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+---
+title: "AIC Judd Award"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:15.751255+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The AIC - Deane B. Judd Award is an international prize, created in 1973 and instituted for the first time in 1975 by the International Colour Association (AIC). It is given to researchers or research groups in recognition of outstanding contributions to the field of color science. The award is named in honor of Deane B. Judd, an American scientist who made significant contributions to colorimetry, color discrimination, color models, and color vision.
+The AIC has been carrying out the process of selection of the recipients for this award every two years, since 1975. The selection is an arduous procedure that includes nominations by AIC members and analysis of antecedents of the nominees by a Committee composed of previous recipients of the award and AIC past-presidents. The award is given at AIC Congresses.
+
+
+== Awardees ==
+The researchers who have received this award in the past 50 years are:
+
+1975: Dorothy Nickerson (USA);
+1977: William David Wright (UK);
+1979: Günter Wyszecki (Germany, USA, Canada);
+1981: Manfred Richter (Germany);
+1983: David L. MacAdam (USA);
+1985: Leo Hurvich & Dorothea Jameson (USA);
+1987: Robert William G. Hunt (UK);
+1989: Tarow Indow (Japan, USA);
+1991: Johannes J. Vos & Pieter L. Walraven (Netherlands);
+1993: Yoshinobu Nayatani (Japan);
+1995: Heinz Terstiege (Germany);
+1997: Anders Hård, Gunnar Tonnquist & Lars Sivik (Sweden);
+1999: Fred W. Billmeyer Jr. (USA);
+2001: Roberto Daniel Lozano (Argentina);
+2003: Mitsuo Ikeda (Japan);
+2005: John B. Hutchings (UK);
+2007: Alan R. Robertson (Canada);
+2009: Arne Valberg (Norway);
+2011: Lucia Ronchi (Italy);
+2013: Roy S. Berns (USA);
+2015: Françoise Viénot (France);
+2017: Ming-Ronnier Luo (UK);
+2019: Hirohisa Yaguchi (Japan);
+2021: John McCann (USA);
+2023: Rolf G. Kuehni (USA);
+2025: José Luis Caivano (Argentina).
+The contributions of these color scientists cover a wide variety of fields: colorimetry, color vision, color technology, color appearance, visual appearance, color psychology, visual psychophysics, standards and normalization, lighting, etc. K. Fridell Anter has compiled a list of selected publications by these authors.
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac-0.md
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+---
+title: "Eurotrac"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:16.896315+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+EUROTRAC (European Experiment on Transportation and Transformation of Environmentally Relevant Trace Constituents) was a joint European scientific research programme within the Eureka Framework.
+EUROTRAC was accepted as a Eureka project at the second Eureka Ministerial Conference held in Hannover (Germany) in November 1985. After a two-year definition phase, the work started in January 1988 and ended in 1995. At the peak of the programme, it included more than 250 research groups from 24 European countries and its budget exceeded 16 million ECU per year (equivalent to approx. 16 million Euro).
+
+
+== Objectives and focus areas ==
+The objectives of Eurotrac were to:
+
+Increase the basic knowledge in atmospheric science;
+Promote the technological development of sensitive, specific, and fast response instruments for environmental research and monitoring;
+Improve the scientific basis for future political decisions on environmental management in European countries.
+EUROTRAC studied the impact of human activities on the troposphere over Europe, focusing on:
+
+The chemistry and transport of photo-oxidants (especially ozone) in the troposphere
+The processes leading to the formation of acidity in the atmosphere
+The uptake and release of atmospheric trace substances by the biosphere.
+EUROTRAC was an interdisciplinary programme involving field experiments and campaigns, laboratory studies, comprehensive model developments and simulations, emission estimation, studies of biosphere/atmosphere exchange and the development of advanced instruments for laboratory and field measurements.
+
+
+=== Projects and outcome ===
+Fourteen projects were established as part of the EUROTRAC programme. Under each project, several subprojects and studies were carried out. Numerous articles and findings resulting from numerous studies have been presented at symposiums held during and after the EUROTRAC period. These articles can be found on websites like Springer, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, and ResearchGate. The 14 EUROTRAC projects were:
+Cloud studies: 
+
+ACE: Acidity in Cloud Experiments
+GCE: Ground Based Cloud Experiment
+Field measurements:
+
+ALPTRAC: High Alpine Air and Snow Chemistry
+TOR: Tropospheric Ozone Research
+TRACT: Transport of Pollutants over Complex Terrain
+Biosphere / Atmosphere exchange:
+
+ASE: Air-Sea Exchange
+BIATEX: Biosphere-Atmosphere exchange of pollutants and Trace substances
+Laboratory studies:
+
+HALIPP: Heterogeneous and Liquid Phase Processes
+LACTOZ: Laboratory Studies of Chemistry Related to Tropospheric Ozone
+Model development:
+
+EUMAC: European Modelling of Atmospheric Constituents
+GLOMAC: Global Modelling of Atmospheric Chemistry
+Instrument Development:
+
+JETDLAG: Joint European Development of Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy for Measurement of Atmospheric Trace Gases
+TESLAS: Tropospheric Environmental Studies by Laser Sounding
+TOPAS:  Tropospheric Optical Absorption Spectroscopy
+
+
+== Funding and cooperation ==
+EUROTRAC was a science-driven, "bottom-up" research programme, where the scientist involved in the programme proposed research projects. The scientist had to seek funding themselves, primarily through their national funding sources. In some cases also the European Commission contributed to the funding.
+In order to become a EUROTRAC-project, the project proposals had to be evaluated by the Scientific Steering Committee (SSC) and finally approved by the International Executive Committee (IEC).
+
+
+== Organisation ==
+EUROTRAC was headed by an International Executive Committee (IEC). The IEC consisted of one representative from each member country, and approved the subproject proposals and appointed members to the Scientific Steering Committee (SSC). The SSC reviewed the subproject proposals and the progress and results of the individual subprojects. The International Scientific Secretariat (ISS) coordinated the EUROTRAC project. The ISS was operated by Fraunhofer Institute for Atmospheric Research (Fraunhofer Institut für Atmosphärische Umweltforschung - IFU), located in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, GermanyGermany.
+
+
+== Second phase ==
+After ending the first phase of EUROTRAC (1988–1995, described above), EUROTRAC-2 was initiated in 1996. During the second phase, 25 countries and more than 300 research groups were involved.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md
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+---
+title: "Ideonomy"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:18.047155+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ideonomy is a combinatorial "science of ideas" developed by American independent scholar Patrick M. Gunkel (1947–2017). Specifically, Ideonomy is concerned with the systematic organization of ideas and the discovery of the rules behind how ideas combine, diverge, and transform. Gunkel defined ideonomy as "the science of the laws of ideas and of the application of such laws to the generation of all possible ideas in connection with any subject, idea, or thing."  In his 1992 book A History of Knowledge, Charles Van Doren compared ideonomy to a "mining operation" that excavates meanings and thought to discover treasures hidden deep within language.
+Sources from the 1980s and 1990s demonstrate that ideonomy was useful to academic researchers in fields including biology, toxicology, and nursing/patient care. Beginning in the 2010s, academics in a wide range of fields including machine learning, marketing, computational modeling, and cybersecurity have relied on materials generated for ideonomy to provide methodological support for their research.
+
+== Etymology and definition ==
+The word "ideonomy" combines the Greek roots ideo- (from idea, meaning pattern or form) and -nomy (from nomos, meaning law or custom). The suffix -nomy suggests the laws concerning or the totality of knowledge about a given subject, as in astronomy or taxonomy.
+In a note posted on the MIT ideonomy website, Gunkel states that the word was supposedly first coined by the French Encyclopedists to refer to a science of ideas. No evidence is provided for this statement, however. The concept bears some relationship to Antoine Destutt de Tracy's "ideology" (1796), which originally meant a systematic science of ideas before acquiring its modern political connotations.
+Gunkel provided several metaphorical descriptions of ideonomy:
+
+An "idea bank": a computer network enabling systematic exploration of infinite possible ideas
+A "kaleidoscope" that can exhibit all possible combinations and transformations of ideas
+A "prism" capable of diffracting any idea into its cognitive components
+A "gigantic microscope for magnifying the ideocosm"
+
+== History and development ==
+In 1984, Gunkel received a five-year unsolicited grant from the Richard Lounsbery Foundation of New York to develop ideonomy. A June 1, 1987 article on the front page of The Wall Street Journal brought Gunkel and ideonomy to wider public attention. Some academics were interested in using ideonomy's techniques, including biologist Betsey Dyer, who published several contemporaneous peer-reviewed studies citing ideonomy. Academic researchers in the field of toxicology and nursing/patient care also used ideonomy. 
+However, ideonomy's broadest contribution to date came beginning in the 2010s, as a list of personality traits generated for combinatorial matching was used by researchers in artificial intelligence to code human emotions for machine-learning tasks, develop computational models related to personality, develop a measurement framework for influencer-brand recommender systems, and aid information awareness/cybersecurity assessment. 
+
+== Methodology ==
+The foundational empirical method of ideonomy involves the systematic creation of extensive lists. Gunkel's apartment reportedly contained thousands of lists on every conceivable topic.
+Gunkel termed each list an "organon," which he described as expanding through "combination, permutation, transformation, generalization, specialization, intersection, interaction, reapplication, recursive use, etc. of existing organons."
+The ideonomic process follows a progressive structure. The ideonomist begins with a simple list of examples of a particular idea, concept, or thing. The list need not be exhaustive. By studying this list, the ideonomist isolates and identifies types. This categorical analysis then reveals missing items, allowing the primary list to be improved and refined.
+Gunkel emphasized that list items must not only cover genuine categories of nature but also be formulated in ways that yield the largest possible number of syntactically coherent possibilities when combined.
+The core technique of ideonomy is "ideocombinatorics"—the systematic intersection and combination of items from different lists to generate novel composite concepts. Gunkel developed computer programs to automate this process.
+For example, combining a list of 230 Universal Elementary Shapes (pits, pyramids, trenches, hemispheres, needles) with a list of 74 Types of Order (recurrence, identity, likeness of parts) yields 17,020 possible "shapes of order." These combinations, when phrased as questions ("Can there be pits of recurrence?"), could suggest new categories of phenomena worthy of investigation. 
+The computer-generated output is typically repetitive and often meaningless. However, with sufficient frequency, the combinations yield results that are unexpectedly interesting and fruitful.
+In one documented case, Gunkel's programs generated 45,540 questions about toxins for microbiologist David Bermudes. One question—"Can hierarchies of cell process be used as a basis for classifying toxic action?"—prompted Bermudes to develop a novel approach to classifying biological toxins by the type of molecule they attack, rather than by chemical structure or physiological system affected.
+According to one contemporaneous account of ideonomy, "Gunkel takes for his field all fields and all ideas about anything. He uses a computer to generate lists of words and phrases and by juxtaposition reviews the resultant patterns for novel ideas. The computer is ideal for this task because the mind would rebel at the formidable processing task ideonomy involves. What we have here is computer generated originality." 
+
+== Applications ==
+Gunkel and his supporters identified several practical applications for ideonomic methods:
+Scientific research: Biologist Betsey Dyer of Wheaton College published research crediting ideonomy for helping to generate ideas.
+Medical science: When Austin pathologist Michael T. O'Brien was presented with the ideonomically-generated question "Can arteries have rashes?", he initially dismissed it as nonsense. Upon reflection, he realized that large arteries are supplied with blood by tiny vessels that might become inflamed and dilated, analogous to skin vessels in a rash—a phenomenon potentially worth researching.
+Analogical thinking: Harvard law professor Robert Clark used ideonomic analogies to write a research paper comparing plant structure with human hierarchies.
+Artificial intelligence: Douglas Lenat, a researcher at Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC) in Austin, suggested that Gunkel's lists enumerating types of human mistakes could help design AI systems capable of recognizing and correcting their own errors.
+
+== Reception and criticism ==
+Ideonomy received mixed reactions from the academic and scientific communities. Prominent supporters included:
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+---
+title: "Ideonomy"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:18.047155+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Edward Fredkin, former director of MIT's computer science laboratory, who praised Gunkel's "provocative ideas on artificial intelligence."
+Marvin Minsky, AI scientist and MIT professor, who described ideonomy as "perhaps the most extensive study of ways to generate ideas."
+Frederick Seitz, president emeritus of Rockefeller University, who noted Gunkel's "encyclopedic scope"
+Robert C. Clark, Harvard law professor, who called Gunkel "the most intelligent person I ever met" 
+However, skeptics questioned whether ideonomy constituted a genuine science. Fredkin himself noted that Gunkel "pours out about 60 ideas a minute, and 59 of them are bad," though he added that "even with one good idea out of 60, it's still an amazing accomplishment." Douglas Lenat observed that brainstorming with Gunkel was "a bit like being hit over the head by the muse with a sledgehammer" and that "he puts people off."
+Gunkel himself acknowledged that ideonomy was in its infancy and might seem "absurdly utopian."  His planned magnum opus on ideonomy remained incomplete, and was posted on an MIT website thanks to faculty advisor Whitman Richards. Gunkel wrote: "Pioneering in a completely new field, yes in a new science, is almost unreal. It is heartbreaking, it is pitiable, it is almost inhuman. Honestly, it is a hell. There is nothing heroic about it." 
+
+== Related concepts ==
+Gunkel identified several historical precedents for ideonomic thinking:
+
+Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716): The philosopher's work on a universal characteristic (characteristica universalis) and calculus of reasoning
+Peter Mark Roget (1779–1869): Creator of Roget's Thesaurus, which organized concepts into a systematic taxonomy
+Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907): Developer of the periodic table, demonstrating how combining lists of element families could reveal previously unseen connections
+Fritz Zwicky (1898–1974): The Caltech astrophysicist whom Gunkel called the "grandfather of ideonomy" for his development of "morphological research"—systematic exploration of all possible solutions to problems
+Ideonomy is also related to but distinct from "ideology" in its original sense. When Antoine Destutt de Tracy coined "ideology" in 1796, he intended it as a rigorous science dealing with the systematic analysis of ideas and their origins. This original meaning was later supplanted by the modern political connotation.
+Notably, the combinatorial discovery process Gunkel identified as central to ideonomy is in use today by inventors who task AI with running through cross-domain permutations until a novel combination (e.g., between shapes and device types) is discovered with potential applied value. These scientists appear to think of novel matches surfaced by the AI as "hallucinations."
+Other academic work in computational creativity has recognized the applied value of combinatorial methods without identifying ideonomy by name. For example, a 2023 paper in Leonardo presents the results of a deep learning neural network experiment that identified optimized configurations based on user preferences. The authors state: "This methodology is projected to have many applications in fashion, architecture, music, storytelling, cooking, or any other design or art field that can be represented as a set of permutations." This is precisely the way Gunkel saw a science of ideas working, as the methodology for ideonomy is not applicable to a single discipline, but treats any discipline that uses parameter spaces as discovery mechanisms. For example, a May 2022 workshop at Akademie Schloss Solitude called "Modifying Food Texture," presented by Agnes Cameron and Gary Zhexi Zhang, used ideonomy to explore novel industrial food texture modification techniques.
+
+== Legacy ==
+Gunkel died in 2017, leaving ideonomy without its primary developer. Although citations and use cases for ideonomy continue to appear in literature, the field has not yet achieved the institutional recognition or widespread adoption that Gunkel originally envisioned.
+When questioned about the utility of ideonomy, Gunkel invoked Benjamin Franklin's response when asked about the usefulness of electricity immediately after its invention: "What use is a newborn baby?" Gunkel suggested that ideonomy, like other nascent sciences, required time to demonstrate its potential.
+
+== See also ==
+Artificial Intelligence
+Combinatorics
+Computational creativity
+Epistemology
+Idea
+Ideology
+Morphological analysis
+Systems theory
+TRIZ
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+MIT's Ideonomy website - Original website created for ideonomy (static since 2006)
+The Gunkel Global Renaissance Project - 501(c)(3) created to advance Gunkel's legacy and ideas
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md
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+---
+title: "Outline of science"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:14.642478+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science:
+Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine.
+
+== Study and experimentation ==
+
+Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable.
+
+Design of experiments
+History of experiments
+Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments.
+Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory.
+Empirical evidence is evidence gathered through direct observation instead of indirect theory.
+Falsifiability is the ability to test a hypothesis through experimentation to determine whether it is false. Karl Popper argued that a claim must be falsifiable to be recognized as scientific.
+Hard and soft science are descriptions of how measurable and precise a branch of science is. Hard sciences like biology and physics are more measurable while soft sciences like anthropology and psychology are less measurable.
+Laboratories are places where scientists engage in research and study.
+Measurement is the use of precise units to describe a quantity.
+Models are representations of scientific phenomena to assist in studying or explaining them.
+Observations are the use of one's senses to obtain information, and the resulting discoveries.
+Observational studies are a type of research conducted solely by observing without controlling variables or testing specific hypotheses.
+Reproducibility or replicability is the ability for subsequent experiments to confirm the accuracy of previous ones by producing the same result. This may be through an identical experiment or a test of the same hypothesis under different conditions.
+Prediction is the use of observation to determine future results through inference.
+The scientific method is a series of steps taken to engage in experimentation and produce factual results. The exact steps to be taken, or whether an all-encompassing sequence exists, is the subject of debate.
+History of scientific method
+Outline of scientific method
+Timeline of the history of the scientific method
+
+== Scientific knowledge ==
+
+Anomalies are abnormal or deviating phenomena that are inconsistent with previous data or cannot be precisely classified or explained.
+Classification is the use of categories to organize and describe individual subjects. This can be done descriptively to explain existing differences or prescriptively to create groups in a way that is useful.
+Consilience is the process in which distinct findings can produce novel conclusions when considered together.
+Data are sets of facts or information.
+Deductive reasoning is reasoning conducted purely through logic.
+Discoveries are the finding or explanation of new information.
+Inductive reasoning is the use of varied observations to make an inference.
+Explanation is the understanding of why a phenomenon occurs.
+Hypotheses are proposals of scientific fact that have yet to be definitively verified.
+Objectivity is the answering of scientific questions impartially without affecting the results with biases.
+Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that leads people to seek evidence that supports existing beliefs and interpret new evidence as supporting these beliefs.
+Reliability is the consistency in data as it is collected to demonstrate reproducibility.
+Scientific laws are descriptions of scientific fact that apply universally under all circumstances.
+Scientific theories are descriptions of scientific fact that are known to be true but cannot be proven to apply universally.
+Validity is the accurate correspondence and relevance of data to the real-world phenomena it is meant to measure. Valid data is derived from objective observation or experimentation.
+Verisimilitude is the degree to which a claim approaches the truth. The verisimilitude between two false ideas can be compared to determine which is less flawed.
+
+== Branches of science ==
+
+Science is divided into disciplines that explore different subject matter. Each discipline has its own considerations when being studied, and different methods are used between them. Scientists typically specialize in one discipline. Interdisciplinary sciences pull from multiple fields of study.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Timeline ===
+
+Science in the ancient world
+Science in the middle ages
+Science in the Renaissance – The Renaissance allowed for expanded intellectual thought that influenced later scientific developments.
+The Scientific Revolution – A period of activity occurred c. 1550 – c. 1700 which developed the modern conception of what is now considered science. The scientific movement remained tied with Christianity, and most theories of the world blended empiricism and religion. It culminated in the studies of Isaac Newton and his 1687 treatise Principia. It also included the Copernican Revolution that was initiated by Nicolaus Copernicus and his argument for heliocentrism.
+Science in the Age of Enlightenment
+19th century in science – Science first developed in the 19th century as its own subject that encompassed varying fields of inquiry. Biology and chemistry continued a period of growth that had begun in the late-18th century.
+20th century in science – Physics became the dominant branch of science in the 20th century through the development of atomic technology. Logical empiricism was a major influence in the mid-20th century, but it lost favor by the 1970s. The science wars were a period of disagreement in the late-20th century about whether mainstream science should be held as an authoritative feature of society.
+21st century in science
+
+=== Historical disciplines ===
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Outline of science"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:14.642478+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alchemy is the historical study of what is now associated with chemistry. It was accepted as a science until the end of the 17th century.
+Astrology is a method used in ancient and medieval times to study the social sciences through physical phenomena.
+Cosmogony is the study of Earth's origins through divine creation.
+Natural history is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with biology.
+Natural philosophy is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with physics and astronomy.
+
+== Philosophy of science ==
+
+Philosophy of science encompasses the questions, assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science.
+
+Anti-realism is the opposition to scientific realism. Anti-realists believe that scientific theories cannot be objectively true or that they do not correlate to objectively real phenomena.
+Antiscience is a criticism and rejection of modern science and the scientific community.
+Denialism is the rejection of scientific facts that conflict with one's previous beliefs.
+Empiricism is the belief that truth is obtained from sense experience. Empiricists believe that science is a systematic and detailed application of common everyday thought and inquiry.
+Constructive empiricism is the belief that scientific theories can be true but successful testing does not affirm their truth.
+Logical positivism is an empiricist school of thought that was developed in Europe by the Vienna Circle in the 20th century.
+Operationalism is an empiricist school of thought developed by Percy Williams Bridgman in 1927. It holds that all terms used in science must correspond to an observational test.
+Verificationism is the empiricist belief that testability and verifiability must be possible for a claim to have meaning.
+Evidentialism is the belief that a claim should only be accepted if there is evidence supporting it.
+Fallibilism is the belief that no claim can ever be known with absolute certainty. The term was defined by Charles Sanders Peirce.
+Holism is the belief that individual scientific claims cannot be understood without also considering related claims, as it is only a network of claims that allows scientific prediction. This argument, the Duhem–Quine thesis, was developed by Willard Van Orman Quine as a response to logical positivism by adapting the philosophy of Pierre Duhem.
+Instrumentalism is the belief that science should be used as a guide predict phenomena without presenting it as a means of finding truth.
+Normal science is a system defined by Thomas Kuhn which described science in a given field as beginning with a paradigm shift that emerges from a new theory.
+Pragmatism is the belief that claims should be accepted based on value rather than evidence.
+Realism is the belief that true scientific theories can describe existing phenomena instead of merely hypothetical phenomena.
+Reductionism is the understanding of phenomena through fundamental causes and explanations.
+Relativism is the belief that knowledge cannot be understood objectively, but in relation to other forms of knowledge.
+Reliabilism is the belief that a fact is considered knowledge when it is derived from reliable methods.
+Science studies is the blending of perspectives and theories on scientific study to create a holistic understanding of science.
+Scientism is the belief that science should go beyond mere explanation and become the guiding force in society.
+Skepticism is the belief that unproven or widely-accepted beliefs should be questioned.
+
+== Scientific community ==
+
+The scientific community encompasses scientists, their interactions, and their influences on one another.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Outline of science"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:14.642478+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Consensus is general agreement among scientists on a conclusion or finding.
+Demarcation is the division of scientific and non-scientific ideas, and the resulting dispute over how to divide them. Different fields of study may be evaluated on the level of experimental rigor, how much they engage in abstraction, how closely related they are with the humanities, or other qualities.
+Funding of science can come from governments and donors.
+Junk science is the presentation of uncertain scientific claims as facts, typically to a legal or political end.
+List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
+Meta-analysis is the comparing of several studies on the same topic to draw conclusions.
+A paradigm is the overall understanding and accepted system of how science functions.
+Paradigm shifts are historical periods of total change in how science is practiced. The concept was introduced by Thomas Kuhn.
+Peer review is a process in which an academic provides feedback on scientific writing, often anonymously, before publication.
+Pseudoscience is unscientific practice or belief that is presented as scientific or uses scientific language to suggest credibility.
+History of pseudoscience
+Regulation of science involves the use of policy to limit scientific activity that regulators determine to be dangerous, unethical, or ineffective.
+Scientific controversy occurs when multiple schools of thought within a discipline contradict each other. This can include disputes about methods or theory.
+Scientific dissent occurs when a scientist disagrees with the scientific community over accepted practices or findings.
+Scientific misconduct is the publication of false, misleading, or plagiarized findings.
+List of scientific misconduct incidents
+Data fabrication is the use of fake data to present a conclusion.
+HARKing (hypothesizing after results are known) is the practice of writing hypotheses to falsely claim that one had correctly predicted results before testing them.
+P-hacking is the selective use or presentation of data to guarantee certain findings.
+Scientific papers describe data and findings and compare them to previous hypotheses.
+Lists of publications in science
+Abstracts are summaries of a paper's goals and findings that precede the full paper.
+Citation analysis is the tracking of when scientific papers are cited by other papers.
+Scientific journals are the primary venue for publishing scientific papers.
+Scientific priority is the recognition of a scientist's claim over a discovery.
+Scientific societies are organizations that emerged in Europe during the mid-17th century as an alternative to universities.
+Scientific writing is the recording and description of scientific knowledge or research, written in a way that it can be precisely explained to other members of the scientific community.
+Scientists are the practitioners of scientific study. The term scientist was coined by William Whewell in 1840.
+Sociology of science considers interactions, incentives, and norms within the scientific community. It was developed as an independent field in the mid-20th century by Robert K. Merton.
+Women in science and their role has changed over time. Women were historically excluded from scientific activity in most cases, but an increased role has developed with the rise of feminist movements.
+Timeline of women in science
+
+== Science in society ==
+
+Funding of science can come from both public and private sources, including governments and corporations.
+Politicization of science encompasses challenges to scientific activities, or regulations on their practice, for political purposes. This can be instigated by governments, advocacy groups, or the public.
+List of books about the politics of science
+Religion and science are distinguished by science's dependence on known facts and its constraint to explain what can be demonstrated in nature, while religion depends on faith and can be interpreted more broadly.
+Baháʼí and science
+Buddhism and science
+Christianity and science
+Hinduism and science
+Islam and science
+Science communication is the description of science to the general public. It involves the translation of precise technical terms to ones that are more generally understandable to those without background knowledge in a scientific field.
+Popular science is a genre of writing on scientific subjects intended for consumption by the general public. It developed in the late-19th and early-20th centuries.
+Science fiction is a genre of speculative fiction in which scientific knowledge, ideas, and technology are central in its stories.
+Science journalism is the coverage of news about science and scientific developments.
+Science policy is the public policy governing how science can be conducted. It may be used to organize scientific activity to be more efficient, or to apply science for purposes like economic growth, social benefit, and military strength.
+History of science policy
+Scientific literacy is the ability to understand science, particularly in the context of the general public.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Lists of scientists
+Outline of academia
+Outline of academic disciplines
+Outline of history
+Scientific terminology
+
+== Notes ==
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+---
+title: "Outline of science"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:14.642478+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== References ==
+Agassi, Joseph (1981). Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science. D. Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1244-8.
+Armstrong, Jon Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2022). The Scientific Method: A Guide to Finding Useful Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-09642-3.
+Bird, Alexander (2005). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-504-8.
+Browne, Janet; Porter, Roy; Bynum, William F., eds. (1981). Dictionary of the History of Science. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-29316-4.
+Collocott, Thomas C., ed. (1971). Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. & R. Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-13202-4.
+Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth (2010) [1984]. Oxford Dictionary of Science (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9.
+Erickson, Mark (2005). Science, Culture and Society: Understanding Science in the 21st Century. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-2974-2.
+Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7.
+Hagstrom, Warren O. (1965). The Scientific Community. Basic Books. LCCN 65-10539.
+Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0.
+Morris, Christopher G., ed. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1.
+Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten, eds. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-05179-6.
+Nickles, Thomas. "The Problem of Demarcation". In Pigliucci & Boudry (2013), pp. 101–120.
+Prothero, Donald. "The Holocaust Denier's Playbook and the Tobacco Smokescreen". In Pigliucci & Boudry (2013), pp. 341–360.
+Shackel, Nicholas. "Pseudoscience and Idiosyncratic Theories of Rational Belief". In Pigliucci & Boudry (2013), pp. 417–438.
+Wilkins, John S. "The Salem Region". In Pigliucci & Boudry (2013), pp. 397–416.
+Stocklmayer, Susan M.; Gore, Michael M.; Bryant, Chris, eds. (2001). Science Communication in Theory and Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-0130-7.
+Aikenhead, Glenn. "Science Communication with the Public: A Cross Cultural Event". In Stocklmayer, Gore & Bryant (2001), pp. 23–46.
+Gilbert, J.K. "Towards a Unified Model of Education and Entertainment in Science Centres". In Stocklmayer, Gore & Bryant (2001), pp. 123–142.
+Spinks, Peter. "Science Journalism: The Inside Story". In Stocklmayer, Gore & Bryant (2001), pp. 151–168.
+Webster, Andrew (1991). Science, Technology, and Society: New Directions. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1723-0.
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Science at Wikimedia Commons
+ Quotations related to Science at Wikiquote
+ Works related to Science at Wikisource
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+---
+title: "Peter Lwabi"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:19.172821+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lwabi Peter Solomon is a consultant pediatric cardiologist at Mulago National Referral Hospital in Kampala, Uganda. He concurrently serves as the deputy executive director of Uganda Heart Institute (UHI). He also serves as the Head of the Pediatric Cardiology Division at Makerere University School of Medicine. Peter Lwabi also sits on the Board of Directors of UHI. Lwabi is a Senior Consultant cardiac pediatrician who has trained numerous medical personnel, including nurses, medical students, postgraduate students, and cardiology fellows. He provides mentorship and clinical oversight to research and training initiatives,
+
+
+== Education and background ==
+He holds bachelors of medicine and bachelors of surgery and masters of medicine, paediatrics & child health
+
+
+== Leadership ==
+He worked as the president of the Uganda Heart Association. He  also head of the Pediatric Cardiology Division at the Makerere University School of Medicine.A member of the Board of Directors at the Uganda Heart Institute
+
+
+== See also ==
+Roy Mugerwa
+Aggrey Kiyingi
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Website of Uganda Ministry of Health Archived 2024-11-25 at the Wayback Machine
+A bad heart condition has caused her body to swell
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+---
+title: "Physics"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:20.290778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Physics is the scientific study of matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines. A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist.
+Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines. Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, these natural sciences branched into separate research endeavors. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines, such as mathematics and philosophy.
+Advances in physics often enable new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism, solid-state physics, and nuclear physics led directly to the development of technologies that have transformed modern society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.
+
+== History ==
+
+The word physics comes from the Latin physica ('study of nature'), which itself is a borrowing of the Greek φυσική (phusikḗ 'natural science'), a term derived from φύσις (phúsis 'origin, nature, property').
+
+=== Ancient astronomy ===
+
+Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. Early civilizations dating before 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, had a predictive knowledge and a basic awareness of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. The stars and planets, believed to represent gods, were often worshipped. While the explanations for the observed positions of the stars were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for later astronomy, as the stars were found to traverse great circles across the sky, which could not explain the positions of the planets.
+According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. Egyptian astronomers left monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and the motions of the celestial bodies, while Greek poet Homer wrote of various celestial objects in his Iliad and Odyssey; later Greek astronomers provided names, which are still used today, for most constellations visible from the Northern Hemisphere.
+
+=== Natural philosophy ===
+
+Natural philosophy has its origins in Greece during the Archaic period (650 BCE – 480 BCE), when pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales rejected non-naturalistic explanations for natural phenomena and proclaimed that every event had a natural cause. They proposed ideas verified by reason and observation, and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment; for example, atomism was found to be correct approximately 2000 years after it was proposed by Leucippus and his pupil Democritus.
+
+=== Aristotle and Hellenistic physics ===
+
+During the classical period in Greece (6th, 5th and 4th centuries BCE) and in Hellenistic times, natural philosophy developed along many lines of inquiry. Aristotle (Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384–322 BCE), a student of Plato,
+wrote on many subjects, including a substantial treatise on "Physics" – in the 4th century BC. Aristotelian physics was influential for about two millennia. His approach mixed some limited observation with logical deductive arguments, but did not rely on experimental verification of deduced statements. Aristotle's foundational work in Physics, though very imperfect, formed a framework against which later thinkers further developed the field. His approach is entirely superseded today.
+He explained ideas such as motion (and gravity) with the theory of four elements.
+Aristotle believed that each of the four classical elements (air, fire, water, earth) had its own natural place. Because of their differing densities, each element will revert to its own specific place in the atmosphere. So, because of their weights, fire would be at the top, air underneath fire, then water, then lastly earth. He also stated that when a small amount of one element enters the natural place of another, the less abundant element will automatically go towards its own natural place. For example, if there is a fire on the ground, the flames go up into the air in an attempt to go back into its natural place where it belongs. His laws of motion included: that heavier objects will fall faster, the speed being proportional to the weight and the speed of the object that is falling depends inversely on the density object it is falling through (e.g. density of air). He also stated that, when it comes to violent motion (motion of an object when a force is applied to it by a second object), the speed that object moves will only be as fast or strong as the measure of force applied to it. The problem of motion and its causes was studied carefully, leading to the philosophical notion of a "prime mover" as the ultimate source of all motion in the world (Book 8 of his treatise Physics).
+
+=== Medieval European and Islamic ===
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+---
+title: "Physics"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:20.290778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Western Roman Empire fell to invaders and internal decay in the fifth century, resulting in a decline in intellectual pursuits in western Europe. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (usually known as the Byzantine Empire) resisted the attacks from invaders and continued to advance various fields of learning, including physics. In the sixth century, John Philoponus challenged the dominant Aristotelian approach to science although much of his work was focused on Christian theology.
+In the sixth century, Isidore of Miletus created an important compilation of Archimedes' works that are copied in the Archimedes Palimpsest.
+Islamic scholarship inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further.
+The most notable innovations under Islamic scholarship were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. In his Book of Optics (also known as Kitāb al-Manāẓir) Ibn al-Haytham presented the idea of light rays as an alternative to the ancient Greek idea about visual rays. Like Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham applied controlled experiments, verifying the laws of refraction and reflection with the new concept of light rays, but still lacking the concept of image formation.
+
+=== Scientific Revolution ===
+
+Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics.
+Major developments in this period include the replacement of the geocentric model of the Solar System with the heliocentric Copernican model, the laws governing the motion of planetary bodies (determined by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619), Galileo's pioneering work on telescopes and observational astronomy in the 16th and 17th centuries, and Isaac Newton's discovery and unification of the laws of motion and universal gravitation (that would come to bear his name). Newton, and separately Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, developed calculus, the mathematical study of continuous change, and Newton applied it to solve physical problems.
+
+=== 19th century ===
+
+The discovery of laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased. By the end of the 19th century, theories of thermodynamics, mechanics, and electromagnetics matched a wide variety of observations. Taken together these theories became the basis for what would later be called classical physics.
+A few experimental results remained inexplicable. Classical electromagnetism presumed a medium, an luminiferous aether to support the propagation of waves, but this medium could not be detected. The intensity of light from hot glowing blackbody objects did not match the predictions of thermodynamics and electromagnetism. The character of electron emission of illuminated metals differed from predictions. These failures, seemingly insignificant in the big picture would upset the physics world in first two decades of the 20th century.
+
+=== 20th century ===
+
+Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. Both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light depends on the motion of the observer, which could not be resolved with the constant speed predicted by Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism. This discrepancy was corrected by Einstein's theory of special relativity, which replaced classical mechanics for fast-moving bodies and allowed for a constant speed of light. Black-body radiation provided another problem for classical physics, which was corrected when Planck proposed that the excitation of material oscillators is possible only in discrete steps proportional to their frequency. This, along with the photoelectric effect and a complete theory predicting discrete energy levels of electron orbitals, led to the theory of quantum mechanics improving on classical physics at very small scales.
+Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Dirac. From this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Following the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson at CERN in 2012, all fundamental particles predicted by the Standard Model, and no others, appear to exist; however, physics beyond the Standard Model, with theories such as supersymmetry, is an active area of research. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities and groups.
+
+== Core theories ==
+
+Physics deals with a wide variety of systems, although certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories was experimentally tested numerous times and found to be an adequate approximation of nature.
+These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of their specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.
+
+=== Distinction between classical and modern physics ===
+
+In the first decades of the 20th century physics was revolutionized by the discoveries of quantum mechanics and relativity. The changes were so fundamental that these new concepts became the foundation of "modern physics", with other topics becoming "classical physics". The majority of applications of physics are essentially classical. 
+The laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match predictions provided by classical mechanics.
+
+=== Classical theory ===
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+---
+title: "Physics"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:20.290778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter include such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics and pneumatics. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received. Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics, the physics of animal calls and hearing; and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.
+Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.
+
+=== Modern theory ===
+
+The discovery of relativity and of quantum mechanics in the first decades of the 20th century transformed the conceptual basis of physics without reducing the practical value of most of the physical theories developed up to that time. Consequently the topics of physics have come to be divided into "classical physics" and "modern physics", with the latter category including effects related to quantum mechanics and relativity.
+Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, atomic and nuclear physics study matter on the smallest scale at which chemical elements can be identified. The physics of elementary particles is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics is also known as high-energy physics because of the extremely high energies necessary to produce many types of particles in particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary, commonsensical notions of space, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.
+The two chief theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concepts of space, time, and matter from that presented by classical physics. Classical mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while quantum theory is concerned with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of such phenomena. The theory of relativity is concerned with the description of phenomena that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity is concerned with motion in the absence of gravitational fields and the general theory of relativity with motion and its connection with gravitation. Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find applications in many areas of modern physics.
+Fundamental concepts in modern physics include:
+
+Action
+Causality
+Covariance
+Particle
+Physical field
+Physical interaction
+Quantum
+Statistical ensemble
+Symmetry
+Wave
+
+== Research ==
+
+=== Scientific method ===
+Physicists use the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory. By using a methodical approach to compare the implications of a theory with the conclusions drawn from its related experiments and observations, physicists are better able to test the validity of a theory in a logical, unbiased, and repeatable way. To that end, experiments are performed and observations are made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of a theory.
+A scientific law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relation that expresses a fundamental principle of some theory, such as Newton's law of universal gravitation.
+
+=== Theory and experiment ===
+
+Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully predict future experimental results, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and experiment are developed separately, they strongly affect and depend upon each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimental results defy explanation by existing theories, prompting intense focus on applicable modeling, and when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire the development of new experiments (and often related equipment).
+Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a fundamental theory.
+Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way. Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues, such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories; they then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions.
+Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists who are involved in basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas that have not been explored well by theorists.
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+---
+title: "Physics"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:20.290778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Scope and aims ===
+
+Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the "fundamental science". Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together.
+For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone and magnetite) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects of one force—electromagnetism. This process of "unifying" forces continues today, and electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are now considered to be two aspects of the electroweak interaction. Physics hopes to find an ultimate reason (theory of everything) for why nature is as it is (see section Current research below for more information).
+
+=== Current research ===
+
+Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of fronts.
+In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum computers.
+In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental research. The Large Hadron Collider has already found the Higgs boson, but future research aims to prove or disprove the supersymmetry, which extends the Standard Model of particle physics. Research on the nature of the major mysteries of dark matter and dark energy is also currently ongoing.
+Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections.
+These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In the 1932 Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Horace Lamb said:
+
+I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.
+
+== Branches and fields ==
+
+=== Fields ===
+The major fields of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the following table.
+
+Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev Landau (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.
+Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into nuclear and particle physics; condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; astrophysics; and applied physics. Some physics departments also support physics education research and physics outreach.
+
+==== Nuclear and particle ====
+
+Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them. In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high-energy accelerators, detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.
+Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and fields are described by the Standard Model. The model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter (quarks and leptons) that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces. Dynamics are described in terms of matter particles exchanging gauge bosons (gluons, W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively). The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson. In July 2012 CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announced the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson, an integral part of the Higgs mechanism.
+Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology.
+
+==== Atomic, molecular, and optical ====
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+---
+title: "Physics"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:20.290778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter—matter and light—matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view).
+Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of nuclear physics.
+Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm.
+
+==== Condensed matter ====
+
+Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of particles in a system is extremely large and the interactions between them are strong.
+The most familiar examples of condensed phases are solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of the electromagnetic force between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include the superfluid and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices.
+Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group—previously solid-state theory—in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics. Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.
+
+==== Astrophysics ====
+
+Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the Solar System, and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.
+The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the Earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.
+Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe is expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.
+The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established the ΛCDM model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy, and dark matter.
+
+== Other aspects ==
+
+=== Education ===
+
+=== Careers ===
+
+=== Philosophy ===
+
+Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on the philosophy of science and its "scientific method" to advance knowledge of the physical world. The scientific method employs a priori and a posteriori reasoning as well as the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.
+Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism, and realism.
+Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who championed causal determinism, and Erwin Schrödinger, who wrote on quantum mechanics. The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking, a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality. Hawking referred to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and took issue with Penrose's views.
+
+Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used to describe the order in nature. This was noted and advocated by Pythagoras, Plato, Galileo, and Newton. Some theorists, like Hilary Putnam and Penelope Maddy, hold that logical truths, and therefore mathematical reasoning, depend on the empirical world. This is usually combined with the claim that the laws of logic express universal regularities found in the structural features of the world, which may explain the peculiar relation between these fields.
+Physics uses mathematics to organize and formulate experimental results. From those results, precise or estimated solutions are obtained, or quantitative results, from which new predictions can be made and experimentally confirmed or negated. The results from physics experiments are numerical data, with their units of measure and estimates of the errors in the measurements. Technologies based on mathematics, like computation have made computational physics an active area of research.
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+---
+title: "Physics"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:20.290778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data.
+The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example, mathematical physics is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical. The problems in this field start with a "mathematical model of a physical situation" (system) and a "mathematical description of a physical law" that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solving has a hard-to-find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier-to-find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for.
+
+=== Fundamental vs. applied physics ===
+
+Physics is a branch of fundamental science (also called basic science). Physics is also called "the fundamental science" because all branches of natural science including chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics. Similarly, chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in linking the physical sciences. For example, chemistry studies properties, structures, and reactions of matter (chemistry's focus on the molecular and atomic scale distinguishes it from physics). Structures are formed because particles exert electrical forces on each other, properties include physical characteristics of given substances, and reactions are bound by laws of physics, like conservation of energy, mass, and charge. Fundamental physics seeks to better explain and understand phenomena in all spheres, without a specific practical application as a goal, other than the deeper insight into the phenomema themselves.
+
+Applied physics is a general term for physics research and development that is intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem.
+The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics.
+Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other static structures. The understanding and use of acoustics results in sound control and better concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations.
+
+With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the Earth, a physicist can reasonably model Earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, as a function of time allowing the extrapolation forward or backward in time and so predict future or prior events. It also allows for simulations in engineering that speed up the development of a new technology.
+There is also considerable interdisciplinarity, so many other important fields are influenced by physics (e.g., the fields of econophysics and sociophysics).
+
+== See also ==
+
+Earth science – Fields of natural science related to Earth
+Neurophysics – Study of the nervous system with physics
+Psychophysics – Branch of knowledge relating physical stimuli and psychological perception
+Relationship between mathematics and physics – Relationship between fields of study
+Science tourism – Travel to notable science locations
+
+=== Lists ===
+List of important publications in physics
+List of physicists
+Lists of physics equations
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Physics at Quanta Magazine
+Usenet Physics FAQ – FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups
+Website of the Nobel Prize in physics Archived 7 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine – Award for outstanding contributions to the subject
+World of Physics Archived 25 June 2025 at the Wayback Machine – Online encyclopedic dictionary of physics
+Nature Physics – Academic journal
+Physics Archived 28 June 2025 at the Wayback Machine – Online magazine by the American Physical Society
+The Vega Science Trust Archived 7 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine – Science videos, including physics
+HyperPhysics website Archived 8 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine – Physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University
+Physics at MIT OpenCourseWare Archived 15 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine – Online course material from Massachusetts Institute of Technology
+The Feynman Lectures on Physics Archived 4 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 1/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine.
+The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to the Bronze Age in Egypt and Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity and later medieval scholarship, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes; while further advances, including the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, were made during the Golden Age of India and Islamic Golden Age. 
+The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe during the Renaissance revived natural philosophy, which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in the acquisition of knowledge, and in the 19th century, many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape, along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".
+New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is often highly collaborative and is frequently carried out by teams in academic and research institutions, government agencies, and companies. At the same time, many major advances—particularly in fundamental science—have come from individual researchers and are widely recognised through major international awards such as the Nobel Prize. The practical results of scientific work have led to the emergence of science policies that seek to prioritise the responsible development of commercial products, health care, public infrastructure, environmental protection, and defense capabilities.
+
+== Etymology ==
+The word science has been used in English since the 14th century (Middle English) in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from the Anglo-Norman language as the suffix -cience, which was borrowed from the Latin word scientia, meaning 'knowledge, awareness, understanding', a noun derivative of sciens meaning 'knowing', itself the present active participle of sciō 'to know'.
+There are many hypotheses for science's ultimate word origin. According to Michiel de Vaan, Dutch linguist and Indo-Europeanist, sciō may have its origin in the Proto-Italic language as *skije- or *skijo- meaning 'to know', which may originate from Proto-Indo-European language as *skh1-ie, *skh1-io meaning 'to incise'. The Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben proposed sciō is a back-formation of nescīre, meaning 'to not know, be unfamiliar with', which may derive from Proto-Indo-European *sekH- in Latin secāre, or *skh2- from *sḱʰeh2(i)- meaning 'to cut'.
+In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science". In 1834, William Whewell introduced the term scientist in a review of Mary Somerville's book On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, crediting it to "some ingenious gentleman" (possibly himself).
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Early history ===
+
+Science has no single origin. Rather, scientific thinking emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years, taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments. Women likely played a central role in prehistoric science, as did religious rituals. Some scholars use the term "protoscience" to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features; however, this label has also been criticised as denigrating, or too suggestive of presentism, thinking about those activities only in relation to modern categories. 
+Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent of writing systems in the Bronze Age civilisations of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE), creating the earliest written records in the history of science. Although the words and concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. 
+From the 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a non-positional decimal numbering system, solved practical problems using geometry, and developed a calendar. Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural, such as prayers, incantations, and rituals. Ancient Nubians pioneered early antibiotics and established a system of geometrics which served as the basis for initial sunclocks. Nubians also exercised a trigonometric methodology comparable to their Egyptian counterparts.
+The ancient Mesopotamians used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing. They studied animal physiology, anatomy, behaviour, and astrology for divinatory purposes. The Mesopotamians had an intense interest in medicine and the earliest medical prescriptions appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur. They seem to have studied scientific subjects which had practical or religious applications and had little interest in satisfying curiosity.
+
+=== Classical antiquity ===
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 2/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In classical antiquity, there is no real ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time. Before the invention or discovery of the concept of phusis or nature by the pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention".
+The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school, which was founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximenes, were the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural. The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science. The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus. Later, Epicurus would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific truth. The Greek doctor Hippocrates established the tradition of systematic medical science and is known as "The Father of Medicine".
+A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was Socrates' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinises them for consistency. Socrates criticised the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.
+In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle created a systematic programme of teleological philosophy. In the 3rd century BCE, Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the universe, with the Sun at the centre and all the planets orbiting it. Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics, while Ptolemy's Almagest, which contains a geocentric description of the Solar System, was accepted through the early Renaissance instead. The inventor and mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse made major contributions to the beginnings of calculus. Pliny the Elder was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopaedia Natural History.
+Positional notation for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient arithmetic operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide.
+
+=== Middle Ages ===
+
+Due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the 5th century saw an intellectual decline, with knowledge of classical Greek conceptions of the world deteriorating in Western Europe. Latin encyclopaedists of the period such as Isidore of Seville preserved the majority of general ancient knowledge. In contrast, because the Byzantine Empire resisted attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior learning. John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 6th century, started to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus. His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later.
+During late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, natural phenomena were mainly examined via the Aristotelian approach. The approach includes Aristotle's four causes: material, formal, moving, and final cause. Many Greek classical texts were preserved by the Byzantine Empire and Arabic translations were made by Christians, mainly Nestorians and Miaphysites. Under the Abbasids, these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists. By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighbouring Sasanian Empire established the medical Academy of Gondishapur, which was considered by Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians as the most important medical hub of the ancient world.
+Islamic study of Aristotelianism flourished in the House of Wisdom established in the Abbasid capital of Baghdad, Iraq and the flourished until the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Ibn al-Haytham, better known as Alhazen, used controlled experiments in his optical study. Avicenna's compilation of The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopaedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century.
+By the 11th century most of Europe had become Christian, and in 1088, the University of Bologna emerged as the first university in Europe. As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew, a major contributor to the Renaissance of the 12th century. Renaissance scholasticism in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature. In the 13th century, medical teachers and students at Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by Mondino de Luzzi.
+
+=== Renaissance ===
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 3/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany around 1440, the movable type printing-press had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe and had already produced more than 20 million volumes by the end of the 15th century. Printing made scholarly books more widely accessible, allowing researchers to consult ancient texts freely and to compare their own observations with those of fellow scholars. Printing ended the manuscript culture of the Middle Ages, where facts were few and far between, and replaced it with a printing culture where reliable and documented facts rapidly proliferated and became the secure foundation for scientific knowledge.
+In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliostatic model of the Solar System, with the Sun positioned near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in circular motions, modified by epicycles, and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model challenged the dominant geocentric model of Ptolemy, which had placed Earth at the center of the Universe. 16th-century astronomers believed that Copernicus' elimination of the equant was his chief achievement but his model never displaced Ptolemy's, which only fell out of favor 70 years later after Galileo's telescopic observations of 1610.
+
+=== Scientific Revolution ===
+
+Tycho Brahe's unprecedentedly accurate astronomical observations in the late 16th century and Galileo Galilei’s early 17th-century telescopic observations combined to turn astronomy into the first modern science. Galileo's observations ended a millenium of pre-modern astronomical orthodoxy while Johannes Kepler used Brahe's data to discover that planets have elliptical, not circular, orbits and develop the laws of planetary motion. Because of Kepler, astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws. The "New Science" that ultimately emerged by the end of the 17th century broke sharply with the natural philosophy that had preceded it, departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions, was more mechanistic in its worldview and more integrated with mathematics, and was obsessed with the acquisition and interpretation of new evidence.
+
+=== Age of Enlightenment ===
+
+At the start of the Age of Enlightenment, Isaac Newton formed the foundation of classical mechanics by his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica greatly influencing future physicists. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz incorporated terms from Aristotelian physics, now used in a new non-teleological way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes.
+During this time the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the materialistic sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In Bacon's words, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing [speculation]".
+Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularisation of science among an increasingly literate population. Enlightenment philosophers turned to a few of their scientific predecessors – Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day.
+The 18th century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine and physics; the development of biological taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline. Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed A Treatise of Human Nature, which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement. In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which is often considered the first work on modern economics.
+
+=== 19th century ===
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 4/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+During the 19th century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals. During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879.
+During the mid-19th century Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.
+Early in the 19th century John Dalton suggested the modern atomic theory, based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles called atoms. The laws of conservation of energy, conservation of momentum and conservation of mass suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. However, with the advent of the steam engine and the Industrial Revolution there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same energy qualities, the ease of conversion to useful work or to another form of energy. This realisation led to the development of the laws of thermodynamics, in which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the entropy of a closed universe increases over time.
+The electromagnetic theory was established in the 19th century by the works of Hans Christian Ørsted, André-Marie Ampère, Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Oliver Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz. The new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie in 1896, Marie Curie then became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes. In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the electron.
+
+=== 20th century ===
+
+In the first half of the century the development of antibiotics and artificial fertilisers improved human living standards globally. Harmful environmental issues such as ozone depletion, ocean acidification, eutrophication, and climate change came to the public's attention and caused the onset of environmental studies.
+During this period scientific experimentation became increasingly larger in scale and funding. The extensive technological innovation stimulated by World War I, World War II, and the Cold War led to competitions between global powers, such as the Space Race and nuclear arms race. Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts.
+In the late 20th century active recruitment of women and elimination of sex discrimination greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1964 led to a rejection of the steady-state model of the universe in favour of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.
+The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th century when the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of quantum mechanics complement classical mechanics to describe physics in extreme length, time and gravity. Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones. The need for mass systematisation of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of systems theory and computer-assisted scientific modelling.
+
+=== 21st century ===
+
+The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003 by identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome. The first induced pluripotent human stem cells were made in 2006, allowing adult cells to be transformed into stem cells and turn into any cell type found in the body. With the affirmation of the Higgs boson discovery in 2013, the last particle predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics was found. In 2015, gravitational waves, predicted by general relativity a century before, were first observed. In 2019, the international collaboration Event Horizon Telescope presented the first direct image of a black hole's accretion disc.
+
+== Branches ==
+
+Modern science is commonly divided into three major branches: natural science, social science, and formal science. Each of these branches comprises various specialised yet overlapping scientific disciplines that often possess their own nomenclature and expertise. Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.
+
+=== Natural ===
+Natural science is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. These two branches may be further divided into more specialised disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science. Modern natural science is the successor to the natural philosophy that began in Ancient Greece. Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches that were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and other biotic beings. Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.
+
+=== Social ===
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 5/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Social science is the study of human behaviour and the functioning of societies. It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology, economics, history, human geography, political science, psychology, and sociology. In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research programmes such as the functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists in sociology. Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the historical method, case studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes.
+
+=== Formal ===
+Formal science is an area of study that generates knowledge using formal systems. A formal system is an abstract structure used for inferring theorems from axioms according to a set of rules. It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts. The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science. Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. Calculus, for example, was initially invented to understand motion in physics. Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include mathematical physics, chemistry, biology, finance, and economics.
+
+=== Applied ===
+Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies. Science may contribute to the development of new technologies. Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by maintaining and restoring health through the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of injury or disease.
+
+=== Basic ===
+The applied sciences are often contrasted with the basic sciences, which are focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict events in the natural world.
+
+=== Blue skies ===
+
+=== Computational ===
+Computational science applies computer simulations to science, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of machine learning and artificial intelligence is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science, for example in agent-based computational economics, random forests, topic modelling and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.
+
+=== Interdisciplinary ===
+Interdisciplinary science involves the combination of two or more disciplines into one, such as bioinformatics, a combination of biology and computer science or cognitive sciences. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek period and it became popular again in the 20th century.
+
+== Research ==
+Scientific research can be labelled as either basic or applied research. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.
+
+=== Scientific method ===
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 6/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scientific research involves using the scientific method, which seeks to objectively explain the events of nature in a reproducible way. Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by natural laws; these laws were discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Mathematics is essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting measurements. Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.
+In the scientific method an explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using parsimony principles and is expected to seek consilience – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question. This tentative explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causal relationships to avoid the correlation fallacy, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate.
+When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory it is modified or discarded. If the hypothesis survives testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a validly reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behaviour of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behaviour of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus, a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a model, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation, and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation.
+While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another. Eliminating the bias can be achieved through transparency, careful experimental design, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results and conclusions. After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be. Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimising the effects of subjective and confirmation bias. Intersubjective verifiability, the ability to reach a consensus and reproduce results, is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.
+
+=== Literature ===
+
+Scientific research is published in a range of literature. Scientific journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, Journal des sçavans followed by Philosophical Transactions, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.
+Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific article. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population.
+
+== Philosophy ==
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 7/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalise observations. Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being Bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive method.  
+Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.
+Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation. 
+Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method. Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, trial and error,  covering all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.
+Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasises the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes, with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be things that should be ignored. Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.
+Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a logically consistent "portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. He characterised normal science as the process of observation and "puzzle solving", which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift. Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of relativism.
+Another approach often cited in debates of scientific scepticism against controversial movements like "creation science" is methodological naturalism. Naturalists maintain that a difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be restricted to natural explanations. Methodological naturalism maintains that science requires strict adherence to empirical study and independent verification.
+One question for philosophy of science is how scientific evidence and theories can lead to decisions. As the is-ought problem highlights, facts alone cannot tell us what we should do. This connects to the key concept of value-ladenness: how choices made on the basis of scientific findings depend on values.
+
+== Community ==
+The scientific community is a network of interacting scientists who conduct scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.
+
+=== Scientists ===
+
+Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest. Scientists may exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of public health, nations, the environment, or industries; other motivations include recognition by peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists study within specific areas of science in academic institutions, often obtaining advanced degrees in the process. Many scientists pursue careers in various fields such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organisations.
+Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions. Women have faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they have in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work. The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their traditional role as labourers within the domestic sphere.
+
+=== Learned societies ===
+
+Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance. Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline, profession, or group of related disciplines. Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election. Most scientific societies are nonprofit organisations, and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some societies act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest, or the collective interest of the membership.
+The professionalisation of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished academies of sciences such as the Italian Accademia dei Lincei in 1603, the British Royal Society in 1660, the French Academy of Sciences in 1666, the American National Academy of Sciences in 1863, the German Kaiser Wilhelm Society in 1911, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1949. International scientific organisations, such as the International Science Council, are devoted to international cooperation for science advancement.
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Awards ===
+Science awards are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry.
+
+== Society ==
+
+=== Funding and policies ===
+
+Funding of science is often through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP. In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10%, respectively, by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and the humanities. In less developed nations, the government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.
+Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the National Science Foundation in the United States, the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation in Australia, National Centre for Scientific Research in France, the Max Planck Society in Germany, and National Research Council in Spain. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-orientated corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities than research driven by curiosity.
+Science policy is concerned with policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including research funding, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public. Public policy can directly affect the funding of capital equipment and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organisations that fund research.
+
+=== Education and awareness ===
+
+Science education for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by online pedagogical content (for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Major organisations of scientists such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) consider the sciences to be a part of the liberal arts traditions of learning, along with philosophy and history. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the scientific method, units and methods of measurement, empiricism, a basic understanding of statistics (correlations, qualitative versus quantitative observations, aggregate statistics), and a basic understanding of core scientific fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, and computation. As a student advances into higher stages of formal education, the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.
+The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate may require considerable expertise regarding the matter. Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.
+Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. The science fiction genre, primarily speculative fiction, can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public. Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the Creative Writing Science resource developed through the Royal Literary Fund.
+
+=== Anti-science attitudes ===
+
+While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are sceptical about science. Examples are the common notion that COVID-19 is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021) or the belief that climate change is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020). Psychologists have pointed to several factors driving rejection of scientific results:
+
+Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or biased.
+Some marginalised social groups hold anti-science attitudes, in part because these groups have often been exploited in unethical experiments.
+Messages from scientists may contradict deeply held existing beliefs or morals.
+Anti-science attitudes often seem to be caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left. That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardise their social status.
+
+=== Politics ===
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+---
+title: "Science"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:13.302409+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and goals. Government, business and advocacy groups have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the politicisation of science such as anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests. Politicisation of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasises the uncertainty associated with the scientific evidence. Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalising on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence. Examples of issues that have involved the politicisation of science include the global warming controversy, health effects of pesticides, and health effects of tobacco.
+
+=== Challenges ===
+
+The replication crisis is an ongoing systemic crisis that affects parts of science. The results of a fraction of scientific studies have been proven to be unreproducible. The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. A 2026 replication study found low replication rates in social and behavioural sciences (business, economics, education, political science, psychology and sociology). The replication crisis represents an important body of research in metascience, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research, scientific integrity while reducing waste.
+The term scientific misconduct refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.
+An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science. Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult science" for cases in which researchers believe, and at a glance, look like they are doing science but lack the honesty to allow their results to be rigorously evaluated. Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones. Sometimes, research can be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas.
+There can also be an element of political bias or ideological bias in science. Scientists in some countries were found to have a bias in political party preferences compared to the general population.
+
+== See also ==
+List of scientific occupations
+List of years in science
+Scientific integrity
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+ The dictionary definition of science at Wiktionary
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+---
+title: "Scienticide"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:21.471840+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scienticide is a concept used to refer to various multifaceted processes or phenomena that lead to the harassment, reduction, or outright destruction of scientific and technological systems in some countries of the world, as well as the exile or abandonment of researchers from their places of training. These can occur for various reasons, such as wars, political repression, lack of opportunities, climate crises, foreign interventions, economic policies, or ideological persecution.
+
+
+== Etymology ==
+The term metaphorically refers to the "murder of science," as it combines the word *science* with the Latin suffix - *cidium*, which comes from the root *caedĕre* ("to kill"). A comparative use of the term has been proposed alongside "femicide", as part of policies aimed at eliminating the scientific and technological systems of a country.
+
+
+== History ==
+The first references to this concept using the English word "scienticide" date back to the 1990s when it was used to refer to the destruction of the network of educational, scientific, and research institutions created by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia between 1942 and 1945. The educational system established was systematically attacked by the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland, commonly known as *Chetniks*, a nationalist, conservative, and Serbian monarchist guerrilla organization. This harassment was referred to as a true scienticide. The term was also used to describe the persecution, murder, or imprisonment in concentration camps of many genetic scientists—such as Nikolai Vavilov— by the former Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s.
+Years later, this term was used in Portuguese in 2014 to criticize government policies in Portugal related to cuts of 82 million euros from science, driven by then Minister of Education and Science, which was labeled "scienticide" by the opposition.
+In Spanish, the concept gained relevance when it began to be formulated and extensively used within Argentine academic circles to refer to and oppose budget cuts and their negative effects on the scientific-technological system that occurred starting in 2016 during Mauricio Macri's government. Thus, during these years, several publications emerged; the first within a free chair at a national university, in newspapers, academic books, and scientific publications. During this period, the concept and word were used as a slogan by those affected by these policies. Subsequently, its use expanded to encompass both loss of sovereignty and neoliberal policies in Latin America, as well as what is commonly referred to as "infocognitive extractivism" of highly qualified scientific personnel by first-world scientific centers, linking it to what is commonly known as "brain drain". A similar process occurred in Brazil during these years when it was described as "scienticides".
+At an international level, the term was not significantly used until the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, which significantly affected science in that country. This greater dissemination occurred following an article in *Nature*, which echoed accusations made by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine against Russia for the deliberate destruction of science in Ukraine. This process was described with the concept of "scienticide". In this latter case, in addition to the intentional destruction of a large amount of scientific infrastructure, by March 2024 at least 124 scientists had been counted as dead during the war; 12% of scientists from Ukraine had emigrated to other countries; while 1,443 scientific buildings had been damaged.
+At the same time, in 2024 the concept was forcefully used again in Argentina due to disinvestment policies affecting the scientific-technological system and verbal attacks against the scientific community by President Javier Milei on different occasions. This was described in multiple national and international media outlets. At the same time, there has been an increase in persecution against scientists and researchers for ideological reasons. Important international science and technology journals such as Nature and Science have referred to this issue. The latter journal placed Argentina alongside other countries experiencing brain drain for various reasons such as Syria, Turkey, Ethiopia, Iran, Afghanistan, and Ukraine.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md
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+---
+title: "Scientific lacuna"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:22.563374+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scientific lacuna describes an area of science that has not been studied but has the potential to be studied scientifically. Often, this may be the case because it falls between different areas of sciences, such that it doesn't fall into a single specific discipline of science. However, it also may be the case that the right situation for study has not yet occurred, or the conditions for study have been too ephemeral. Scientific lacunae often have the potential to be studied in the future when more areas of sciences are explicitly defined or the right conditions do occur, yet this can be made difficult if the area of science is commonly not considered a proper area for scientific study.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Scientism"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T02:56:23.727176+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scientism is the belief that science and the scientific method are the best or only way to render truth about the world and reality.
+While the term was defined originally to mean "methods and attitudes typical of or attributed to natural scientists", some scholars, as well as political and religious leaders, have also adopted it as a pejorative term with the meaning "an exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the methods of natural science applied to all areas of investigation (as in philosophy, the social sciences, and the humanities)".
+
+== Overview ==
+Francis Bacon has been viewed by some scholars as an early proponent of scientism, but this is a modern assertion as Bacon was a devout Anglican, writing in his Essays, "a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion."
+With respect to the philosophy of science, the term scientism frequently implies a critique of the more extreme expressions of logical positivism and has been used by social scientists such as Friedrich Hayek, philosophers of science such as Karl Popper, and philosophers such as Mary Midgley, the later Hilary Putnam, and Tzvetan Todorov to describe (for example) the dogmatic endorsement of scientific methods and the reduction of all knowledge to only that which is measured or confirmatory.
+More generally, scientism is often interpreted as science applied "in excess". This use of the term scientism has two senses:
+
+The improper use of science or scientific claims. This usage applies equally in contexts where science might not apply, such as when the topic is perceived as beyond the scope of scientific inquiry, and in contexts where there is insufficient empirical evidence to justify a scientific conclusion. It includes an excessive deference to the claims of scientists or an uncritical eagerness to accept any result described as scientific. This can be a counterargument to appeals to scientific authority. It can also address attempts to apply natural science methods and claims of certainty to the social sciences, which Friedrich Hayek described in The Counter-Revolution of Science (1952) as being impossible, because those methods attempt to eliminate the "human factor", while social sciences (including his own topic of economics) mainly concern the study of human action.
+"The belief that the methods of natural science, or the categories and things recognized in natural science, form the only proper elements in any philosophical or other inquiry", or that "science, and only science, describes the world as it is in itself, independent of perspective" with a concomitant "elimination of the psychological [and spiritual] dimensions of experience". Tom Sorell provides this definition: "Scientism is a matter of putting too high a value on natural science in comparison with other branches of learning or culture." Philosophers such as Alexander Rosenberg have also adopted "scientism" as a name for the opinion that science is the only reliable source of knowledge.
+It is also sometimes used to describe the universal applicability of the scientific method, and the opinion that empirical science constitutes the most authoritative worldview or the most valuable part of human learning, sometimes to the complete exclusion of other opinions, such as historical, philosophical, economic or cultural opinions. It has been defined as "the view that the characteristic inductive methods of the natural sciences are the only source of genuine factual knowledge and, in particular, that they alone can yield true knowledge about man and society". The term scientism is also used by historians, philosophers, and cultural critics to highlight the possible dangers of lapses towards excessive reductionism with respect to all topics of human knowledge.
+For social theorists practising the tradition of Max Weber, such as Jürgen Habermas and Max Horkheimer, the concept of scientism relates significantly to the philosophy of positivism, but also to the cultural rationalization for modern Western civilization. Ernesto Sabato, physicist and essayist, wrote in his 1951 essay Hombres y engranajes ("Man and mechanism") of the "superstition of science" as the most contradictory of all superstitions, since this would be the "superstition that one should not be superstitious". He wrote: "science had become a new magic and the man in the street believed in it the more the less he understood it".
+
+== Definitions ==
+Reviewing the references to scientism in the works of contemporary scholars in 2003, Gregory R. Peterson detected two main general themes:
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+It is used to criticize a totalizing opinion of science as if it were capable of describing all reality and knowledge, or as if it were the only true method to acquire knowledge about reality and the nature of things;
+It is used, often pejoratively, to denote violations by which the theories and methods of one (scientific) discipline are applied inappropriately to another (scientific or non-scientific) discipline and its domain. An example of this second usage is to term as scientism any attempt to claim science as the only or primary source of human values (a traditional domain of ethics) or as the source of meaning and purpose (a traditional domain of religion and related worldviews).
+The term scientism was popularized by F. A. Hayek, who defined it in 1942 as the "slavish imitation of the method and language of Science".
+Mathematician Alexander Grothendieck, in his 1971 essay "The New Universal Church", characterized scientism as a religion-like ideology that advocates scientific reductionism, scientific authoritarianism, political technocracy and technological salvation, while denying the epistemological validity of feelings and experiences such as love, emotion, beauty and fulfillment. He predicted that "in coming years, the chief political dividing line will fall less and less among the traditional division between 'right' and 'left', but increasingly between the adherents of scientism, who advocate 'technological progress at any price', and their opponents, i.e., roughly speaking, those who regard the enhancement of life, in all its richness and variety, as being the supreme value".
+E. F. Schumacher, in his A Guide for the Perplexed (1977), criticized scientism as an impoverished world view confined solely to what can be counted, measured and weighed. "The architects of the modern worldview, notably Galileo and Descartes, assumed that those things that could be weighed, measured, and counted were more true than those that could not be quantified. If it couldn't be counted, in other words, it didn't count."
+In 1979, Karl Popper defined scientism as "the aping of what is widely mistaken for the method of science".
+In 2003, Mikael Stenmark proposed the expression scientific expansionism as a synonym of scientism. In the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, he wrote that, while the doctrines that are described as scientism have many possible forms and varying degrees of ambition, they share the idea that the boundaries of science (that is, typically the natural sciences) could and should be expanded so that something that has not been previously considered as a subject pertinent to science can now be understood as part of science (usually with science becoming the sole or the main arbiter regarding this area or dimension). According to Stenmark, the strongest form of scientism states that science does not have any boundaries and that all human problems and all aspects of human endeavor, with due time, will be dealt with and solved by science alone. This idea has also been termed the myth of progress.
+Intellectual historian T. J. Jackson Lears argued in 2013 that there has been a recent reemergence of "nineteenth-century positivist faith that a reified 'science' has discovered (or is about to discover) all the important truths about human life. Precise measurement and rigorous calculation, in this view, are the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies." Lears specifically identified Harvard psychologist Steven Pinker's work as falling in this category. Philosophers John N. Gray and Thomas Nagel have made similar criticisms against popular works by moral psychologist Jonathan Haidt, atheist author Sam Harris, and writer Malcolm Gladwell.
+
+=== Strong and weak scientism ===
+There are various ways of classifying kinds of scientism. Some authors distinguish between strong and weak scientism, as follows:
+
+Strong scientism: "of all the knowledge we have, scientific knowledge is the only 'real knowledge'" (Moti Mizrahi), or, "the view that some proposition or theory is true and/or rational to believe if and only if it is a scientific proposition or theory" (J. P. Moreland), or, "only science yields epistemically credible data" (Michael W. Austin)
+Weak scientism: "of all the knowledge we have, scientific knowledge is the best knowledge" (Moti Mizrahi), or, "science is the most valuable, most serious, and most authoritative sector of human learning" (J. P. Moreland), or, "scientific knowledge claims are the most credible knowledge claims" (Michael W. Austin)
+A 2023 research article by Rik Peels in the journal Interdisciplinary Science Reviews explores the concept of scientism, defining it as the belief that science is the only means of obtaining knowledge and truth. Peels distinguishes between weak scientism, which limits the validity of science to specific areas, and strong scientism, which extends this validity to all fields of knowledge. The author argues that strong scientism is untenable and self-confuting because science itself is based on common sense assumptions and non-scientific principles. He proposes that scientism can be considered a form of fundamentalism, characterized by a Manichean narrative that is reactive against other sources of knowledge. The article suggests that science can learn from mainstream religion when it comes to scientific fundamentalism, by promoting a more open and tolerant approach to other forms of knowledge.
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+
+== Relevance to debates about science and religion ==
+Both religious and non-religious scholars have applied the term scientism to individuals associated with New Atheism. Theologian John Haught argued that philosopher Daniel Dennett and other New Atheists subscribe to a belief system of scientific naturalism, which includes the dogma that "only nature, including humans and our creations, is real: that God does not exist; and that science alone can give us complete and reliable knowledge of reality." Haught argued that this belief system is self-refuting since it requires its adherents to assent to beliefs that violate its own stated requirements for knowledge. Christian philosopher Peter Williams argued in 2013 that it is only by conflating science with scientism that New Atheists feel qualified to "pontificate on metaphysical issues". Daniel Dennett responded to religious criticism of his 2006 book Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon by saying that accusations of scientism "[are] an all-purpose, wild-card smear ... When someone puts forward a scientific theory that [religious critics] really don't like, they just try to discredit it as 'scientism'. But when it comes to facts, and explanations of facts, science is the only game in town".
+Non-religious scholars have also associated New Atheist thought with scientism and/or with positivism. Atheist philosopher Thomas Nagel argued that philosopher Sam Harris conflated all empirical knowledge with scientific knowledge. Marxist literary critic Terry Eagleton argued that Christopher Hitchens possessed an "old-fashioned scientistic notion of what counts as evidence" that reduces knowledge to what can and cannot be proven by scientific procedure. Agnostic philosopher Anthony Kenny has also criticized New Atheist philosopher Alexander Rosenberg's The Atheist's Guide to Reality for resurrecting a self-refuting epistemology of logical positivism and reducing all knowledge of the universe to the discipline of physics.
+Michael Shermer, founder of The Skeptics Society, discussed resemblances between scientism and traditional religions, indicating the cult of personality that develops for some scientists.  He defined scientism as a worldview that encompasses natural explanations, eschews supernatural and paranormal speculations, and embraces empiricism and reason.
+The Iranian scholar Seyyed Hossein Nasr has stated that in the Western world, many will accept the ideology of modern science, not as "simple ordinary science", but as a replacement for religion.
+Gregory R. Peterson wrote that "for many theologians and philosophers, scientism is among the greatest of intellectual sins". Genetic biologist Austin L. Hughes wrote in the conservative journal The New Atlantis that scientism has much in common with superstition: "the stubborn insistence that something ... has powers which no evidence supports."
+Repeating common criticisms of logical positivism and verificationism, philosopher of religion Keith Ward has said that scientism is philosophically inconsistent or even self-refuting, as the truth of the two statements "no statements are true unless they can be proven scientifically (or logically)" and "no statements are true unless they can be shown empirically to be true" cannot themselves be proven scientifically, logically, or empirically.
+
+== Philosophy of science ==
+
+=== Anti-scientism ===
+Philosopher Paul Feyerabend, who was an enthusiastic proponent of scientism during his youth, later came to characterize science as "an essentially anarchic enterprise" and argued emphatically that science merits no exclusive monopoly of "dealing in knowledge" and that scientists have never operated within a distinct and narrowly self-defined tradition. In his essay Against Method he depicted the process of contemporary scientific education as a mild form of indoctrination, intended for "making the history of science duller, simpler, more uniform, more 'objective' and more easily accessible to treatment by strict and unchanging rules".
+
+[S]cience can stand on its own feet and does not need any help from rationalists, secular humanists, Marxists and similar religious movements; and ... non-scientific cultures, procedures and assumptions can also stand on their own feet and should be allowed to do so ... Science must be protected from ideologies; and societies, especially democratic societies, must be protected from science ... In a democracy scientific institutions, research programmes, and suggestions must therefore be subjected to public control, there must be a separation of state and science just as there is a separation between state and religious institutions, and science should be taught as one view among many and not as the one and only road to truth and reality.
+
+=== Pro-scientism ===
+Physicist and philosopher Mario Bunge used the term scientism with a favorable rather than pejorative sense in numerous books published during several decades, and in articles with titles such as "In Defense of Realism and Scientism" and "In Defense of Scientism". Bunge said that scientism should not be equated with inappropriate reductionism, and he dismissed critics of science such as Hayek and Habermas as dogmatists and obscurantists:
+
+To innovate in the young sciences it is necessary to adopt scientism. This is the methodological thesis that the best way of exploring reality is to adopt the scientific method, which may be boiled down to the rule "Check your guesses." Scientism has been explicitly opposed by dogmatists and obscurantists of all stripes, such as the neoliberal ideologist Friedrich von Hayek and the "critical theorist" Jürgen Habermas, a ponderous writer who managed to amalgamate Hegel, Marx, and Freud, and decreed that "science is the ideology of late capitalism."
+In 2018, philosophers Maarten Boudry and Massimo Pigliucci co-edited a book titled Science Unlimited? The Challenges of Scientism in which a number of chapters by philosophers and scientists defended scientism. In his chapter "Two Cheers for Scientism", Taner Edis wrote:
+
+It is defensible to claim that scientific, philosophical, and humanistic forms of knowledge are continuous, and that a broadly naturalistic description of our world centered on natural science is correct ... At the very least, such views are legitimate—they may be mistaken, but not because of an elementary error, a confusion of science with ideology, or an offhand dismissal of the humanities. Those of us who argue for such a view are entitled to have two cheers for an ambitious conception of science; and if that is scientism, so be it.
+
+== Rhetoric of science ==
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+Thomas M. Lessl argued that religious themes persist in what he terms scientism, the public rhetoric of science. There are two methods of describing this idea of scientism: the epistemological method (the assumption that the scientific method trumps other ways of knowing) and the ontological method (that the rational mind represents the world and both operate in knowable ways). According to Lessl, the ontological method is an attempt to "resolve the conflict between rationalism and skepticism". Lessl also argued that without scientism, there would not be a scientific culture.
+
+== Rationalization and modernity ==
+
+In the introduction to his collected works on the sociology of religion, Max Weber asked why "the scientific, the artistic, the political, or the economic development [elsewhere] ... did not enter upon that path of rationalization which is peculiar to the Occident?" According to the German social theorist Jürgen Habermas, "For Weber, the intrinsic (that is, not merely contingent) relationship between modernity and what he called 'Occidental rationalism' was still self-evident." Weber described a process of rationalisation, disenchantment and the "disintegration of religious world views" that resulted in modern secular societies and capitalism.
+
+"Modernization" was introduced as a technical term only in the 1950s. It is the mark of a theoretical approach that takes up Weber's problem but elaborates it with the tools of social-scientific functionalism ... The theory of modernization performs two abstractions on Weber's concept of "modernity". It dissociates "modernity" from its modern European origins and stylizes it into a spatio-temporally neutral model for processes of social development in general. Furthermore, it breaks the internal connections between modernity and the historical context of Western rationalism, so that processes of modernization ... [are] no longer burdened with the idea of a completion of modernity, that is to say, of a goal state after which "postmodern" developments would have to set in. ... Indeed it is precisely modernization research that has contributed to the currency of the expression "postmodern" even among social scientists.
+Habermas is critical of pure instrumental rationality, arguing that the "Social Life–World" of subjective experiencing is better suited to literary expression. Where the sciences select experiences that can be expressed in formal language using general definitions, the literary arts select private, unrepeatable experiences where definitions are generated through "intersubjectivity of mutual understanding in each concrete case". Habermas quoted writer Aldous Huxley in order to juxtapose the "social life-world" and the "worldless universe of facts" underscoring the duality of literature and science:
+
+The world with which literature deals is the world in which human beings are born and live and finally die; the world in which they love and hate, in which they experience triumph and humiliation, hope and despair; the world of sufferings and enjoyments, of madness and common sense, of silliness, cunning and wisdom; the world of social pressures and individual impulses, of reason against passion, of instincts and conventions, of shared language and unsharable feelings and sensations.
+[...]
+
+[The scientist] is the inhabitant of a radically different universe--not the universe of given appearances, but the world of inferred fine structures, not the experienced world of unique events and diverse qualities, but the world of quantified regularities.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Feyerabend, Paul (1993) [First published 1975], Against Method (3rd ed.), Verso, ISBN 978-0-86091-646-8.
+Haack, Susan (2012). "Six Signs of Scientism". Logos & Episteme. 3 (1): 75–95. doi:10.5840/logos-episteme20123151. We need to avoid both under-estimating the value of science, and over-estimating it. ... One side too hastily dismisses science; the other too hastily defers to it. My present concern, of course, is with the latter failing. It is worth noting that the English word 'scientism' wasn't always, as it is now, pejorative.
+Mizrahi, Moti (July 2017). "What's So Bad About Scientism?". Social Epistemology. 31 (4): 351–367. doi:10.1080/02691728.2017.1297505. S2CID 151762259. I have argued that scientism should be understood as the thesis that scientific knowledge is the best knowledge we have, i.e., weak scientism. I have shown that scientific knowledge can be said to be better than non-scientific knowledge both quantitatively and qualitatively.
+Peterson, Gregory R (2003), "Demarcation and the Scientistic Fallacy", Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science, 38 (4): 751–61, doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2003.00536.x, the best way to understand the charge of scientism is as a kind of logical fallacy involving improper usage of science or scientific claims.
+Ridder, Jeroen de; Peels, Rik; Woudenberg, René van, eds. (2018). Scientism: Prospects and Problems. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190462758.001.0001. ISBN 978-0190462758. OCLC 949911467. This collection is one of the first to develop and assess scientism as a serious philosophical position.
+
+== External links ==
+
+CS Lewis: Science and Scientism, Lewis society, 9 April 2018.
+Burnett, "What is Scientism?", Community dialogue, American Association for the Advancement of Science, archived from the original on 2012-07-02.
+"Science and Scientism", Monopolizing knowledge (World Wide Web log), The Biologos Foundation, archived from the original on 2015-04-27, retrieved 2012-07-29.
+Martin, Eric C. "Science and Ideology § Science as Ideology: Scientism". In Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley (eds.). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002. OCLC 37741658.
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