, ISBN 978-2-84066-557-1
+
+=== Journal articles ===
+—— (March 2000). "When things strike back: a possible contribution of 'science studies' to the social sciences" (PDF). British Journal of Sociology. 51 (1): 107–123. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2000.00107.x.
+—— (2004). "Why has critique run out of steam? From matters of fact to matters of concern" (PDF). Critical Inquiry. 30 (2): 225–248. doi:10.1086/421123. S2CID 159523434.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Sources ===
+
+== External links ==
+
+Bruno Latour's website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_R._May-0.md

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+---
+title: "Carl R. May"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_R._May"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:47.901229+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Carl May FAcSS (born 1961, in Farnham, Surrey) is a British sociologist. He researches in the fields of medical sociology and Implementation Science. Formerly based at Southampton University and Newcastle University, he is now Professor of Health Systems Implementation at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Carl May was elected an Academician of the Academy of Learned Societies in the Social Sciences in 2006. He was appointed a Senior Investigator at the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) in 2010. He was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of General Practitioners in 2020. He has honorary professorial appointments in primary care at the University of Melbourne, and in public health at Monash University. 
+May is best known for his contributions to Implementation Science and his work is represented by many studies of the interaction between health technologies and their users. In Implementation Science his work investigates how innovations become routinely embedded in health care and other organizational systems. This research has led to Normalization Process Theory, developed with Tracy Finch and others, including Victor Montori. This is a sociological theory of the implementation, embedding, and integration of new technologies and organizational innovations. May and colleagues have applied Normalization Process Theory to explaining patient non-compliance with treatment, proposing that a proportion of non-compliance is structurally induced by healthcare systems themselves as patients are overburdened by treatment. To counter this, they have proposed Minimally Disruptive Medicine, which seeks to take account of its effects on patients' workload.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Normalization Process Theory Website Archived 2021-04-26 at the Wayback Machine
+Carl May's academia.edu page
+Carl May's personal website
+Carl R. May publications indexed by Google Scholar

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_health_physicist-0.md

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+---
+title: "Certified health physicist"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_health_physicist"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:14.530564+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Certified Health Physicist is an official title granted by the American Board of Health Physics, the certification board for health physicists in the United States.  A Certified Health Physicist is designated by the letters CHP or DABHP (Diplomate of the American Board of Health Physics) after his or her name.
+A certification by the ABHP is not a license to practice and does not confer any legal qualification to practice health physics. However, the certification is well respected and indicates a high level of achievement by those who obtain it.
+Certified Health Physicists are plenary or emeritus members of the American Academy of Health Physics (AAHP). In 2019, the AAHP web site listed over 1600 plenary and emeritus members.
+
+
+== Professional responsibilities ==
+A person certified as a health physicist has a responsibility to uphold the professional integrity associated with the certification to promote the practice and science of radiation safety. It is expected that such a person will always give health physics information based on the highest standards of science and professional ethics. A certified individual has a responsibility to remain professionally active in the health physics field and remain technically competent in the scientific, technical and regulatory developments in the field.
+
+
+== General requirements required to receive the certification ==
+The requirements for prospective candidates for certification are 
+
+Academics. At least a bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university in physical sciences, engineering, or in a biological science, with a minimum of 20 semester hours in physical science.
+Experience. At least six years of professional experience in health physics. By permission of the Board, advanced degrees may substitute for one year (master's degree) or two years (doctorate) of the required experience.
+References. A reference from the immediate supervisor and from at least two other individuals, including one from a currently certified Health Physicist.
+Written Report. A written report that reflects a professional health physics effort.
+Examination. A two-part exam, which is currently given during one week of the year.
+Part I consists of 150 multiple choice questions in fundamental aspects of health physics. This portion of the test is three hours long, and can be taken without most of the above requirements. It is given at Pearson Vue testing centers throughout the world in the week before the Health Physics Society's annual meeting.
+Part II consists of open-ended written questions, which determine competency in applied health physics. This portion of the exam is six hours long, and can only be taken after having passed Part I, or immediately after having taken Part I the week before. It is given on the Monday of the Health Physics Society's annual meeting, and on the same day at other locations throughout the country.
+After passing Part I, the applicant must pass Part II within a period of seven years, or retake both parts.
+If a candidate scores particularly poorly on Part II, he or she will be barred from taking it the following year.
+Both parts include all of the topics below, but Part II requires candidates to answer only six mandatory questions and four of eight topic area questions.
+
+
+=== Examination topics ===
+Atomic structure/Radioactivity/Radioactive decay
+Interaction of radiation with matter
+Internal dosimetry/Internal dose calculations
+Biological effects of ionizing radiation
+NRC, OSHA, Regulations/Standards ICRU, ICRP, NCRP
+Radiation Risk, BEIR III, IV, V, VI
+External dose calculations/External dosimetry
+Statistics
+Instrumentation
+Low Level Wastes, Fuel Cycle, DOT Regulations
+Shielding and Activation
+Air sampling/Modeling/Environmental Health Physics
+Medical Health Physics and X-ray Protection
+Reactor Health Physics/Criticality
+Accelerator Health Physics
+Lasers, UV, Microwave, RF
+Radon
+
+
+=== Exam reference sources ===
+Health Physics Topics
+
+Johnson, T.E. (2017). Introduction to health physics. Introduction to health physics.
+Johnson, T.E. & Birky, B.K. (1998). Health Physics and Radiological Health.
+Knoll, G.F. (1979). Radiation Detection and Measurement.
+Turner, J.E. (2007). Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection.
+Part I
+
+Bevelacqua, J.J. (1999). Basic Health Physics: Problems and Solutions.
+ABHP Part I Question and Solutions
+Part II
+
+Bevelacqua, J. J. (2009). Contemporary health physics: Problems and Solutions.
+Turner, J.E. (1988). Problems and Solutions in Radiation Protection.
+American Board of Health Physics
+ABHP Part II Question and Solutions
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+American Board of Health Physics
+Health Physics Society
+American Academy of Health Physics

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_Scientist-0.md

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+---
+title: "Chartered Scientist"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_Scientist"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:15.703730+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Chartered Scientist (CSci) is a professional qualification in the United Kingdom that is awarded by the Science Council through its licensed member organisations. Holders of this qualification can use the post-nominal letters CSci.
+Chartered scientists are professional scientists who are practising and/or advancing science at the full professional level and are individuals for whom scientific knowledge or practice at that level form an essential element of their role.
+The required standard for Chartered Scientist registration is a master's-level science qualification accredited by one of the licensed bodies (or equivalent) with four years of postgraduate work experience.
+The standards of the Chartered Scientist designation are upheld by the Science Council’s registration authority, whose members are elected representatives from the licensed bodies and appointed experts from other areas.
+
+
+== Chartered Science Teacher ==
+There is a specialist section of the register for scientists whose primary profession is teaching.  Those registered are entitled to use the post-nominal CSciTeach.  It was developed in 2007 by the Science Council in partnership with the Association for Science Education, and is also awarded by the Royal Society of Biology and the Royal Society of Chemistry.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Chartered Biologist
+Chartered Chemist
+Chartered Engineer (UK)
+Chartered Physicist
+Chartered Statistician
+Chartered Mathematician
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Science Council website
+Chartered Science Teacher

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/César_Augusto_Aguilar_Puntriano-0.md

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+---
+title: "César Augusto Aguilar Puntriano"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/César_Augusto_Aguilar_Puntriano"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:28.323349+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+César Augusto Aguilar Puntriano also written as César Aguilar-Puntriano (born 1971) is a Peruvian zoologist, herpetologist, and professor.  
+He conducts academic and scientific work in the Department of Herpetology at the Museo de Historia Natural Javier Prado of the National University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru. A total of 25 taxon names are authored by Aguilar Puntriano.
+
+
+== Work ==
+
+
+=== Selected taxa described ===
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._S._Malik-0.md

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+---
+title: "D. S. Malik"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._S._Malik"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:44.354507+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Davender Singh Malik (14 August 1958 – 13 May 2025) was an Indian-American mathematician and professor of mathematics and computer science at Creighton University.
+
+
+== Education ==
+Malik attended the University of Delhi in New Delhi, India, receiving his bachelor's and master's degrees in mathematics, where he won the Prof. Ram Behari Gold Medal in 1980 for his high marks. Then at the University of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada, he received a master's degree in pure mathematics. In the United States, Malik went to Ohio University, earning an M.S. in computer science, and a Ph.D. in mathematics in 1985, writing his dissertation on "A Study of Q-Hypercyclic Rings."
+
+
+== Career ==
+In 1985, Malik joined the faculty of Creighton University, teaching in the mathematics department. In 2013, he became the first holder of the Frederick H. and Anna K. Scheerer Endowed Chair in Mathematics.  His research focused on ring theory, abstract algebra, information science, and fuzzy mathematics, including fuzzy automata theory, fuzzy logic, and applications of fuzzy set theory in other disciplines.
+In the academic community, Malik was a member of the American Mathematical Society and Phi Kappa Phi.  Within his community, he co-created a Creighton program in which faculty help area high school students pursue scientific research, to be published in their own student journal.
+Malik published more than 45 papers and 18 books. He created a computer science line of textbooks that includes extensive and complete programming examples, exercises, and case studies throughout using programming languages such as C++ and Java.
+
+
+== Death ==
+Malik died on 13 May 2025, at the age of 66.
+
+
+== Books ==
+The books he wrote include:
+
+Programming
+C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design (1st ed., 2002; 8th ed. 2017)
+C++ Programming: Program Design Including Data Structures (1st ed., 2002; 8th ed. 2017)
+Data Structures Using C++ (1st ed., 2003; 2nd ed. 2010)
+Data Structures Using Java (2003)
+Java programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design (1st ed., 2003; 5th ed. 2012)
+Java programming: Program Design including Data structures (2006)
+Java programming: Guided Learning With Early Objects (2009)
+Introduction to C++ Programming, Brief Edition (2009)
+Mathematics
+Fundamentals of Abstract Algebra (1997)
+Fuzzy Commutative Algebra (1998)
+Fuzzy Discrete Structures (2000)
+Fuzzy Mathematics in Medicine (2000)
+Fuzzy Automata and Languages: Theory and Applications (2002)
+Fuzzy Semigroups (2003)
+Application of Fuzzy Logic to Social Choice Theory (2015)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Faculty webpage at Creighton University

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Kissling-0.md

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+---
+title: "Emma Kissling"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Kissling"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:48.199874+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Emma Kissling (1862 or 1864? – 1950?) was a scientific illustrator who worked for the Prince of Monaco and completed illustrations of marine species. Her work was published in Poissons provenant des campagnes du yacht Princesse-Alice (1901-1910).
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Kowal-0.md

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+---
+title: "Emma Kowal"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Kowal"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:39.412396+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Emma Kowal  is an Australian cultural and medical anthropologist, physician and scholar of science and technology studies. She is most well known for her books Trapped in the Gap: Doing Good in Indigenous Australia, and the co-edited volumes of Force, Movement, Intensity: The Newtonian Imagination in the Humanities and Social Sciences (with Ghassan Hage), Cryopolitics: Frozen Life in a Melting World (with Joanna Radin).
+
+
+== Early life and education ==
+She received her Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery and a Bachelor of Arts in history and philosophy of science from University of Melbourne in 2000 and worked for a few years as a physician and a public health professional in the Northern Territory of Australia. She returned to the University of Melbourne to receive her PhD in public health anthropology in 2007. She is currently a professor in anthropology at Deakin University and Convenor of the Deakin Science and Society Network.
+
+
+== Career ==
+In 2014, she received the Paul Bourke Award for Early Career Research from the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia. She was the deputy director for the National Centre for Indigenous Genomics at Australian National University between 2013 and 2017. In 2019, she was elected to the Fellowship of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia. Since 2021, Emma Kowal is president of the Society for Social Studies of Science. She was elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences in 2022. Kowal is a member of the Australian Health Ethics Committee, and she is on the Australian Research Council's College of Experts.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+
+Emma Kowal has contributed to a large number of scholarly articles.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-0.md

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-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:30:39.424790+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:31.104825+00:00"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-3.md

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-date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:30:39.424790+00:00"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_Hastings_Hart-0.md

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+---
+title: "Esther Hastings Hart"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_Hastings_Hart"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:47.029757+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Esther Hastings Hart (22 February 1862 – 3 August 1940) was an American entomological illustrator. She worked at the Bureau of Entomology for twelve years drawing insects for publications. 
+Hart was born in Elmira, New York, where her father Ira Hart was a well-known physician. She received an AB degree from Elmira college and spent four years to study the art of engraving at the Cooper Institute where she was a friend of Anna Botsford Comstock. She gave private lessons in art at her home in Elmira and in 1906 she worked in the Patent Office and the next year went to work with the Forest Service as a draftsman. Her expertise in illustrating insects led A. D. Hopkins to transfer her to the Bureau of Entomology in 1911. She worked on documenting forest insects and worked for 23 years, retiring in 1932. She was made a trustee of the Elmira College Alumnae Association in that year. She died after two years of illness in 1940.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Bug Lady: Ms. Esther Hart

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Chemist-0.md

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+---
+title: "European Chemist"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Chemist"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:16.883101+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+European Chemist (EurChem) is an international professional qualification awarded by the European Chemist Registration Board (ECRB) of the European Chemical Society (EuChemS) for chemists, for use in many European countries. Through the European Chemist designation, the chemical societies in the European Union (EU) have ensured that there is an easily understood title to indicate a high level of competence in the practice of chemistry. The award of EurChem assists individual chemists who are moving from one employer to another in different EU member states, receiving equal treatment across the Union.
+EurChem Candidates must meet the following requirements:
+
+Be a member of a participating national chemical society;
+Hold a degree accredited by the participating national chemical society;
+Have at least eight years of post-secondary school education/experience including a category-A schedule academic qualification;
+Have at least three years' approved post-graduation professional experience;
+Two referees who must be members of the applicant's national chemical society;
+Show proficient professional experience appearing out of:
+Able to work in conditions with minor leadership
+Applying knowledge
+Consciousness of safety, health, and environment aspects
+Demonstrate of professional skill
+Excellent written and oral communications
+Good people's management, advising, evaluating skills.
+The title EurChem is a post-nominal, placed after the name like academic degrees. It is equivalent to national chartered status, e.g. the title Chartered Chemist in the United Kingdom. The ECRB maintains a Register of European Chemists.
+Recognition of the qualification and title are generally not specifically incorporated into national law, but in the United Kingdom the Privy Council has approved the use of the title. However, approval is generally only after peer review by the appropriate national chemical society under the EU Directive 89/48/EEC, which exempts a bearer from additional examination in the Union.
+
+
+== See also ==
+British professional qualifications
+European Engineer
+European professional qualification directives
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+website of the European Chemist Registration Board
+European Chemist website of the Royal Society of Chemistry
+"EurChem" – The Crown Jewel on a European Chemistry Education Ladder – ECTN Association

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eva_Haifa_Giraud-0.md

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+---
+title: "Eva Haifa Giraud"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eva_Haifa_Giraud"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:33.040535+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Eva Haifa Giraud (born 1984) is a cultural and critical theorist and a scholar of media studies and feminist science studies whose work concerns activism and non-anthropocentric theory. She is presently a senior lecturer in the Department of Sociological Studies at the University of Sheffield. Her 2019 monograph What Comes After Entanglement? Activism, Anthropocentrism, and an Ethics of Exclusion was published by Duke University Press; her second sole-authored book, Veganism: Politics, Practice and Theory, was published in 2021 by Bloomsbury.
+
+
+== Education and career ==
+Giraud read for a Master of Arts (MA) in English Literature at the University of Edinburgh from 2002–2006, and then went on to read for an MA (2006–7) and PhD (2007–11) in Critical Theory at the Centre for Critical Theory, University of Nottingham. Her doctoral thesis was entitled Articulating Animal Rights: Activism, Networks and Anthropocentrism. She worked at Nottingham for three years, before joining the Keele University in 2014. In 2019, she published a monograph entitled What Comes After Entanglement? Activism, Anthropocentrism, and an Ethics of Exclusion with Duke University Press.
+Giraud joined the Department of Sociological Studies at the University of Sheffield as a Senior Lecturer in Digital Media & Society in 2021. In the same year, Bloomsbury Academic published her book Veganism: Politics, Practice, and Theory.
+
+
+== Research ==
+Giraud's research concerns the use of media by activists (including animal activists, food activists, environmental activists, and anti-racist activists); non-anthropocentric theory exploring how to live in ways that reject human exceptionalism; and online hate speech.
+In What Comes After Entanglement?, Giraud addresses the theoretical idea of entanglement, which cautions theorists and activists to "avoid proposing simple solutions to the world’s complex problems". Giraud explores case studies of activism including anti-McDonald's campaigning, anti-G8 campaigning, the SPEAK campaign, and food activism in Nottingham, arguing that there is a tension between, on the one hand, theoretical work on entanglement, and, on the other, the political practice of activists. She argues for an "ethics of exclusion", which recognises that certain ways of being are inevitably foreclosed by decisions made, and that decisions sometimes have to be made. She thus challenges the charges made by certain theorists that activist decision-making essentialist and insufficiently attentive to the world's complexity; her descriptions of protest ecologies and their everyday practices of decision-making and labour organisations "trouble the notion" of staying with the trouble. One reviewer said that the book would be valuable for scholars of a wide range of disciplines; another drew attention to the ongoing conversation that Giraud was conducting with Donna Haraway, a major influence on Giraud's work; and a third argued that one of the book's major contributions was emphasising the difference between animal studies and critical animal studies.
+
+
+== Selected works ==
+Elizabeth Poole and Eva Giraud, eds. (2019). Right Wing Populism and Mediated Activism: Creative Responses & Counter-narrative. London: Open Library of Humanities.
+Eva Giraud (2019). What Comes After Entanglement? Activism, Anthropocentrism and an Ethics of Exclusion. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
+Eva Giraud (2021). Veganism: Politics, Practice and Theory. London: Bloomsbury.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Eva Giraud at Keele University
+Eva Giraud at Humanities Commons
+Eva Giraud on Twitter

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Muniesa-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fabian Muniesa"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Muniesa"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:51.497419+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fabian Muniesa (alternative spelling: Fabián Muniesa) is an author, social scientist, and poet of French and Spanish citizenship. He is a Professor at the École des Mines de Paris, and a member of the Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation in Paris, France.
+
+
+== Life ==
+Fabian Muniesa (born 16 October 1972 in Madrid, Spain) received high school education at the Lycée Français de Madrid, in Spain. He graduated (sociology) from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Facultad de Ciencias Políticas y Sociología) in 1996, and obtained a master's degree in that same institution in 1998. Notable mentors and influences in this institution included Ignacio Gómez de Liaño, Jesús Ibáñez, and Ramón Ramos Torre. He then joined the Centre National d'Études des Télécommunications in France, enrolling simultaneously in the doctoral programme of Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation, at the École des Mines de Paris, and completing a doctoral dissertation in 2003 (on the automation of the Paris Bourse). After a year working as a post-doctoral researcher at the London School of Economics (Department of Information Systems), he returned to Paris with an international grant from the city's municipal government. He obtained a permanent position at the École des Mines de Paris in 2005, becoming there a collaborator of Michel Callon and Bruno Latour. In 2010, he obtained an ERC Starting Grant. In 2011, he obtained a research habilitation from the Université Paris Dauphine.
+
+
+== Work ==
+Fabian Muniesa's academic work is focused on the anthropological critique of the culture of capitalism and on the study of the troubles of economic meaning. An early contributor to the social studies of finance, his work has been featured in academic outlets such as the Journal of Cultural Economy, Distinktion, and Economy and Society. Major contributions include the development of an approach to economic performativity inspired by the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze and Bruno Latour (his 2014 book The Provoked Economy), and the examination of the paranoid potentials of contemporary notions of financial value (his 2024 book Paranoid Finance).
+Literary work by Fabian Muniesa includes a collection of poems in Spanish, published in 2023, titled Barrena. His approach to literature is marked by the influence of Roberto Bolaño.
+
+
+== Notable publications ==
+
+
+=== Academic work ===
+Muniesa, Fabian (2014). The Provoked Economy: Economic Reality and the Performative Turn. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 9780415857130.
+Muniesa, Fabian (2024). Paranoid Finance. Cambridge: Polity. ISBN 9781509561162.
+Muniesa, Fabian (2023). "A science of stereotypes: paranoiac-critical forays within the medium of information". Distinktion: Journal of Social Theory. 24 (2): 283–296. doi:10.1080/1600910X.2023.2235634.
+Muniesa, Fabian (2017). "On the political vernaculars of value creation". Science as Culture. 26 (4): 445–454. doi:10.1080/09505431.2017.1354847.
+Muniesa, Fabian (2017). "The live act of business and the culture of realization". HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory. 7 (3): 347–362. doi:10.14318/hau7.3.019.
+Muniesa, Fabian (2011). "A flank movement in the understanding of valuation". The Sociological Review. 59 (2_suppl): 24–38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954X.2012.02056.x.
+Muniesa, Fabian (2007). "Market technologies and the pragmatics of prices". Economy and Society. 36 (3): 377–395. doi:10.1080/03085140701428340.
+
+
+=== Poetry ===
+Muniesa, Fabián (2023). Barrena (in European Spanish). Santiago de Chile: Ril Editores. ISBN 978-84-19372-96-3.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Data related to Fabian Muniesa at Wikidata
+Fabian Muniesa, personal webpage and CV, at the Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation
+Book Symposium (2016), from the Journal of Cultural Economy
+Interview with Fabian Muniesa (2020), Smith and Marx Walk into a Bar: A History of Economics Podcast
+"La société cède les clés politiques de son avenir aux professionnels de la finance", in Le Monde (28 October 2021)
+"¿A dónde va la antropología del valor financiero?", Cátedra Norbert Lechner (2016), Universidad Diego Portales

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Institute_of_Physics-0.md

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+---
+title: "Fellow of the Institute of Physics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Institute_of_Physics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:18.098463+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fellowship of the Institute of Physics (FInstP) is "the highest level of membership attainable" by physicists who are members of the Institute of Physics (IOP), "for those with a degree in physics or related subject (or equivalent knowledge gained in the workplace) and who have made a significant impact on their sector"; it is for "distinguished physicists in recognition of their accomplishments".
+Honorary Fellowship (HonFInstP) is for "exceptional individuals" who can be nominated in recognition of having "contributed to physics generally or to the work of the IOP", working in fields including business, education, research, and policy relating to physics. The Institute's bye-laws limit the number of fellows in this category to being not more than 100 living Honorary Fellows at any one time.
+
+
+== Fellows (FInstP) ==
+Fellows are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FInstP, and receive a number of minor benefits such as a subscription to Physics World magazine (like other members of the IOP). As of 2022 fellows include:
+
+See also  Category:Fellows of the Institute of Physics
+
+
+== Honorary Fellows (HonFInstP) ==
+The designation of Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Physics, as an honorary title. The award of Honorary Fellowship is "the highest accolade presented by the Institute of Physics to reflect an individual's exceptional services to physics". Awardees are entitled to use the post-nominal letters HonFInstP. No more than 100 living Honorary Fellows are permitted to be elected at any one time under the IOP's byelaws.
+Recipients have included:
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Chemistry-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+---
+title: "Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Chemistry"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:19.321917+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Fellowship of the Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC) is one of the most prestigious awards conferred by the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) in the United Kingdom. Existing Fellows include award winning scientists and Nobel prize winners.
+
+
+== FRSC award ==
+Achieving Fellow status in the chemical profession signals to the broader community a high level of accomplishment as a professional chemist. Eligibility for Fellow status is open to Members of the Royal Society of Chemistry (MRSC) who have excelled in their fields through patents, scientific publications, discoveries, and other notable achievements. To be elected, the fellows must have made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of the chemical sciences; or to the advancement of the chemical sciences as a profession; or have been distinguished in the management of a chemical sciences organization.
+In all cases, sponsor references from other RSC Fellows are required. The award of designatory letters FRSC  is subject to the final approval of the RSC Applications Committee.  In addition to the above, all RSC membership requires acceptance and adherence to a specific code of conduct and an established set of high standards of ethical and professional behavior. 
+The RSC continuously establishes, and evaluates professional qualifications and the awarding of its designatory letters and awards. See Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Chemistry for examples of fellows.
+Honorary Fellowship of the Society ("HonFRSC") is awarded for distinguished service in the field of chemistry.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Dell'Otto-0.md

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+---
+title: "Gabriele Dell'Otto"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Dell'Otto"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:45.851882+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Gabriele Dell'Otto (born December 20, 1973) is an Italian illustrator and author whose works have been published in several countries in the fields of scientific illustration, comic books, calendars, lithographies, books, colored graphic folders, and cover work for magazines and video games.
+
+
+== Early life ==
+Dell'Otto was born December 20, 1973, in Rome. He received a diploma in artistic maturity and registered in the European Design Institute.
+
+
+== Career ==
+In 1998, Dell'Otto started collaborating with the European division of Marvel Comics, producing covers, posters and lithographies for Italy, France and Germany. In Germany he started collaborating with DC Comics and other publishers such as IPP, Egmont Ehapa and MG Publishing.
+In 2002 and 2003, the Italian Carabinieri hired him to design the images for their historical calendar.
+In 2002, his work was shown to Joe Quesada, the editor-in-chief of Marvel Comics, who assigned him the art duties for the Secret War mini-series, written by Brian Michael Bendis.
+In 2006, he illustrated the cover and promotional images of the Italian version of the Activision videogame Marvel: Ultimate Alliance.
+Between 2006 and 2007, Dell'Otto provided the covers of the miniseries Annihilation, which starred the space-based characters of the Marvel Universe. In May 2007, he published the illustrated book Tales.
+In 2009, he was the artist of the X-Force mini-series Sex and Violence, written by Craig Kyle and Christopher Yost.
+In January 2012, Dell'Otto illustrated the spine images for the books in The Official Marvel Graphic Novel Collection. When put together in order, the spines form a complete landscape image. In November, Dell'Otto penciled issues #14–15 of the Marvel ongoing series Avenging Spider-Man. He then drew issues #1 of One-shot Amazing Spider-Man: Family Business. In 2020, Dell'Otto drew the 1990s variant cover for The Joker 80th anniversary 100-page super spectacular #1
+Dell'Otto created the poster for the American TV series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "Aftershocks".
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+
+=== Interior art ===
+Secret War#1-5 (2004)
+Secret War: From the Files of Nick Fury#1 (2005)
+Ultimate Marvel Sampler #1 (2007)
+X-Force: Sex and Violence #1-3 (2010)
+Origins of Marvel Comics: X-Men #1 (2010)
+Avengers Annual #1 (2012)
+New Avengers Annual #1 (2011)
+Avenging Spider-Man#14-15 (2012)
+Amazing Spider-Man: Family Business #1 (2014)
+
+
+=== Cover work ===
+Annihilation Prologue vol.1 #1 (2006)
+
+Annihilation #1-6 (2006)
+Annihilation: Nova #1-4 (2006)
+Annihilation: Silver Surfer #1-4 (2006)
+Annihilation: Ronan #1-4 (2006)
+Annihilation: Super-Skrull #1-4 (2006)
+Annihilation: Heralds of Galactus #1-2 (2007)
+What If? Annihilation #1 (2007)
+The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu Omnibus #1 (2016)
+The New Avengers: Illuminati #1 (2006)
+Fantastic Four vol.3 #56 (2002)
+X-Factor vol.3 #6 (2006)
+Ghost Rider vol.6 #12-13 (2007)
+Daredevil vol.1 #500 (2009)
+Fantastic Four vol.1 #600 (2011)
+Silver Surfer: In Thy Name vol.1 #2 (2008)
+Invincible Iron Man vol.2 #4 (2008)
+Winter Soldier vol.1 #1 (2011)
+New Avengers Annual vol.2 #1 (2011)
+New Avengers vol.3 #24,29,33 (2014-2015)
+Avengers Annual vol.4 #1 (2012)
+Avenging Spider-Man vol.1 #14-15 (2013)
+Amazing Spider-Man: Family Business vol.1 #1 (2014)
+Captain America: Steve Rogers vol.1 #15 (2017)
+Captain America and Hawkeye vol.1 #629 (2012)
+Morbius: The Living Vampire vol.2 #1 (2013)
+Moon Knight vol.5 #26-30 (2009)
+Dark Tower: Treachery vol.1 #1 (2008)
+All-New Miracleman Annual vol.1 #1 (2014)
+The Pulse vol.1 #2 (2004)
+Gorilla Man vol.1 #3 (2010)
+X-Force: Sex and Violence vol.1 #1-3 (2010)
+Ultimate Origins vol.1 #1-5 (2008)
+Ultimate Fantastic Four vol.1 #53 (2008)
+Ultimate X-Men vol.1 #94-97 (2008)
+Marvel 1602: Fantastick Four vol.1 #2-5 (2006)
+Secret War vol.1 #1-5 (2004)
+Secret Invasion Prologue (2008)
+Secret Invasion #1-8 (2008)
+What If? Secret Invasion #1 (2009)
+Siege #1-4 (2010)
+Fear Itself: FF #1 (2011)
+Fear Itself: Hulk vs. Dracula #1-3 (2011)
+Vengeance vol.1 #1-6 (2011)
+X-23 vol.3 #1 (variant cover, 2010)
+The Dark Knight III: The Master Race #1,3 4-8 (variant cover, 2015-2017)
+Clone Conspiracy #1-5 (2016)
+Batman #1,75-76 (variant cover, 2016)
+Dark Nights: Metal #5 (variant cover, 2018)
+Batman Who Laughs: The Grim Knight #1 (variant cover, 2019)
+Detective Comics #1000,1027 (variant cover, 2019,2020)
+The Joker 80th anniversary 100-page super spectacular #1 (variant cover) (2020)
+X-Men #49] (Marvel France) (2002)
+Phoenix Resurrection: The Return of Jean Grey #1 (2018)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Gabriele Dell'Otto at the Comic Book DB (archived from the original)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrielle_Hecht-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+---
+title: "Gabrielle Hecht"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrielle_Hecht"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:35.674355+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Gabrielle Hecht (born 1965) is a historian and scholar of science and technology studies (STS) who specializes in the history of mining, environmental justice in Africa, and nuclear technology. She is Research Associate at the Wits Institute for Social and Economic Research in South Africa. She developed the concepts of "technopolitics," "nuclearity," and "residual governance" in science and technology studies, and has written on the technopolitics of nuclear power and uranium mining in Africa.
+Hecht's scholarship has received awards including the 2024 African Studies Association Best Book Award, the 2016 Rachel Carson Prize, and the 2012 Martin A. Klein Prize in African History. Her work has been translated into nine languages.
+
+== Education and early career ==
+Hecht was born in 1965 in Puerto Rico. She earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1986, followed by a Master of Arts degree in History and Sociology of Science from the University of Pennsylvania in 1988. She completed her PhD in History and Sociology of Science at the University of Pennsylvania in 1992.
+She began her academic career at Stanford University, serving as Acting Assistant Professor in the Department of History from 1992 to 1993, then as Assistant Professor from 1993 to 1998, with a courtesy appointment in the Department of French and Italian.
+
+== Academic positions ==
+In 1999, Hecht moved to the University of Michigan, where she spent 18 years in the History Department. She was promoted to Associate Professor in 1998 and to Professor in 2011. At Michigan, she co-founded the Program in Science, Technology, and Society (STS) with her partner, Paul N. Edwards, and served as its Director from 2013 to 2015 and 2016 to 2017. She also served as Associate Director of Michigan's African Studies Center from 2013 to 2014 and participated in the Program in Anthropology and History.
+In 2017, Hecht returned to Stanford University as Professor of History and Professor (by courtesy) of Anthropology. From 2017 to 2024, she held the Frank Stanton Foundation Professor of Nuclear Security position and served as Senior Fellow at the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies. Her affiliations at Stanford included the Center for African Studies, the Program in Science, Technology, and Society, the Center for Global Ethnography, the Program on Urban Studies, and the Program in History and Philosophy of Science.
+Hecht maintains her role as Research Associate at the Wits Institute for Social and Economic Research at Wits University in South Africa, a position she has held since 2024.
+Throughout her career, Hecht has held visiting positions at Sciences Po (France), École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (France), the University of Oslo (Norway), Technische Universiteit Eindhoven (Netherlands), the University of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), the University of Melbourne (Australia), and the Royal Institute of Technology (Sweden).
+
+== Research and scholarly contributions ==
+
+=== Nuclear technology and technopolitics ===
+Hecht's first book, The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II (MIT Press, 1998; 2nd edition 2009), analyzed how France embedded nuclear policy in reactor technology and nuclear culture in reactor operations. The book introduced the concept of "technopolitics"—the strategic practice of designing or using technology to constitute, embody, or enact political goals. This work received the Henry Baxter Adams Prize in European history from the American Historical Association in 1999 and the Edelstein Prize from the Society for the History of Technology in 2001. It was translated into French as Le rayonnement de la France (2004, 2014).
+
+=== Nuclearity and African uranium ===
+Hecht's 2012 book Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade (MIT Press and Wits University Press) analyzed Africa's place in the global nuclear order. The book introduced the concept of "nuclearity"—the technopolitical status of being nuclear, which is determined not by the presence of radioactive materials alone but by the assemblage of instruments, data, technological systems, infrastructures, national agencies, international organizations, experts, and media attention. Hecht argued that nuclearity is unevenly distributed globally, with consequences for which workers, communities, and nations receive protection, regulation, compensation, and recognition.
+The book focused on uranium mines and miners in Gabon, Madagascar, Niger, Namibia, and South Africa, documenting how the global nuclear order depends on African uranium while denying African workers and communities the protections associated with nuclear status. Being Nuclear received several awards:
+
+Co-winner, 2012 Martin A. Klein Prize in African History, American Historical Association
+2013 Robert K. Merton Book Award, American Sociological Association
+2014 Susanne M. Glasscock Humanities Book Prize for Interdisciplinary Scholarship
+2016 Rachel Carson Prize, Society for Social Studies of Science
+Honorable Mention, 2013 Herskovits Prize, African Studies Association
+An abridged French version was published as Uranium Africain, une histoire globale (Le Seuil, 2016).
+
+=== Residual governance ===
+Hecht's 2023 book, Residual Governance: How South Africa Foretells Planetary Futures (Duke University Press, 2023), analyzed the environmental and health impacts of gold and uranium mining in South Africa's Gauteng province. The book introduced the concept of "residual governance," defined as a trifecta:
+
+The governance of waste and discards
+Minimalist governance that uses simplification, ignorance, and delay as tactics
+Governance that treats people and places as waste and wastelands
+Hecht argued that residual governance is an instrument of modern racial capitalism and an accelerant of the Anthropocene. The book documented how communities, experts, and artists fight for infrastructural and environmental justice in the face of abandoned mines, radioactive tailings, and toxic pollution. Rather than focusing on corporate and government archives, Hecht centered the perspectives of scientists, community leaders, activists, journalists, urban planners, and artists who have resisted residual governance.
+Published in open access, Residual Governance received several awards:

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrielle_Hecht-1.md

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+---
+title: "Gabrielle Hecht"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrielle_Hecht"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:35.674355+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+2024 Best Book Award, African Studies Association
+2024 E. Ohnuki-Tierney Book Award for Historical Anthropology, American Anthropological Association
+2024 PROSE Award for Excellence in Social Sciences, Association of American Publishers
+2024 PROSE Award in Government and Politics, Association of American Publishers
+2025 Finalist, Ludwik Fleck Prize, Society for Social Studies of Science
+2025 Third Place, Victor Turner Prize for Ethnographic Writing, Society for Humanistic Anthropology
+The book has been translated into Spanish as Gobernanza residual: Como Sudáfrica presagia futuros planetarios (Qillqa, 2025) and will appear in French as Gouvernance résiduelle: le futur de la planète vu de l'Afrique du Sud (Éditions EHESS, 2026).
+
+=== Latest research ===
+Hecht's current research project, Inside-Out Earth, studies the cumulative wastes of energy systems at four sites: the Norwegian Arctic (Svalbard), Abidjan in Côte d'Ivoire, Mpumalanga in South Africa, and the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. Conducted in collaboration with South African visual ethnographer and artist Potšišo Phasha, the project studies how residual governance operates in these locations and how people live with and within resulting wastes. Essays from this project have appeared in Cultural Anthropology, Aeon, Somatosphere, and other venues.
+Hecht's 2018 article "Interscalar Vehicles for the African Anthropocene: On Waste, Temporality, and Violence" in Cultural Anthropology was the most downloaded article in the journal in 2018 and received the 2019 General Anthropology Division Prize for Exemplary Cross-Field Scholarship from the American Anthropological Association.
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+Book Awards:
+
+2024 Best Book Award, African Studies Association (for Residual Governance)
+2024 E. Ohnuki-Tierney Book Award for Historical Anthropology, American Anthropological Association (for Residual Governance)
+2024 PROSE Award for Excellence in Social Sciences (for Residual Governance)
+2024 PROSE Award in Government and Politics (for Residual Governance)
+2016 Rachel Carson Prize, Society for Social Studies of Science (for Being Nuclear)
+2014 Susanne M. Glasscock Humanities Book Prize (for Being Nuclear)
+2013 Robert K. Merton Prize, American Sociological Association (for Being Nuclear)
+2012 Martin A. Klein Prize in African History, American Historical Association (for Being Nuclear)
+2001 Edelstein Prize, Society for the History of Technology (for The Radiance of France)
+1999 Henry Baxter Adams Prize, American Historical Association (for The Radiance of France)
+Fellowships:
+
+2023–2024 John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship
+2021–2022 National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship
+2024 Richard Lounsbery Foundation Officer Grant
+Article Awards:
+
+2019 General Anthropology Division Prize for Exemplary Cross-Field Scholarship, American Anthropological Association (for "Interscalar Vehicles for the African Anthropocene")
+Hecht's research has been supported by the National Science Foundation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council of Learned Societies, and the South African and Dutch national research foundations.
+
+== Selected publications ==
+
+=== Books ===
+Residual Governance: How South Africa Foretells Planetary Futures. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2023. ISBN 978-1-4780-2494-1 (Open Access)
+Spanish translation: Gobernanza residual: Como Sudáfrica presagia futuros planetarios. Qillqa, 2025.
+French translation: Gouvernance résiduelle: le futur de la planète vu de l'Afrique du Sud. Éditions EHESS, forthcoming 2026.
+Uranium Africain, une histoire globale. Paris: Le Seuil, 2016.
+Being Nuclear: Africans and the Global Uranium Trade. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press and Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2012. ISBN 978-0-262-01726-8
+(editor) Entangled Geographies: Empire and Technopolitics in the Global Cold War. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-262-51580-1
+The Radiance of France: Nuclear Power and National Identity after World War II. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998; 2nd edition 2009.
+French translation: Le rayonnement de la France: Énergie nucléaire et identité nationale après la seconde guerre mondiale. Paris: Éditions de la Découverte, 2004; Éditions Amsterdam, 2014.
+(co-editor with Michael Thad Allen) Technologies of Power: Essays in Honor of Thomas Parke Hughes and Agatha Chipley Hughes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001.
+
+=== Selected articles and essays ===
+"Interscalar Vehicles for the African Anthropocene: On Waste, Temporality, and Violence." Cultural Anthropology 33, no. 1 (2018): 109–141.
+"AHR Conversation: History after the End of History: Reconceptualizing the Twentieth Century" (with Manu Goswami, Adeeb Khalid, Anna Krylova, Elizabeth F. Thompson, Jonathan R. Zatlin, and Andrew Zimmerman). American Historical Review 121, no. 5 (December 2016): 1567–1607.
+"Cenizas del Antropoceno: Omisiones de carbón y estratigrafía tóxica en el puerto de Tocopilla," with Cristóbal Bonelli, Damir Galaz-Mandakovic, Marina Weinberg, and Valentina Figueroa, La Revista Colombiana de Antropología, Vol. 60, Núm. 3 (2024).
+"Pas de nucléaire français sans uranium africain," in P. Singaravélou, A. Asseraf, G. Blanc, Y. Kisukidi, M. Lamotte, eds., Colonisations. Notre Histoire (Le Seuil, 2023)
+La Terre à l’envers: résidus de l’anthropocène en Afrique," L’Afrique des sciences sociales: bas, débats, combats, special 40th anniversary volume of Politique africaine, n. 161-162 (2021/1-2): 385-402.
+"Confronting African Histories of Technology: A Conversation with Keith Breckenridge and Gabrielle Hecht," with David Serlin, Radical History Review 127 (January 2017): 87-102.
+"History and the Technopolitics of Identity: The Case of Apartheid South Africa," with Paul N. Edwards, Journal of Southern African Studies 36:3 (September 2010): 619-639.
+"The Power of Nuclear Things," Technology and Culture 51 (January 2010): 1-30.
+"Africa and the Nuclear World: Labor, Occupational Health, and the Transnational Production of Uranium," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 51/4 (October 2009): 896-926.
+"The Work of Invisibility: Radiation Hazards and Occupational Health in South African Uranium Production." International Labor and Working Class History 81 (Spring 2012): 94–113.
+
+=== Special issues edited ===
+"The Anthropocene, Apotheosis of Waste," special issue of Antipode, co-edited with Rosalind Fredericks and Mohammed Rafi Arefin (2024).
+"Toxicity, Waste, and Detritus in the Global South: Africa and Beyond," special issue of Somatosphere, co-edited with Pamila Gupta (Fall 2017).
+"Postcolonial Technoscience," special issue of Social Studies of Science 32, nos. 5–6, co-edited with Warwick Anderson (October–December 2002).
+
+== See also ==
+Science and technology studies
+Environmental justice
+Nuclear power
+History of science
+Mining in South Africa
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Gabrielle Hecht at Stanford University
+Gabrielle Hecht at Wits Institute for Social and Economic Research
+Residual Governance (Open Access)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Aylward-0.md

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+---
+title: "Gordon Aylward"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Aylward"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:55.672043+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Gordon Hillis Aylward is an Australian chemical author. He is known for writing the SI Chemical Data book.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Aylward graduated on 20 May 1952 with a BSc (Honours) in Applied Chemistry from the then-new University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. Later he received a MSc from the same university, and continued to teach Analytical Chemistry for 13 years there. During that period he organized the Approach to Chemistry summer schools, together with his co-teacher Dr Tristan Findlay. To support the course, they wrote the book SI Chemical Data as the textbook.
+Later Aylward joined Macquarie University as Associate Professor and worked from 1970 till his retirement in 2005 in developing countries as a Science Education consultant for UNESCO, then for the World Bank and finally as a freelance Senior Science Education Advisor.
+
+
+== Published works ==
+Aylward, G. H.; T. J. V. Findlay (1965). SI Chemical Data (1st ed.). Milton, Queensland: John Wiley & Sons Australia. Now in its 6th edition.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather_Paxson-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Heather Paxson"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather_Paxson"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:55.090661+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Heather Paxson is an American cultural anthropologist and science and technology studies scholar.
+She is an expert on the anthropology of reproduction, and on the anthropology of food, including in particular cheese and commonplace family food practices. She is the William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor of Anthropology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
+
+Paxson is a graduate of Haverford College, and obtained her Ph.D. from Stanford University.
+She is an editor of the Oxford Companion to Cheese. Her other books include:
+
+Making Modern Mothers: Ethics and Family Planning in Urban Greece (University of California Press, 2004)
+The Life of Cheese: Crafting Food and Value in America (University of California Press, 2013)
+She is married to fellow cultural anthropologist, STS scholar and professor Stefan Helmreich.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Verran-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "Helen Verran"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Verran"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:08.278103+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Helen Verran is an Australian historian and empirical philosopher of science, primarily working in the Social Studies of Science and Technology (STS), and currently adjunct professor at Charles Darwin University.
+
+
+== Background ==
+Verran is from New South Wales, Australia. She trained as a scientist and teacher in the 1960s (BSc, DipEd, University of New England) and has a PhD in metabolic biochemistry (UNE, 1972). She then spent eight years lecturing in science education at Obafemi Awolowo University in Ifẹ, southwestern Nigeria. In the 1980s she became a lecturer and later associate professor at the University of Melbourne, working in a unit dedicated to the study of history and philosophy of science. She retired in 2012. On retiring she became adjunct professor at the Northern Institute, Charles Darwin University in Darwin, where she still teaches.
+
+
+== Scholarship ==
+
+
+=== Numbers and Enumerated Entities ===
+Verran's book, Science and an African Logic (University of Chicago Press, 2001), received the Ludwik Fleck Prize in 2003. It analyses counting, and its relation to the ontology of numbers based on her lengthy field observations as a mathematics lecturer and teacher in Nigeria. The book draws on her sudden realisation of the radically different nature of Yoruba counting, and discusses how this realisation grounded her post-relativist theorising. Verran continues to nuance analytics of numbers and numbering as social and material practice (e.g. in the 2018 special issue After Numbers? Innovations in Science and Technology Studies’ Analytics of Numbers and Numbering).
+
+
+=== Actor-network theory (ANT) ===
+She contributed to actor-network theory, working with British sociologist John Law. Specifically, she is credited for contributing with postcolonial studies to nuancing STS. Her work is also seen as part of ANT's ontological turn.
+
+
+=== Post-colonial STS ===
+Her work on Yolngu Aboriginal Australians understandings of the world, their use of technology, and their knowledge systems ranges from the 1990s to current engagement. Together with Michael Christie she has theorised digital knowledge technologies.
+Starting with work on alternative modes of knowing nature management through fire, Verran's recent work contributed to social studies of ecosystem services.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+List of publications
+Downloads at academia.edu
+profile and Download at researchgate
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilana_Löwy-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ilana Löwy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilana_Löwy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:43.132775+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ilana Löwy (née Zelmanowicz) (born 1948) is a Polish-born French historian of biomedical sciences. She works as a research director at an interdisciplinary and cross-institutional research unit CERMES-3 (Centre de recherche médecine, sciences, santé, santé mentale, société, Inserm-CNRS-EHESS), and is associated with the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at King's College London, the Department of the History of Science at Harvard University and Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Born in a Jewish family in Poland, her parents decided to leave for Israel in 1957. She gained her Msc in microbiology and biochemistry from Tel Aviv University in 1971, and her PhD (Doctorat D'Etat es Sciences) from Paris VII University in 1977.
+
+
+== Career ==
+At the beginning of her career, Löwy worked at the Institut Pasteur at the Cellular immunity lab. Her interest in the history of science initially evolved around the history of organ transplantation, bacteriology, immunology, virology and tropical medicine. With an increasing interest in human reproduction and cancer, her work covers an extensive study of biomedical analysis and gender studies. She has extensively published on Ludwik Fleck, Polish historian and philosopher of medicine. Her current (2017) research focuses on prenatal diagnosis, genetics and congenital disorders.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+
+
+=== Authored monographs ===
+The Polish School of Philosophy of Medicine: From Tytus Chalubinski (1820–1889) to Ludwik Fleck (1896–1961), Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publications (Philosophy of Medicine Series),1990.
+Between Bench and Bedside: Science, Healing and Interleukin-2 in a Cancer Ward, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996 (French translation, Cancer des chercheurs, cancer des cliniciens: Trajectoire d'une innovation thérapeutique, Archives d’Historie Contemporaine, 2002) .
+Medical Acts and Medical Facts: The Polish Tradition of Practice Grounded Reflections on Medicine and Science, (in English), Krakow:  Polish Academy of Sciences, 2000.
+Virus, moustiques et modernité: La fièvre jaune au Brésil entre science et politique, Paris: Archives d’Historie Contemporaine, 2001. (Portuguese translation: Virus, mosquitos e modernidade: A febre amarela no Brasil entre ciência e politica, Rio de Janeiro, Manguinhos, 2005)
+L'emprise du genre: Masculinité, féminité, inégalité, Paris: La Dispute, 2006. (Polish translation: Okowy Rodzaju, Bydgoszcz, Epigram, 2012).
+Pour en finir avec la domination masculine, Paris: Les Empecheurs de Penser en Rond/ Seuil, 2007. (with Catherine Marry)
+Preventive Strikes: Women, Precancer and Prophylactic Surgery, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.
+A Woman's Disease: A History of Cervical Cancer, Oxford University Press, 2011.
+Imperfect Pregnancies. A History of Birth Defects and Prenatal Diagnosis, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017, ISBN 9781421423630.
+Tangled Diagnoses: Prenatal Testing, Women, and Risk, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2018.
+Viruses and Reproductive Injustice. Zika in Brazil, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2024.
+
+
+=== Edited volumes ===
+Ilana Löwy (ed.), Medicine and Change: Historical and Sociological Studies of Medical Innovation, Paris & Londres:  Editions INSERM-John Libbey, 1993.
+Jean Paul Gaudillière &I lana Löwy (eds.), The Invisible Industrialist: Manufactures and the Production of Scientific Knowledge, London: Macmillan,1998.
+Delphine Gardey and Ilana Löwy (eds.), L'invention du naturel: Les sciences et la fabrication du masculin et du feminin, Paris: Archives d'Histoire Contemporaine, 2000.
+Ilana Löwy and Patrick Zylberman (guest eds.), The Rockefeller Foundation and Biomedical Sciences, special issue of Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 2000.
+Jean Paul Gaudillière and Ilana Löwy (eds.), Heredity and Infection: Historical Essays on the Transmission of Human Diseases, London and New York: Routledge, 2001.
+Ilana Löwy and John Krige (eds.), Science, Public Health and Images of Disease: Europe, 1945–1995, Bruxelles: European Commission's Editions, 2001.
+Ilana Löwy & Hélène Rouch (eds), La distinction entre sexe et genre: Une historie entre biologie et culture, Paris: L'Harmattan, 2003.
+Ilana Löwy (guest ed.), Ludwik Fleck: Epistemology and Biomedical Sciences, special issue of Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 2004.
+Johannes Fehr, Nathalie Jas and Ilana Lowy (eds.), Penser avec Fleck—Investigating a Life, Studying Life Sciences, Zurich: Collegium Helveticum, 2009.
+Ilana Löwy (ed), Microscopic Slides: Reassessing a Neglected Historical Resource, special issue of History and Philosophy of Life Sciences, 2013: 35.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Science, technology and society
+History of medicine
+Ludwik Fleck
+Feminism
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeannine_Achón-0.md

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+---
+title: "Jeannine Achón"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeannine_Achón"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:39.910539+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Jeannine Achón (born 1973) is a Cuban abstract painter.
+Born in Havana, after secondary studies at LaLenin school, she completed a university degree in Industrial Design from the Instituto Superior de Diseño Industrial (ISDI) of Cuba, specializing in Housing (1996). After ISDI, she worked a couple of years at Decoro d'Arq,a design company, for hotel projects, including Hotel Nacional and Capri. Then she focuses on fine arts and paintings, first figurative and illustration, in the late 1990s.
+She does scientific illustrations ("Mi Libro de Lagartijas" Alfonso Silva Lee, published by Editorial Gente Nueva), as well as drawings for children's books, always with the same publisher.
+Her painting in the late 1990s and early 2000s is still in large part figurative, but already contains the main technical basis and features for her future abstract works:  structure composed of multiple layers, the use of acrylic on paper or canvas, rather colorful approaches. This is the time of sales in the art markets of Habana Vieja or Vedado, where foreign tourists and young Cuban artists meet.
+Jeannine had her first solo exhibition in 2005 on the Isle of Youth ("Isla de la Juventud"), at the gallery of the Hermanos Saiz Association. It bears the title "La Puerta Perdida", (The Lost Gate") from the title of one of the paintings, and is composed only of abstract paintings, acrylic on canvas, of average size (30 x 40 "). Since then, with few exceptions (orders), Jeannine Achón produces only abstract works , acrylic on canvas, in medium format ( 33") to large (50").
+In 2008, she has a second solo exhibition of a dozen paintings in the lobby of Hotel Sevilla Habana, one of the masterpieces of the colonial architecture of Cuba. The exhibition reflects one of the slogans of the official posters of the time: "No Mentir Jamás" ("Do not ever lie"). For the occasion, the paintings were hung through a facility with eight columns of the main hall of Sevilla. The curator of the exhibition was Toni Piñera, critic and columnist of Cuban art, long-time director of the art gallery "La Acacia" in Havana.
+Two years later, in late 2009, she organized an exhibition at the National Union of Cuban Writers and Artists (UNEAC), entitled "Las Intermitencias del Color", a title inspired by Roland Petit's ballet "Proust, or Intermittences of the Heart" based on the eponymous work of Marcel Proust, with fifteen new large-format paintings. Toni Piñera is again curator. On the opening day, the jazz pianist Harold Lopez Nussa, friend of the painter, plays one of the songs from his album "Sobre el Atelier", composed in memory of his grandfather Leonel Lopez-Nussa, painter, writer and critic of Cuban art.
+During the same period, from 2007 to 2009, Jeannine participated in group exhibitions in Spain (University of Madrid) and Cuba, during the Havana Biennial.
+From 2010, Jeannine Achón left Havana and moved to Zagreb, Croatia, where her husband, a French diplomat, was posted. Since 2015, she is based in Toulouse (France).
+After two years of work, she produced a series of fifteen large paintings, grouped in a series called "Ashé". Here is what she said about it: "The ashé is a deeply embedded concept in Cuban culture and spirituality; it is the primordial breath, the vital energy, the world's soul. It is a power made of pure energy.  I tried to get a little bit closer to this symbolic world and share it through this series of abstract paintings named by some orishas, its deities. When I paint, I try to open doors and paths to the imagination. I don’t see it as a mirror, but as a passage, toward the others and our interiority."
+In April 2013, her first presentation was done in Varaždin, historic city in northern Croatia, at the Galerijski Centar Varaždin. Ivan Mesek was the curator. The exhibition was then presented at the Galerija matice hrvatske, in Zagreb, with Pf Vanja Babić as curator in May 2013.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Poulton-0.md

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+---
+title: "Joanna Poulton"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Poulton"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:57.473663+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Joanna Poulton is a British medical researcher, and Professor of Mitochondrial Genetics at the University of Oxford. She is an honorary consultant in Oxford, where she works on diseases caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA. Such mutations are associated with many diseases, including diabetes, organ failure, deafness, and blindness, and are also important in neurodegeneration and aging. Poulton has spoken up on behalf of women in academia, as well as on the effects of neurodiversity on women's careers.
+
+
+== Education and career ==
+Poulton is the daughter of the physician and psychologist E. C. Poulton. Her mother, one of the earliest women to study medicine at the University of Cambridge, gained her MD at the age of 90. Poulton credits her parents for having taught her and her siblings a scientific attitude and critical thinking. In 1976, Poulton gained a BA in physiological sciences at Lady Margaret Hall, University of Oxford, followed by a Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery in 1979. She became a Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London, in 1982. She was awarded a doctorate in medicine at Oxford in 1991. In 1997, she became a Fellow of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health, London, and in 2013 was made a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London.
+Poulton is the author or co-author of over three hundred scientific publications, and her research has been key in the field of mitochondrial genetics. Well into her 50s, Poulton was diagnosed with ADHD, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. She sought the diagnosis to help explain her perceived disorganisation and relative lack of success in gaining research grants. Poulton has referred to the glass ceiling encountered by professional women, and to the difficulties experienced by women academics in general in fields dominated by men. She has been active in supporting female colleagues and students and is arguably one of very few Oxford professors who has publicised her ADHD diagnosis.
+
+
+== Research ==
+Poulton's research has focused on mitochondrial genetics and mitochondrial disease. Mitochondria are cellular organelles involved in energy metabolism in living organisms. They carry a small amount of DNA, known as mitochondrial DNA. Mutations in mitochondrial DNA are inherited from the mother, i.e. they are passed on through the female line. In cases where a mitochondrial mutation has occurred, a patient will carry a mixture of the mutated, damaged DNA, and the normal DNA, in varying proportions in different cells (a phenomenon known as heteroplasmy); the severity of the resulting disease will depend on this proportion. Poulton's data helped demonstrate the existence of a genetic bottleneck during the transmission of mitochondrial DNA from one generation to another. Her findings helped pave the way for improvements in methods to address mitochondrial disease, including the three-parent-baby approach. More recently, Poulton has addressed potential therapies to alleviate the severity of some mitochondrial diseases.
+Poulton has authored or coauthored approximately 300 journal articles and reviews on a range of subjects mostly focused on medical and genetic aspects of mitochondrial disease. Additionally, both in her working life and writings she has addressed the societal aspects of clinical practice and medical research, notably tailoring medical education in a multicultural society. In an article with Iain McLean, she contrasted the UK system of voluntary blood donations with the US system of paying blood suppliers, and commented on the tragic consequences of the latter on the spread of AIDS and other blood-borne diseases. Poulton has also written on the controversial Mitochondrial Eve hypothesis of human evolution, which was based on the variation in the mitochondrial DNA of populations in different continents.
+
+
+== Selected publications ==
+Poulton, J.; Deadman, M. E.; Gardiner, R. M. (4 February 1989). "Duplications of mitochondrial DNA in mitochondrial myopathy". The Lancet. 1 (8632): 236–240. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(89)91256-7. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 2563411.
+Poulton, J.; Deadman, M. E.; Bindoff, L.; Morten, K.; Land, J.; Brown, G. (January 1993). "Families of mtDNA re-arrangements can be detected in patients with mtDNA deletions: duplications may be a transient intermediate form". Human Molecular Genetics. 2 (1): 23–30. doi:10.1093/hmg/2.1.23. ISSN 0964-6906. PMID 8490619.
+Poulton, Joanna; Morten, Karl (July 1993). "Noninvasive diagnosis of the MELAS syndrome from blood DNA". Annals of Neurology. 34 (1): 116. doi:10.1002/ana.410340124. ISSN 0364-5134. PMID 8517674.
+Marchington, D. R.; Hartshorne, G. M.; Barlow, D.; Poulton, J. (February 1997). "Homopolymeric tract heteroplasmy in mtDNA from tissues and single oocytes: support for a genetic bottleneck". American Journal of Human Genetics. 60 (2): 408–416. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1712400. PMID 9012414.
+Marchington, D. R.; Barlow, D.; Poulton, J. (August 1999). "Transmitochondrial mice carrying resistance to chloramphenicol on mitochondrial DNA: developing the first mouse model of mitochondrial DNA disease". Nature Medicine. 5 (8): 957–960. doi:10.1038/11403. ISSN 1078-8956. PMID 10426324.
+Poulton, Joanna; Luan, Jian'an; Macaulay, Vincent; Hennings, Susie; Mitchell, Jo; Wareham, Nicholas J. (15 June 2002). "Type 2 diabetes is associated with a common mitochondrial variant: evidence from a population-based case-control study". Human Molecular Genetics. 11 (13): 1581–1583. doi:10.1093/hmg/11.13.1581. ISSN 0964-6906. PMID 12045211.
+Ashley, Neil; Poulton, Joanna (January 2009). "Mitochondrial DNA is a direct target of anti-cancer anthracycline drugs". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 378 (3): 450–455. Bibcode:2009BBRC..378..450A. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.11.059. ISSN 0006-291X. PMID 19032935.
+Liao, Chunyan; Ashley, Neil; Diot, Alan; Morten, Karl; Phadwal, Kanchan; Williams, Andrew; Fearnley, Ian; Rosser, Lyndon; Lowndes, Jo; Fratter, Carl; Ferguson, David J. P.; Vay, Laura; Quaghebeur, Gerardine; Moroni, Isabella; Bianchi, Stefania (10 January 2017). "Dysregulated mitophagy and mitochondrial organization in optic atrophy due to OPA1 mutations". Neurology. 88 (2): 131–142. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000003491. ISSN 1526-632X. PMC 5224718. PMID 27974645.
+Poulton, Joanna; Steffann, Julie; Burgstaller, Joerg; McFarland, Robert (September 2019). "243rd ENMC international workshop: Developing guidelines for management of reproductive options for families with maternally inherited mtDNA disease, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 22–24 March 2019". Neuromuscular Disorders. 29 (9): 725–733. doi:10.1016/j.nmd.2019.08.004. PMID 31501000.
+Dombi, Eszter; Marinaki, Tony; Spingardi, Paolo; Millar, Val; Hadjichristou, Nastasia; Carver, Janet; Johnston, Iain G.; Fratter, Carl; Poulton, Joanna (2 April 2024). "Nucleoside supplements as treatments for mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome". Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 12 1260496. doi:10.3389/fcell.2024.1260496. ISSN 2296-634X. PMC 11043827. PMID 38665433.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kao-0.md

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+---
+title: "John Kao"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kao"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:38.202715+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+John Kao (born 1950) is an author and strategic advisor based in Connecticut. His work concentrates on issues of innovation and organizational transformation.
+
+
+== Life and career ==
+Kao was born in 1950 to Chinese immigrant parents. An accomplished jazz pianist, he spent the summer of 1969 playing keyboards for Frank Zappa. Kao studied philosophy at Yale College, received an MD from Yale Medical School, and an MBA from Harvard Business School. He taught at Harvard Business School from 1982 to 1996, where he specialized in innovation and entrepreneurship. He has also held faculty appointments at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Media Lab, Yale College, and the Naval Postgraduate School.
+His advisory work for Senator Hillary Clinton, including his ideas on innovation and transformation, was described in The New York Times as "out of the box".
+In 2000, Kao became CEO of Ealing Films.  He also founded Kao Ventures, and San Francisco-based The Idea Factory, working with Internet-related startups. He also shared producer credits for Sex, Lies, and Videotape and Mr. Baseball.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+Key publications include:
+
+Kao, John (1996). Jamming: The Art and Discipline of Business Creativity. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-88730-864-3.
+Kao, John (2007). Innovation Nation: How America Is Losing Its Innovation Edge, Why It Matters, and What We Can Do to Get It Back. Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4165-3268-2.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Canizares-Esguerra-0.md

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+---
+title: "Jorge Canizares-Esguerra"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Canizares-Esguerra"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:25.979483+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra is a faculty member in the history department at the University of Texas at Austin, where he holds the Alice Drysdale Sheffield Professorship in History. He is most notable for his work in Atlantic history, the history of science in the early modern Spanish Empire, and the colonizing ideologies of the Iberian and British empires. 
+The core of his intellectual project has been to demonstrate the deep formative role of Latin America both to the colonial history of the U.S. and to the history of Western modernity as a whole. While Latin America does appear in the histories of slavery, globalization, and capitalism, Canizares-Esguerra goes beyond these narratives and introduces the region as the cradle of modern science, abolitionism, republicanism, and democracy.
+He was born in Ecuador, and grew up in Mexico and Colombia. He earned his doctorate in the History of Science Department at University of Wisconsin and has held a number of fellowships. Cañizares-Esguerra has held a Visiting Leverhulme Trust Professorship at the Institute of Advanced Studies, University of London, one of the most distinguished professorships in the UK. The Institute of Advanced Studies of Warwick University has also hosted Cañizares-Esguerra as distinguished visiting professor.  
+He is a permanent distinguished professor at the Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales (FLACSO) in Quito.  
+In 2018, he received the Nancy Lyman Roelker Mentorship Award by the American Historical Association, established to honor teachers of history who taught, guided, and inspired their students in a way that changed their lives. Cañizares-Esguerra got the prize for his dedication to the mentorship of graduate students and junior faculty.
+Cañizares-Esguerra is the author and editor of a dozen books, many of which have been translated into several languages. His book How to Write the History of the New World won several academic prizes and was also selected as one of the best books of the year by The Economist, The Independent, and The Times Literary Supplement. 
+He has published more than 85 peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters. His articles have appeared in the most prestigious journals of the historical profession in the US, Germany, Italy, and Spain, including articles in the American Historical Review (3), The William and Mary Quarterly (2), Isis (2), Journal of Early Modern History (2), Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte, Ricerche di Storia Politica, and Revista de Occidente. He is also known for having co-authored the Hispanic Equity Report, a scathing sociological and statistical analysis of structural discrimination of Hispanic faculty at the University of Texas-Austin.
+
+
+== Selected books ==
+How to Write the History of the New World: Histories, Epistemologies, and Identities in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Stanford University Press, 2002), Winner, John E. Fagg Prize in Spanish and Latin American history, American Historical Association; the book also won the James A. Rawley Prize in Atlantic History, American Historical Association.
+Nature, Empire, and Nation: Explorations of the History of Science in the Iberian World (Stanford University Press, 2006)
+Puritan Conquistadors: Iberianizing the Atlantic, 1550-1700 (Stanford University Press, 2006), Honorable Mention, Murdo J. MacLeod Prize, The Southern Historical Association Latin American and Caribbean Section
+Entangled Empires: The Anglo-Iberian Atlantic 1500-1824 (University Of Pennsylvania Press, 2017).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Faculty webpage at UT Austin

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Dumit-0.md

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+---
+title: "Joseph Dumit"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Dumit"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:29.452697+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Joseph Patrick Dumit (born September 3, 1966) is an American cultural anthropologist and science and technology studies scholar. He is a professor of anthropology and science & technology studies at the University of California, Davis, where he was formerly the director of the Institute for Social Sciences and Science and Technology Studies. He received his BA from Rice University and his PhD from the University of California, Santa Cruz. His 2004 book, Picturing Personhood: Brain Scans and Biomedical Identity, received the Diana Forsythe Prize from the American Anthropological Association in 2005 and the Rachel Carson Prize from the Society for Social Studies of Science in 2006.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Faculty profile at the Science and Technology Studies program at the University of California, Davis
+Faculty profile at the Anthropology Department at the University of California, Davis
+Joseph Dumit publications indexed by Google Scholar

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Wajcman-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+---
+title: "Judy Wajcman"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Wajcman"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:10.667848+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Judy Wajcman,   is the Anthony Giddens Professor of Sociology at the London School of Economics and Political Science. She is the Principal Investigator of the Women in Data Science and AI project at The Alan Turing Institute. She is also a visiting professor at the Oxford Internet Institute. Her scholarly interests encompass the sociology of work, science and technology studies, gender theory, and organizational analysis. Her work has been translated into French, German, Greek, Italian, Korean, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, Chinese and Spanish. Prior to joining the LSE in 2009, she was a professor of sociology in the Research School of Social Sciences at the Australian National University. She was the first woman to be appointed the Norman Laski Research Fellow (1978–80) at St. John's College, Cambridge. In 1997 she was elected Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia.
+Wajcman was President of the  Society for the Social Studies of Science (2009–2011), and is the recipient of the William F. Ogburn Career Achievement Award of the American Sociological Association (2013). She received an honorary doctorate from the University of Geneva (2015) and was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (2016). Her book Pressed for Time is the (2017) winner of the Ludwik Fleck prize of the Society for Social Studies of Science. In 2018, she received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Oxford Internet Institute. In 2021, she was awarded the John Desmond Bernal prize by the Society for Social Studies of Science.
+
+
+== Research ==
+Wajcman is probably best known for her analysis of the gendered nature of technology. She was an early contributor to the social studies of technology, as well as to studies of gender, work, and organisations.
+
+
+== Selected bibliography ==
+
+
+=== Books ===
+Wajcman, Judy (1983). Women in control: dilemmas of a workers co-operative. New York City: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780312887377.
+MacKenzie, Donald; Wajcman, Judy (1985). The social shaping of technology: how the refrigerator got its hum. Milton Keynes Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 9780335150267.
+Wajcman, Judy (1991). Feminism confronts technology. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271008028.
+Wajcman, Judy (1998). Managing like a man: women and men in corporate management. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 9780271018485.
+Wajcman, Judy (2004). TechnoFeminism. Cambridge Malden, Massachusetts: Polity. ISBN 9780745630441.
+Edwards, Paul; Wajcman, Judy (2005). The politics of working life. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191556692.
+Hackett, Edward; Amsterdamska, Olga; Lynch, Michael; Wajcman, Judy (2008). The handbook of science and technology studies (3rd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press Published in co-operation with the Society for the Social Studies of Science. ISBN 9781435605046.
+Wajcman, Judy (2015). Pressed for time: the acceleration of life in digital capitalism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226196473.
+Wajcman, Judy; Dodd, Nigel (2017).The sociology of speed: Digital, organizational, and social temporalities. Oxford, United Kingdom Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198782853. OCLC 952384327.
+
+
+=== Book chapters ===
+Wajcman, Judy (2001), "Gender and technology", in Wright, James D.; Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. (eds.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (volume 9), Amsterdam New York: Elsevier, pp. 5976–5979, ISBN 9780080430768.
+Bittman, Michael; Wajcman, Judy (2004), "The rush hour: the quality of leisure time and gender equity", in Folbre, Nancy; Bittman, Michael (eds.), Family time: the social organization of care, London New York: Routledge, pp. 171–194 ISBN 9780203411650
+Martin, Bill; Wajcman, Judy (2004), "Understanding class inequality in Australia", in Devine, Fiona; Waters, Mary C. (eds.), Social inequalities in comparative perspective, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 163–190, ISBN 9780631226857.
+Chesley, Noelle; Sübak, Andra; Wajcman, Judy (2013), "Information and communication technology use and work-life integration", in Major, Debra A.; Burke, Ronald J. (eds.), Handbook of work-life integration of professionals: challenges and opportunities, Cheltenham, UK Massachusetts, USA: Edward Elgar, pp. 245–268, ISBN 9781781009284.
+Frade, Renata & Wajcman, Judy (2023).  "Feminism and Technology: an interview with Dr. Judy Wajcman by Renata Frade", in Frade, R. and Vairinhos, Mário (eds), Technofeminism: multi and transdisciplinary contemporary views on women in technology: Aveiro, UA Editora, ISBN 978-972-789-836-7 hdl:10773/37656
+
+
+=== Journal articles ===
+Wajcman, Judy (June 2000). "Feminism facing industrial relations in Britain". British Journal of Industrial Relations. 38 (2): 183–201. doi:10.1111/1467-8543.00158.
+Wajcman, Judy (June 2000). "Reflections on gender and technology studies: In what state is the art?". Social Studies of Science. 30 (3): 447–464. doi:10.1177/030631200030003005. S2CID 145345073.
+Bittman, Michael; Wajcman, Judy (September 2000). "The rush hour: the character of leisure time and gender equity". Social Forces. 79 (1): 165–189. doi:10.1093/sf/79.1.165.
+Martin, Bill; Riemens, Wendy; Wajcman, Judy (December 2000). "Managerial and professional careers in an era of organisational restructuring". Journal of Sociology. 36 (3): 329–344. doi:10.1177/144078330003600304. S2CID 145639034.
+Martin, Bill; Wajcman, Judy (May 2004). "Markets, contingency and preferences: contemporary managers' narrative identities". The Sociological Review. 52 (2): 240–264. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954X.2004.00467.x. S2CID 145221734.
+Bittman, Michael; Rice, James Mahmud; Wajcman, Judy (September 2004). "Appliances and their impact: the ownership of domestic technology and time spent on household work". British Journal of Sociology. 55 (3): 401–423. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2004.00026.x. hdl:1959.4/34267. PMID 15383094.
+Wajcman, Judy (December 2006). "New connections: social studies of science and technology and studies of work". Work, Employment and Society. 20 (4): 773–786. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1019.4527. doi:10.1177/0950017006069814. S2CID 144285950.
+Wajcman, Judy (March 2008). "Life in the fast lane? Towards a sociology of technology and time". British Journal of Sociology. 59 (1): 59–77. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2007.00182.x. PMID 18321331.
+Wajcman, Judy; Bittman, Michael; Brown, Judith E. (August 2008). "Families without borders: mobile phones, connectedness and work-home divisions". Sociology. 42 (4): 635–652. doi:10.1177/0038038508091620. S2CID 145203012.
+Bittman, Michael; Brown, Judith E.; Wajcman, Judy (December 2009). "The mobile phone, perpetual contact and time pressure". Work, Employment and Society. 23 (4): 673–691. doi:10.1177/0950017009344910. S2CID 153550372.
+Wajcman, Judy (January 2010). "Feminist theories of technology". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 34 (1): 143–152. doi:10.1093/cje/ben057.
+Wajcman, Judy; Rose, Emily (July 2011). "Constant connectivity: rethinking interruptions at work". Organization Studies. 32 (7): 941–961. doi:10.1177/0170840611410829. S2CID 145260573.
+Wajcman, Judy; Jones, Paul K. (September 2012). "Border communication: media sociology and STS". Media, Culture & Society. 34 (6): 673–690. doi:10.1177/0163443712449496. S2CID 143509758.
+Ford, Heather; Wajcman, Judy (2017). "'Anyone can edit', not everyone does: Wikipedia's infrastructure and the gender gap". Social Studies of Science. 47 (4): 511–527. doi:10.1177/0306312717692172. PMID 28791929. S2CID 32835293.
+‘How Silicon Valley sets Time’, New Media & Society, Vol. 21(6), 2019, pp. 1272–1289.
+‘The Digital Architecture of Time Management’, Science, Technology, & Human Values, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2019, pp. 315–337.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentaro_Toyama-0.md

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+---
+title: "Kentaro Toyama"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentaro_Toyama"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:05.866135+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kentaro Toyama is a computer scientist and international development researcher, who works on the relationship of technology and global development. He is the W. K. Kellogg Professor at the University of Michigan School of Information and author of  Geek Heresy: Rescuing Social Change from the Cult of Technology. He is also a fellow of the Dalai Lama Center for Ethics and Transformative Values at MIT.
+Toyama was founding assistant director of Microsoft Research India, a Bangalore-based computer science laboratory, where he established the Technology for Emerging Markets group which conducts interdisciplinary research in the field of "information and communication technologies for development" (ICT4D). Together with AnnaLee Saxenian and Raj Reddy, he co-founded the International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development, a global platform for rigorous, academic, interdisciplinary research in ICT4D.
+
+
+== Education ==
+Toyama graduated from the American School in Japan. Toyama received a Ph.D. in Computer Science from Yale University, and an A.B. in Physics from Harvard University.
+
+
+== Research and career ==
+Toyama's research spans several disparate areas, including ICT4D, development studies, computer vision, human-computer interaction, geographic information systems, and multimedia.
+He is best known for his research in ICT4D, which includes technology projects such as MultiPoint, Text-Free User Interfaces, Warana Unwired, and Digital Green, as well as observational studies of rural telecenters, mobile phones in developing countries, and the limits of technology for international development.
+He is an outspoken critic of the "technological utopianism" that he sees in initiatives such as One Laptop Per Child, and argues that technology only magnifies existing human intent and capacity. A two-part essay making this point appears in a Boston Review forum. The argument is expanded upon and extended further in Geek Heresy. He is also a faculty affiliate of the Science, Technology, and Public Policy (STPP) program at the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy.
+Toyama's research in computer vision involves automated tracking of objects in video. In 2002, he taught calculus at Ashesi University in Accra, Ghana.
+
+
+== Awards and honors ==
+In 2025, Toyama was inducted into the ACM SIGCHI Academy and also won a SIGCHI Societal Impact Award.
+Toyama was also named to the 2022 class of ACM Fellows, "for contributions to the innovation and critique of digital technology for socio-economic development and social justice".
+At the University of Michigan, he has won several awards, such as the University of Michigan School of Information Michael D. Cohen Outstanding
+Service Award (2021), the University of Michigan Public Engagement Faculty Fellowship (2020), and the University of Michigan School of Information Diversity Award (2019).
+In 2016, Toyama won the PROSE Award in Business, Finance & Management for his book Geek Heresy.
+A paper he co-authored with Andrew Blake was awarded the Marr Prize at the 2001 International Conference on Computer Vision. That work was a precursor to some of the technology in Microsoft's Kinect product.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Personal website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Fortun-0.md

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+---
+title: "Kim Fortun"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Fortun"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:31.857907+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kim Fortun, an American anthropologist, is a professor in University of California Irvine's department of anthropology. Her interests extend also to science and technology studies with a focus on environmental risk and disaster. From 2017 to 2019, she served as the president of the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S).
+In 2003, Fortun's first book, Advocacy After Bhopal: Environmentalism, Disaster, New World Orders, was awarded the Sharon Stephens Prize by the American Ethnological Society. From 2005 to 2010, she edited the Journal of Cultural Anthropology. Fortun currently helps lead multiple collaborative projects, including The Asthma Files and the Platform for Experimental and Collaborative Ethnography (PECE). She is also a founding member of the editorial collective of the Journal of Disaster Studies.
+
+
+== Selected works ==
+Fortun, Kim (2001). Advocacy After Bhopal: Environmentalism, Disaster, New World Orders. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 916106017. (Awarded the Sharon Stephens Prize, 2003).
+Fortun, Kim; Fortun, Mike, eds. (2010). Major Works in Cultural Anthropology, Vol 1: Moorings, Vol 2: Modernities, Vol 3: Emergence, Vol 4: Engagements. Sage. OCLC 759926547.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_TallBear-0.md

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+---
+title: "Kim TallBear"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_TallBear"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:03.481446+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Kim TallBear (born 1968) is a Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate professor at the University of Minnesota – Twin Cities, specializing in racial politics in science. Holding the first ever Canada Research Chair in Indigenous Peoples, Technoscience and Environment, TallBear has published on DNA testing, race science and Indigenous identities, as well as on polyamory as a decolonization practice.
+
+== Early life ==
+TallBear was born in 1968 at a public hospital in Pipestone, Minnesota. She grew up moving back and forth between the Sisseton and Flandreau reservations in South Dakota. During this time, she was mostly raised by her maternal grandmother and great-grandmother, until the age of fourteen when she went to live full time with her mother in St. Paul, Minnesota.
+TallBear is a citizen of the Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate in South Dakota, as well as a descendant from the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes of Oklahoma through her maternal grandfather. Her Indigenous descent comes from her mother's side. She also has some Cree and Métis ancestry from Canada. Her father, who was only present in her life up to age three, is white. TallBear has two sisters and one brother, whose father is Floyd Westerman, a Dakota Sioux musician, actor and political activist.
+TallBear's household growing up was a politically active environment and TallBear says her mother in particular helped to shape her understanding of research and academic thought as being a part of a colonial project. Nevertheless her mother also emphasized thinking practically about education, viewing it as the only way out of poverty.
+
+== Education and career ==
+TallBear pursued post-secondary education for the first two years at the Texas Christian University in Texas  than later switched to the University of Massachusetts in Boston to obtain an undergraduate degree in community planning. She then completed her master's degree in environmental planning at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
+After graduating, TallBear worked for 10 years as an environmental planner for United States federal agencies, tribal governments, and national tribal organizations. She later worked for a non-governmental, Indigenous environmental research organization in Denver. This organization started holding workshops that researched the implications of mapping of the human genome and the genetic research on Indigenous peoples. It was through this workshop that TallBear found a desire to continue her education, and subsequently completed her PhD at the University of California, Santa Cruz in History of Consciousness in 2005.
+In 2010, TallBear was elected to be a member of the Council of the Native American and Indigenous Studies Association (NAISA), and served in the position until 2013. In late 2016, she became the first ever Canada Research Chair in Indigenous Peoples, Technoscience and Environment. As she is an anthropologist specializing in the cultural intersection of science and technology, TallBear is a frequent media commentator on issues of Tribal membership, genetics and identity.
+She has taught in the Native Studies department of the University of Alberta since 2014, and has been a full professor since 2020.
+
+== Areas of study ==
+
+=== DNA and Indigenous identities ===
+TallBear's first book, Native American DNA: Tribal Belonging and the False Promise of Genetic Science, was released in 2013 by the University of Minnesota Press. Described as a "provocative and incisive work of interdisciplinary scholarship", the book examines the science of hereditary genetics and the problematic consequences for Indigenous identities. Specifically, TallBear's critique focuses on the ways the language employed by genetic scientists—and its subsequent marketing of DNA testing—can reduce what it means to be Indigenous to genetically determined characteristics. TallBear’s research shows  how this often relies on traditions of scientific racism historically directed at Indigenous populations. The assertion of genetic determinism, TallBear argues, is often at odds with generations of cultural traditions Indigenous communities have used to collectively self-identify—traditions that focus on relationships, and shared value systems negotiated by social relations.
+TallBear's work documents Indigenous communities across a diverse range of contexts in order to demonstrate the ways Indigenous identities are muted and amplified to the advantage of settler populations. In defending the ethics of Indigenous jurisdiction over their own identities, TallBear argues Indigenous peoples know their history better than settlers. In light of this, TallBear has drawn attention to the problems of the settler scientific community attempting to direct the boundaries of Indigenous identities. TallBear points to the history of the scientific community negatively impacting Indigenous communities as a reason for researchers to approach issues of Indigenous identity with deep care and respect for these histories. TallBear has criticized researchers who do not invest considerable time in building relationships with the Indigenous populations with which they wish to study. For TallBear, the need for embedded research stems from the important role cultural practices and specific relational contexts play in shaping Indigenous identity.
+
+==== Critiques of Elizabeth Warren's claims to Indigenous ancestry ====
+In 2018, Senator Elizabeth Warren released the results of a DNA test to prove her claim to Cherokee Native American ancestry. This raised many questions surrounding how one can claim Native American ancestry and who can decide if these claims are true or false.
+In Native American DNA: Tribal Belonging and the False Promise of Genetic Science, TallBear argues that genetic testing is a scientifically unreliable method. Since much of her work coincides with much of this situation, TallBear published a post to her Twitter in 2018 titled "Statement on Elizabeth Warren's DNA Test". In the statement, she claims the situation ultimately as settler-colonial definitions of who is Indigenous.
+TallBear and Cherokee Nation citizens have defended their arguments by explaining how tribal governments do not use genetic ancestry tests, instead using forms of biological and political relationships to define their citizenries. Despite Cherokee Nation citizens' challenging Warren’s claims, and TallBear's academic research and work on the subject, Warren initially defended her ancestry claims. She later apologized.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_TallBear-1.md

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+---
+title: "Kim TallBear"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_TallBear"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:03.481446+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== "The Critical Polyamorist" and decolonizing relationships ===
+In her later work, TallBear is focused on sexuality, specifically on decolonizing the valourization of monogamy that she characterizes as emblematic of "settler sexualities". She pursued this topic of study through a blog written under an alter ego, "The Critical Polyamorist". TallBear was part of a panel discussing decolonizing institutions such as relationships, at the National Women's Studies Association meeting in 2016.
+TallBear's critiques of monogamous, heteronormative colonial relations focus on their incompatibility with an environmentally sustainable world. For TallBear, moving beyond the current environmental problems of the neoliberal nation state requires expanding understandings and practices of kinship. She argues Indigenous conceptions of kin provide opportunities for this transition. TallBear's critical polyamory places emphasis on looking beyond human-centric intimacy to also incorporate relational ways of being with place and other non-human dimensions to relationships. TallBear's focus on kin goes to the "decolonization" of intimacy: relationships outside of what she describes as settler-colonial relationship structures.
+
+== Selected works ==
+
+=== Articles ===
+"Dossier: Theorizing Queer Inhumanisms: An Indigenous Reflection on Working Beyond the Human/Not Human" in GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, Vol. 21(2–3), 2015: 230–235.
+"The Emergence, Politics, and Marketplace of Native American DNA" in The Routledge Handbook of Science, Technology, and Society, eds. Daniel Lee Kleinman and Kelly Moore. London: Routledge, 2014: 21–37.
+"Tribal Housing, Co-Design & Cultural Sovereignty" in Edmunds, David S., Ryan Shelby, Angela James, Lenora Steele, Michelle Baker, Yael Valerie Perez, and Kim TallBear Science, Technology, & Human Values 38 (6) (2013): 801–828.
+"Genomic Articulations of Indigeneity" in Social Studies of Science 43(4) (August 2013): 509–534.
+"Your DNA is Our History." Genomics, Anthropology, and the Construction of Whiteness as Property," co-authored with Jenny Reardon in Current Anthropology 53(S12) (April 2012): S233–S245.
+"The Illusive Gold Standard in Genetic Ancestry Testing," co-authored with Lee, S. S-J., D. Bolnick, T. Duster, P. Ossorio in Science 325 (5943) (July 3, 2009): 38–39.
+"Commentary" (on Decoding Implications of the Genographic Project for Archaeology and Cultural Heritage)" in International Journal of Cultural Property 16 (2009): 189–192
+"The Science and Business of Genetic Ancestry," co-authored with Bolnick, Deborah A., Duana Fullwiley, Troy Duster, Richard S. Cooper, Joan H. Fujimura, Jonathan Kahn, Jay Kaufman, Jonathan Marks, Ann Morning, Alondra Nelson, Pilar Ossorio, Jenny Reardon, and Susan M. Reverby in Science, 318(5849) (October 19, 2007): 399–400
+"Narratives of Race and Indigeneity in the Genographic Project" in Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, Vol. 35(3) (Fall 2007): 412–424.
+
+=== Books ===
+"Beyond the Life/Not Life Binary: A Feminist-Indigenous Reading of Cryopreservation, Interspecies Thinking and the New Materialisms." in Joanna Radin and Emma Kowal's edited Cryopolitics, published 2017 by MIT Press
+"Dear Indigenous Studies, It's Not Me, It's You. Why I Left and What Needs to Change." in Aileen Moreton-Robinson's edited Critical Indigenous Studies: Engagements in First World Locations, published 2016 by Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2016: 69–82
+Native American DNA: Tribal Belonging and the False Promise of Genetic Science, published 2013 by Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
+“DNA, Blood and Racializing the Tribe,” in Jayne O. Ifekwunige's ‘Mixed Race’ Studies: A Reader, published 2003 in Wicazo Sá Review Vol. 18(1) (2003): 81–107, then in 2004 by London and New York: Routledge
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Kim TallBear's website
+TallBear addresses issues in advancing science and technology opportunities for Indigenous communities in this 2018 RED Talk: Shaping Tribal Identities.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langdon_Winner-0.md

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+---
+title: "Langdon Winner"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langdon_Winner"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:13.007664+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Langdon Winner (born August 7, 1944) is an American academic who is the Thomas Phelan Chair of Humanities and Social Sciences in the Department of Science and Technology Studies at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. His academic interests include science, technology, American popular culture, and theories of sustainability and he is known for his articles and books on science, technology, and society. He also spent several years as a reporter, rock music critic, and contributing editor for Rolling Stone magazine.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Langdon Winner was born in San Luis Obispo, California. He received his B.A. in 1966, M.A. in 1967 and Ph.D. in 1973, all in political science, at the University of California, Berkeley. His primary focus was political theory.
+He has served as professor at the University of Leiden, MIT, University of California, Los Angeles and at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Since 1985 he has been at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; he was a visiting professor at Harvey Mudd College (2000) and Colgate University (2001). In 2010 he was a Fulbright Fellow visiting the Universidad Complutense in Madrid.
+His interests include science, technology, American popular culture, and theories of sustainability.
+
+
+=== Technology and politics ===
+In 1980 Winner proposed that technologies embody social relations, i.e. power. To the question he poses, "Do Artifacts Have Politics?", Winner identifies two ways in which artifacts can have politics. The first, involving technical arrangements and social order, concerns how the invention, design, or arrangement of artifacts or the larger system becomes a mechanism for settling the affairs of a community. This way "transcends the simple categories of 'intended' and 'unintended' altogether", representing "instances in which the very process of technical development is so thoroughly biased in a particular direction that it regularly produces results heralded as wonderful breakthroughs by some social interests and crushing setbacks by others" (Winner, p. 25-6, 1999). It implies that the process of technological development is critical in determining the politics of an artifact; hence the importance of incorporating all stakeholders in it. (Determining who the stakeholders are and how to incorporate them are other questions entirely.)
+The second way in which artifacts can have politics refers to artifacts that correlate with particular kinds of political relationships, which Winner refers to as inherently political artifacts (Winner, p. 22, 1999). He distinguishes between two types of inherently political artifacts: those that require a particular sociological system and those that are strongly compatible with a particular sociological system (Winner, p. 29, 1999). A further distinction is made between conditions internal to the workings of a given technical system and those that are external to it (Winner, p. 33, 1999). This second way in which artifacts can have politics can be further articulated as consisting of four 'types' of artifacts: those requiring a particular internal sociological system, those compatible with a particular internal sociological system, those requiring a particular external sociological system, and those compatible with a particular external sociological system.
+Certain features of Winner's thesis have been criticized by other scholars, including Bernward Joerges.
+
+
+=== Critique of educational technologies ===
+Over the years one focus of Winner's criticism has been the excessive use of technologies in the classroom, both in K-12 schools and higher education. Winner's critique is well explained in his article "Information Technology and Educational Amnesia", and expressed in his satirical lecture, "The Automatic Professor Machine".
+
+
+== Personal life and interests ==
+Winner lives in southern Maine. He is married to Gail P. Stuart and has three children. In music, Winner contributed piano and backing vocals to the hoax album The Masked Marauders created by Rolling Stone. He also played piano on "Church Key" by The Revels. Winner is also notable for having written a negative review of one of the most critically acclaimed albums of the 1970s, Neil Young's After the Gold Rush.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+
+
+=== Selected articles ===
+"Do Artifacts Have Politics?" in Daedalus, Vol. 109, No. 1, Winter 1980. Reprinted in The Social Shaping of Technology, edited by Donald A. MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman (London: Open University Press, 1985; second edition 1999). Also adapted in Winner's book The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology, University of Chicago Press, 1986.
+"Engineering Ethics and Political Imagination," in Broad and Narrow Interpretations of Philosophy of Technology, edited by Paul T. Durbin (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1990), pp. 53–64.
+"Social Constructivism: Opening the Black Box and Finding It Empty," Science as Culture, Vol. 3, Issue 3, 1993, pp. 427–452.
+"How Technology Reweaves the Fabric of Society" in The Chronicle of Higher Education, 39, Issue 48, August 4, 1993, pp. B1-B3.
+"Sow's Ears from Silk Purses: The Strange Alchemy of Technological Visionaries," in Technological Visions: The Hopes and Fears that Shape New Technologies, edited by Marita Sturken, Douglas Thomas and Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach (Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 2004), pp. 34–47.
+
+
+=== Selected books ===
+Autonomous Technology: Technics-out-of-Control as a Theme in Political Thought, M.I.T. Press, 1977. (ISBN 978-0262730495)
+The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology, University of Chicago Press, 1986. (ISBN 978-0226902111)
+Technology and Democracy, (editor), Dordrecht and Boston: Reidel/Kluwer, 1992.
+Technology and Democracy: Technology in the Public Sphere, co-edited with Andrew Feenberg and Torben Hviid Nielsen, Oslo: Center for Technology and Culture, 1997.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Several articles by Langdon Winner at the Online Luddism Index
+Langdon Winner's blog
+Video: Dialogue between Langdon Winner and Yochai Benkler Archived 2016-06-07 at the Wayback Machine on The Wealth of Networks at Medialab-Prado (Madrid, Spain) on June 30, 2010.
+Video: "Local citizens against global, corporate power" Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Talk at Medialab-Prado (Madrid, Spain) on June 8, 2011.
+Audio: "New technologies and Real Democracy Now! Talk at La Casa Invisible (Málaga, Spain) on June 15, 2011.
+15M.cc conversation with Langdon Winner on YouTube on Spanish M15 movement (November, 2011).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnda_R._Caporael-0.md

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+---
+title: "Linnda R. Caporael"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnda_R._Caporael"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:27.121859+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Linnda Caporael is a professor at the Science and Technology Studies Department at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
+
+
+== Educational background ==
+Linnda R. Caporael is a professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in the department of Technical Studies and Science.  She received her PhD in Psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and she also studied human ethology at the Institute of Child Development at the University of London. She is a Fulbright-Hayes Scholar and a visiting scientist in the Dept. of Invertebrate Paleontology and in the Dept. of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History. She researches culture from a biological perspective and biology from a cultural perspective.
+
+
+== Hypothesis of ergotism and the Salem witch trials ==
+In the April 2, 1976, weekly issue of Science magazine, Caporael debuted a hypothesis that the accusations of witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692 could have been caused by ergotism. A fungus that grows on grains of rye, ergot contains a toxin which resembles LSD, and which can remain toxic in bread baked with flour tainted by it. Her evidence to support this theory includes historic weather reports and other growing conditions that foster the growth of this fungus, and the reported symptoms of several accusers, including hallucinations and crawling sensations in skin, which appear to match symptoms of ergot poisoning. Within days of the article's publication, historian Stephen Nissenbaum, co-author of Salem Possessed, publicly disputed the notion, saying that it "appears unlikely to me that this would not happen in any other year, in any other household and in any other village." In the December 24, 1976, issue of Science, psychologists Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb published a complete review of all the evidence, historical and medical, and concluded that the data did not support Caporael's hypothesis. In 1982, historian Mary Matossian defended Caporael by restating that the weather conditions were prime for growing ergot and that the symptoms of ergot matched the symptoms of the victims. A year later, Nicholas Spanos challenged Matossian's defense of Caporael, defending his original rebuttal, stating that her argument was "irrelevant to the ergot hypothesis, incorrect, and  presented in a highly misleading manner."
+
+
+== Published works ==
+Caporael, L. R. (1976). Ergotism: The Satan loosed in Salem? Science, 192, 21-26.
+Caporael, L. R. & Atherton, P. R. (1985). A Subjective Judgment Study of Polygon Based Curved Surface Imagery. In L. Borman and & B. Curtis (Eds.), Proceedings of the ACM CHI 85 Human Factors in Computing Systems Conference. April 14–18, 1985, San Francisco, California. p. 27-34.
+Caporael, L. R. (1986). Anthropomorphism and mechanomorphism: Two faces of the human machine. Computers in Human Behavior, 2, 215-234.
+Caporael, L. R. (1987). Homo sapiens, Homo faber, Homo socians: Technology and the social animal. In W. Callebaut & R. Pinxten (Eds.), Evolutionary epistemology: A multiparadigm program (pp. 233–244). Dordrecht: Reidel.
+Caporael, L. R. (1987). A window on war: Women and militarism in Ancient Greece. Paper presented at the American Anthropological Association, Chicago.
+Caporael, L. R., Dawes, R. M., Orbell, J. M., & van de Kragt, A. J. C. (1989). Selfishness examined: Cooperation in the absence of egoistic incentives. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 683-739.
+Caporael, L. R. (1997). Vehicles of knowledge: Artifacts and social groups. Evolution and Cognition, 3, 39-43.
+Caporael, L. R. (2001). Evolutionary psychology: Toward a unifying theory and a hybrid science. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 607-628.
+Caporael, L. R. (2003). Repeated assembly. In S. Schur & F. Rauscher (Eds.), Alternative approaches to evolutionary psychology (pp. 71–90): Kluwer.
+Caporael, L. R. (2007). Evolutionary theory for social and cultural psychology. In E. T. Higgins & A. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 3–18). New York: Guildford Press.
+
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "Lucy Suchman"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Suchman"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:02.237981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lucy Suchman is professor emerita of Anthropology of Science and Technology in the Department of Sociology at Lancaster University, in the United Kingdom, also known for her work at Xerox PARC in the 1980s and 90s.
+Her current research extends her longstanding critical engagement with the field of human-computer interaction to the domain of contemporary war fighting, including problems of ‘situational awareness’ in military training and simulation, and in the design and deployment of automated weapon systems. At the center of this research is the question of whose bodies are incorporated into military systems, how and with what consequences for social justice and the possibility for a less violent world. Suchman is a member of International Committee for Robot Arms Control and the author of the blog dedicated to the problems of ethical robotics and 'technocultures of humanlike machines'
+Before coming to Lancaster, she worked for 22 years at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in California, where she held the positions of principal scientist and manager of the Work Practice and Technology research group. While at PARC, she conducted an influential ethnographic study, using video, of office workers and research scientists struggling to use a copy machine.
+Suchman is a graduate of the University of California, Berkeley, obtaining her BA in 1972, MA in 1977, and Doctorate in Social and Cultural Anthropology in 1984. While at Berkeley, she wrote her dissertation critiquing the AI planning model as a basis for interactive interface design. She also studied procedural office work to understand how it was similar to and different from a program, and how assumptions about the work informed the design of information systems.
+
+== Research ==
+Suchman's early research was heavily influenced by ethnomethodology. Suchman's book, Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-machine Communication (1987), provided intellectual foundations for the field of human-computer interaction (HCI). She challenged common assumptions behind the design of interactive systems with a cogent anthropological argument that human action is constantly constructed and reconstructed from dynamic interactions with the material and social worlds. 
+She has made fundamental contributions to ethnographic analysis, conversational analysis and Participatory Design techniques for the development of interactive computer systems.
+An updated version of the book was published in 2007. This second edition, called Human-Machine Reconfigurations, included five new chapters exploring developments in the field of computing and social studies of technology since the mid-1980s. Specifically, Suchman addressed the relationship and interactions between humans and machines with a focus on the idea of human-like machines. Her later research is dedicated to problems of autonomy and control in human-technology interaction with emphasis on autonomous weapon systems.
+
+== Professional affiliations ==
+In 1988, Suchman served as the program chair for the Second Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work. She also served as the Program Chair for the first Conference on Participatory Design of Computer Systems. Between 1982 and 1990, Suchman was on the board of directors of the Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, a group she helped to form. Suchman is currently a member of the International Committee for Robot Arms Control. In addition, she serves as a Collaborating Editor for Social Studies of Science.
+Suchman is also affiliated with numerous academic institutions. She served as president of the Society for Social Studies of Science from 2016 to 2017. She has served as a visiting senior research fellow with King's College London's Work, Interaction and Technology Research Group and as an adjunct professor for the Interaction Design and Work Practice Laboratory at Sydney's University of Technology. Suchman also served as an adjunct professor at the IT University of Copenhagen in Denmark.
+
+== Awards ==
+1988 Xerox Corporate Research Group's Excellence in Science and Technology Award
+2002 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science 
+2005 Outstanding Contribution to Research Award from the Communication and Information Technologies Section of the American Sociological Association
+2010 Lifetime Research Award from the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Special Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction
+2011 Honorary Doctorate at Malmö University.
+2014 John Desmond Bernal Prize from the Society for Social Studies of Science.
+2018 Honorary Doctorate at Maastricht University.
+
+== Publications ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Suchman-1.md

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+---
+title: "Lucy Suchman"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Suchman"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:02.237981+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Suchman, L. (1987) Plans and situated actions : The Problem of Human-Machine Communication. Cambridge University Press, New York.
+Suchman, L. (1993) Response to Vera and Simon's Situated Action: A Symbolic Interpretation. Cognitive Science, 17:71—75, 1993.
+Suchman, L. (1995) Making Work Visible. Communications of the ACM, 38 (9). pp. 56–61+.
+Suchman, L. (1995) Representations of Work (Special Report). Communications of the ACM, 38 (9). pp. 33–68.
+Suchman, L. and Blomberg, J. and Orr, J. E. (1999) Reconstructing Technologies as Social Practice. The American Behavioral Scientist, 43 (3). pp. 392–408.
+Suchman, L. (2000) Embodied Practices of Engineering Work. Mind, Culture and Activity, 7 (1&2). pp. 4–18.
+Suchman, L. (2000) Making a case: knowledge and routine work in document production. In: Workplace studies : recovering work practice and informing system design. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 29–45.
+Suchman, L. (2000) Organising alignment : a case of bridge-building. Organization, 7 (2). pp. 311–327.
+Suchman, L. and Bishop, L. (2000) Problematizing 'Innovation' as a Critical Project. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 12 (3). pp. 327–333.
+Suchman, L. (2002) Practice-based design of information systems : notes from the hyperdeveloped world. The Information Society, 18 (2). pp. 139–144.
+Suchman, L. A. and Blomberg, J. and Trigg, R. (2002) Working Artefacts: Ethnomethods of the prototype. British Journal of Sociology, 53 (2). pp. 163–179.
+Suchman, L. (2003) Figuring service in discourses of ICT: the case of software agent. In: Global and Organizational Discourses about Information Technology. International Federation for Information Processing . Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 15–32.
+Suchman, L. (2003) Organising alignment. In: Knowing in organisations: a practice-based approach. M. E. Sharpe, London, pp. 187–203.
+Suchman, L. (2004) Decentring the manager/designer. In: Managing as designing. Stanford Business Books, Stanford, pp. 169–73.
+Suchman, L. (2004) Methods and madness. In: First person : new media as story, performance, and game. MIT Press, London, pp. 95–98.
+Suchman, L. (2004) Talking things. In: First person : new media as story, performance, and game. MIT Press, London, pp. 262–265.
+Suchman, L. (2005) Affiliative Objects. Organization, 12 (3). pp. 379–399.
+Suchman, L. (2006) "Wajcman confronts cyberfeminism." Social Studies of Science.
+Suchman, L. (2007) Feminist STS and the Sciences of the Artificial. In: New Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. MIT Press.
+Suchman, L. (2007) Human-Machine Reconfigurations. Cambridge University Press, New York.
+Suchman, L. (2011) Practice and its overflows: Reflections on order and mess. TECNOSCIENZA: Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies, 2(1):21–30.
+Suchman, L. (2011) Anthropological Relocations and the Limits of Design. Annual Review of Anthropology, 40: 1–18.
+Suchman, L. (2011) Subject Objects. Feminist Theory, 12 (2): 119–145.
+Suchman, L. (2013) Consuming Anthropology. A. Barry & G. Borrn (Eds.), Interdisciplinary: Reconfigurations of the Social and Natural Sciences, (pp. 141–160). London: Routledge.
+Suchman, L. (2015). Situational Awareness: Deadly bioconvergence at the boundaries of bodies and machines Media Tropes, V(1), 1-24.
+Suchman, L. (2016). Configuring the Other: Sensing War through Immersive Simulation. Catalyst: feminism, theory, technoscience, 2(1).
+Suchman, L., & Weber, J. (2016). Human-Machine Autonomies. In N. Bhuta, S. Beck, R. Geis, H.-Y. Liu, & C. Kreis (Eds.), Autonomous Weapons Systems (pp. 75–102). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
+
+== See also ==
+Cognition
+Ethnography
+Philosophy of mind
+Science and technology studies
+Science studies
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Lucy Suchman at Wikimedia Commons
+A 1999 Interview
+CHI 2010 Lifetime Research Award
+A 2011 lecture given at Medea, Malmö University

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauricio_Antón-0.md

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+---
+title: "Mauricio Antón"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauricio_Antón"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:44.674985+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mauricio Antón Ortuzar (born 1961 in Bilbao, Spain) is a Spanish paleoartist, vertebrate paleontologist, and illustrator. As a paleontologist specialising in carnivoran mammals, he has written extensively about sabertooth cats, as well as other groups like hyenas and amphicyonids. As a paleoartist and illustrator, he has created numerous illustrations of prehistoric life illustrating carnivorans as well as other animals (typically mammals), and archaic humans. Antón is one of the most widely known and influential contemporary paleoartists.
+
+
+== Life and career ==
+
+Anton was born in Bilbao, Spain. His family moved to Venezuela in the 1970s. As a teenager in Caracas, Antón became fascinated with the skeleton of the saber-tooth cat Smilodon fatalis on exhibition at the local museum. Ever since, he has been working and improving his techniques to bring fossils alive, being especially interested in felids, hominids and other vertebrates. As he puts it in one of his books (El secreto de los fósiles) “It is the responsibility of the scientific paleo-illustrator  to make sure that his images rigorously transmit the knowledge that the paleontologists have gathered from specific extinct species.”
+To do this he gathers data from extant species, travelling the world extensively, working hands on with fossils, dissecting specimens donated by zoos, researching extinct species with specialists and using extant ecosystems as a basis for the reconstruction of past ones.  He has been an advisor on paleobiology, biomechanics, animal locomotion, and habitats of extinct vertebrates for various media (BBC, National Geographic Society, Natural History, Discovery Channel, etc.). He has benefited from the influences of paleoart masters such as Charles R. Knight, Rudolph Zallinger, Zdenek Burian, Jay Matternes and others from whom he not only recognizes the technological advances but also the conceptual progress they made.
+
+ 
+Since 2004, he has been working in collaboration with "The Fly Factory" animation studios in the application of 3D modeling and animation to the reconstruction of past life. In 2006, he won the Lanzendorf PaleoArt Prize for the best scientific illustration from the SVP (Society of Vertebrate Paleontology). In 2009, he was invited by the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology to visit their Beijing Museum and also the new Museum and fossil sites at Hezheng in central China, where he made first-hand observations of undescribed carnivore fossils. A museum he contributed major illustrations to in Bolnisi, Georgia, was nominated for the European Museum Awards in 2022.
+Between 2009 and 2010 he contributed to the "Extreme Mammals" exposition of the American Museum of Natural History, New York.
+In recent years, Antón is leading art safaris to Northern Botswana under the title "Drawing the Big Cats", sharing first-hand sightings and his experience in studying the anatomy and evolution of felids with artists from all around the world.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+ 
+Among his most well known books are:
+
+Sabertooth. Text and illustrations by Mauricio Anton. Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2013.
+La Gran Migración. Jordi Agustí y Mauricio Antón. Crítica, Barcelona, 2011.
+Madrid antes del hombre. Mauricio Antón y Jorge Morales, Coordinadores. Comunidad de Madrid, 2009.
+Dogs, their fossil relatives and evolutionary history. Xiaoming Wang, Richard Tedford and Mauricio Anton. Columbia University Press New York 2008.
+Antón, Mauricio (2007) El secreto de los fósiles. Aguilar.
+Turner, Alan y Antón, Mauricio (2004) The National Geographic book of prehistoric mammals. National Geographic. [En español: Larousse de los mamíferos prehistóricos. Spes-Larousse, 2007]
+Turner, Alan y Antón, Mauricio (2004) Evolving Eden. An illustrated guide to the evolution of the African large mammal fauna, Columbia University Press.
+Agustí, Jordi y Antón, Mauricio (2002) Mammoths, Sabertooths and Hominids. 65 million years of mammalian evolution in Europe. Columbia University Press.
+Jordi Agustí y Antón, Mauricio (1997) Memoria de la Tierra. Vertebrados fósiles de la Península Ibérica. Ediciones del Serbal.
+Turner, Alan y Antón, Mauricio (1997) The big cats and their fossil relatives. An illustrated guide to their evolution and natural history. Columbia University Press.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Mauricio Antón blog

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_physicist-0.md

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+---
+title: "Medical physicist"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_physicist"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:20.466169+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A medical physicist is a health professional with specialist education and training in the concepts and techniques of applying physics in medicine and competent to practice independently in one or more of the subfields (specialties) of medical physics. A medical physicist plays a fundamental role in applying physics to medicine, but particularly in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. The scientific and technological progress in medical physics has led to a variety of skills that must be integrated into the role of a medical physicist in order for them to perform their job. The "medical services" provided to patients undergoing diagnostic and therapeutic treatments must, therefore, be the result of different but complementary skills. In general, the medical physicist is responsible for all scientific and technical aspects of imaging, radiation treatment, and radiation safety. It is their occupational role to ensure that medical modalities offered to patients are met with the utmost quality assurance. It is the medical physicist that manage and supervise the efforts of dosimetrists, therapists and technologists in that capacity.
+
+
+== Education and training ==
+
+
+=== Australia and New Zealand ===
+The Australasian College of Physical Scientists and Engineers in Medicine (ACPSEM) is the professional body that oversees the education and certification of medical physicists in Australia and New Zealand and has a mission to advance services and professional standards in medical physics and biomedical engineering.
+
+
+=== Europe ===
+The presence of Medical Physicists at Expert level ('Medical Physics Experts') in healthcare in the European Union is required by the 2013/59/Euratom directive. The European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics(EFOMP) has defined a detailed inventory of learning outcomes for Medical Physics Experts in terms of Knowledge, Skills and Competences (the latter in Europe means 'responsibilities'). In Europe the professional preparation for Medical Physicists typically consists of a first degree in Physics or equivalent (e.g., biophysics, electrical or mechanical engineering, computing), a Masters in Medical Physics and a 2-year training Residency. The European Commission has produced 'European Guidelines on the Medical Physics Expert'.
+
+
+==== Finland ====
+In Finland the qualification of medical physicist is comparable to specialisation of physicians. In contrast to many other countries, qualified medical physicist is considered as a post-graduate university education requiring a licentiate's degree or a PhD and a 5-year training residency.
+
+
+==== Syrian Arab Republics ====
+In 2013, Damascus University instituted a Master's program in Medical Physics, which has significantly contributed to the training of numerous medical physicists across various university and local hospitals, as well as several universities within the Syrian Arab Republic. This program has facilitated the dissemination of knowledge through the publication of several external research articles addressing the role of medical physicists in oncology. Furthermore, it has resulted in the production of multiple academic textbooks in the field of medical physics.
+
+
+==== United Kingdom ====
+From October 2011 as part of the Modernising Scientific Careers scheme, the route to accreditation as a medical physicist in England and Wales is provided by the Scientist Training Programme (STP). This scheme is a three-year graduate program provided by the National School of Healthcare Science. Entrants are required to have an undergraduate degree (first or upper second class honours) in an appropriate physical science prior to this three-year graduate program.
+The STP involves a part-time MSc in Medical Physics (provided by either King's College London, University of Liverpool or Newcastle University) in addition to practical training within the National Health Service. Assessment is provided by the completion of competencies and by a final assessment similar to the OSCE undertaken by other clinical staff. Completion of the STP leads to accreditation by the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) and registration as a Clinical Scientist with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC).
+Prior to 2011 the training route in the United Kingdom was administered in two parts, and this scheme is still used in Scotland (known as the Scottish Medical Physics and Clinical Engineering Training Scheme (SMPCETS)).
+ Part I involves limited clinical experience and a full-time MSc in medical physics. Part II involves exclusively clinical experience in which the candidate would produce a portfolio of experience and submit to the Academy for Healthcare Science which (in addition to a viva) would lead to professional accreditation by IPEM.
+
+
+=== North America ===
+In North America, medical physics training is offered at the master's, doctorate, post-doctorate and/or residency levels. A professional doctorate has also been recently introduced as an option. Several universities in Canada and the United States offer these degrees.
+As of October 2013, over 70 universities in North America have medical physics graduate programs or residencies that are accredited by The Commission on Accreditation of Medical Physics Education Programs (CAMPEP). The majority of residencies are therapy, but diagnostic and nuclear have also been on the rise in the past several years.
+In the United States, professional certification is obtained from the American Board of Radiology (for all 4 areas) the American Board of Medical Physics (for MRI), the American Board of Science in Nuclear Medicine (for Nuc Med and PET).  As of 2012, enrollment in a CAMPEP-accredited residency or graduate program is required to start the ABR certification process.  As of 2013, completion of a CAMPEP-accredited residency is required to advance to part 2 of the ABR certification process.
+In Canada, professional certification is obtained from the Canadian College of Physicists in Medicine (for all 4 areas and Mammography). Since 2016, eligibility requirements for Radiation Oncology Physics certification includes graduation and post-graduate training from a CAMPEP accredited institution.
+
+
+=== Russia ===
+The Association of Medical Physicists in Russia is organized and operates [1]. Teaching of medical physics is carried out at Moscow State University, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology [2], Kuban State University. The scientific journal "Medical Physics" is published [3].
+
+
+=== International ===
+There are regular regional and international educational medical physics activities. The oldest of these is the International College on Medical Physics at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste, Italy. This College has educated more than 1000 medical physicists from developing countries.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Clinical laboratory scientist
+Healthcare scientist
+List of publications in physics: Biophysics and medical physics
+Modernising Scientific Careers
+Physicist
+European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics (EFOMP)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Human Health Campus, The official website of the International Atomic Energy Agency dedicated to Professionals in Radiation Medicine. This site is managed by the Division of Human Health, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications
+Canadian Organization of Medical Physicist - Organisation canadienne des physiciens médicaux
+The American Association of Physicists in Medicine
+medicalphysicsweb.org from the Institute of Physics
+AIP Medical Physics portal
+University of Toronto - Medical Biophysics Department
+Journal of Biophysics
+Institute of Physics & Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) - UK
+European Federation of Organizations for Medical Physics (EFOMP)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mulkay-0.md

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+---
+title: "Michael Mulkay"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mulkay"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:50.294697+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Michael Joseph Mulkay (10 August 1936 – 21 October 2025) was a British sociologist known for his contributions to the development of the sociology of scientific knowledge, discourse analysis, and reflexive sociology. 
+
+
+== Early life and education ==
+Mulkay was born in London on 10 August 1936 to Joseph Mulkay, a window cleaner, and Annie Johnson, a housewife. After his mother left the family home in 1946, he was raised by his father in a council house in Tottenham. He attended a Catholic boys' school in North London, which he later recalled as being austere and highly disciplined. Leaving school at 16 without a desire to continue education, he worked as a clerk for the London Water Board. 
+In 1954, he began National Service but was released early after collapsing on parade and being diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes. He subsequently completed A-level correspondence courses funded by itinerant work, including periods as a grave digger and a deckchair attendant, and these enabled him to enter the London School of Economics (LSE), where he graduated with a first-class degree in Sociology in 1965. 
+
+
+== Academic career ==
+After LSE, Mulkay was invited to move to Simon Fraser University (SFU) in Vancouver by Thomas Bottomore, after his wife was denied a US visa for his original plan to study at the University of Wisconsin. At SFU, he completed an MA thesis on the recruitment of Canadian scientists. Both he and Bottomore resigned from SFU in 1967 during a period of intense conflict within the university over student participation in governance.. 
+Returning to Britain in 1968, he was recruited as a lecturer at the University of Aberdeen, where he wrote a PhD thesis on sociological theory, later published as Functionalism, Exchange and Theoretical Strategy . From 1970 to 1973, he served as a Research Associate at the University of Cambridge Department of Engineering. In 1973, he joined the University of York as a Reader, was appointed to a Chair in 1979 and was Head of Department 1992-5. At York, he supervised doctoral students including Nigel Gilbert, Steve Woolgar, Steve Yearley, Andrew Webster, Malcolm Ashmore and Jonathan Potter. 
+
+
+== Research and contributions ==
+
+
+=== Scientific innovation and growth ===
+Early in his career, Mulkay and Bryan Turner argued that major intellectual innovations often occur when an "over-production" of qualified experts relative to available positions forces innovation into new areas. He illustrated this with case studies in North African Islam, 19th-century French painting, and radio astronomy. Working with David Edge, he developed a three-phase model for research networks: an exploratory phase, a phase of rapid growth and consensus negotiation, and a final phase of decline and disbandment. 
+
+
+=== Discourse analysis and Opening Pandora’s Box ===
+In the mid 1970s, Mulkay shifted his focus to how scientists construct reality through language. While studying the controversy over oxidative phosphorylation, he and Nigel Gilbert observed that scientists on both sides used experimental evidence to create persuasive accounts of their own positions. This research led to the publication of Opening Pandora's Box (1984), a foundational text for the field of discursive psychology
+
+. 
+
+
+=== Reflexivity and New Literary Forms ===
+Mulkay became a prominent proponent of reflexivity, arguing that sociological theories about knowledge construction should also apply to the work of sociologists. To explore this, he developed "New Literary Forms," with Steve Woolgar and Malcolm Ashmore, using plays and dialogues to display the interpretive work of the analyst, most notably in The Word and the World (1985). He also utilized conversation analysis and ethnomethodology to examine the role of language, rhetoric and humour in social life, such as in Nobel Prize ceremonies and health economics. 
+
+
+=== The Embryo Research Debate ===
+His final major research project examined the UK parliamentary debates regarding human embryo research in the 1980s. In The Embryo Research Debate (1997), he analyzed how advocates navigated moral and political dynamics to establish the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. He examined how scientific arguments interacted with religion, gender politics and popular culture in shaping public opinion. 
+
+
+== Retirement and artistic practice ==
+Mulkay retired from the University of York in 2001. He pursued creative interests, first as a basket weaver focusing on spiral rattan forms, 
+
+ and later as a painter of abstract landscapes using alcohol inks. His artwork was exhibited in galleries in York
+, Beverley, and Scarborough. 
+
+
+== Personal life and health ==
+Mulkay married his wife, Lucy, a designer, in 1962; they had two daughters. He lived with Type 1 diabetes for over 70 years, receiving the Macleod Medal from Diabetes UK in 2025 for his long-term management of the condition.  He died on 21 October 2025. 
+
+
+== Awards ==
+John Desmond Bernal Prize (1986), Society for Social Studies of Science
+Macleod Medal (2025), Diabetes UK 
+
+
+== Published works ==
+
+
+=== Books ===
+Mulkay, M. J. (1972). The Social Process of Innovation. Macmillan.
+Edge, D. O.; Mulkay, M. J. (1976). Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain. Wiley.
+Mulkay, M. J. (1979). Science and the Sociology of Knowledge. G. Allen & Unwin.
+Gilbert, G. N.; Mulkay, M. (1984). Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociological Analysis of Scientists' Discourse. Cambridge University Press.
+Mulkay, M. J. (1985). The Word and the World: Explorations in the Form of Sociological Analysis. Allen & Unwin.
+Mulkay, M. J. (1988). On Humour: Its Nature and Its Place in Modern Society. Polity Press.
+Pinch, T.; Mulkay, M.; Ashmore, M. (1989). Health and Efficiency: A Sociology of Health Economics. Milton Keynes, England and Philadelphia: Open University Press.
+Mulkay, M. J. (1991). Sociology of Science: A Sociological Pilgrimage. Open University Press.
+Mulkay, M. J. (1997). The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction. Cambridge University Press.
+
+
+=== Selected journal articles ===
+Mulkay, M. J.; Turner, B. S. (1971). "Over-production of personnel and innovation in 3 social settings". Sociology. 5 (1): 47–61.
+Mulkay, M. J.; Edge, D. O. (1973). "Cognitive, technical and social factors in growth of radio astronomy". Social Science Information. 12 (6): 25–61.
+Mulkay, M. J.; Gilbert, G. N.; Woolgar, S. (1975). "Problem areas and research networks in science". Sociology. 9 (2): 187–203.
+Mulkay, Michael J. (1976). "Norms and Ideology in Science". Social Science Information. 15 (4–5): 637–656.
+Mulkay, Michael; Gilbert, G. Nigel (1982). "Accounting for Error". Sociology. 16 (2): 165–183.
+Mulkay, M. (1984). "The ultimate compliment". Sociology. 18 (4): 531–549.
+Mulkay, Michael; Ashmore, Malcolm; Pinch, Trevor (1987). "Measuring the Quality of Life". Sociology. 21 (4): 541–564.
+Mulkay, Michael (1993). "Rhetorics of Hope and Fear in the Great Embryo Debate". Social Studies of Science. 23 (4): 721–742.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Discourse analysis
+Sociology of scientific knowledge
+Reflexivity (social theory)
+Ethnomethodology

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_Myers-0.md

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+---
+title: "Natasha Myers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_Myers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:52.704792+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Natasha Myers is an associate professor of anthropology at York University. In 2016 she coined the term "Planthroposcene". Her first book, Rendering Life Molecular: Models, Modelers, and Excitable Matter is an ethnography of protein crystallographers and discusses how scientists teach one another how to sense the molecular realm. This book won the 2016 Robert Merton Book Prize from the Science, Knowledge, and Technology Section of the American Sociological Association. She received her BSc in biology from McGill University, a Masters in Environmental Studies from York University's Faculty of Environmental Studies and her PhD in the Program in History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology & Society (HASTS) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+=== Further reading ===
+Yoshizawa RS. Rendering life molecular: models, modelers, and excitable matter. New Genetics & Society. 2017;36(4):410-411. doi:10.1080/14636778.2016.1162093
+Wald JG. A Haptic Anthropology of Science. Current Anthropology. 2016;57(4):533-534. doi:10.1086/687564

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Andreyeva-0.md

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+---
+title: "Nina Andreyeva"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Andreyeva"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:53.295030+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Nina Alexandrovna Andreyeva (Russian: Нина Александровна Андреева, 12 October 1938 – 24 July 2020) was a Soviet Russian chemical scientist, teacher, author, and political activist. A supporter of classical Soviet principles, she wrote an essay entitled I Cannot Forsake My Principles  that defended many aspects of the traditional Soviet system, and criticized General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev and his closest supporters for not being true communists. In the rebuke published in the official party newspaper Pravda the essay was called The Manifesto of Anti-Perestroika Forces.
+
+
+== Career in chemistry ==
+She was born in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), and was a chemistry lecturer at the Leningrad Technological Institute. She joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) around 1966.
+
+
+== I Cannot Forsake My Principles ==
+Andreyeva's essay I Cannot Forsake My Principles (Не могу поступаться принципами; variously translated in English commentary) was published in the newspaper Sovetskaya Rossiya on March 13, 1988, at a time when Gorbachev and Alexander Yakovlev were either about to start on overseas visit or already abroad, and was initiated and approved by the secretary of the Communist Party's Central Committee, Yegor Ligachev. She was contemptuous of Perestroika and defended the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. Of the Great Purges, "they are being blown out of proportion" she wrote.
+Giulietto Chiesa, then Moscow correspondent of the Italian Communist newspaper L'Unità, found Andreyeva's original letter and discovered that it had been rewritten, only 5 pages of her 18-page typescript were published, much of the rest being thought too extreme. In the originally unpublished portions, Andreyeva commented that Stalin's critics wrote "in the language of Goebbels" and referred to "nations of little importance, like the Crimean Tartars and Zionist Jews."
+Party officials critical of the reforms welcomed the published essay. Ligachev told the official news agency TASS to send the Andreyeva letter to local newspapers throughout the Soviet Union to publish it. It was much reprinted in the Soviet Union and East Germany, but it received no critical response in the media. The Leningrad party issued a television documentary apparently showing mass support in the city for the Andreyeva letter.
+Not until after Gorbachev had returned from abroad, and following a two-day meeting of the politburo on March 24–25 to discuss the Andreyeva letter, did a response appear in Pravda on 5 April 1988. The Pravda article described the letter as containing "nostalgia, backward-looking patriotism," the work of "blind, die-hard, undoubting dogmatists." Gorbachev stated that there were mixed reactions to the article within the politburo, with members such as  Vorotnikov and Ligachev characterizing the article as an understandable reaction to the negative view of the Soviet past. Gorbachev described it as a direct attack "against perestroika."
+Under the reforms, she told David Remnick of The Washington Post in 1989 that under Stalin "the country built socialism for 30 years" and stated: "Our media are lying about Stalin now. They are blackening our history." On then current conditions, she told him: "The political structure of an anti-socialist movement is taking place in the form of democratic unions and popular fronts." She said of Leningrad television: "they'll show an artist, a painter, who is supposedly a representative of Russian art. But excuse me, he is not a Russian. He is a Jew." She added: "You can say Russian, Ukrainian, why not Jew? Does it diminish the person? Why hide him behind some other nationality. Jew and Zionist mean different things, but all Zionists are Jews." In the Sovetskaya Rossiya letter, she attacked "cosmopolitan" conspirators.
+For his book Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire (1993), Remnick drew on his contact with Andreyeva.
+
+
+== Subsequent career ==
+By July 1990, she was heading an organization called Yedinstvo (Unity) which aimed to return the country to the Bolshevik principles of Lenin and was planning to leave the CPSU. The New York Times described the group in August 1991 as "a haven for many hard-line Communists".
+Andreyeva later played a leadership role in the formation of post-Soviet communist organisations. Founded in November 1991, the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (initially Bolshevik Platform), Andreyeva was the party general secretary and the party wanted a mass campaign to replace Boris Yeltsin. It saw itself as the successor to the CPSU. In October 1993, the party was temporarily suspended along with fifteen other organisations after President Yeltsin's repression implemented after a constitutional crisis. In May 1995 she was removed from the post as the head of the St. Petersburg Central Committee of the party for "lack of revolutionary activity."
+Nina Andreyeva died in St. Petersburg on 24 July 2020.
+
+
+== Works ==
+Andreyeva, Nina (1992). The Cause of Socialism is Invincible. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Publishing House. ASIN B0041SY99A.
+— (1993). Unpresented Principles or a Brief History of Perestroika: (Selected Articles and Speeches). Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Publishing House. OCLC 476436091.
+— (2002).  За Большевизм в Коммунистическом Движении [For Bolshevism in the Communist Movement]. Leningrad: Publishing House of the All-Union Communist Party Bolsheviks.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Full text of I Cannot Waive Principles (archived) as published in Sovetskaia Rossiia on March 13, 1988
+All-Union Communist Party Bolsheviks official site

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Leonardi-0.md

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+---
+title: "Paul Leonardi"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Leonardi"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:41.927109+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Paul M. Leonardi was the Duca Family Professor of Technology Management at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He was also the Investment Group of Santa Barbara Founding Director of the Master of Technology Management Program. Leonardi moved to UCSB to found the Technology Management Program and start its Master of Technology Management and Ph.D. programs. Before joining UCSB, Leonardi was a faculty member in the School of Communication, the McCormick School of Engineering, and the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University.
+Leonardi’s research focuses on how companies can design their organizational networks and implement new technologies to more effectively create and share knowledge. He was particularly interested in how data intensive technologies, such as simulation and social media tools, enable new ways to access, store, and share information; how the new sources of information these technologies provide can change work routines and communication partners; and how shifts in employees’ work and communication alter the nature of an organization's expertise. His work on these topics cuts across the fields of Organization Studies, Communication Studies, and Information Systems and has been published in leading journals in these fields, such as Academy of Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Communication, Human Communication Research, Information Systems Research,  MIS Quarterly, and Organization Science. He was also the author of three books Car Crashes Without Cars: Lessons About Simulation Technology and Organizational Change from Automotive Design (2012, MIT Press), Materiality and Organizing: Social Interaction in a Technological World(2012, Oxford University Press), and Technology Choices: Why Occupations Differ in Their Embrace of New Technologies (2015, MIT Press).
+He won awards for his research from the Academy of Management, American Sociological Association, International Communication Association, National Communication Association, and Association for Information Systems
+Over the past decade, he consulted with for-profit and non-profit organizations about how to manage the human aspects of new technology implementation. His recent engagements have focused on helping companies to improve communication between departments, to use social technologies to enhance internal knowledge sharing, and to strengthen global product development operations.
+
+
+== Published works ==
+Young, L. E., & Leonardi, P. M. (2012). Social Issue Emergence on the Web: A Dual Structurational Model. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17, 231-246.
+Contractor, N. S., Monge, P. R., & Leonardi, P. M. (2011). Multidimensional Networks and the Dynamics of Sociomateriality: Bringing Technology Inside the Network. International Journal of Communication, 5, 682-720.
+Leonardi, P. M. (2011). When Flexible Routines Meet Flexible Technologies: Affordance, Constraint, and the Imbrication of Human and Material Agencies. MIS Quarterly, 35(1), 147-167.
+Leonardi, P. M. (2011). Innovation Blindness: Culture, Frames, and Cross-Boundary Problem Construction in The Development of New Technology Concepts. Organization Science, 22(2), 347-369.
+Leonardi, P. M.; Barley, S. R. (2010). "What's Under Construction Here? Social Action, Materiality, and Power in Constructivist Studies of Technology and Organizing". Academy of Management Annals. 4: 1–51. doi:10.1080/19416521003654160. S2CID 1178715.
+Bailey, D. E.; Leonardi, P. M.; Chong, J. (2010). "Minding the Gaps: Technology Interdependence and Coordination in Knowledge Work". Organization Science. 21 (3): 713–730. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.599.6331. doi:10.1287/orsc.1090.0473. S2CID 10453259.
+Leonardi, P. M. (2010). Digital Materiality? How Artifacts Without Matter, Matter. First Monday, 15(6), Available from: https://firstmonday.org/article/view/3036/2567
+Leonardi, P. M. (2010). "From Road to Lab to Math: The Co-Evolution of Technological, Regulatory, and Organizational Innovations in Automotive Crash Testing". Social Studies of Science. 40 (2): 243–274. doi:10.1177/0306312709346079. PMID 20527322. S2CID 11704282.
+Leonardi, P. M.; Treem, J. W.; Jackson, M. H. (2010). "The Connectivity Paradox: Using Technology to Both Increase and Decrease Perceptions of Distance in Distributed Work Arrangements". Journal of Applied Communication Research. 37 (4): 85–105. doi:10.1080/00909880903483599. S2CID 145264198.
+Leonardi, P. M. (2009). "Crossing the Implementation Line: The Mutual Constitution of Technology and Organizing Across Development and Use Activities". Communication Theory. 19 (3): 277–310. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01344.x. S2CID 9667654.
+Leonardi, P. M. (2009). "Why Do People Reject New Technologies and Stymie Organizational Changes of which They Are in Favor? Exploring Misalignments Between Social Interactions and Materiality". Human Communication Research. 35 (3): 407–441. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01357.x. S2CID 144912826.
+Leonardi, P. M.; Jackson, M. H.; Diwan, A. (2009). "The Enactment-Externalization Dialectic: Rationalization and the Persistence of Counterproductive Technology Design Practices in Student Engineering". Academy of Management Journal. 52 (2): 400–420. doi:10.5465/AMJ.2009.37315471. S2CID 17650315.
+Leonardi, P. M.; Jackson, M. H. (2009). "Technological Grounding: Enrolling Technology as a Discursive Resource to Justify Cultural Change in Organizations". Science, Technology, & Human Values. 34 (3): 393–418. doi:10.1177/0162243908328771. S2CID 113943000.
+Leonard, P. M. (2008). "Indeterminacy and the Discourse of Inevitability in International Technology Management". Academy of Management Review. 33 (4): 975–984. doi:10.5465/AMR.2008.34422017. S2CID 15949120.
+Leonardi, P. M.; Barley, S. R. (2008). "Materiality and Change: Challenges to Building Better Theory About Technology and Organizing". Information and Organization. 18 (3): 159–176. doi:10.1016/j.infoandorg.2008.03.001. S2CID 6053499.
+Leonardi, P. M.; Bailey, D. E. (2008). "Transformational Technologies and the Creation of New Work Practices: Making Implicit Knowledge Explicit in Task-based Offshoring". MIS Quarterly. 32 (2): 411–436. doi:10.2307/25148846. JSTOR 25148846. S2CID 33649439.
+Leonardi, P. M. (2007). "Activating the Informational Capabilities of Information Technology for Organizational Change". Organization Science. 18 (5): 813–831. doi:10.1287/orsc.1070.0284. S2CID 14868023.
+Leonardi, P. M.; Jackson, M. H. (2004). "Technological Determinism and Discursive Closure in Organizational Mergers". Journal of Organizational Change Management. 17 (6): 615–631. doi:10.1108/09534810410564587. S2CID 11710816.
+Leonardi, P. M. (2003). "Problematizing "New Media": Culturally Based Perceptions of Cell Phones, Computers, and the Internet among United States Latinos". Critical Studies in Media Communication. 20 (2): 160–179. doi:10.1080/07393180302778. S2CID 15882691.
+All papers are available from the Leonardi's website for academic use only at [1]
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+https://web.archive.org/web/20150518080834/http://www.tmp.ucsb.edu/files/leonardi/CV.Leonardi.pdf
+http://paulleonardi.com/
+http://www.tmp.ucsb.edu/leonardi

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_chemist_(Canada)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Professional chemist (Canada)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_chemist_(Canada)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:21.633611+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Professional chemist is the term for registered or licensed chemists in Canada who are permitted to offer their professional services directly to the public. The professional chemist designation is commonly abbreviated to PChem when added as a suffix after a person's name.
+The term professional chemist and the actual practice of professional chemistry is legally defined and protected by the government. In some jurisdictions only registered or licensed professional chemists or chartered chemists are permitted to use the title, or to practice professional chemistry.
+The earmark that distinguishes a licensed/registered professional chemist is the authority to sign and seal or "stamp" chemistry documents (reports, drawings and calculations) for a study, estimate, design or analysis, thus taking legal responsibility for it.
+
+
+== Registration and regulation ==
+Each province has specific procedures and requirements for license or registration. On March 20, 2017, the Federation of Canada’s Professional Chemists (FCPC) announced that provincial chemists’ organizations have adopted a Memorandum of Understanding to facilitate mobility of professional chemists between provinces which enabled Professional Chemists who are members of organizations established in each province to move and work in other provinces. The licensing procedure varies, but the general process is:
+
+Graduate with a degree from an accredited university program in chemistry
+Accumulate a certain amount of experience as a Chemist in Training; this can range from two to five years depending on the province
+Complete and pass the essential courses required by the professional organizations
+
+
+== The chemist title ==
+The title chemist is legally protected in some provinces, meaning that is it unlawful to use it to offer chemistry services to the public unless permission is specifically granted by that province through a professional chemist license. With legal documentation, this is commonly referred to as the Right to Title. A licensed professional has the option of wearing a Chemists' Ring.
+
+
+== Unlicensed practice ==
+Since the regulation of the practice of chemistry is performed by the individual provinces in Canada, areas of chemistry which are an exception to mandatory regulatory requirements are:
+
+A professor teaching chemistry in an accredited program
+Military personnel currently actively licensed with the Canadian government
+Chemists are not registered in a specific discipline but are prohibited by the code of ethics  from practicing beyond their training and experience. Breaches of the code are often sufficient grounds for enforcement, which may include the suspension or loss of license, as well as financial penalties and now, through recent changes to Canadian law, could also result in jail time should negligence be shown to have played a part in any incident in which there is loss of human life. 
+Some examples of a professional chemist would be an oilfield chemist, drilling fluids chemist, environmental chemist, biochemist, or pharmacist.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Barrett-0.md

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+---
+title: "Rachel Barrett"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Barrett"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:58.069695+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Rachel Barrett (12 November 1874 – 26 August 1953) was a Welsh suffragette and newspaper editor born in Carmarthen. Educated at the University College of Wales in Aberystwyth she became a science teacher, but quit her job in 1906 on hearing Nellie Martel speak of women's suffrage, joined the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) and moved to London. In 1907, she became a WSPU organiser, and after Christabel Pankhurst fled to Paris, Barrett became joint organiser of the national WSPU campaign. In 1912, despite no journalistic background, she took charge of the new newspaper The Suffragette. Barrett was arrested on occasions for activities linked to the suffrage movement and, in 1913–1914, spent some time incognito to avoid re-arrest.
+
+== Early life ==
+Barrett was born in Carmarthen on 12 November 1874 to Rees Barrett, a land and road surveyor, and his second wife Anne Jones, both Welsh-speakers. She grew up in the town of Llandeilo with her elder brother Rees and a younger sister, Janette. By the 1881 census, her mother Anne was the lone adult living at their address on Alan Road, her father having died in 1878. Barrett was educated at Stratford Abbey School, a boarding school in Stroud, along with her sister, and won a scholarship to the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. She graduated in 1904 with an external London BSc degree in mathematics and science. After graduating she became a science teacher and taught in Llangefni, Carmarthen and Penarth.
+
+== Life as a suffragette ==
+
+=== Early activism with the WSPU ===
+Towards the end of 1906 Barrett attended a suffrage rally in Cardiff and was inspired by a speech from Nellie Martel to join the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) at the end of the meeting. She felt "that they were doing the right and only thing" and thought that she herself "had always been a suffragist." By the following year Barrett was active as a WSPU activist and helped organise Adela Pankhurst's meetings in Cardiff and Barry that year, sharing the stage with her as one of the speakers. Barrett spoke on behalf of the WSPU at many meetings, often in Welsh, which conflicted with her role as a schoolteacher as her headmistress disapproved of the publicity, especially after news of Barrett being flour-bombed with Adela Pankhurst at a rally in Cardiff Docks made the local papers. 
+In July 1907, Barrett resigned as a teacher and enrolled at the London School of Economics (LSE), near the WSPU headquarters at Clement's Inn, intending to study economics and sociology and to work towards her DSc. That August she was heavily active for the WSPU, campaigning at the Bury St Edmunds by-election with Gladice Keevil, Nellie Martel, Emmeline Pankhurst, Aeta Lamb and Elsa Gye. She influenced the American student Alice Paul, and both sold copies of Votes for Women. 
+Barrett was also active with Adela Pankhurst at Bradford. With her campaign activities over Barrett was free to attend the LSE, which proved useful for attending WSPU activities in nearby Clement's Inn. Over the Christmas period Barrett was again busy campaigning for the WSPU, with Pankhurst, Martel, Lamb, and Nellie Crocker at the "rough and boisterous" staunchly Liberal Mid-Devon seat at Newton Abbott, and next time in the lead up to the Ashburton by-election.
+Shortly afterwards Barrett was asked by Christabel Pankhurst to become a full-time organiser of the WSPU, an offer which would see her leave her course at the LSE. Barrett regretted giving up her studies but accepted the position stating, "It was a definite call and I obeyed."
+Barrett spent 1908 first organising a campaign in Nottingham and then working on the by-elections in both Dewsbury and Dundee where she supported Scottish suffragette campaigners Helen Fraser, Elsa Gye and Mary Gawthorpe. In June of that year she was the chair of one of the platforms at the Hyde Park rally, but the work took its toll on her health and shortly afterwards she was forced to temporarily step down from her position to recuperate, which included a period of time at a sanatorium. After recovering she moved closer to home, volunteering for Annie Kenney in Bristol. She soon agreed to resume her role as a paid organiser for he WSPU and was sent to Newport in south-east Wales to continue her duties. 
+In 1910, Barrett was chosen to lead a group of women to talk to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, regarding the Liberal Party's role in supporting the first Conciliation Bill. The meeting lasted two and a half hours, and by its end she was convinced that Lloyd George had been insincere over his support for equal voting rights and believed him to be against women's suffrage. By the end of the year her post was changed to organising all WSPU activities in Wales and she was relocated to the country's headquarters in Cardiff. According to Ryland Wallace, writing in 2009, "No individual worked harder than Rachel Barrett to promote the campaign in Wales."
+
+=== Editor of The Suffragette ===
+
+In 1912, Barrett was selected by Kenney (who saw her as a 'highly-educated woman, a devoted worker' to help run the WPSU national campaign), following the raid by police on Clement's Inn and Christabel Pankhurst's subsequent flight to Paris. Barrett moved back to London and within a few months she was given the role of assistant editor of the WSPU newspaper, The Suffragette, on its launch in October 1912. Writing in her autobiography Barrett described becoming an editor as "an appalling task as I knew nothing whatever of journalism". By taking on the job she also took on the risks connected with the increasingly militant WSPU. She travelled under cover to Paris to meet with Christabel Pankhurst, and when speaking to her on the phone she recalled how she "could always hear the click of Scotland Yard listening in."

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Barrett-1.md

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+---
+title: "Rachel Barrett"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Barrett"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:58.069695+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Over the next two years, Barrett was a key figure in keeping the newspaper in print despite the Home Secretary's efforts to suppress it. In April 1913, the offices of The Suffragette were raided by the police and Barrett, Beatrice Sanders, Agnes Lake, Harriet Kerr and Flora Drummond were arrested on charges of conspiring to damage property. Barrett was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment at Holloway. She immediately went on hunger strike, was transferred to Canterbury Prison, and after five days she was released under the "Cat and Mouse Act". She moved into "Mouse Castle", 2 Campden Hill Square, home of the Brackenbury family who were sympathetic suffragists. After three weeks at the house, Barrett emerged and was rearrested. She went back on hunger strike and after four days was again released to "Mouse Castle". This time, she was smuggled out of the house in disguise to allow her to speak at meetings, before being rearrested for a second time and was looked after by her friend I. A. R. Wylie at St John's Wood, known as the "Mouse Hole" and for the third time, Barrett was released after a hunger strike, but this time, she successfully eluded the authorities and fled to a nursing home in Edinburgh where she remained until December 1913. On leaving Scotland, she returned in secret to London; she hid at Lincoln's Inn House where she lived in a bed-sitting room there, only getting air on the roof.
+Barrett continued to edit The Suffragette, but she travelled to Paris to discuss the future of the newspaper with Christabel Pankhurst after its offices were raided in May 1914. The result of their meeting was the relocation of The Suffragette to Edinburgh where the printers were at less risk of arrest. Barrett moved to Edinburgh with Ida Wylie and assumed the pseudonym "Miss Ashworth". Barrett continued to publish the paper until its final edition on the week after the First World War was declared. During the war, Barrett was a vocal supporter of British military action, as were the majority of the suffragette movement. She was a contributor to the WSPU 'Victory Fund' which was launched in 1916 to sponsor campaigns against "a compromise peace" and industrial strikes.
+After the passing of the Representation of the People Act 1918, in which some women within the United Kingdom were first given the right to vote, Barrett busied herself in continuing the fight for full emancipation. When full voting rights were won in 1928, she helped raise funds for commemorations and was an important figure in raising the money needed to erect a statue of Emmeline Pankhurst in Victoria Tower Gardens, near the Palace of Westminster in London. Barrett understood the international connections of suffrage and contacted important Canadian and American campaigners for financial support. In Barrett's obituary in the Women's Bulletin, it read that the raising of the statue "...stands as a permanent memorial to Rachel's organising ability." In 1929, Barrett was appointed secretary of the Equal Political Rights Campaign Committee, an organisation that sought equality between men and women in all political spheres.
+
+== Later life ==
+In her later life, Barrett joined the Suffragette Fellowship with Edith How-Martyn and was particularly close to Kitty Marshall who lived near by. She attempted to publish a memoir of Marshall in the late 1940s, but it was turned down for publication. Barrett moved to Sible Hedingham in Essex in the early 1930s and joined the Sible Hedingham Women's Institute in 1934, remaining a member until 1948. There she lived at Lamb Cottage.
+
+== Relationship with I. A. R. Wylie ==
+
+During her time editing The Suffragette, Barrett struck up a lesbian relationship with the female Australian author I. A. R. Wylie, who contributed to the paper in 1913. In 1919, Barrett and Wylie travelled to the United States, where they bought a car and spent over a year travelling round the country. They stayed in New York and San Francisco and were recorded in the 1920 census as living in Carmel-By-The-Sea in California, where Wylie was classed as the head of the household and Barrett as her friend.
+The two women remained close for some time and, in 1928, were supporters of their close friends Una Troubridge and Radclyffe Hall during the trial of The Well of Loneliness. When Barrett died, she left the residue of her estate to Wylie.
+
+== Death ==
+Barrett died of a cerebral haemorrhage on 26 August 1953 at the Carylls Nursing Home in Faygate, Sussex. She was 78 years old. She left Lamb Cottage to her niece Gwyneth Anderson, who lived there with her husband, the British poet, J. Redwood Anderson.
+
+== References ==
+
+== Primary sources ==
+Cook, Kay; Evans, Neil (1991). "'The Petty Antics of the Bell-Ringing Boisterous Band'? The Women's Suffrage Movement in Wales, 1890–1918". In John, Angela V. (ed.). Our Mothers' Land, Chapters in Welsh Women's History 1830–1939. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 0-7083-1129-6.
+Crawford, Elizabeth (2003). The Women's Suffrage Movement: A Reference Guide 1866–1928. Routledge. ISBN 9781135434021.
+John, Angela V. (1991). "Beyond Paternalism: The Ironmaster's Wife in the Industrial Community". In John, Angela V. (ed.). Our Mothers' Land, Chapters in Welsh Women's History 1830–1939. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 0-7083-1129-6.
+Wallace, Ryland (2009). The Women's Suffrage Movement in Wales, 1866–1928. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-708-32173-7.
+
+== Further reading ==
+Cline, Sally (1999). Radclyffe Hall: A Woman Called John. The Overlook Press. ISBN 978-0879517083.
+Wylie, I. A. R. (2010). My Life with George: An Unconventional Autobiography. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1163188477.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RegTech_technician_registration-0.md

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+---
+title: "RegTech technician registration"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RegTech_technician_registration"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:23.952238+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+RegTech is a project established by the Prospect union to promote and support the professional registration of engineering, IT  and science technicians in the UK.
+
+
+== Membership bodies ==
+With technician members across hundreds of workplaces in sectors ranging from defence and energy to heritage and telecoms, the union is working in conjunction with membership bodies including professional associations: the Engineering Council, Science Council, BCS - The Chartered Institute for IT and EngTechNow.
+
+
+== Entitlement ==
+Technicians who successfully gain professional registration status through a relevant membership body have the right to display the appropriate letters after their name. In the case of RegTech this means either EngTech, RSciTech or RITTech. The title or “post nominal” provides a formal recognition of relevant skills and experience.
+
+
+== Career progression & skills gap ==
+Prospect believes technician registration is a key means of supporting apprentices and other young professionals with structured vocational routes to career progression. While it is a valuable asset in its own right it can provide the foundation for achieving chartered status. More broadly the RegTech project is aimed at helping to address skills shortages, by raising the profile of technicians and attracting more recruits to the roles.
+
+
+== Registration process ==
+Registration is not exam-based but rather is achieved by providing evidence of the required knowledge, understanding and experience. This varies according to the relevant professional awarding body but can often take the form of a written application or face to face interview, with supporting documentation.
+
+
+== Support ==
+Prospect’s support for technician registration includes workplace surgeries, a dedicated online helpdesk and training for workplace RegTech advisers.
+
+
+== Funding ==
+The RegTech project is funded by the Gatsby Charitable Foundation, one of whose stated aims is to strengthen science and engineering skills in the UK by developing innovative programmes and informing national policy in the UK.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registered_Science_Technician-0.md

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+---
+title: "Registered Science Technician"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registered_Science_Technician"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:22.800978+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Registered Science Technician (RSciTech) is a professional qualification in the United Kingdom for science technicians. It was introduced in 2011 alongside Registered Scientist as an extension to the UK Science Council's existing professional register for Chartered Scientists. the Registered Science Technician (RSciTech) was developed with the support of the Gatsby Charitable Foundation, with the aim of increasing the professionalism and recognition of those working in technical roles in science. Holders of this qualification can use the post-nominal letters RSciTech. Registration as RSciTech has been encouraged by institutions such as Imperial College London, and the UK Government's Science manufacturing technician and Laboratory technician apprenticeship standards are designed to lead to registration as an RSciTech.
+
+
+== Licensed Bodies ==
+The Science Council licences its member bodies to award professional statuses. The professional bodies listed below are those licensed to award Registered Science Technician as of May 2017:
+
+Association for Science Education
+British Psychological Society
+Institute of Animal Technology
+Institute of Biomedical Science
+Institute of Food Science & Technology
+Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
+Institute of Physics
+Institute of Science and Technology
+Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine
+Institution of Chemical Engineers
+Institute of Water
+Royal Society of Biology
+Royal Society of Chemistry
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardo_Almendáriz-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ricardo Almendáriz"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardo_Almendáriz"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:41.080228+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ricardo Almendáriz (fl. 1787) was a draftsman from New Spain who accompanied Antonio del Río to the first excavation of pre-Columbian Maya ruins at Palenque in Chiapas, Mexico.  Undertaken in May and June 1787, the expedition was performed under orders from Charles III of Spain, to investigate reports about the ruins from the inhabitants of the neighboring pueblo of Santo Domingo de Palenque.  The team spent two weeks digging at the location, followed by three weeks studying the site.
+Almendáriz made thirty drawings of the bas relief sculptures at the Palenque ruins.  These drawings were intended to accompany del Río's written report, which was dated June 24, 1787.  According to George Stuart, writing for the Kislak Foundation, the del Río report "ranks as the first substantial archaeological report known in the Americas." Almendáriz's drawings of Palenque are "remarkably accurate for the era" and depict features of Palenque that have since been destroyed from exposure. For this reason they remain scientifically useful.
+The Almendáriz drawings were copied for archival purposes. The most complete set of contemporary copies belongs to the library of the Royal Palace in Madrid.
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Coleccion de Estampas Copiadas de las Figuras Originales From the Collections at the Library of Congress

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Twine_(sociologist)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Richard Twine (sociologist)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Twine_(sociologist)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:07.072516+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Richard Twine (born 1974) is a British sociologist whose research addresses environmental sociology as well as gender, human/animal and science studies. He is noted for his "foundational" work in critical animal studies, as well as his contributions to ecofeminism. His work includes developing Barbara Noske's notion of the animal-industrial complex and theorizing the "vegan killjoy", building on Sara Ahmed's "feminist killjoy".
+Twine is a reader in sociology in the Department of History, Geography & Social Sciences at Edge Hill University, where he is the co-director of the Centre for Human-Animal Studies. He is also the chair of the Research Advisory Committee of The Vegan Society. He is the author of 2010's Animals as Biotechnology and 2024's The Climate Crisis and Other Animals, as well as a co-editor of 2014's The Rise of Critical Animal Studies and 2024's Violence and Harm in the Animal Industrial Complex.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Twine studied for a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology and Psychology at the University of Stirling, graduating in 1995, and then went on to study for a Master of Arts in Sociology at the University of Essex, which he completed in 1996. He was awarded his PhD in Sociology from Manchester Metropolitan University in 2002. His thesis, supervised by Gail Hawkes and Sue Scott and examined by Anne Witz, was entitled Ecofeminism and the 'New' Sociologies - A Collaboration Against Dualism.
+After completing his studies, Twine spent a decade at Lancaster University, where he was based within the ESRC Centre for Economic and Social Aspects of Genomics. While at Lancaster, he published Animals as Biotechnology: Ethics, Sustainability and Critical Animal Studies as part of the Earthscan Science in Society Series. This was "the first book fully dedicated to" critical animal studies. It offered, in the words of one reviewer, "an impressive analysis of the biotech and meat industries from an unapologetically pro-animal perspective". In 2012, he published an article in the Journal for Critical Animal Studies, developing Barbara Noske's idea of the animal-industrial complex as research method and concept central to critical animal studies.
+After finishing at Lancaster, Twine worked briefly at the University of Glasgow and the UCL Institute of Education. He published the collection The Rise of Critical Animal Studies: From the Margins to the Centre, co-edited with Nik Taylor, with Routledge in 2014. The same year, he joined Edge Hill University. He also published a paper in Societies in which he drew upon Sara Ahmed's notion of a feminist killjoy, coining the idea of a "vegan killjoy". Twine argues that, in a culture in which meat-eating is the norm, a vegan can, by their mere presence, challenge anthropocentric attitudes and practices, affecting the enjoyment that others have in eating animal products. This, Twine claims, can serve as "critical deconstructive work". The idea of the vegan killjoy has been widely deployed in vegan studies and related fields. His book The Climate Crisis and Other Animals, published by Sydney University Press, and his co-edited collection Violence and Harm in the Animal Industrial Complex: Human-Animal Entanglements were both released in 2024.
+As of 2024, Twine is a reader in sociology in the Department of History, Geography & Social Sciences at Edge Hill and co-director of the university's Centre for Human-Animal Studies.
+
+
+== Selected publications ==
+Twine, Richard (2010). Animals as Biotechnology: Ethics, Sustainability and Critical Animal Studies. London: Earthscan.
+Twine, Richard (2010). "Intersectional disgust? Animals and (eco)feminism". Feminism & Psychology 20 (3): 397–406. doi:10.1177/0959353510368284.
+Twine, Richard (2012). "Revealing the 'Animal-Industrial Complex' – A Concept & Method for Critical Animal Studies?" Journal for Critical Animal Studies 10 (1): 12–39.
+Twine, Richard (2014). "Vegan Killjoys at the Table—Contesting Happiness and Negotiating Relationships with Food Practices". Societies 4 (4): 623–39. doi:10.3390/soc4040623.
+Taylor, Nik, and Richard Twine, eds. (2014). The Rise of Critical Animal Studies: From the Margins to the Centre. London: Routledge.
+Twine, Richard (2017). "Materially Constituting a Sustainable Food Transition: The Case of Vegan Eating Practice". Sociology 52 (1): 166–81. doi:10.1177/0038038517726647.
+Twine, Richard (2024). The Climate Crisis and Other Animals. Sydney: Sydney University Press.
+Hunnicutt, Gwen, Richard Twine, and Kenneth Mentor, eds. (2024). Violence and Harm in the Animal Industrial Complex: Human-Animal Entanglements. Abingdon: Routledge.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Personal website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Pace-0.md

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+---
+title: "Roberto Pace"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Pace"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:50.593832+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Roberto Pace (7 May 1935 – 13 February 2017) was an Italian entomologist and scientific illustrator specializing in beetles.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Roberto Pace was born in Monteforte d’Alpone to Attilio Pace and his wife Edvige, née Poli. In 1953, he graduated from the Liceo Statale Guarino Veronese in Verona, after which he worked as an elementary school teacher in Roncà. In 1968, he became a researcher at the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona, where, with the support of Sandro Ruffo, Giuseppe Osella, and Adriano Zanetti, he worked on the family Staphylinidae (rove beetles).
+His main research interest was the subfamilies Leptotyphlinae and Aleocharinae. He focused not only on Italian species but also on those from New Caledonia, Madagascar, Africa, and Chile. By 2015, Pace had described around 6,400 species and 400 genera or subgenera, and had published more than 370 scientific papers in journals such as Memorie del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona, Bollettino della Società Entomologica Italiana, Fragmenta Entomologica, Redia, and Nouvelle Revue d’Entomologie.
+He authored several monographs, including Monografia del genere Leptusa Kraatz (Coleoptera Staphylinidae) (1989), Coleoptera. Staphylinidae. Leptotyphlinae (1996), Insectes Coléoptères Staphylinidae Aleocharinae. Faune de Madagascar, 89 (1999), and Aleocharinae del Madagascar. Insectes Coléoptères Staphylinidae Aleocharinae (2005). One of the most distinctive aspects of his work was his detailed and precise illustrations of beetles. In 1973, he discovered the beetle species Crowsoniella relicta in the Monti Lepini, a living fossil whose relatives date back to the Tertiary period.
+
+
+== Eponyms ==
+Several species have been named in his honor, including:
+
+Allotyphlus pacei (Henri Coiffait, 1973)
+Otiorhynchus (Lixorrhynchus) pacei (Giuseppe Osella, 1976)
+Boreaphilus pacei (Adriano Zanetti, 1983)
+Cantaberella pacei (Marc Tronquet, 1998)
+Cordalia pacei (Volker Assing, 2001)
+Tropimenelytron pacei (Aleš Smetana, 2004)
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Williams_(academic)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Robin Williams (academic)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Williams_(academic)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:11.822870+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Robin Williams (born 13 November 1952) is a British social scientist who is professor of social research on technology at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and director of the Institute for the Study of Science, Technology and Innovation. He is an interdisciplinary researcher in the field of Science and Technology Studies and contributed much to the social shaping of technology by studying the interplay between 'social' and 'technical' factors in the design and implementation of a range of technologies.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+After studying Natural Sciences and Social and Political Science at Clare College, Cambridge, Robin Williams took an MSc and PhD at Aston University and worked as research fellow in the Technology Policy Unit until 1986. He then joined the Research Centre for Social Sciences (RCSS) at the University of Edinburgh and coordinated the Edinburgh PICT Centre, one of the six university research centres established under the ESRC Programme on Information and Communications Technologies (1986 - 1995). During this time Robin Williams and other researchers in Edinburgh PICT Centre published on issues regarding social, economic and political aspects of the design and implementation of technology. Concluding the findings of a decade's research Robin Williams and David Edge published a notable paper on the ‘broad church’ of social shaping of technology. He became director of RCSS in 1997.
+In 2000 Robin Williams established the Institute for the Study of Science, Technology and Innovation (ISSTI) to bring together groups of academics and individual researchers across the University of Edinburgh who are involved in research, teaching and knowledge transfer on social and policy aspects of science, technology and innovation. He was co-director of ESRC Innogen Centre from 2002-2012. In 2008 he arranged the merger of RCSS and the Science Studies Unit to form the Science, Technology and Innovation Studies subject group in the University of Edinburgh School of Social and Political Science.
+Professor Williams established institutional links to and between research centres and institutions throughout the UK, Europe and Asia. His various involvements included co-chairing the UK Association for Studies in Innovation Science and Technology (AsSIST), being representative of Britain on the COST A4 European Research Collaboration initiative on the Social Shaping of Technology and coordinator of the China-EU Information Technology Standards Research Project (2008-2010).
+
+
+== Books ==
+Robin Williams and Neil Pollock. How Industry Analysts Shape the Digital Future (2016). Oxford University Press.
+Robin Williams and Neil Pollock. Software and Organisations: The Biography of the Enterprise-Wide System - Or how SAP Conquered the World (2009). Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge.
+Robin Williams, James Stewart, and Roger Slack. Social Learning in Technological Innovation: Experimenting with Information and Communication Technologies (2005). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
+Robin Williams and Knut H. Sørensen, eds. Shaping Technology, Guiding Policy: Concepts, Spaces and Tools (2002). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
+Robin Williams, Antony Clayton, and Graham Spinardi. Policies for Cleaner Technology: A New Agenda for Government and Industry (1999). Earthscan.
+Robin Williams, Wendy Faulkner, and Jamie Fleck, eds. Exploring Expertise (1998). New York: Macmillan.
+Robin Williams, Herbert Kubicek, and William Dutton. The Social Shaping of Information Superhighways: European and American Roads to the Information Society (1997). Campus Verlag.
+Robin Williams, Robin Fincham, James Fleck, Rob Proctor, Harry Scarbrough, and Margaret Tierney. Expertise and Innovation: Information Technology Strategies in the Financial Services Sector (1994). Oxford University Press.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Schwartz_Cowan-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ruth Schwartz Cowan"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Schwartz_Cowan"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:28.300406+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ruth Schwartz Cowan (born 1941) is an American historian of science, technology and medicine noted for her research on the history of human and medical genetics, as well as on the history of household technologies. She is the author of a widely used textbook, A Social History of American Technology, on the history of colonial American, industrial, and 20th century socio-technical relations.
+Cowan was born in Brooklyn, New York, the daughter of Betty (a home-maker and antique-dealer) and Louis E. Schwartz (an attorney and office manager). She co-wrote a book detailing their assimilation as Jewish immigrants with her husband Neil.
+She attended the Brooklyn public schools, graduating in 1957 from Midwood High School. Cowan received a B.A. in zoology from Barnard College in 1961, an M.A. in history from the University of California at Berkeley in 1964, and a Ph.D. in the history of science from Johns Hopkins University in 1969. Her doctoral dissertation, "Sir Francis Galton and the Study of Heredity in the 19th Century," was supervised by William Coleman.
+Cowan was a professor of history and sociology of science at SUNY Stony Brook from 1967 to 2002. She also served as Director of Women's Studies from 1985 to 1990 and Chair of the Honors College from 1997 to 2002. Cowan is a Professor Emerita at the University of Pennsylvania.
+
+
+== More Work for Mother ==
+Cowan's book More Work for Mother found that since 1700, "technological change shifted the burden of domestic labor from adult men and children to mothers and wives." This 1983 award-winning text outlines the impact of household work, specifically for women, as technology advanced overtime. The piece explores the idea that technological advances such as washing machines, dishwashers, and stoves, meant to decrease household chores, instead increased the standard of living. Cowan begins by explaining the division of household jobs between men and women before such technologies existed. Cooking meals, for example, were considered combined responsibility. While the women prepared the meals, the men chopped wood for the hearth and hunted the main course. Once the stove was invented, however, the men's portion of the chore was eliminated so that only the women were responsible for the cooking. This same pattern continues through many other aspects of household chores, according to Cowan. Additionally, Cowan uses the example of laundry. Once the washing machine was invented  one could have clean clothes more often, and so as the standard of living increased women were expected to do laundry more often to keep up with demand. Overall, the job of the man in the household was essentially eliminated, however technology only created more responsibilities for women, or “More Work for Mother”.
+The book was released to mixed reviews. Early criticisms cited that the book lacked an understanding of complex economic concepts and over-simplified women's social role in relation to technology. However, since the book's release, it has been an important source in both women's studies and the history of technology, as well as praised for adjoining the social and the cultural into the history of technology.
+
+
+== Honors and awards ==
+Cowan's More Work for Mother received the Dexter Prize from the Society for the History of Technology in 1984. In 1997 the Society for the History of Technology also awarded her the Leonardo da Vinci Medal.
+Cowan received the John Desmond Bernal Prize in 2007 for distinguished scholarly contributions to the field of Science and Technology Studies (STS) for her textbook A Social History of American Technology.
+Cowan was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2014.
+
+
+== Selected publications ==
+Heredity and Hope: The Case for Genetic Screening (2008). Cambridge, MA and London, England: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674029927, ISBN 978-0-674-02992-7
+More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave. Basic Books. 1983. ISBN 0-465-04731-9
+A Social History of American Technology, Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 9780195046052
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Cowan, Ruth Schwartz. More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the        Open Hearth to the Microwave. Basic Books, 2008.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Ruth Schwartz Cowan-University of Pennsylvania page

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheila_Jasanoff-0.md

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+---
+title: "Sheila Jasanoff"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheila_Jasanoff"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:36.930737+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Sheila Sen Jasanoff (born 15 February 1944) is an Indian-American academic in the field of Science and Technology Studies. In 2021 she was elected to the American Philosophical Society. Her research has been recognized with many awards, including the 2022 Holberg Prize "for her groundbreaking research in science and technology studies."
+
+
+== Early life and education ==
+Jasanoff was born in Kolkata, and lived in Ballygunge with her family. She moved to Bombay in 1954 with her family, where she lived for two years before moving to the United States.
+Jasanoff attended Radcliffe College of Harvard University, where she studied mathematics as an undergraduate, receiving her bachelor's degree in 1964.  She then studied linguistics, receiving her M.A. at the University of Bonn (then part of West Germany). She returned to Harvard to complete a Ph.D. in linguistics in 1973, on the grammar of the Bengali language, elucidating why Bangla did not share certain features with its closest relatives in the Eastern Indo-Aryan language family, Assamese and Odia.
+She completed her J.D. at Harvard Law School in 1976. She practiced environmental law in Boston from 1976 to 1978. She and her husband then accepted positions at Cornell University, where she shifted her focus to Science and Technology Studies. In 1998, Jasanoff joined the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University as a professor of public policy. In 2002, she became Pforzheimer Professor of Science and Technology Studies.
+
+
+== Work ==
+Jasanoff founded and directs the Program on Science, Technology, and Society at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. Her research focuses on science and the state in contemporary democratic societies.  Her work is relevant to science & technology studies, comparative politics, law and society, political and legal anthropology, sociology and policy analysis.  Jasanoff's research has considerable empirical breadth, spanning the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, the European Union, and India, as well as emerging global regimes in areas such as climate and biotechnology.
+One line of Jasanoff's work demonstrates how the political culture of different democratic societies influences how they assess evidence and expertise in policymaking.  Her first book (with Brickman and Ilgen), Controlling Chemicals (1985), examines the regulation of toxic substances in the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.  The book showed how the routines of decision making in these countries reflected different conceptions of what counts as evidence and of how expertise should operate in a policy context.  In Designs on Nature: Science and Democracy in Europe and the United States (2005), she has shown how different societies employ different modes of public reasoning when making decisions involving science and technology.   These differences, which in part reflect distinct "civic epistemologies," are deeply embedded in institutions and shape how policy issues are framed and processed by the bureaucratic machinery of modern states.
+Jasanoff has also contributed to scholarship on the interaction of science and law.  Science at the Bar (1995), for example, reached beyond the prevailing diagnoses of structural incompatibilities between science and law to explore how these socially embedded institutions interact and, to a certain extent, mutually constitute each other. The concept of regulatory science, conducted for the purposes of meeting legally mandated standards, and the "boundary" drawing activities of science advisory committees are analyzed in The Fifth Branch (1990).   More recently, she has explored the "rise of the statistical victim" in toxic torts, as the law with its individualistic orientation has increasingly encountered, and sought ways to accommodate, the statistical vision of such fields as epidemiology. In her work on science and law, as well as her research on science in the state, she takes an approach that links ideas from constitutional law, political theory, and science studies to consider the "constitutional" role of science in modern democratic states.
+Jasanoff has considered the politics of science not only in a comparative but also in a global context.  Examples include her work on the transnational aspects of the Bhopal disaster (Learning from Disaster 1994); her research on the formation and politics of global scientific advisory bodies such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; and her research on national and global environmental movements (e.g., Earthy Politics, 2004).
+Jasanoff also has contributed to popularising and refining Science and Technology Studies as a field.  Prior to moving to Harvard, she was the founding chair of the Department of Science & Technology Studies at Cornell University.  She is also the founder of the Science and Democracy Network, a group of scholars interested in the study of science and the state in democratic societies that has met annually since 2002.  Her research has been recognized with many awards, including the 2004 Bernal Prize from the Society for Social Studies of Science, a Guggenheim Fellowship, and the 2018 Albert O. Hirschman Prize from the Social Science Research Council.
+In March 2022 she was awarded the 2022 Holberg Prize "for her groundbreaking research in science and technology studies."
+
+
+== Personal life ==
+Jasanoff's brother is Shankar Sen, a professor of mathematics at Cornell University. She is married to Jay H. Jasanoff, and has two children, Maya Jasanoff, who is a professor in the Department of History at Harvard, and Alan Jasanoff, who is a professor in the Department of Biological Engineering at MIT. Alan Jasanoff is married to Luba Katz, the daughter of Boris Katz. 
+In February 2022, Jasanoff was one of 38 Harvard faculty to sign a letter to the Harvard Crimson defending Professor John Comaroff, who had been found to have violated the university's sexual and professional conduct policies. The letter defended Comaroff as "an excellent colleague, advisor and committed university citizen" and expressed dismay over his being sanctioned by the university. After students filed a lawsuit with detailed allegations of Comaroff's actions and the university's failure to respond, Jasanoff was one of several signatories to say that she wished to retract her signature.
+
+
+== Selected publications ==
+Can Science Make Sense of Life?. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. 2019. ISBN 978-1-509-52271-2.
+The Ethics of Invention: Technology and the Human Future. New York, USA: W. W. Norton & Company. 2016. ISBN 978-0-393-07899-2.
+States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and the Social Order. Oxford, UK: Taylor & Francis. 2004. ISBN 978-0-415-40329-0.
+The Fifth Branch: Science Advisers as Policymakers. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Press. 1998. ISBN 978-0-674-30062-0.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Sheila Jasanoff at Wikimedia Commons
+Official website
+Harvard Bio
+Society for Social Studies of Science
+Science & Democracy Network
+Sheila Jasanoff, Director, Program on Science, Technology and Society at Harvard Kennedy School

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiv_Visvanathan-0.md

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+---
+title: "Shiv Visvanathan"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiv_Visvanathan"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:09.466128+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Shiv Visvanathan is an Indian academic best known for his contributions to developing the field of science and technology studies (STS), and for the concept of cognitive justice, a term he coined. He is currently Professor at O P Jindal Global University, Sonepat.  He was Professor, Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology (DA-IICT), Gandhinagar, India and has held the position of Senior fellow Center for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) in Delhi He has also taught at the Delhi School of Economics. He has held visiting professorships at Smith College, Stanford, Goldsmiths, Arizona State University and Maastricht University, Harvard University & Oxford University. He is author of Organizing for Science (OUP, Delhi, 1985), A Carnival for Science (OUP, Delhi, 1997) and has co-edited Foulplay: Chronicles of Corruption (Banyan Books, Delhi, 1999). He has been consultant to the National Council of Churches and Business India.
+As a public intellectual, he is a regular columnist to newspapers like The Hindu, The New Indian Express, Indian Express, The Deccan Chronicle and The Asian Age. He also contributes to popular magazines like Outlook, India Today, Governance Today and Tehelka. His popular writings touch topics as wide as science, cricket, anthropology, development, intellectual history, and walking.
+
+
+== Career ==
+1976–80 Research Associate, Department of Sociology, Delhi School of Economics
+1980–82 ICSSR Young Scientist Fellow, Department of Sociology, Delhi University
+1982–85 Committee for Cultural Choices and Global Futures, Delhi
+1983–85 Visiting Fellow, Ford Foundation Faculty Expansion Programme, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies
+1985 Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies
+1994 Senior Fellow, CSDS, 1994
+2004– Professor, DA-IICT
+2012– Professor, School of Government and Public Policy, O. P. Jindal Global University
+Visvanathan is member of Board of Management of Center for Environmental Planning and Technology.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+Shiv is a regular columnist in all leading newspapers of India. His views generally tend to criticise right-wing politics.
+
+Organizing for Science: The Making of an Industrial Research Laboratory (1985)
+A Carnival for Science: Essays on Science, Technology and Development (1997)
+Foul Play: Chronicles of Corruption in India (1999)
+Theatres of Democracy: Between the Epic and the Everyday: Selected Essays, ed. Chandan Gowda (2016)
+
+
+== See also ==
+Science and technology studies in India
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Three speeches, three futures (2015), Published in "The Hindu"
+Best Paper Awards (International Conference on Demography, Culture, and Marketing (2010))
+Essays on Science and Society: A Celebration of Difference: Science and Democracy in India (sciencemag.org)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shobita_Parthasarathy-0.md

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+---
+title: "Shobita Parthasarathy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shobita_Parthasarathy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:53.930722+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Shobita Parthasarathy is an American academic, author, and contributor to the field of Science and Technology Studies based at the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan. She is the director of the Science, Technology, and Public Policy Program, a research, education, and policy engagement center concerned with questions at the intersection of science, technology, policy, and society. She has received numerous prominent awards and grants for her work and has provided expert advice on technology, equity, and policy to civil society groups, international organizations, and governments around the world, including testimony to the U.S. Congress.
+
+
+== Career and research ==
+Parthasarathy was the founding director of the Science, Technology, and Public Policy (STPP) program at the University of Michigan Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy from 2006 to 2011, and currently serves as its director, in addition to holding a faculty appointment as Professor. At U-M, she is also affiliated with the Department of Women's Studies, the Science/Technology/Society Program, Institute for Data Science, Precision Health Initiative, the Organizational Studies Program, and the Centers for European Studies and South Asian Studies; she sits on the Internal Advisory Board for the Center for Ethics, Society, and Computing. She has served on the governing councils of the Society for the Social Studies of Science and Science and Democracy Network. Parthasarathy currently serves on two committees for the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine: Science for Judges - Development of the Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence, 4th Edition, and Creating a Framework for Emerging Science, Technology, and Innovation in Health and Medicine.
+Parthasarathy has been a fellow of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, the American Council of Learned Societies, the Max Planck Institute for Innovation and Competition, and the American Bar Foundation. Her research has been funded by grants from the Ford Foundation, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, the National Science Foundation, the Public Interest Technology University Network, and various programs and organizations at the University of Michigan.
+Her current research projects focus on rethinking innovation systems that privilege social equity and justice, examining inclusive innovation for international development, and comparing the development and governance of diagnostic testing for COVID-19 in the United States, United Kingdom, South Korea, and Singapore. Through University of Michigan's Technology Assessment Project (TAP), she is developing an analogical case study approach to better anticipate and address the social, ethical, and equity dimensions of emerging technologies. TAP has analyzed facial recognition technologies, vaccine hesitancy, and large language models.
+
+
+== Notable work ==
+Parthasarathy is best known for her work on the development and governance of technological innovation and the politics of evidence and expertise in policy making, all in an international and comparative framework. She has authored numerous articles and two books. Her first book, Building Genetic Medicine: Breast Cancer, Technology, and the Comparative Politics of Health Care (MIT Press, 2007) informed the landmark 2013 United States Supreme Court case regarding gene patents (Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.); her second book, Patent Politics: Life Forms, Markets, and the Public Interest in the United States and Europe (University of Chicago Press, 2017) won the 2018 Robert K. Merton Prize from the American Sociological Association.
+
+
+== Outreach ==
+Parthasarathy provides expert advice to technical and civil society organizations, legislators, advisory bodies, policy stakeholders, and courts. In February 2021 she testified before the U.S. House Appropriations Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development, and Related Agencies on strategies for energy and climate innovation, and in July 2021 she testified before the U.S. House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, Subcommittee on Energy on the topic of Fostering Equity in Energy Innovation. She is a non-resident fellow of the Center for Democracy and Technology. Her writings have appeared in the popular press, including but not limited to The New York Times, Slate, Nature, and The Chronicle of Higher Education. Since 2019 Parthasarathy has co-hosted The Received Wisdom, a podcast focused on science, technology, and society.
+
+
+== Selected works ==
+Patent Politics: Life Forms, Markets, and the Public Interest in the United States and Europe. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 2017.
+Building Genetic Medicine: Breast Cancer, Technology, and the Comparative Politics of Health Care. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 2007.
+Cameras in the Classroom: Facial Recognition Technology in Schools. Technology Assessment Project, Science, Technology, and Public Policy Program. University of Michigan. 2020.
+"Ensuring Global Access to COVID-19 Vaccines," Issue Memos for an Incoming Administration, Ford School of Public Policy. University of Michigan. January 21, 2021.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Shobita Parthasarathy
+Science, Technology, and Public Policy Program

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softa-0.md

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+---
+title: "Softa"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softa"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:01.056048+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition written by English historian and Orientalist C.E. Bosworth, the term "softa" (ṣofta) was a name given to students in the fields of theology, law and other sciences within the madrasa educational system of the Ottoman Empire. A parallel form can be found in Persian, pronounced as sūkhte, meaning "in flames" or "to set on fire", i.e. consumed by the love of God or learning. However, the relationship between the two words is unclear.
+More specifically, "softa" seems to have been used to refer to beginners within their fields of science or theology, where as after they've completed their first courses they're instead referred to as "dānishmend".
+
+
+== History ==
+Starting with Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans established these centers of education to develop a qualified group of individuals that would constitute a strong bureaucracy and fill administrative roles. The cities became intellectual centers of modernization. Through their studies in the madrasa system, softas aimed to become part of the ulama, the class of Muslim religious elites within the Ottoman Empire. The ulama class, especially during the classical period, had significant political and social power and functioned as an avenue of economic advancement. Though they lacked military power, the ulama were able to sway the masses into supporting certain campaigns, influence the actions and rulings of the sultan and be representatives of the population before the state.
+Although anyone could enroll in the madrasa system, election to the ulama class became increasingly organized and highly stratified. The softas struggled to compete for positions against those from the city who were born into ulama families or had personal relationships with members of the ulama. These ties, passed down through generations, were central to the recruitment and selection process of the ulama and superseded consideration of a candidate's skill. In fact, those with hierarchical connections were often less trained and educated in religious studies than the softas, and did not need to complete the madrasa system to be elected to a high post. Still, there was a sense of superiority amongst those from the city, and a general conception of the softas as ignorant. Ultimately, an elite class favored by the sultan and largely inaccessible to the softas formed by the 18th century. In order to compete, it was necessary for softas in the madrasas to attach themselves to high bureaucratic officials or esteemed religious figures who could function as their patrons and recommend them for high posts. Yet, even the few softas who managed to enter the ulama after graduating from the madrasa system ultimately constituted the lowest strata within the class, the beldīs. Those who failed to find positions moved back to the countryside to work in lower posts.
+As the Ottoman Empire expanded and Istanbul attracted more people, posts within the ulama became more competitive and difficult for softas to secure. The softas also criticized the empire's handling of religious affairs and held to early religious traditions. Starting during the 17th century, they strongly opposed Ottoman attempts for religious reform and modernization. Yet, the religious elites condemned the softas, deeming them ignorant and guilty of misrepresenting the Muslim religion. Specifically, they faulted them with overemphasizing the importance of the afterlife and failing to recognize the equal importance of life on earth, rather than considering it transitory. They said this interpretation simplified the human experience and discouraged hard work. Due to the softas’ frustration with the hierarchical structure of the ulama class as well as their disapproval of the religious operations of the empire, many joined to form an unruly mob that roamed the capital.
+Starting in the 16th century, the softas led several uprisings, threatening the stability of the Ottoman state. Many softas who graduated and remained unemployed joined the Janissary army to engage in the revolts. Riots by softas were also frequent in Constantinople during the second half of the nineteenth century, most notably in 1853, 1859 and 1876. Shortly thereafter, though, the influence of this mob as a force of political disturbance diminished, as the madrasa system was replaced by the development and expansion of modern schools.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Attride-0.md

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+---
+title: "Stephen Attride"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Attride"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:54.454868+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Stephen Attride (born 1993) is a Gaelic footballer who has played for the Killeshin club and the Laois county team, serving as captain of his county for the 2017, 2018 and 2019 seasons.
+Attride was primarily interested in athletics from a young age, specifically middle-/long-distance running, at which he competed both nationally and internationally. However, while in his last year at school, he developed shin splints and this affected his future progress in athletics. He attended Dublin City University (DCU), where he played for the university football team. Initially playing at wing-forward, Attride developed into a corner-back.
+Laois manager Justin McNulty noticed his progress and invited him onto the county panel in 2013. He scored a goal against Dublin in Laois's 2016 Leinster Senior Football Championship quarter-final loss to the then All-Ireland Senior Football Championship title holders. In 2017, the then Laois manager Peter Creedon appointed Attride as captain of the team. Creedon's successor John Sugrue allowed Attride to retain the county captaincy. Sugrue led Laois to the National Football League Division 4 title in his first year. It meant that Attride became the first Laois captain since Ian Fitzgerald to raise a trophy aloft in the Hogan Stand of Croke Park. Laois then advanced to a first Leinster Senior Football Championship final since 2007.
+However, Attride was unavailable. While blocking a ball during stoppage time of his county's 2018 Leinster Senior Football Championship semi-final victory over Carlow at Croke Park, Attride collided with the knee of an opponent, was knocked unconscious, stretchered from the field of play and spent a night in the Mater Hospital after sustaining a double fracture to his skull. The injury also ruled him out for the remainder of the season. Attride's teammate Ross Munnelly and former Laois player Colm Parkinson both praised Attride's intervention. He later recovered.
+Attride took a break from teaching (he teaches physical education and science) at Knockbeg College to travel to Australia ahead of the 2020 season. He was accompanied by his girlfriend and others he knew. He took up a teaching position at Bondi High School and trained with the Clann na Gael club.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart_Database_of_Scientific_Illustrators_1450–1950-0.md

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+---
+title: "Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450–1950"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart_Database_of_Scientific_Illustrators_1450–1950"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:37.541219+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450–1950 (abbreviated DSI) is an online repository of bibliographic data about people who illustrated published scientific works from the time of the invention of the printing press, around 1450, until 1950; the latter cut-off chosen with the intention of excluding currently-active illustrators. The database includes those who worked in a variety of fields, including anatomical, astronomical, botanical, zoological and medical illustration.
+The database is hosted by the University of Stuttgart. Content is displayed in English, and is free to access. As of October 2023, the database includes over 13,000 illustrators. The site is searchable by 20 fields.
+Suggestions for additional entries, or amendments, may be submitted by members of the public, but are subject to editorial review before inclusion.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+=== Further reading ===
+Hentschel, Klaus (2012-10-03). "The Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450–1950: Making the Invisible Hands Visible" (PDF). Spontaneous Generations: A Journal for the History and Philosophy of Science. 6 (1): 182–191. doi:10.4245/sponge.v6i1.17156.
+Hentschel, Klaus; Himmel, Torsten (2018). "Die Stuttgarter Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450-1950 (DSI)". In Peggy Bockwinkel; Beatrice Nickel; Gabriel Viehhauser (eds.). Digital Humanities. Perspektiven der Praxis (in German). Berlin.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+https://dsi.hi.uni-stuttgart.de/

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_illustration-0.md

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+---
+title: "Technical illustration"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_illustration"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:43:38.718156+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Technical illustration is illustration meant to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be components of technical drawings or diagrams. Technical illustrations in general aim "to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer".
+Technical illustrations generally have to describe and explain the subjects to a nontechnical audience. Therefore, the visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer’s interest and understanding".
+
+
+== Types ==
+
+
+=== Types of communication ===
+Today, technical illustration can be broken down into three categories based on the type of communication:
+
+Communication with the general public: informs the general public, for example illustrated instructions found in the manuals for automobiles and consumer electronics. This type of technical illustration contains simple terminology and symbols that can be understood by the lay person and is sometimes called creative technical illustration/graphics.
+Specialized engineering or scientific communication: used by engineers/scientists to communicate with their peers and in specifications. This use of technical illustration has its own complex terminology and specialized symbols; examples are the fields of atomic energy, aerospace and military/defense. These areas can be further broken down into disciplines of mechanical, electrical, architectural engineering and many more
+To help manufacture or replicate an invention
+Communication between highly skilled experts: used by engineers to communicate with people who are highly skilled in a field, but who are not engineers. Examples of this type of technical illustration are illustrations found in user/operator documentation. These illustrations can be very complex and have jargon and symbols not understood by the general public, such as illustrations that are part of instructional materials for operating CNC machinery.
+
+
+=== Types of drawings ===
+Main types of drawings in technical communication are:
+
+conventional line drawings,
+exploded-view drawings,
+cutaway drawings, and
+clip art images
+
+
+== Techniques ==
+
+Technical illustration uses several basic mechanical drawing configurations called axonometric projection. These are: 
+
+Parallel projections (oblique, planometric, isometric, dimetric, and trimetric), and
+many types of perspective projections (with one, two, or three vanishing points).
+Technical illustration and computer-aided design can also use 3D and solid-body projections, such as rapid prototyping.
+
+In the natural sciences, "scientific illustration" refers to a style of drawing using stippling and simple line techniques to convey information with a minimum of artistic interpretation.
+
+
+== Examples ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+McDonnell, Phyllis Wood. With a chapter by Patrick (1994). Scientific Illustration: A Guide to Biological, Zoological, and Medical Rendering Techniques, Design, Printing, and Display (2nd ed.). New York, NY [u.a.]: Wiley. ISBN 978-0471285250.
+Bredekamp, Horst; Dunkel, Vera; Schneider, Birgit, eds. (2019). The Technical Image: A History of Styles in Scientific Imagery. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226258980.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Technical Illustration – A Historical Perspective by Kevin Hulsey
+Technical Illustration in the 21st Century: A Primer for Today’s Professionals by Parametric Technology Corporation (PTC) 2007. (requires login)
+Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450–1950 (DSI) (with more than 6000 entries and 20 search fields)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Pinch-0.md

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+---
+title: "Trevor Pinch"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Pinch"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:56.288526+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Trevor J. Pinch (1 January 1952 – 16 December 2021) was a British sociologist, part-time musician and chair of the science and technology studies department at Cornell University. In 2018, he won the J.D. Bernal Prize from the Society for Social Studies of Science for "distinguished contributions to Science and Technology Studies over the course of [a] career."
+
+
+== Personal life ==
+Pinch was born in Lisnaskea, Northern Ireland on the New Year's Day of 1952.
+He lived in Cornell's Forest Home neighborhood and started the band Electric Golem.
+Pinch died from cancer, four years after his initial diagnosis, on 16 December 2021, 16 days before his 70th birthday.
+
+
+== Career ==
+Pinch held a degree in physics from Imperial College London and a PhD in sociology from the University of Bath.
+He taught sociology at the University of York before moving to the United States. Together with Wiebe Bijker, Pinch started the movement known as Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) within the sociology of science.
+
+
+== Works ==
+Pinch was a significant contributor to the study of sound culture, and his books include a major study of Robert Moog. His book Confronting Nature is widely considered the definitive sociological account of the history of the solar neutrino problem, and was mentioned by Raymond Davis in his 2002 Nobel Prize autobiography.
+
+
+=== Books ===
+Pinch, Trevor; Bijker, Wiebe E.; Hughes, Thomas P. (1987). The social construction of technological systems: new directions in the sociology and history of technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262022620.
+Pinch, Trevor; Mulkay, Michael; Ashmore, Malcolm (1989). Health and efficiency: a sociology of health economics. Milton Keynes, England and Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 9780335099122.
+Pinch, Trevor; Gooding, David; Schaffer, Simon (1989). The uses of experiment: studies in the natural sciences. Cambridge, England and New York City: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521337687.
+Pinch, Trevor; Collins, Harry M. (1998) [1993]. The golem: what you should know about science (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England and New York City: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107604650.
+Pinch, Trevor; Collins, Harry M. (2014) [1998]. The golem at large: what you should know about technology (6th ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107688285.
+Pinch, Trevor; Trocco, Frank (2002). Analog days the invention and impact of the Moog synthesizer. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674016170.
+Pinch, Trevor; Oudshoorn, Nellie (2005). How users matter the co-construction of users and technology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262651097.
+Pinch, Trevor; Collins, Harry M. (2005). Dr. Golem how to think about medicine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226113692.
+Pinch, Trevor; Bijsterveld, Karin (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Sound Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195388947.
+Pinch, Trevor; Swedberg, Richard (2008). Living in a Material World: Economic Sociology Meets Science and Technology Studies. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-66207-9
+
+
+=== Chapters in books ===
+Pinch, Trevor; Kline, Ronald (1999) [1985], "The social construction of technology", in MacKenzie, Donald; Wajcman, Judy (eds.), The social shaping of technology (2nd ed.), Buckingham England Philadelphia: Open University Press, pp. 113–115, ISBN 9780335199136.
+Pinch, Trevor; Bijker, Wiebe E. (1987), "The social construction of facts and artefacts: or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other", in Pinch, Trevor; Bijker, Wiebe E.; Hughes, Thomas P. (eds.), The social construction of technological systems: new directions in the sociology and history of technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 17–50, ISBN 9780262022620.
+Pinch, Trevor; Ashmore, Malcolm; Mulkay, Michael (1992), "Technology, testing, text: clinical budgeting in the UK National Health Service", in Bijker, Wiebe E.; Law, John (eds.), Shaping technology/building society: studies in sociotechnical change, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 265–289, ISBN 9780262521949.
+Pinch, Trevor (1996), "The social construction of technology: a review", in Fox, Robert (ed.), Technological change: methods and themes in the history of technology, Amsterdam, Holland: Harwood Academic Publishers, pp. 17–35, ISBN 9789057023378.
+Pinch, Trevor (2001), "Why do you go to a piano store to buy a synthesizer: path dependence and the social construction of technology", in Garud, Raghu; Karnøe, Peter (eds.), Path dependence and creation, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 381–399, ISBN 9780805832723.
+
+
+=== Journal articles ===
+Pinch, Trevor; Bijker, Wiebe E. (August 1984). "The social construction of facts and artefacts: or how the sociology of science and the sociology of technology might benefit each other" (PDF). Social Studies of Science. 14 (3): 388–441. doi:10.1177/030631284014003004. S2CID 19157599.
+Russell, Stewart (May 1986). "The social construction of artefacts: a response to Pinch and Bijker". Social Studies of Science. 16 (2): 331–346. doi:10.1177/0306312786016002008. S2CID 144072557.
+Pinch, Trevor; Bijker, Wiebe E. (May 1986). "Science, relativism and the new sociology of technology: reply to Russell" (PDF). Social Studies of Science. 16 (2): 347–360. doi:10.1177/0306312786016002009. S2CID 146498773.
+Pinch, Trevor (November 1990). "Deconstructing Roth and Barrett". Social Studies of Science. 20 (4): 658–663. doi:10.1177/030631290020004004. S2CID 144299717.
+Pinch, Trevor; Kline, Ronald (October 1996). "Users as agents of technological change: the social construction of the automobile in the rural United States". Technology and Culture. 37 (4): 763–795. doi:10.2307/3107097. JSTOR 3107097. S2CID 147484868.
+Pinch, Trevor (January 2010). "On making infrastructure visible: putting the non-humans to rights". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 34 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1093/cje/bep044.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Trevor Pinch at Cornell S&TS

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulbo_de_Sitter_(sociologist)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ulbo de Sitter (sociologist)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulbo_de_Sitter_(sociologist)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:59.836838+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lamoraal Ulbo de Sitter (April 2, 1930 – December 18, 2010) was a Dutch sociologist and Professor of Business Administration at the Radboud University Nijmegen, known for his seminal work in the field of sociotechnical systems in the Netherlands.
+
+
+== Biography ==
+Born in Jönköping, Sweden, Ulbo de Sitter was named after his father Ulbo de Sitter (1902–1980), a geologist working at the Leiden University. Ulbo, the sociologist, was the grandson of astronomer Willem de Sitter (1872-1934). He studied sociology at the University of Amsterdam, and obtained his PhD in 1970 at the University of Leiden with the thesis, entitled "Leiderschapsvorming en leiderschapsgedrag in een organisatie" (Leadership formation and leadership behavior in an organization).
+De Sitter had started working as engineer in the merchant navy for four years before he started his studies in Amsterdam. After graduation in Amsterdam he worked as sociologist at the head office of the Koninklijke PTT Nederland, nowadays KPN. Sequentially he was research assistant at the Sociografische Werkgemeenschap (Socio Graphic Work Association) of the University of Amsterdam. In 1971, he was appointed professor at Eindhoven University of Technology. From 1986 to 1988 he was also director of the Koers consulting group in 's-Hertogenbosch. In 1990, he was appointed Professor of Sociotechnical System at the University of Nijmegen, where he retired  March 31, 1995.
+
+
+== Work ==
+De Sitter is best known for introducing the sociotechnical system approach in the Netherlands. This approach involves redesign of organization and change management theory, which was initially developed at the British Tavistock Institute in the late 1950s. De Sitter combined in his work the systems theory fundamentals of the Delft Systems Approach, developed by Jan in 't Veld and Pierre Malotaux. With scientists as Björn Gustavsen, Fred Emery, Eric Trist, De Sitter is considered among the foremost social systems scientists in their field.
+
+
+=== Modern socio-technology (MST) ===
+Benders et al. (2010) recalled the development of socio-technical systems design since its initiation at the British coal mines in the late 1940s, and the development of Modern Socio-technology (MST) by De Sitter and others:
+
+In 1951, Trist and Bamforth published a founding article on STSD while the London-based Tavistock Institute played a key role in further developing socio-technical design into practical applications. During the 1950s and 1960s these notions were picked up in many countries, with Norwegian and Swedish researchers playing key roles. In the Netherlands a strand of socio-technical scholars and practitioners developed a widely accepted research based organizational design methodology (De Sitter, Den Hertog, & Dankbaar, 1997; De Sitter, 1998). This Dutch variant, called Modern Socio-technology (MST), builds on the classic STSD. In the 1970s Ulbo de Sitter played a key role in developing this socio-technical systems theory (with some roots in German sociology). During the 1980s this design theory was enriched with a proper design methodology based on action research...
+And furthermore specifically about Modern Socio-technology (MST):
+
+Modern Socio-technology (MST) mainly differs from STSD by its integral approach. Whereas classic STSD provides a set of static and partial design principles, MST offers detailed structural principles in terms of design content, while at the same time specifying a theory of change by means of worker participation and training (Van Eijnatten, 1993). To emphasize the integral character of this approach, Van Eijnatten and Van der Zwaan (1998) labeled it Integral Organizational Renewal (IOR).
+
+
+== Selected publications ==
+Sitter, LU de. Op weg naar nieuwe fabrieken en kantoren. Produktieorganisatie en arbeidsorganisatie op de tweesprong. Deventer: Kluwer (1981).
+De Sitter, Lamoraal U. Synergetisch produceren. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum, 1998.
+Articles, a selection:
+
+Sitter, LU de. "Moderne sociotechniek." Gedrag en organisatie 2.4/5 (1989): 222-252.
+De Sitter, L. Ulbo, J. Friso Den Hertog, and Ben Dankbaar. "From complex organizations with simple jobs to simple organizations with complex jobs." Human relations 50.5 (1997): 497-534.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrike_Felt-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ulrike Felt"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulrike_Felt"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T10:42:30.672677+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ulrike Felt (born 1957) is an Austrian social scientist, active in the field of Science and Technology Studies. Currently, she holds the chair for Social Studies of Science and is Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Vienna. She also acted as the president of the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST). From 2002 to 2007, she has been editor-in-chief of the journal "Science, Technology, & Human Values".
+
+
+== Life ==
+Trained as a physicist, she acquired her PhD in Physics at the University of Vienna in 1983. From 1983 until 1988, she was part of a research team investigating the history of the European High Energy Physics Lab (CERN) in Genève. Subsequently, she was part of the Department for the Philosophy and Social Studies of Science at the University of Vienna, which had been newly founded under the lead of Helga Nowotny, becoming an assistant professor in 1989. Since 1999, she is full Professor of Social Studies of Science. From 2004 to 2014, she was Head of the newly founded Department of Science and Technology Studies. She has held guest professorships at the Université du Québec à Montréal, the Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, the ETH Zurich and visiting scholar at the STS group at Harvard. She has been part of numerous international professional committees and held many scientific advisory posts, among them being a member of the expert advisory group "Science and Society" for the European Unions 6th Framework Program, and has been co-director of the EC DG Research expert group on "Science and Governance", from 2005 to 2007. She was the leading founder of the interdisciplinary Master program "Science - Technology - Society", which has been set up at the University of Vienna in 2009. She has been editor of the leading STS journal "Science, Technology, & Human Values" (SAGE) from 2002-2007 and has been the leading editor of the new Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (MIT Press, 2017). Since 2014 she is Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Vienna.
+
+
+== Research ==
+Ulrike Felt has published widely in different areas of Science, Technology, and Society. Throughout her work, questions of the public engagement with science and of science policy have been a major concern for Felt. Her work on public perception of different technologies, the organisation and reflection of different participatory events as well as on the complex relations of science and democracy has contributed in many innovative ways to the debates in STS and beyond.
+An important line of her work has focused on changing modes of knowledge production within the sciences, and on how this impacts ways of working and living within research cultures. She has introduced the concept of  "epistemic living spaces"  in order to describe how the social and epistemic are co-produced within scientific work spaces:
+"By epistemic living space, we mean researchers' individual or collective perceptions and narrative re-constructions of the structures, contexts, rationales, actors and values which mould, guide and delimit their potential actions, both in what they aim to know as well as in how they act in social contexts in science and beyond." (Felt/Fochler 2010: 4f)
+Using this concept, she has pointed to the potential implications of recent changes within career structures and the organization of the sciences for the knowledge produced within contemporary societies, focusing recently on changing temporal orders of research practices and policy.
+Another line of her work has focused on how science and technology are embedded within local and national contexts. By introducing the notion of "technopolitical cultures" (Felt et al. 2010), Felt has pointed to the nationally distinct ways of how technoscience is entangled with cultural norms and values. Further, she is interested in how novel technologies like nano or genetic testing become imagined and integrated within specific local contexts. These questions are closely tied to her methodological interests. Felt and the Department of Social Studies of Science have engaged not only in the development of novel qualitative social science methods, but also in reflecting the performativity and politics of both participatory engagements and traditional socio-scientific methods.
+More recently, and lying across her different research interests, she has been engaging with the role of changing temporal structures and the growing importance of future in shaping the interface of science, technology and society.
+Finally, since late 2015 she is leading a new interfaculty research platform at the University of Vienna "Responsible Research and Innovation in Academic Practice".
+
+
+== Key Publications ==
+Felt, Ulrike, Schumann, Simone, Schwarz, Claudia and Strassnig, Michael (2012) 'Technology of Imagination. A Card-based Public Engagement Method for Debating Emerging Technologies'. Qualitative Research, in press
+Felt, Ulrike, Igelsböck, Judith, Schikowitz, Andrea and Völker, Thomas (2012) 'Growing Into What? The (Un-)disciplined Socialisation of Early Stage Researchers in Transdisciplinary Research'. Higher Education, online first, DOI: 10.1007/s10734-012-9560-1
+Felt, Ulrike and Fochler, Maximilian (2012) 'Re-ordering Epistemic Living Spaces: On the Tacit Governance Effects of the Public Communication of Science', in Rödder, S., Franzen, M. and P. Weingart (eds), The Sciences' Media Connection – Communication to the Public and its Repercussions. Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook 28 (Dortrecht: Springer): 133-154.
+Felt, Ulrike and Müller, Ruth (2011) 'Tentative (Id)entities. On Technopolitical Cultures and the Experiencing of Genetic Testing', BioSocieties 6/3: 342-363.
+Felt, Ulrike and Fochler, Maximilian (2011) 'Slim futures and the fat pill. Civic imaginations of innovation and governance in an engagement setting', Science as Culture 20/3: 307-328.
+Felt, Ulrike and Fochler, Maximilian (2010) 'Machineries for Making Publics: Inscribing and Describing Publics in Public Engagement', Minerva 48/3, 219-238.
+Felt, Ulrike, Fochler, Maximilian and Winkler, Peter (2010) 'Coming to Terms with Biomedical Technologies in Different Technopolitical Cultures. A Comparative Analysis of Focus Groups on Organ Transplantation and Genetic Testing in Austria, France, and the Netherlands', Science, Technology, & Human Values, 35/4: 525-553.
+Felt, Ulrike (ed.) (2009): Knowing and Living in Academic Research. Convergence and Heterogeneity in Research Cultures in the European Context (Prague: Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic).
+Felt, Ulrike, Gugglberger, Lisa and Mager, Astrid (2009) 'Shaping the Future E-Patient: The Citizen-Patient in Public Discourse on E-Health', Science Studies 22/1: 24-43.
+Felt, Ulrike, Bister, Milena, Strassnig, Michael and Wagner, Ursula (2009) 'Refusing the Information Paradigm: Informed Consent, Medical Research, and Patient Participation', health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine 13/1: 87-106.
+Felt, Ulrike and Fochler, Maximilian (2008): The bottom-up meanings of the concept of public participation. Science and Public Policy 35/7, 489-499.
+Felt, Ulrike; Fochler, Maximilian; Mager, Astrid and Winkler, Peter (2008): Visions and Versions of Governing Biomedicine: Narratives on Power Structures, Decision-Making, and Public Participation in the Field of Biomedical Technologies in the Austrian Context. Social Studies of Science 38/2, 233-258.
+Felt, Ulrike; Wynne, Brian et al. (2007): Taking European Knowledge Society Seriously (Luxembourg: European Commission).
+Nowotny, Helga and Felt, Ulrike (1997) 'After the Breakthrough. The Emergence of High-Temperature Superconductivity as a Research Field' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
+Felt, Ulrike, Nowotny, Helga and Taschwer, Klaus (1995) 'Wissenschaftsforschung. Eine Einführung' (Frankfurt am Main/New York: Campus).
+Felt, Ulrike (1993) 'Fabricating Scientific Success Stories', Public Understanding of Science 2/4: 375-90.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Biography Ulrike Felt Archived 28 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine
+
+
+== References ==