From a513e0480c18a12606fdbb4d71d57ea17efe5836 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: turtle89431 Date: Mon, 4 May 2026 21:18:08 -0700 Subject: [PATCH] Scrape wikipedia-science: 940 new, 940 updated, 1931 total (kb-cron) --- _index.db | Bin 13500416 -> 13639680 bytes .../wiki/Homosexual_seduction-0.md | 17 ++++ .../wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md | 25 ++++++ .../wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md | 12 +++ .../wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md | 23 ++++++ ...azar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-0.md | 24 ++++++ ...azar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-1.md | 22 +++++ ...azar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-2.md | 24 ++++++ ...azar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-3.md | 27 +++++++ ...azar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-4.md | 24 ++++++ ...azar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-5.md | 21 +++++ ...azar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-6.md | 20 +++++ ...azar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-7.md | 52 ++++++++++++ .../en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones-0.md | 46 +++++++++++ .../Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-0.md | 19 +++++ .../Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-1.md | 19 +++++ .../Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-2.md | 31 ++++++++ .../Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-3.md | 20 +++++ .../Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-4.md | 28 +++++++ .../Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-5.md | 21 +++++ .../wiki/List_of_scientific_debates-0.md | 64 +++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Materialism_controversy-0.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Materialism_controversy-1.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Materialism_controversy-2.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Materialism_controversy-3.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Materialism_controversy-4.md | 2 +- .../wiki/Materialism_controversy-5.md | 2 +- data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-0.md | 27 +++++++ data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-1.md | 44 ++++++++++ .../wiki/National_character-0.md | 19 +++++ .../wiki/Near-death_experience-0.md | 75 ++++++++++++++++++ .../wiki/Near-death_experience-1.md | 38 +++++++++ .../wiki/Near-death_experience-2.md | 33 ++++++++ .../wiki/Near-death_experience-3.md | 28 +++++++ .../wiki/Near-death_experience-4.md | 32 ++++++++ .../wiki/Near-death_experience-5.md | 34 ++++++++ .../wiki/Near-death_experience-6.md | 37 +++++++++ .../wiki/Near-death_experience-7.md | 58 ++++++++++++++ .../wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-0.md | 37 +++++++++ .../wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-1.md | 34 ++++++++ 40 files changed, 1041 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-) create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-2.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-3.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-4.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-5.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-6.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-7.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-2.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-3.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-4.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-5.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-0.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-1.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-2.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-3.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-4.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-5.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-6.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-7.md create mode 100644 data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-0.md 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"reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:55.742026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Homosexual seduction is the pseudoscientific conspiracy theory which suggests homosexuality is spread through intergenerational sex, and that older homosexuals aim to change the sexual orientation of previously heterosexual youth by seducing them. It is related to the LGBT grooming conspiracy theory, the discredited acquired homosexuality theory, the gay agenda conspiracy theory, and the drag panic phenomenon. +The idea of homosexual seduction, or that sexuality can be changed, has been debunked multiple times in psychological academic discourse. Although scientific research shows that LGBT people do not molest children at higher rates than heterosexuals, anti-LGBT groups have pushed the purported link in popular culture over multiple decades going back to the times before World War II. The allegation that having an LGBT identity is caused by, causes, or otherwise contributes to pedophilia has continued as a matter of ideological faith into the 21st century. +In 2010, 13 US organizations, including the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), signed an open letter which opposed attempts by anti-LGBT groups to promote this conspiracy theory, in order to "protect the safety and emotional well-being of students", including those who are LGBT. According to Sarah Kate Ellis, head of the LGBTQ advocacy group GLAAD, this conspiracy theory has already caused an "uptick in violence against the [LGBT] community." + +== Scientific background == +Scientific research has shown that LGBT people do not molest children at higher rates than people who are not LGBT. Scientists do not view sexual orientation as a choice. Although there is not yet complete understanding of the causes of sexual orientation, the evidence supporting biological causes is much stronger than that supporting social factors, and there is little or no evidence supporting the theory that homosexuality can be acquired through social or sexual contact with homosexual adults. Evidence for the impact of the post-natal social environment and early childhood experiences on sexual orientation is also weak, especially for males. In contrast, there is evidence that homosexual attractions precede behavior, usually by a few years. +Research has also shown that people who possess negative attitudes towards homosexuals are more prone to believe that homosexuality is the result of social influences, such as early sexual experiences. Bailey et al. state, "a belief in the recruitment hypothesis has often been associated with strongly negative attitudes toward homosexual people", and those who make this argument generally do not explain an empirical basis for this belief. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..66c5b8ff6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Homosexual seduction" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:55.742026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== History == +The theory originated in the early 20th century's work of German psychologists such as Albert Moll and Emil Kraepelin on adolescent sexuality, and was used in the early work attempting to explain the phenomenon of male prostitution. It played an important role in population regeneration efforts after the First World War in Germany and informed homophobic policies in Nazi Germany. +In the 19th century, German psychologists Magnus Hirschfeld and Karl Heinrich Ulrichs had argued for the inborn nature of homosexuality. Challenging the idea of inborn and fixed sexuality, Sigmund Freud theorised that humans were inherently bisexual, and then became either heterosexual or homosexual as a result of childhood experiences. Freud argued that same-sex attraction and experimentation were essential parts of development, with heterosexuality being the preferable outcome. Although he argued that homosexuality should not be thought of as an illness, his focus on how the social environment may shift sexual identity inspired theories behind homosexual seduction. +Opposing the inborn nature of sexuality put forward by Hirschfeld and Ulrichs, other psychologists including Max Dessoir, Albert Moll and Emil Kraepelin built on Freud's conception of teenage sexuality as indeterminate and susceptible to social influence. They recognised that same-sex activities such as kisses and hugs formed an integral part of development, but felt these acts should stop as young people come of age. They argued that if vulnerable adolescents came in contact with same-sex seduction, homosexual attraction might become permanently fixed. This painted homosexual seduction as a danger to young people. +In Germany in the 1920s, there was concern about the First World War's detrimental psychological effects on men. The possible spread of homosexuality posed a threat to marriage and childbirth, which were both perceived as essential aspects of the regeneration of post-war society. Therefore, scholarship produced at the time aimed to prove that homosexuality was a threat to the regeneration of society but its spread could be stopped. +In the USSR in 1933, Article 121 was added to the entire Soviet Union criminal code, making male homosexuality a crime punishable by up to five years in prison with hard labor. Though the precise reason for Article 121 is in some dispute among historians, government statements made about the law tended to confuse homosexuality with pedophilia. The law remained intact until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union when it was repealed in 1993 by the Russian Federation. +In the post-war period, similar sentiments emerged in the USA; 21 states and the District of Columbia enacted laws between 1947 and 1955 which targeted gay and bisexual men as "sexual psychopaths". Many of these statutes conflated homosexuality with pedophilia. As part of the anti-communist "lavender scare," the 1950 Hoey committee wrote to and interviewed medical personnel to ascertain, among other things, whether homosexual people would seduce younger men and women. The committee's final report, Employment of Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts in Government, included the accusation that homosexuals were a risk to younger people, and that, "One homosexual can pollute a Government office." +By 1952, the first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, officially classified homosexuality as a "sociopathic personality disturbance." In her investigation into the lavender scare in Prologue Magazine, Judith Adkins claimed this framing contributed to increased persecution and prejudice in the following decades. +In 1958 to 1965, the Florida Legislative Investigation Committee, which had previously fought desegregation and attempted to investigate suspected communists, targeted LGBT+ people in Florida schools, arguing they were converting children to a homosexual lifestyle. Hugh Ryan has argued that it was common for racist groups to move onto LGBT+ people, under the guise of protecting children, when their campaigns against black people failed, saying, "They realize that this works, that this is the issue that will create a 'political moral majority.'" +In 1961, the dramatic short social guidance propaganda film Boys Beware was released through Sid Davis Productions with the cooperation of the city's police department and the Inglewood Unified School District. The film was narrated by a police detective on his way to a school meeting to discuss the issue of sexual predators who attempt to lure adolescent males. It attempted to educate about an alleged danger to young boys from predatory homosexuals. +In 1970, 70% of Americans surveyed believed that homosexuals posed a risk to children because of molestation. +In 1978, discredited psychologist Paul Cameron published Sexual Gradualism, in which he argued parents should allow children to explore heterosexual sex (short of intercourse) in order to prevent homosexuality. In 1982, when the Lincoln city council in Nebraska asked residents to vote on a proposal to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation, Cameron led the opposition as chairman of the committee to Oppose Special Rights for Homosexuals. Cameron delivered a speech at the University of Nebraska Lutheran chapel in which he stated that a four-year-old boy had suffered a brutal homosexual assault in a local mall; police were unable to confirm the incident, and Cameron acknowledged that he had heard the story only as a rumor. After Lincoln voters rejected the proposed measure by a 4–1 margin, Cameron established the Institute for the Scientific Investigation of Sexuality (ISIS), now known as the Family Research Institute (FRI), publishing many articles making unproven associations between homosexuality and the perpetration of child sexual abuse. These have been heavily criticized and frequently discredited by others in the field, often including false or unverifiable claims, and misrepresentations of evidence. +Anti-LGBT talking points re-entered partisan political campaigning in the 21st Century in response to growing acceptance of LGBT+ rights in the US and other countries, such as the legalization of same-sex marriage. + +== Legacy == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2beb1d4bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "Homosexual seduction" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:55.742026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The homosexual seduction theory, like the acquired homosexuality and LGBT grooming conspiracy theories, has subsequently been used in homophobic propaganda and by anti-LGBT rights groups to delay the progress of LGBT rights, by portraying homosexual men as "old perverts who prey on children". The theoretical link between homosexual men and predation or child abuse has permeated discussions about levelling the age of consent, anti-discrimination efforts, adoption and fostering rights, marriage equality, LGBT pride events, pediatric healthcare, and inclusion in sports and public spaces. It has created harmful stereotypes around gay and bisexual men, which have led to increasing and disproportionate numbers of anti-LGBT hate crimes, including violence and even mass murder. In some countries, it has also led to anti-LGBT legislation which criminalizes homosexuality; in Uganda, this may even result in a death sentence. According to Bryn Nelson in Scientific American, conspiracy theories based on pedophilia use disgust as a form of "stochastic terrorism", that incites audiences already primed for violence to target the subjects of those conspiracy theories. A 2020 paper by James A. Piazza found that there is a correlation between politicians sharing prejudicial views and rising domestic terrorism. Another study in Warsaw supported this view. The idea that homosexuality was spreading through intergenerational sex was a key argument behind the oppression and killing of homosexual people in Nazi Germany. Since organisations such as the Hitlerjugend and the SS consisted mostly of young men, the government cracked down heavily on 'moral corruption' as part of the Night of Long Knives and the Holocaust. The theoretical link between homosexual activity and predation has heavily influenced the LGBTQ+ community's battle for equal rights, and has been used in recent years to justify anti-LGBT legislation in countries such as Hungary and Russia. In the United Kingdom, the 1976 Sexual Offences Act partially decriminalised homosexuality, but set the homosexual age of consent at 21 years of age as opposed to 16 for heterosexual people. In Parliament, politicians often portrayed young people as vulnerable to homosexual seduction. For example, politicians argued that "sixteen is an extremely formative age....at 16, young people ... are unsure about themselves" (Earl Ferrers), and "those extra two years may well save [a boy] from becoming involved in a homosexual relationship which he might bitterly regret later in life" (Lord Gray of Contin). The homosexual age of consent in the United Kingdom was eventually made equal to the heterosexual age of consent in 2000. In 1977, Anita Bryant successfully campaigned to repeal an ordinance in Miami-Dade County that prohibited discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Her campaign was based upon allegations of homosexual recruitment. Writing about Bryant's efforts to repeal a Florida anti-discrimination law in the Journal of Social History, Michel Boucai wrote that "Bryant's organization, Save Our Children, framed the law as an endorsement of immorality and a license for 'recruitment'." Other people and organisations that were influenced by homosexual seduction theory include Judith Reisman, Paul Cameron, the Traditional Values Coalition and the Abiding Truth Ministries. In 1983, the Daily Mail reported that a copy of a book entitled Jenny lives with Eric and Martin, portraying a young girl who lives with her father and his male partner, was provided in a school library run by the Labour-controlled Inner London Education Authority. In reality the book found by the Daily Mail turned out to be in a ILEA teachers' resource centre and never seen or used by children. In 1986, UK tabloid The Sun described the children's book as a "vile" and "perverted" threat to British children. Of the incident, Colin Clew wrote, "To the British media, it was nothing more than a homosexual recruiting manual that sought to undermine Western civilisation as we know it." +By 1987, both the UK's right-wing media and the Conservative Party had begun increasingly criticizing the Labour Party for supporting minorities such as LGBT+ people, describing them as part of a "loony left" intent on destroying British values. Recounting the period, writer Matthew Todd argued that, "Thatcher presided over and took advantage of the most devastatingly homophobic time in recent British history" with the help of The Sun editor Kelvin MacKenzie, amounting to "a campaign of deeply unpleasant propaganda" which resulted in the passing of Section 28 in 1988. During a 1987 debate for Section 28, Dame Jill Knight of Collingtree said in Parliament, "Millions outside Parliament object to little children being perverted, diverted or converted from normal family life to a lifestyle which is desperately dangerous for society and extremely dangerous for them." Section 28 proposed a ban on local authorities "[promoting] the teaching in any maintained school of the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship" and was only repealed in 2003 (2000 in Scotland). It caused many organisations such as lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender student support groups to close, limit their activities or self-censor. Oregon's proposed 1992 Ballot Measure 9 contained language that would have added anti-LGBT rhetoric to the state Constitution. U.S. writer Judith Reisman justified her support for the measure, citing "a clear avenue for the recruitment of children" by LGBT+ people. A small newspaper in Uganda's capital attracted international attention in 2010 when it outed 100 gay people alongside a banner that said, "Hang them", and claimed that homosexuals aimed to "recruit" Ugandan children, and that schools had "been penetrated by gay activists to recruit kids." According to gay rights activists, many Ugandans were attacked afterward as a result of their real or perceived sexual orientation. Minorities activist David Kato, who was outed in the article and a co-plaintiff in the lawsuit against the paper, was subsequently murdered at home by an intruder and an international outcry resulted. In 1998, The Onion parodied the idea of "homosexual recruitment" in an article titled "'98 Homosexual-Recruitment Drive Nearing Goal", saying "Spokespersons for the National Gay & Lesbian Recruitment Task Force announced Monday that more than 288,000 straights have been converted to homosexuality since January 1, 1998, putting the group well on pace to reach its goal of 350,000 conversions by the end of the year." According to Mimi Marinucci, most US adults who support gay rights would recognize the story as satire due to unrealistic details. The Westboro Baptist Church passed along the story as fact, citing it as evidence of a gay conspiracy. Recent protests and attacks against drag queens have cited a variation of the homosexual seduction theory as a reason for their opposition; neo-Nazis in Florida have also used this to recruit new members. Due to the increasing attention paid to drag performers since 2019, right-wing figures such as Chaya Raichik, Matt Walsh, Tucker Carlson, Michael Knowles, Dennis Prager, Candace Owens, and Ben Shapiro, began to link drag queens to the LGBT grooming conspiracy theory, calling to limit their visibility. In subsequent years, some of the states of the United States of America (with a Republican majority) proposed and approved various laws with the aim of limiting the performances of drag queens in public and prevent them performing for audiences which include children. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0889b8745 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Homosexual seduction" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:55.742026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Utah state Senator Daniel Thatcher has said of the homosexual seduction trope, "This idea of grooming, I'll tell ya, to me — as a survivor of childhood sexual assault — I'll just tell ya, I find it personally deeply offensive." + +== See also == +LGBT grooming conspiracy theory +Acquired homosexuality +Gay agenda +Anti-LGBT rhetoric +Environment and sexual orientation +Conversion therapy +Growing Up Straight +Pederasty + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cf86387ad --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry" +chunk: 1/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:58.212648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry, often called the Khazar myth by its critics, is a largely abandoned historical hypothesis that postulated that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from converts to Judaism among the Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and central Caucasus and the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the late 6th century CE. It is still sometimes used in antisemitic conspiracy theories and in various anti-Zionist approaches. +The hypothesis draws on medieval sources such as the Khazar Correspondence, according to which at some point in the 8th–9th centuries, a small number of Khazars were said by Judah Halevi and Abraham ibn Daud to have converted to Rabbinic Judaism. The hypothesis also postulates that after collapse of the Khazar empire, the Khazars fled to Eastern Europe and made up a large part of the Jews there. The scope of the conversion within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain, but the evidence used to tie the subsequent Ashkenazi communities to the Khazars is meager and subject to conflicting interpretations. +Speculation that Europe's Jewish population originated among the Khazars has persisted for two centuries, from at least as early as 1808. In the late 19th century, Ernest Renan and other scholars speculated that the Ashkenazi Jews of Europe originated among refugees who had migrated from the collapsed Khazarian Khanate westward into Europe. Though intermittently evoked by several scholars since that time, the Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication of Arthur Koestler's The Thirteenth Tribe in 1976. It has been revived recently by geneticist Eran Elhaik, who in 2013 conducted a study aiming to vindicate it. +Genetic studies on Jews have found no substantive evidence of a Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Geneticists such as Doron Behar and others (2013) have concluded that such a link is unlikely, noting that it is difficult to test the Khazar hypothesis using genetics because there is lack of clear modern descendants of the Khazars that could provide a clear test of the contribution to Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry, but found no genetic markers in Ashkenazi Jews that would link them to peoples of the Caucasus/Khazar area. Gil Atzmon et al. found evidence that the Ashkenazi have mixed Near Eastern and Southern European/Mediterranean origins, though some admixture with Khazar and Slavic populations after 100 CE was not excluded. Xue et al. note a wholly Khazar/Turkish/Middle Eastern origin is out of the question, given the complexity of Ashkenazi admixtures. +Some anti-Zionists have cited the Khazar hypothesis in an attempt to discredit the claim by modern Jews to the Land of Israel. The Khazar hypothesis is also sometimes cited in antisemitic arguments promoted by adherents of various movements and ideologies to express the belief that modern Jews are not true descendants of the Israelites. + +== History == + +=== 1806–1918 === +Lawrence J. Epstein attributes to the Ukrainian Rabbi Isaac Baer Levinsohn (1788–1860) the first reference of a connection between the Ashkenazi Jews and the Khazars. According to Jacob S. Raisin, Levinsohn expressed the opinion that Russian Jews hailed from the banks of the Volga. Levinsohn wrote in 1828: + +Our elders told us that some generations earlier the Jews in these parts spoke only this Russian language, and this Ashkenazi Jewish language we speak now had not yet spread among all the Jews living in these regions. +The hypothesis was advanced nonetheless earlier, in 1808, by Johann Ewers in his Vom Ursprung des russischen Staats ("On the origins of the Russian state") in the context of an early controversy over the foundations of the Russian state, which pitted scholars espousing a Norman origin for the Varangians against those who argued that these founders of the Kievan Rus' were Slavic and indigenous. Ewers proposed the idea that the Viking/Varangian founders were in fact Khazars. The Russian historian Nikolay Karamzin advanced the claim, asserting that considerable numbers of Khazars had left Khazaria for Kievan Rus' in the time of Vladimir I (980–1015). The German Orientalist Karl Neumann suggested as early as 1847 that the migration of Khazars might have contributed to the formation of the core population of the Jews of Eastern Europe, without however specifying whether he was referring to Judaizing Turks or ethnic Jewish residents of Khazaria. +Subsequently, Abraham Eliyahu Harkavi suggested in 1869 that there might be a link between the Khazars and European Jews. Three years later, however, in 1872, a Crimean Karaite, Abraham Firkovich, alternatively proclaimed that the members of his Turkic-speaking sect were descended from Turkic converts to Judaism. This hypothesis, that the descendants of Khazar converts to Judaism formed a major proportion of Ashkenazim, was first proposed to a Western public by Ernest Renan in 1883. In a lecture delivered in Paris before the Saint-Simon Foundation on 27 January 1883, Renan argued that conversion played a significant role in the formation of the Jewish people, stating that: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..78c1b64d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry" +chunk: 2/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:58.212648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This conversion of the kingdom of the Khazars has a considerable importance regarding the origin of those Jews who dwell in the countries along the Danube and southern Russia. These regions enclose great masses of Jewish populations which have in all probability nothing or almost nothing that is anthropologically Jewish in them. +According to Mari Réthelyi, a Jewish studies teacher writing in the journal Hungarian Cultural Studies, many Hungarian Jews in the late nineteenth century, responding to Magyarization and to Hungarian antisemitism, took up the theory, proposed by Rabbi Samuel Kohn in 1884, that Hungarian Jews, like Hungarian Christians, shared a common ethnic descent from the intermarriage of Khazars and Magyars. +Renan's thesis found an echo soon after, in 1885, when Isidore Loeb, a rabbi, historian and secretary of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, arguing for the cause of Jewish emancipation, challenged the notion that nations were based on races, and the Jews therefore, could be excluded as alien. To the contrary, he argued, they were no different from other peoples and nations, all of which arose from miscegenation: the Jews were no exception, and one could assume, he added, that many German and Russian Jews descended from the Khazars. Similarly, in 1893, Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, a critic of antisemitism who drew on Renan, queried whether or not thousands of Polish and Russian Jews might have their origins traced back to the "old nomads of the steppes". +Other scholars, such as Joseph Jacobs (1886), expressed scepticism. +The Russian-Jewish physician and physical anthropologist Samuel Weissenberg (1867–1928), using physical measurements of 1,350 Jews in his home town of Elizavetgrad, challenged the idea that east European Jews originated, like German Jews, as migrants from medieval France. Jewish settlement in eastern Europe took place very early, and these rooted eastern communities readily accepted into their midst Khazars who had converted, absorbing many thousands into the Kievan empire. The theory implied Jewish culture predated the rise of Russia, an implication which led Stalin decades later to ban Khazar studies in the Soviet Union. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840), a pioneer of race science and physical anthropology, had argued earlier that the origins of the "European" race lay in the Caucasus. In this context, Weissenberg's formulation, in identifying Eastern Jews as descendants of an intermixture of Jews with the Caucasian Khazars, presented the eastern Jews, long thought inferior or less noble than Western Sephardic Jews, as the authentic, veritable heirs of a European Jewish tradition. In 1903, Maksymilian Ernest Gumplowicz (1864–1897), in his posthumous treatise entitled The beginnings of Jewish religion in Poland, examined traces of Khazar elements in early Polish history. +In 1909 Hugo von Kutschera developed the notion into a book-length study, arguing that Khazars formed the foundational core of the modern Ashkenazi. Maurice Fishberg introduced the notion to an American audience in 1911 in his book The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment. +When at the Versailles Peace Conference, a Jewish Zionist called Palestine the land of the Jewish people's ancestors, Joseph Reinach, a French Jewish member of parliament who was opposed to Zionism, dismissed the idea, arguing that Jews descended from Israelites were a tiny minority. In his view, conversion had played a major role in the expansion of the Jewish people, and, in addition, he claimed, the majority of "Russian, Polish and Galician Jews descend from the Khazars, a Tatar people from the south of Russia who converted to Judaism en masse at the time of Charlemagne." + +=== Interwar years, 1918–1939 === +The idea was also taken up by the Polish-Jewish economic historian and General Zionist Yitzhak Schipper in 1918, by the Harvard anthropologist Roland B. Dixon (1923) and writer H. G. Wells (1921), who used it to argue that "The main part of Jewry never was in Judea", a thesis that was to have a political echo in later opinion. In 1931 Sigmund Freud wrote to Max Eitingon that the sculptor Oscar Nemon, for whom he was sitting, showed the lineaments of a "Slavic Eastern Jew, Khazar or Kalmuck or something like that". +In 1932, Samuel Krauss ventured the theory that the biblical Ashkenaz referred to northern Asia Minor, and he identified it with the Khazars, a position immediately disputed by Jacob Mann. +This interwar period consolidated also a belief, originally developed by the Russian Orientalists V. V. Grigor'iev and V. D. Smirnov, that the East European congregations of the Karaite sect of Judaism were descendants of Turkic Khazars. The idea of a Khazarian origin of the Karaites was then adopted as their official viewpoint. Seraja Szapszal (1873–1961), from 1927, the ḥakham of the Polish-Lithuanian Karaite community, had begun to implement a thorough-going reform policy of dejudaizing Karaite culture and traditions and transforming along Turkic lines. As a secular Jew and orientalist he was influenced by Atatürk's reforms, and his policy was dictated by several considerations: Jews were suffering from harassment in public and private in Eastern Europe; he wished to forestall the threat he had intuited was imminent in both Fascism and Nazism, which were beginning to gain a foothold; he was passionate about the Karaites' language, Karaim, and its Turkish tradition, and somewhat insouciant of the Judaic heritage of his people. In 1934 Corrado Gini, a distinguished statistician, interested also in demography and anthropology, with close ties to the fascist elite, led an expedition in August–October 1934 to survey the Karaites. He concluded that Karaites were ethnically mixed, predominantly Chuvash, which he mistook to be Finno-Ugric descendants of the Tauro-Cimmerians who at one point had been absorbed into the Khazars who for Gini however were not Turkic. A further conclusion was that the Ashkenazi arose from "Turko-Tatar converts to Judaism". Though the Khazar-Karaite theory is unsubstantiated by any historical evidence, the early Karaite literature speaks of Khazars as mamzerim, 'bastards' or 'strangers' within Judaism. This myth served a political purpose, of taking that community out of the stranglehold of antisemitic regulations and prejudices directed generally against Jews in Eastern Europe. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6d4f7a717 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry" +chunk: 3/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:58.212648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== 1939–1945 === +In 1943, Abraham Polak (sometimes referred to as Poliak), later professor of the history of the Middle Ages at Tel Aviv University, published a Hebrew monograph in which he concluded that the East European Jews came from Khazaria. First written as an article in 1941, then as a monograph (1943), it was twice revised in 1944, and then in 1951 with the title Khazaria: History of a Jewish Kingdom in Europe. +In Nazi Germany, unlike most race theorists in Germany down to his time, Hans F. K. Günther argued that the Jews were not a pure race, although he nevertheless considered them to be highly inbred. He argued that the Ashkenazi were a mix of Near Eastern, Oriental, East Baltic, Eastern, Inner-Asian, Nordic, Hamite, and Negro peoples and separate from the Sephardim. Günther believed that the conversion of the Khazars, whom he took to have been a Near Eastern race, constituted a further external element in the racial makeup of the Ashkenazi Jews, strengthening its Near Eastern component. Günther's theorizing about racial consequences flowing from the conversion of the Khazars was embraced by Gerhard Kittel. +The Karaite claim not to be ethnic Jews, but descendants of the Khazars, was eventually accepted by the Nazis who exempted them, unlike the Crimean Krymchaks with whom they had historic ties, from the policy of genocidal extermination on these grounds. + +=== 1946–1949 === +In debates leading up to the UN plan in 1947 to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, the British politicians John Hope Simpson and Edward Spears, intent on denying Zionism that part of its claim that drew on biblical arguments, asserted that Jewish immigrants to Mandatory Palestine were the descendants of pagan converts and not of the Israelites. The approach was one shared by both gentile and Jewish anti-Zionists. Rory Miller claims that their denial of lineal descent from Israelites drew on the Khazar theory. +In anti-Zionist argumentation delivered at the UN in 1947 Faris al-Khoury and Jamal Al-Husseini used the theory to oppose the creation of a Jewish state on racial and historic grounds. Cecil Hourani claimed that the Arab leaders had been convinced of the value of the argument by Benjamin H. Freedman. Internal British documents seem to support the claim. It would later play a role in Arab anti-Zionist polemics, taking on an antisemitic edge, though Bernard Lewis, noted in 1987 that serious Arab scholars had dropped it, remarked that it only occasionally emerged in Arab political polemics. + +=== 1950–1976 === +D.M. Dunlop, writing in 1954, thought very little evidence backed what he regarded as a mere assumption, and argued that the Ashkenazi-Khazar descent hypothesis went far beyond what "our imperfect records" permit. +Léon Poliakov, while assuming the Jews of Western Europe resulted from a "panmixia" in the first millennium, on the basis of serology research showing their blood types overlapped with those of other European populations, asserted in 1955 that it was widely assumed that Europe's Eastern Jews descended from a mixture of Khazarian and German Jews. Polak's work found some support from Salo Wittmayer Baron and Ben-Zion Dinur, but was dismissed by Bernard Weinryb as a fiction (1962). +In 1957 Salo Wittmayer Baron, called by his biographer an "architect of Jewish history", devoted a large part of a chapter in his Social and Religious History of the Jews to the Khazarian Jewish state, and the impact he believed that community exercised on the formation of East European Jewries in his Social and Religious History of the Jews (1957). The scarcity of direct Jewish testimonies did not disconcert Baron: this was to be expected since medieval Jews were "generally inarticulate outside their main centers of learning". The Khazarian turn to Judaism was, he judged, the "largest and last mass conversion", involving both the royal house and large sectors of the population. Jews migrated there to flee the recurrent intolerance against Jews and the geopolitical upheavals of the region's chronic wars, which often proved devastating to northern Asia Minor, between Byzantium, Sassanid Persia, and the Abbasid and Umayyad Caliphates. +For Baron, the fact of Jewish Khazaria played a lively role in stirring up among Western Jews an image of "red Jews", and among Jews in Islamic countries a beacon of hope. After the dissolution of Khazaria, Baron sees a diaspora drifting both north into Russia, Poland and Ukraine, and westwards into Pannonia and the Balkans, where their cultivated presence both established Jewish communities and paved the way, ironically, for the Slavonic conversion to Christianity. By the 11th and 12th centuries, these Eastern Jews make their first appearance in the Jewish literature of France and Germany. Maimonides, bemoaning the neglect of learning in the East, laid his hopes for the perpetuation of Jewish learning in the young struggling communities of Europe but would, Baron concludes, have been surprised to find that within centuries precisely in Eastern Europe would arise thriving communities that were to assume leadership of the Jewish people itself. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..639838708 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry" +chunk: 4/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:58.212648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== 1976–present: Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe and contemporary views === +The Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication in 1976 of Arthur Koestler's book The Thirteenth Tribe, which made sweeping claims for a Khazar legacy among the Ashkenazi, and asserted that the Jewish population in Eastern Europe could not have reached 8 million without the contribution of the Khazars. Koestler argued that the Khazar theory would mitigate European racially-based antisemitism. +The book received both positive and negative reviews. Israel's ambassador to Britain branded it "an anti-Semitic action financed by the Palestinians", while Bernard Lewis claimed that the idea was not supported by any evidence whatsoever, and had been "abandoned by all serious scholars". +Raphael Patai, however, registered some support for the idea that Khazar remnants had played a role in the growth of Eastern European Jewish communities, and several amateur researchers, such as Boris Altschüler (1994) and Kevin Alan Brook, kept the thesis in the public eye. Brook's views evolved as new data became available: in the first edition of his book (1999), he contended that about one-fourth of Ashkenazic ancestry may trace back to the Khazars, whereas in the second edition (2006) he regarded the Khazar contribution as "small" and in the third edition (2018) he argued against any Khazar contribution. +In 2007, Peter Golden suggested that at least some of the Ashkenazi Jews of Hungary in particular (along with some Hungarians) might have inherited a minority of their ancestry from Khazar remnants that migrated west. +The theory has been used in challenges to concepts of Jewish peoplehood. It has been revived recently in a variety of approaches, from linguistics (Paul Wexler) to historiography (Shlomo Sand in his 2008 book The Invention of the Jewish People) and population genetics (Eran Elhaik). In broad academic perspective, both the idea that the Khazars converted en masse to Judaism, and the suggestion that they emigrated to form the core population of Ashkenazi Jewry, remain highly polemical issues. +Writing in 2011, Simon Schama in his The Story of the Jews, endorsed the traditional narrative of a Khazar conversion under kings of distant Jewish descent who initiated judaising reforms among the population. In June 2014, Shaul Stampfer published a paper challenging the Khazar hypothesis as ungrounded in sources contemporary with the Khazar period, stating: "Such a conversion, even though it's a wonderful story, never happened". + +== Genetics and the Khazar theory == + +Before modern DNA population genetics entered the field, Raphael Patai described the Khazars in racial terms as being a Turkic people with some Mongoloid admixture. After major advances in DNA sequence analysis and computing technology in the late 20th and early 21st century, a plethora of genetic research on Jewish and other human populations has been conducted worldwide. Summing up the results in 2015, the Yiddish scholar Alexander Beider stated that genetic studies often resulted in contradictory outcomes, complicated at times by the political or religious views of some researchers. +In 2000, science journalist Nicholas Wade interpreted a genetics paper on Ashkenazi Y-chromosome lineages as refuting theories that the Ashkenazi were descendants of converts generally or of the Khazars specifically. +The following year, in 2001, Almut Nebel et al., summarizing studies that reported a low-level European gene flow contributing to Ashkenazi paternal gene pool, suggested this influence might be reflected in the Eu 19 chromosomes common in Eastern Europe, or otherwise, that Ashkenazim with this component might descend from Khazars, an hypothesis the authors found "attractive". +In 2008, in a book entitled Jacob's Legacy: A Genetic View of Jewish History , David Goldstein stated that despite his initial skepticism regarding Koestler's thesis, the certainty underlying his dismissal had been undermined when he considered that a hypothetical Khazar connection struck him as no more far-fetched than what had emerged in genetics concerning the apparent 'spectacular continuity of the Cohen line' or the discovery of what seemed to be Jewish genetic signatures among the Bantu Lemba. In his view, the idea had a degree of plausibility, if not likely. +In 2013 Martin B. Richards stated that presently available genetic studies shows that 50-80 percent of Ashkenazi Y chromosome DNA could be traced to the Near East, while his own study at the University of Huddersfield found that 80 percent of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA could be traced to Europe, but with virtually no lineages from the North Caucasus. This implied a trend of European women marrying Near Eastern men, but provided no evidence to support the Khazar hypothesis. The claim that Ashkenazis as a whole take their origin from Khazars has been widely criticized as there is no direct evidence to support it. Using four Jewish groups, one being Ashkenazi, Kopelman et al found no evidence for the Khazar theory. +While the consensus in genetic research is that the world's Jewish populations (including the Ashkenazim) share substantial genetic ancestry derived from a common Ancient Middle Eastern founder population, and that Ashkenazi Jews have no genetic ancestry attributable to Khazars. +Some evidence suggests a close relationship of Jewish patrilineages (including those of the Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Iraqi and Moroccan Jews) with those of the Samaritans, with some lineages sharing a common ancestry projected to the time of the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d45041aac --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry" +chunk: 5/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:58.212648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Behar et al. studies === +According to a 2010 study by Doron Behar et al., Ashkenazi Jews form a "tight cluster" overlying non-Jewish samples from the Levant with Sephardic, Middle Eastern and North African Jewish populations and Samaritans, results being "consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant". In 2013 Behar et al. published a genetic study that came up with the conclusion that there isn't genetic evidence for the Khazar origin of Ashkenazi Jews, and instead Ashkenazi Jews are genetically closest to other Jewish groups and non-Jewish Middle Eastern and European populations. +A 2003 study by Behar et al., found that Haplogroup R1a1a (R-M17) is present in over 50% of Ashkenazi Levites (who comprise 4% of the Ashkenazi Jewish population). In 2008 David Goldstein asserted that based on the study a Khazar connection "now seems to me plausible, if not likely". Faerman (2008) states that "External low-level gene flow of possible Eastern European origin has been shown in Ashkenazim but no evidence of a hypothetical Khazars' contribution to the Ashkenazi gene pool has ever been found.". +However, Behar and others made two more genetic studies on Ashkenazi Levites ending up with a different conclusion. The results of these studies showed that the R1a haplogroup present in Ashkenazi Levites is R1a-M582/R1a-Y2619 rather than R1a1a and originated in the Near East instead of Eastern Europe and was "likely a minor haplogroup among the Hebrews". +A 2013 study by Rootsi, Behar et al. of Ashkenazi Levites found a high frequency of haplogroup R1a-M582 among them (64.9% of Ashkenazi Levites) pointing to a founding event and paternal ancestor common to half of them. Since R1a shows high frequency in Eastern Europe generally, it was thought possible, that the evidence might indicate the founder was a non-Jewish European. Testing the 3 hypotheses of a European, a Near Eastern or a Khazarian origin, their data excluded both the European and Khazarian origin of a Levite founder since they found no evidence of R1a-M582 Y-chromosomes was found in either group, other than singletons, while it occurs with significant frequency in Near Eastern regions Iranian Kerman, Iranian Azeri, the Kurds from Cilician Anatolia and Kazakhstan, and among Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi Jews. R1a-M582 was not detected among data from Iraqi, Bedouins, Druze and Palestinians sampled in Israel. +A 2017 study by Behar, concentrating on the Ashkenazi Levites (themselves about where the proportion reaches 50%), while signalling that there's a "rich variation of haplogroup R1a outside of Europe which is phylogenetically separate from the typically European R1a branches", precises that the particular R1a-Y2619 sub-clade testifies for a local origin, and that the "Middle Eastern origin of the Ashkenazi Levite lineage based on what was previously a relatively limited number of reported samples, can now be considered firmly validated." + +=== Elhaik et al. studies === +Eran Elhaik argued in 2012 that: + +"Strong evidence for the Khazarian hypothesis is the clustering of European Jews with the populations that in his opinion resided on opposite ends of ancient Khazaria: Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijani Jews. Because Caucasus populations remained relatively isolated in the Caucasus region and because there are no records of Caucasus populations mass-migrating to Eastern and Central Europe prior to the fall of Khazaria (Balanovsky et al. 2011), these findings imply a shared origin for European Jews and Caucasus populations." +In later publications, Elhaik and his team modified their theory, proposing simply that the Judaised Khazar kingdom was a core transit area for a federation of Jewish merchants of mixed Iranian, Turkish and Slavic origins who, when that empire collapsed, relocated to Europe. +Furthermore, in the 2016 study Das, Elhaik, Wexler et al. argued that the first Ashkenazi populations to speak the Yiddish language came from areas near four villages in Eastern Turkey along the Silk Road whose names derived from the word "Ashkenaz," rather than from Germanic lands as is the general consensus in scholarship. They proposed that Iranians, Greeks, Turks, and Slavs converted to Judaism in Anatolia prior to migrating to Khazaria where a small-scale conversion had already occurred. The historian Bernard Spolsky commenting on Elhaik's earlier study wrote. "Recently, Elhaik (2013) claims to have found evidence supporting the Khazarian origin of Ashkenazim, but the whole issue of genetic evidence remains uncertain." +In 2018, Elhaik stated that the Ashkenazi maternal line is European and that only 3% of Ashkenazi DNA shows links with the Eastern Mediterranean/Middle East, a 'minuscule' amount comparable to the proportion of Neanderthal genes in modern European populations. For Elhaik, the vehicle by which unique Asiatic variations on Ashkenazi Y-chromosomes occurred, with Haplogroup Q-L275, was the Ashina ruling clan of the Göktürks, who converted to Judaism and established the Khazar empire. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..931b00a48 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry" +chunk: 6/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:58.212648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Criticism of the Elhaik studies ==== +Elhaik's 2012 study proved highly controversial. Several noted geneticists, among them Marcus Feldman, Harry Ostrer, Doron Behar, and Michael Hammer have maintained—and the view has gained widespread support among scientists—that the worldwide Jewish population is related and shares common roots in the Middle East, Feldman stated Elhaik's statistical analysis would not pass muster with most scientists; Hammer affirmed it was an outlier minority view without scientific support. Elhaik in reply described the group as "liars" and "frauds", noting Ostrer would not share genetic data that might be used "to defame the Jewish people". Elhaik's PhD supervisor Dan Graur, likewise dismissed them as a "clique", and said Elhaik is "combative" which is what science itself is. +Elhaik's 2012 study was criticized in a 2013 paper in Human Biology for its use of Armenians and Azerbaijani Jews as proxies for Khazars and for using Bedouin and Jordanian Hashemites as a proxy for the Ancient Israelites. The former decision was criticized because Armenians were assumed to have a monolithic Caucasian ancestry, when as an Anatolian people (rather than Turkic) they contain many genetically Middle Eastern elements. Azerbaijani Jews are also assumed for the purposes of the study to have Khazarian ancestry, when Mountain Jews are actually descended from Persian Jews. The decision to cast Bedouin/Hashemites as "proto-Jews" was especially seen as political in nature, considering that both have origins in Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula rather than from the Ancient Israelites, while the descent of the Jews from the Israelites is largely accepted. +Geneticists conducting studies in Jewish genetics have challenged Elhaik's methods in his first paper. Michael Hammer called Elhaik's premise "unrealistic," calling Elhaik and other Khazarian hypothesis proponents "outlier folks … who have a minority view that's not supported scientifically. I think the arguments they make are pretty weak and stretching what we know." Marcus Feldman, director of Stanford University's Morrison Institute for Population and Resource Studies, echoes Hammer. "If you take all of the careful genetic population analysis that has been done over the last 15 years … there's no doubt about the common Middle Eastern origin," he said. He added that Elhaik's first paper "is sort of a one-off." Elhaik's statistical analysis would not pass muster with most contemporary scholars, Feldman said: "He appears to be applying the statistics in a way that gives him different results from what everybody else has obtained from essentially similar data." +Das, Elhaik and Wexler's 2016 study was challenged by the historian of Soviet and East European Jewry Shaul Stampfer, who dismissed it as 'basically nonsense', and the demographer Sergio DellaPergola, who claimed it was a "falsification", whose methodology was defective in using a small population size and failing to factor in the genetic profiles of other Jews such as the Sephardic Jews to whom the Ashkenazi Jews are closely related. Elhaik replied that factoring in the DNA of non-Ashkenazic Jews would not alter the genetic profile of Ashkenazi Jews, and that his team remained the largest genomic study of the latter to date, and the first to target Yiddish speakers. The Yiddish scholar Marion Aptroot states "Seen from the standpoint of the humanities, certain aspects of the article by Das et al. fall short of established standards." +Recently, a study by a team of biologists and linguists, led by Pavel Flegontov, a specialist in genomics, published a response to Das, Elhaik and Wexler's 2016 study, criticizing their methodology and conclusions. They argue that GPS works to allow inferences for the origins of modern populations with an unadmixed genome, but not for tracing ancestries back 1,000 years ago. In their view, the paper tried to fit Wexler's 'marginal and unsupported interpretation' of Yiddish into a model that only permits valid deductions for recent unadmixed populations. They also criticized the linguistic aspect of the study on the grounds that "all methods of historical linguistics concur that Yiddish is a Germanic language, with no reliable evidence for Slavic, Iranian, or Turkic substrata." They further describe the purported "Slavo-Iranian confederation" as "a historically meaningless term invented by the authors under review." +Alexander Beider also takes issue with Elhaik's findings on linguistic grounds, similarly arguing that Yiddish onomastics lacks traces of a Turkic component. He concludes that theories of a Khazar connection are either speculative or simply wrong and "cannot be taken seriously." + +== Antisemitism == + +=== United States === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c4b82437f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry" +chunk: 7/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:58.212648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Maurice Fishberg and Roland B. Dixon's works were later exploited in racist and religious polemical literature by advocates of British Israelism in the United States. Particularly after the publication of Burton J. Hendrick's The Jews in America (1923) Singerman 2004, pp. 4–5 it began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restrictions in the 1920s; racial theorists like Lothrop Stoddard; antisemitic conspiracy theorists such as the Ku Klux Klan's Hiram Wesley Evans; and anti-communist polemicists such as John O. Beaty. +In 1938, Ezra Pound, then strongly identifying with the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, sent a query to fellow poet Louis Zukofsky concerning the Khazars after someone had written to him claiming that the ancient Jews had died out and that modern Jews were of Khazar descent. He returned to the issue in 1955, apparently influenced by a book called Facts Are Facts, which pushed the Jewish-Khazar descent theory, and which for Pound had dug up "a few savoury morsels". The booklet in question, by a Roman Catholic convert from Rabbinic Judaism, Benjamin H. Freedman, was an antisemitic tirade written to David Goldstein after the latter had converted to Catholicism. +John O. Beaty was an antisemitic, McCarthyite professor of Old English at SMU, author of The Iron Curtain over America (Dallas 1952). According to him, "the Khazar Jews were responsible for all of America's – and the world's ills," beginning with World War I. The book had little impact until the former Wall Street broker and oil tycoon J. Russell Maguire promoted it. A similar position was adopted by Wilmot Robertson, whose views influenced David Duke. British novelist Douglas Reed has also been influential. In his works, the Ashkenazi are false Jews, descendants of the Khazars. +A number of different variants of the theory came to be exploited by the Christian Identity movement. The Christian Identity movement, which took shape from the 1940s to the 1970s, had its roots in British Israelism which had been planted on American evangelical soil in the late 19th century. By the 1960s the Khazar ancestry theory was an article of faith in the Christian Identity movement. The Christian Identity movement has associated two verses from the New Testament, Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 with the Khazars. Jeffrey Kaplan calls these two passages the cornerstone of Identity theology. He also reports that Christian Identity literature makes selective references to the Babylonian Talmud, while the works of Francis Parker Yockey and Arthur Koestler work are raised almost to the status of Holy Writ. +The idea has also been promoted by contemporary antisemitic groups on social media, according to the Anti-Defamation League and the American Jewish Committee. In the United States, extremist sects of Black Hebrew Israelites have promoted the antisemitic Khazar conspiracy theory about Jewish origins. These groups believe that Jewish people are "imposters" and that African Americans (sometimes Native and Latin Americans also) are the true descendants of the Israelites. + +=== Soviet Union and Russia === +The theory was prominent in Soviet antisemitism, gaining a place in Soviet historiography. The theory influenced Soviet historians including Boris Rybakov, Mikhail Artamonov and Lev Gumilyov and was used to support soviet political theory. Artamonov argued that the Khazars had played an important role in the development of Rus'. Rybakov disputed this view, instead regarding the Khazar state as parasitic. Official Soviet views on the Khazars hardened after December 1951 when Pravda published a critical review of Artamonov's work under the pen name P. Ivanov. Rybakov for his part denied that he was Ivanov. (Sand has speculated that Ivanov was in fact Stalin.) According to Sand, in Ivanov's review the Khazars were regarded as parasites and enemies. Ivanov's views became the certified Soviet position. +Lev Gumilyov's theory of ethnogenesis draws heavily on the Khazars theory. For Gumilyov ethnicity was defined by stereotypical behavior which was linked to adaption to the terrain. He regarded Jews as a parasitic, international urban class. The Jews had dominated the Khazars creating a chimera, subjecting Rus' to the "Khazar Yoke". +Since the 1970s the term Khazars has entered the Russian nationalist lexicon, being used as a euphemism for Jews. Vadim V. Kozhinov theorized that the Khazar Yoke was more dangerous to Rus´ than the Tatar Yoke. The Khazars were imagined as a persistent danger to Rus'. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union the theory maintained a role in Russian antisemitism. Contemporary Russian antisemites continue to perpetuate the Khazar myth. Gumilyov's and his students' works remain popular in Russia. "Khazars" and "ethnic chimera" have become preferred terms for antisemitic Russian chauvinists. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d93c7f854 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +--- +title: "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry" +chunk: 8/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:58.212648+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Germany === +The Khazar hypothesis was promoted by the former Nazi scholar Herman Wirth (1885-1981), who wrote an anti-Semitic legal report in 1958 that questioned the origins of the Jewish People and relativized the Holocaust. It was central to his Palestinabuch (Book of Palestine), the extensive manuscript of which was lost for unclear reasons in the 1970s. It was his theory that the Ashkenazi Jews descended from a superstitious slave people (Khazars) on the fringes of a mythical Nordic civilization (Shambhala) in the Gobi Desert. According to Wirth, Christ descended from a lost tribe of the original Aryans, who had left their traces in the Near East in the form of Megalithic monuments. +The Palestinabuch was meant as a counterpart to Wirth's Ura Linda Chronicle (1933) on the ancient Frisians, whom he considered direct descendants of the first Aryans and whose origins he located in Palestine. It was officially titled The Riddle of the Palestine's Megalithic Graves: From JAU to Jesus. By 1969 the proposed title had changed into Between the North Sea and the Sea of Genezareth, implicitly referring to an influential book by the 19th-century German reactionary Julius Langbehn. +The myth of the lost Palestinabuch was promoted by the Chilean fascist and anti-Semite Miguel Serrano and picked up by the Russian political theorist Alexandr Dugin, who devoted his indicative book Hyperborean Theory (1993) to Herman Wirth's legacy. Wirth's ideas were also echoed by the German conspiracy theorist Jan van Helsing, who wrote several influential books on secret societies, as well as by the New Age influencer David Icke. + +=== Cults === +Aum Shinrikyo is a Japanese doomsday cult. The cult was active in Japan and Russia, with an estimated 10,000 and 30,000 followers respectively. The group's Manual of Fear used The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in addition to other antisemitic material. The manual claimed that the Jews are really Khazars intent on world domination. +The Khazar theory has also become part of the Ascended Masters theology. Hatonn, an extraterrestrial, transmits messages including the complete text of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. He identifies the authors of The Protocols as Khazars and speaks of false Zionist Jews who have usurped and controlled the true Jews. + +== See also == +Wentworth Arthur Matthew +Ernest Renan – French Orientalist and Semitic scholar +Khazarian Mafia +Genetic history of Europe +History of the Jews in Turkey +Japanese-Jewish common ancestry theory +Japhetic theory +Jewish ethnic divisions +Jewish history +Kuzari +List of topics characterized as pseudoscience +Rus' Khaganate +Theory of Kashmiri descent from lost tribes of Israel +Timeline of the Turkic peoples (500–1300) + +== Notes == + +== References == + +=== Sources === + +== Further reading == + +== External links == +Rory Miller(2020) The anti-Zionist 'Jewish Khazar' syndrome in the official British mind +Fishberg, Maurice (1911): The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment. +The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection. +Khazaria.com +Resources - Medieval Jewish History - The Khazars The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem +Khazar Historic Maps +The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com +Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found Archived 13 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bb3a3b48a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +--- +title: "King of Clones" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:17:59.429895+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +King of Clones is a documentary released on Netflix and directed by Aditya Thayi which examines the Hwang affair involving human cloning by South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-suk. + + +== Description == +The documentary is described by Netflix as "After rocking the world with work in human cloning, a scientist falls from grace. Now, he's back -- this time with pets and extinct species." + + +== Release == +The film was released on 23 June 2023 by Netflix. + + +== Production == +King of Clones was directed by London-based Singaporean filmmaker Aditya Thayi via and is a Netflix U.K. commission. Thayi has 20 nominations and five wins at the Asian Television Awards, including two wins for best direction. Thayi described Hwang as a "polarizing figure" in South Korea and wanted to do an objective take on him." +According to Variety, Thayi learned about Hwang due to anxiety he had waiting for the birth of his child, due to growing up in India in the 1980s where multiple industrial disasters occurred affecting children's health. He looked into getting genetic testing done and "was amazed by the choices that modern science has put in the hands of prospective parents and the complex ethical questions it raised." He then learned of Dr. Hwang and the hope that his stem cell research gave to parents, and believed "this story could touch upon the areas of science I personally wanted to explore and went on a mad ride with it... We set out to make a film about what happens when the domain of the Gods intersects the domain of scientists and Hwang’s life gave us the material to speak of the various themes we wanted to touch upon." Thayi wrote to Hwang for nine months before getting access. +Hwang told Thayi that he gets about 50 interview requests a month from news organizations, but turns all of them down. Thayi told Variety "I went into this film thinking that I was going to find a crazy monster in the science, but I find that the science – there’s nothing really wrong with it, it’s pretty solid. I think it’s just as human beings, we’ve not really had discussions about where the science can take us... It has been possible to clone a human being for at least 10 years, the scientific ability is there, it’s just that somebody somewhere has to just do it. And then you’ll have to reckon with it. But I fear that we’ve not really spent so much time thinking about it." + + +== Reception == +In a pre-release article, Variety reported that this would be a "sensational documentary film featuring unprecedented access to South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-suk... Hwang’s rise to prominence started with his successful cloning of cows and pigs. In 2002, Hwang embarked upon human cloning research and partnered with Moon Shin-yong, an obstetrician with expertise in in-vitro fertilization. Their collaboration led to a major announcement in 2004, claiming the successful cloning of human embryos, with the potential to cure some diseases. The announcement fueled a heated debate on bioethics, despite Hwang and Moon emphasizing that their work focused solely on therapeutic purposes and strongly opposing reproductive cloning." +The Daily Beast reported that the documentary "is a primer on the rise and fall of Hwang, a former superstar who currently plies his genetics trade in the United Arab Emirates, cloning camels for the rich and powerful, who covet them for both their attractiveness and their racing prowess." It also concluded that "King of Clones resounds as a plea for more rigorous cloning-research standards, especially considering that the Chinese have cloned two monkeys—meaning that, in effect, primates (including humans) are now duplicatable... Still, a more comprehensive examination would have benefited Thayi’s film, which generally serves as a surface-level portrait about a scientific advancement that could change the world for the better or the worse, and a man who knows how to wield it but can’t necessarily be trusted to do so." +According to Hwang “Grief is the catalyst. It’s where our cloning process really begins.” King of Clones reinforces that notion by profiling interventional radiologist Dr. Alexander Ruebben, who was so distraught over the passing of his French bulldog Csillo that—like Barbra Streisand—he opted to have the pet cloned. Ruebben talks lovingly about his pooch and shakes off criticisms of his conduct in a manner similar to Hwang, who states, “You can’t ignore a path just because it’s reckless.” +Nicole Ackman of Readysteadycut.com explains that the film explores Hwang's scientific discoveries, falls from favor, and actions after the scandal, but it also explains what cloning is "complete with simple animations that can help even the least STEM-oriented person understand the basic science behind it." The review says that "Thayi shows several examples of cloning to demonstrate all of the possible uses that Hwang was working towards. From recreating a beloved pet to bringing back an extinct animal, the possibilities are seemingly endless. Some personal stories of those wanting something or someone cloned are pretty touching," but concludes that "While King of Clones does a great job condensing very complicated information into a succinct documentary, I wish it took more of a stance on the complex moral issues it brings to light." +Rolling Stone called the film "a cautionary tale of a Korean genetic researcher whose revolutionary findings proved too good to be true, and said that Thayi "uses methods both playful... and serious, sometimes melding these approaches into something ultimately quite human." + + +== See also == +Ethics of cloning + + +== References == + + +== External links == +King of Clones at IMDb +Human Cloning Documentaries +Cloning in the media and popular culture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..596f57edc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report" +chunk: 1/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:00.602839+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On 28 February 1998, a fraudulent research paper primarily authored by physician Andrew Wakefield, along with twelve other coauthors (titled "Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children"), was published in The Lancet, a British medical journal. The paper falsely claimed causative links between the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and colitis, and between colitis and autism. The fraud involved data bias and manipulation, and two undisclosed conflicts of interest. It was exposed in a lengthy Sunday Times investigation by reporter Brian Deer, resulting in the paper's retraction in February 2010 and Wakefield's being discredited and struck off the UK medical register three months later. In the paper, Wakefield fabricated evidence to suggest a new "syndrome" existed, which he called "autistic enterocolitis". Wakefield had been employed by a lawyer representing parents in lawsuits against vaccine producers, and had reportedly earned up to US$43 million per year selling diagnostic kits for the non-existent syndrome he claimed to have discovered. He also held a patent to a rival measles vaccine at the time. +The scientific consensus on vaccines and autism is that there is no connection between MMR (or any other vaccine) and autism. + +== 1998 The Lancet paper == +In February 1998, a group led by Andrew Wakefield published a paper in the British medical journal The Lancet, supported by a press conference at the Royal Free Hospital in London, where the research was carried out. This paper reported on twelve children with developmental disorders referred to the hospital and described a constellation of bowel symptoms, as well as endoscopy and biopsy findings, that were said to be evidence of a new "syndrome" that Wakefield would later call "autistic enterocolitis". The paper described MMR vaccination as the "apparent precipitating event", tabulated the parents of eight of the twelve children as linking their developmental symptoms with MMR vaccination, suggested the connection between autism and the gastrointestinal pathologies was "real", and called for further research. But it admitted that the research did not "prove" an association between the MMR vaccine and autism. +At a press conference accompanying the paper's publication, later criticized as "science by press conference", Wakefield said that he thought it prudent to use single vaccines instead of the MMR triple vaccine until this could be ruled out as an environmental trigger. Wakefield said, "I can't support the continued use of these three vaccines given in combination until this issue has been resolved." In a video news release issued by the hospital to broadcasters in advance of the press conference, he called for MMR vaccine to be "suspended in favour of the single vaccines". In a BBC interview, Wakefield's mentor, Roy Pounder, who was not a coauthor, "admitted the study was controversial". He added: "In hindsight it may be a better solution to give the vaccinations separately ... When the vaccinations were given individually there was no problem." These suggestions were supported neither by Wakefield's coauthors nor any scientific evidence. +British television coverage of the press conference was intense, but press interest was mixed. The Guardian and the Independent reported it on their front pages, while the Daily Mail only gave the story a minor mention in the middle of the paper, and the Sun did not cover it. + +== Controversy over MMR == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f1714c618 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report" +chunk: 2/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:00.602839+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Multiple subsequent studies failed to find any link between the MMR vaccine, colitis, and autism. In March 1998, a panel of 37 scientific experts set up by the Medical Research Council, headed by Professor Sir John Pattison found "no evidence to indicate any link" between the MMR vaccine and colitis or autism in children. +Public concern over Wakefield's claims of a possible link between MMR and autism gained momentum in 2001 and 2002, after he published further papers suggesting that the immunisation programme was not safe. These were a review paper with no new evidence, published in a minor journal, and two papers on laboratory work that he said showed that measles virus had been found in tissue samples taken from children who had autism and bowel problems. There was wide media coverage including distressing anecdotal evidence from parents, and political coverage attacking the health service and government peaked with unmet demands that Prime minister Tony Blair reveal whether his infant son, Leo, had been given the vaccine. It was the biggest science story of 2002, with 1257 articles mostly written by non-expert commentators. In the period January to September 2002, 32% of the stories written about MMR mentioned Leo Blair, as opposed to only 25% that mentioned Wakefield. Less than a third of the stories mentioned the overwhelming evidence that MMR is safe. The paper, press conference and video sparked a major health scare in the United Kingdom. As a result of the scare, full confidence in MMR fell from 59% to 41% after publication of the Wakefield research. In 2001, 26% of family doctors felt the government had failed to prove there was no link between MMR and autism and bowel disease. In his book Bad Science, Ben Goldacre describes the MMR vaccine scare as one of the "three all-time classic bogus science stories" by the British newspapers (the other two are the Arpad Pusztai affair about genetically modified crops, and Chris Malyszewicz and the MRSA hoax). +A 2003 survey of 366 family doctors in the UK reported that 77% of them would advise giving the MMR vaccine to a child with a close family history of autism, and that 3% of them thought that autism could sometimes be caused by the MMR vaccine. A similar survey in 2004 found that these percentages changed to 82% and at most 2%, respectively, and that confidence in MMR had been increasing over the previous two years. +A factor in the controversy is that only the combined vaccine is available through the UK National Health Service. As of 2010 there are no single vaccines for measles, mumps and rubella licensed for use in the UK. Prime Minister Tony Blair gave support to the programme, arguing that the vaccine was safe enough for his own son, Leo, but refusing on privacy grounds to state whether Leo had received the vaccine; in contrast, the subsequent Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, explicitly confirmed that his son has been immunised. Cherie Blair confirmed that Leo had been given the MMR vaccination when promoting her autobiography. +The government stressed that administration of the combined vaccine instead of separate vaccines decreases the risk of children catching the disease while waiting for full immunisation coverage. The combined vaccine's two injections results in less pain and distress to the child than the six injections required by separate vaccines, and the extra clinic visits required by separate vaccinations increases the likelihood of some being delayed or missed altogether; vaccination uptake significantly increased in the UK when MMR was introduced in 1988. Health professionals have heavily criticized media coverage of the controversy for triggering a decline in vaccination rates. No scientific basis has been found for preferring separate vaccines, or for using any particular interval between them. +In 2001, Mark Berelowitz, one of the co-authors of the paper, said "I am certainly not aware of any convincing evidence for the hypothesis of a link between MMR and autism". The Canadian Paediatric Society, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences, +and the UK National Health Service have all concluded that there is no link between the MMR vaccine and autism, and a 2011 journal article described the vaccine–autism connection as "the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years". + +== Newspaper investigation == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..840433743 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report" +chunk: 3/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:00.602839+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Conflict of interest === +Public understanding of the claims sharply changed in February 2004 with revelations by The Sunday Times of an undisclosed conflict of interest on Wakefield's part in that, two years before the paper's publication, he had been approached by Richard Barr, a lawyer of Justice, Awareness and Basic Support, who was looking for an expert witness to start a planned class action regarding alleged "vaccine damage". Barr hired Wakefield at £150 per hour, plus expenses, and only then did they recruit the twelve children, actively seeking the parents of cases that might imply a connection between MMR and autism. Barr and Wakefield convinced the UK Legal Aid Board, a UK government organization to give financial support to people who could not afford access to justice, to assign £55,000 to fund the initial stage of the research. According to journalist Brian Deer, the project was intended to create evidence for the court case, but this only became publicly known six years after the Lancet report, with the newspaper's first disclosures. +Based on Deer's evidence, the Lancet's editor-in-chief Richard Horton said Wakefield's paper should have never been published because its findings were "entirely flawed". Although Wakefield maintained that the legal aid funding was for a separate, unpublished study (a position later rejected by a panel of the UK General Medical Council), the editors of The Lancet judged that the funding source should have been disclosed to them. Horton wrote, "It seems obvious now that had we appreciated the full context in which the work reported in the 1998 Lancet paper by Wakefield and colleagues was done, publication would not have taken place in the way that it did." Several of Wakefield's co-researchers also strongly criticized the lack of disclosure. + +=== No ethical approval === +Among Deer's earliest reported allegations was that, contrary to a statement in the paper, Wakefield's research on the 12 children was conducted without any institutional review board authorization—a claim quickly denied in February 2004 by both the paper's authors and the Lancet. The paper itself said, "Ethical approval and consent. Investigations were approved by the Ethical Practices Committee of the Royal Free Hospital NHS Trust, and parents gave informed consent." The dispute over this would remain unresolved, however, until settled in the English High Court in March 2012, where a senior judge vindicated Deer. Quoting the text, Justice Mitting ruled, "This statement was untrue and should not have been included in the paper." + +=== Retraction of an interpretation === +The Lancet and many other medical journals require papers to include the authors' conclusions about their research, known as the "interpretation". The summary of the 1998 Lancet paper ended as follows: + +Interpretation We identified associated gastrointestinal disease and developmental regression in a group of previously normal children, which was generally associated in time with possible environmental triggers. + +In March 2004, immediately following the news of the conflict of interest allegations, ten of Wakefield's 12 coauthors retracted this interpretation, while insisting that the possibility of a distinctive gastrointestinal condition in children with autism merited further investigation. However, a separate study of children with gastrointestinal disturbances found no difference between those with autism spectrum disorders and those without, with respect to the presence of measles virus RNA in the bowel; it also found that gastrointestinal symptoms and the onset of autism were unrelated in time to the administration of MMR vaccine. +Later in 2004, the newspaper's investigation also found that Wakefield had a further conflict of interest in the form of a patent for a single measles vaccine, had manipulated evidence, and had broken other ethical codes. The Lancet paper was partially retracted in 2004 and fully retracted in 2010, when Lancet's editor-in-chief Richard Horton described it as "utterly false" and said that the journal had been deceived. Wakefield was found guilty by the General Medical Council of serious professional misconduct in May 2010 and was struck off the Medical Register, meaning he could no longer practise as a doctor in the UK. In 2011, Deer provided further information on Wakefield's improper research practices to the British Medical Journal, which in a signed editorial described the original paper as fraudulent. +Deer continued his reporting in a Channel 4 Dispatches television documentary, MMR: What They Didn't Tell You, broadcast on 18 November 2004. This documentary reported that Wakefield had applied for patents on a single measles vaccine that claimed to be a potential rival of MMR, and that he knew of test results from his own laboratory at the Royal Free Hospital that contradicted his own claims. Wakefield's patent application was also noted in Paul Offit's 2008 book, Autism's False Prophets. +In January 2005, Wakefield sued Channel 4, 20/20 Productions, and the investigative reporter Brian Deer, who presented the Dispatches programme. However, after two years of litigation, and the revelation of more than £400,000 in undisclosed payments by lawyers to Wakefield, he discontinued his action and paid all the defendants' costs. +In 2006, Deer reported in The Sunday Times that Wakefield had been paid £435,643, plus expenses, by British trial lawyers attempting to prove that the vaccine was dangerous, with the undisclosed payments beginning two years before the Lancet paper's publication. This funding came from the UK legal aid fund, a fund intended to provide legal services to the poor. + +=== Support for Wakefield === +Despite The Sunday Times disclosures, Wakefield continued to find support. Melanie Phillips, an influential columnist with the Daily Mail, called the reporting of Wakefield's contract with the solicitor Richard Barr "a smear whose timing should raise a few eyebrows." +According to Deer writing in the BMJ, the General Medical Council hearing was also criticized by Richard Horton, the Lancet editor: "My own view is that the GMC is no place to continue this debate. But the process has started and it will be impossible to stop." \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ec114086 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report" +chunk: 4/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:00.602839+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Manipulation of data === +The Sunday Times continued the investigation, and on 8 February 2009, Brian Deer reported that Wakefield had "fixed" results and "manipulated" patient data in the Lancet, creating the appearance of a link with autism. Wakefield falsely denied these allegations, and even filed a complaint with the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) over this article on 13 March 2009. The complaint was expanded by a 20 March 2009 addendum by Wakefield's publicist. In July 2009, the PCC stated that it was staying any investigation regarding the Sunday Times article, pending the conclusion of the GMC investigation. Wakefield did not pursue his complaint, which Deer then published along with a statement saying he and The Sunday Times rejected the complaint as "false and disingenuous in all material respects", and that the action had been suspended by the PCC in February 2010. + +=== UK General Medical Council inquiry === +Responding to the first Sunday Times reports, the General Medical Council (GMC), which is responsible for licensing doctors and supervising medical ethics in the UK, launched an investigation into the affair. The GMC brought the case itself, not citing any specific complaints, claiming that an investigation was in the public interest. The then-secretary of state for health, John Reid, called for a GMC investigation, which Wakefield himself welcomed. During a debate in the House of Commons, on 15 March 2004, Dr. Evan Harris, a Liberal Democrat MP, called for a judicial inquiry into the ethical aspects of the case, even suggesting it might be conducted by the CPS. In June 2006 the GMC confirmed that they would hold a disciplinary hearing of Wakefield. +The GMC's Fitness to Practise Panel first met on 16 July 2007 to consider the cases of Wakefield, Professor John Angus Walker-Smith, and Professor Simon Harry Murch. All faced charges of serious professional misconduct. The GMC examined, among other ethical points, whether Wakefield and his colleagues obtained the required approvals for the tests they performed on the children; the data-manipulation charges reported in the Sunday Times, which surfaced after the case was prepared, were not at question in the hearings. The GMC stressed that it would not be assessing the validity of competing scientific theories on MMR and autism. The GMC alleged that the trio acted unethically and dishonestly in preparing the research into the MMR vaccine. They denied the allegations. The case proceeded in front of a GMC Fitness to Practise panel of three medical and two lay members. +On 28 January 2010, the GMC panel delivered its decision on the facts of the case, finding four counts of dishonesty and 12 involving the abuse of developmentally disabled children. Wakefield was found to have acted "dishonestly and irresponsibly" and to have acted with "callous disregard" for the children involved in his study, conducting unnecessary and invasive tests. The panel found that the trial was improperly conducted without the approval of an independent ethics committee, and that Wakefield had multiple undeclared conflicts of interest. +On 24 May 2010, the GMC panel ordered that he be struck off the medical register. John Walker-Smith was also found guilty of serious professional misconduct and struck off the medical register, but that decision was reversed on appeal to the High Court in 2012, because the GMC panel had failed to decide whether Walker-Smith actually thought he was doing research in the guise of clinical investigation and treatment. The High Court criticised "a number of" wrong conclusions by the disciplinary panel and its "inadequate and superficial reasoning". Simon Murch was found not guilty. +In response to the GMC investigation and findings, the editors of the Lancet announced on 2 February 2010 that they "fully retract this paper from the published record". The Lancet's editor-in-chief Richard Horton described it as "utterly false" and said that the journal had been deceived. +The Hansard text for 16 March 2010 reported Lord McColl asking the Government whether it had plans to recover legal aid money paid to the experts in connection with the measles, mumps and rubella/measles and rubella vaccine litigation. Lord Bach, Ministry of Justice dismissed this possibility. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b1467fd96 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report" +chunk: 5/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:00.602839+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Full retraction and fraud revelations === +In an April 2010 report in The BMJ, Deer expanded on the laboratory aspects of his findings recounting how normal clinical histopathology results generated by the Royal Free Hospital were later changed in the medical school to abnormal results, published in the Lancet. Deer wrote an article in The BMJ casting doubt on the "autistic enterocolitis" that Wakefield claimed to have discovered. In the same edition, Deirdre Kelly, President of the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition and the Editor of the Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition expressed some concern about The BMJ publishing this article while the GMC proceedings were underway. +On 5 January 2011, The BMJ published the first of a series of articles by Brian Deer, detailing how Wakefield and his colleagues had faked some of the data behind the 1998 Lancet article. By looking at the records and interviewing the parents, Deer found that for all 12 children in the Wakefield study, diagnoses had been tweaked or dates changed to fit the article's conclusion. Continuing BMJ series on 11 January 2011, Deer said that based upon documents he obtained under freedom of information legislation, Wakefield—in partnership with the father of one of the boys in the study—had planned to launch a venture on the back of an MMR vaccination scare that would profit from new medical tests and "litigation driven testing". The Washington Post reported that Deer said that Wakefield predicted he "could make more than $43 million a year from diagnostic kits" for the new condition, autistic enterocolitis. WebMD reported on Deer's BMJ report, saying that the $43 million predicted yearly profits would come from marketing kits for "diagnosing patients with autism" and that "the initial market for the diagnostic will be litigation-driven testing of patients with [autistic enterocolitis] from both the UK and the USA". According to WebMD, the BMJ article also claimed that the venture would succeed in marketing products and developing a replacement vaccine if "public confidence in the MMR vaccine was damaged". +In an editorial accompanying Deer's 2011 series, The BMJ said, "it has taken the diligent scepticism of one man, standing outside medicine and science, to show that the paper was in fact an elaborate fraud", and asked: + +Who perpetrated this fraud? There is no doubt that it was Wakefield. Is it possible that he was wrong, but not dishonest: that he was so incompetent that he was unable to fairly describe the project, or to report even one of the 12 children's cases accurately? No. A great deal of thought and effort must have gone into drafting the paper to achieve the results he wanted: the discrepancies all led in one direction; misreporting was gross. Moreover, although the scale of the GMC's 217 day hearing precluded additional charges focused directly on the fraud, the panel found him guilty of dishonesty concerning the study's admissions criteria, its funding by the Legal Aid Board, and his statements about it afterwards. + +Summarizing findings as of January 2011 in The BMJ, Deer set out the following analysis of the cases reported in the study: + +The Lancet paper was a case series of 12 child patients; it reported a proposed "new syndrome" of enterocolitis and regressive autism and associated this with MMR as an "apparent precipitating event". But in fact: +Three of nine children reported with regressive autism did not have autism diagnosed at all. Only one child clearly had regressive autism. +Despite the paper claiming that all 12 children were "previously normal", five had documented pre-existing developmental concerns. +Some children were reported to have experienced first behavioural symptoms within days of MMR, but the records documented these as starting some months after vaccination. +In nine cases, unremarkable colonic histopathology results—noting no or minimal fluctuations in inflammatory cell populations—were changed after a medical school "research review" to "non-specific colitis". +The parents of eight children were reported as blaming MMR, but 11 families made this allegation at the hospital. The exclusion of three allegations—all giving times to onset of problems in months—helped to create the appearance of a 14 day temporal link. +Patients were recruited through anti-MMR campaigners, and the study was commissioned and funded for planned litigation. +In subsequent disclosures from the investigation, Deer obtained copies of unpublished gastrointestinal pathology reports on the children in the Lancet study that Wakefield had claimed showed "non-specific colitis" and "autistic enterocolitis". But expert analyses of these reports found bowel biopsies from the children to be overwhelmingly normal and with no evidence of any enterocolitis at all. +In September 2020, Johns Hopkins University Press published Deer's account of the fraud in his book The Doctor Who Fooled the World: Science, Deception, and the War on Vaccines. The book includes reporting of parents whose children were among the twelve recruited by Wakefield in the Lancet study. One described the paper as "fraudulent" while another complained of "outright fabrication". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1b0107e83 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report" +chunk: 6/6 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:00.602839+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Aftermath == +Characterised as "perhaps the most damaging medical hoax of the 20th Century", The Lancet paper led to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in the UK and Ireland. Promotion of the claimed link, which continues in anti-vaccination propaganda despite being refuted, led to an increase in the incidence of measles and mumps, resulting in deaths and serious permanent injuries. Following the initial claims in 1998, multiple large epidemiological studies were undertaken. Reviews of the evidence by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academy of Sciences, the UK National Health Service, and the Cochrane Library all found no link between the MMR vaccine and autism. Physicians, medical journals, and editors have described Wakefield's actions as fraudulent and tied them to epidemics and deaths. +Among commentators drawing on Deer's investigation, academic Peter N. Steinmetz summarizes six fabrications and falsifications in the paper itself and in Wakefield's response: findings of non-specific colitis; timing of MMR vaccine administration and first behavioral symptoms; findings of regressive autism; ethics consent statement; conflict of interest statement; and methods of patient referral. +Wakefield has continued to defend his research and conclusions, saying there was no fraud, hoax or profit motive. He has subsequently become known for anti-vaccination activism. In 2016, Wakefield directed the anti-vaccination film Vaxxed: From Cover-Up to Catastrophe. + +== See also == + +Vaccine hesitancy +Folk epidemiology of autism + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4918350b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +--- +title: "List of scientific debates" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:01.745378+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is a list of notable scientific debates in the history of science and mathematics. + + +== Biology == +Nature versus nurture, long-standing debate in biology on human behavior +1764–1778 Voltaire vs Needham, between Voltaire and John Needham and others on the validity of preformationism. +1830 Cuvier–Geoffroy debate between Georges Cuvier and Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire on animal structure. +1860 Oxford evolution debate between several scientists on Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. +1860–1862 Great Hippocampus Question, between Thomas Henry Huxley and Richard Owen on the importance of hippocampus minor. + + +== Chemistry and nanoscience == +2001–2003 Drexler–Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology by K. Eric Drexler and Richard Smalley on the feasibility of molecular assemblers. + + +== Mathematics == +1654–1665 problem of points, correspondence between Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat on games and the fair share of a prize pot. +1655–1679 Hobbes–Wallis controversy, between Thomas Hobbes and John Wallis on geometry and other topics. +1745 Leibniz–Bernoulli correspondence, between Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli on the logarithm of negative numbers. +1902–1924 Nekrasov–Markov conflict, between Pavel Nekrasov and Andrey Markov on the relation between the law of large numbers and free will. +1903–1912 Poincaré vs. Russell, between Henri Poincaré and Bertrand Russell on logicism and mathematical paradoxes. +1907–1928 Brouwer–Hilbert foundational debate or Grundlagenstreit, between L. E. J. Brouwer and David Hilbert on foundations of mathematics. + + +== Physics and astronomy == +1715–1716 Leibniz–Clarke correspondence, between Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Samuel Clarke on space being absolute. +1857–1901 Kelvin–Stokes aether drag debate, on whether the luminiferous aether was unstable when considered a perfect fluid. Debate between Lord Kelvin and George Stokes. +1895 Lübeck Debate between Ludwig Boltzmann and Wilhelm Ostwald on the existence of atoms. +1920 Great Debate (astronomy) between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis on the scale of spiral nebulae and the Universe. +1920 Bad Nauheim Debate, between Philipp Lenard and Albert Einstein on the validity of general relativity. See also Criticism of the theory of relativity. +1922 Einstein–Bergson debate between Albert Einstein and philosopher Henri Bergson, on the implications of theory of relativity and the nature of time. +1927–1935 Bohr–Einstein debates between Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr on interpretations of quantum mechanics. +1936–1944 Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute, between Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Arthur Eddington on the limits of star masses. +1949–1964 Big Bang vs. steady-state, dispute between Fred Hoyle supporter of the steady-state model of the universe and George Gamow supporter of the Big Bang. + + +== Philosophy of science == +1965 Kuhn–Popper debate between philosophers Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper on scientific research methodology. +1990s Science wars, series of debates on the role of natural sciences over social sciences + + +== Science education == +1989 Math wars, series of debates on the mathematics education curriculum in the United States + + +== Theology and science == +2014 Bill Nye–Ken Ham debate by Bill Nye and Ken Ham on science and creationism and evolution. + + +== See also == +List of scientific priority disputes + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-0.md index 1fe9365f5..0c74ab936 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:39:45.902602+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:03.001865+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-1.md index 547691e78..26623f256 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:39:45.902602+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:03.001865+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-2.md index 491c7cced..7d3aa0961 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:39:45.902602+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:03.001865+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-3.md index 9eda85184..0ab1a31af 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:39:45.902602+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:03.001865+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-4.md index c397e3246..acc479a61 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:39:45.902602+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:03.001865+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-5.md index afb4f71e6..93fa959e4 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:39:45.902602+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:03.001865+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9b9500b27 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Math wars" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:04.272464+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the United States, math wars are debates over modern mathematics education, textbooks and curricula that were triggered by the publication in 1989 of the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and subsequent development and widespread adoption of a new generation of mathematics curricula inspired by these standards. +While the discussion about math skills has persisted for many decades, the term "math wars" was coined by commentators such as John A. Van de Walle and David Klein. The debates focus on traditional mathematics versus reform mathematics philosophy and curricula, which differ significantly in approach and content. + +== Advocates of reform == +The largest supporter of reform in the US has been the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. They call for a more inquiry-based approach that emphasizes real-world problem solving and understanding the underlying steps, as opposed to merely applying formulas to arrive at a correct answer. Successful implementation of this approach requires a great deal of expertise in educators; some parents and other stakeholders blame educators saying that failures occur because of this lacking expertise rather than a fundamental design flaw in the curriculum. +A backlash, which advocates call "poorly understood reform efforts" and critics call "a complete abandonment of instruction in basic mathematics," resulted in "math wars" between reform and traditional methods of mathematics education. + +== Critics of reform == + +Those who disagree with the inquiry-based philosophy maintain that students must first develop computational skills before they can understand concepts of mathematics. These skills should be memorized and practiced, using time-tested traditional methods until they become automatic. Time is better spent practicing skills rather than in investigations inventing alternatives, or justifying more than one correct answer or method. In this view, estimating answers is insufficient and, in fact, is considered to be dependent on strong foundational skills. Learning abstract concepts of mathematics is perceived to depend on a solid base of knowledge of the tools of the subject. +Supporters of traditional mathematics teaching oppose excessive dependence on innovations such as calculators or new technology, such as the Logo language. Student innovation is acceptable, even welcome, as long as it is mathematically valid. Calculator use can be appropriate after number sense has developed and basic skills have been mastered. Constructivist methods which are unfamiliar to many adults, and books which lack explanations of methods or solved examples make it difficult to help with homework. Compared to worksheets that can be completed in minutes, constructivist activities can be more time-consuming. (Reform educators respond that more time is lost in reteaching poorly understood algorithms.) Emphasis on reading and writing also increases the language load for immigrant students and parents who may be unfamiliar with English. +Critics of reform point out that traditional methods are still universally and exclusively used in industry and academia. Reform educators respond that such methods are still the ultimate goal of reform mathematics, and that students need to learn flexible thinking in order to face problems they may not know a method for. Critics maintain that it is unreasonable to expect students to "discover" the standard methods through investigation, and that flexible thinking can only be developed after mastering foundational skills. Commentators have argued that there is philosophical support for the notion that "algorithmic fluency" requires the very types of cognitive activity whose promotion reform advocates often claim is their approaches' unique virtue. However, such arguments assume that reformers do not want to teach the standard algorithms, which is a common misunderstanding of the reform position. +Some curricula incorporate research by Constance Kamii and others that concluded that direct teaching of traditional algorithms is counterproductive to conceptual understanding of math. Critics have protested some of the consequences of this research. Traditional memorization methods are replaced with constructivist activities. Students who demonstrate proficiency in a standard method are asked to invent another method of arriving at the answer. Some parents have accused reform math advocates of deliberately slowing down students with greater ability in order to "paper-over" the inequalities of the American school system. Some teachers supplement such textbooks in order to teach standard methods more quickly. Some curricula do not teach long division. Critics believe the NCTM revised its standards to explicitly call for continuing instruction of standard methods, largely because of the negative response to some of these curricula (see below). College professors and employers have sometimes claimed that students that have been taught using reform curricula do not possess basic mathematical skills. One study found that, although first-grade students in 1999 with an average or above-average aptitude for math did equally well with either teacher-directed or student-centered instruction, first-grade students with mathematical difficulties did better with teacher-directed instruction. + +== Reform curricula == + +Examples of reform curricula introduced in response to the 1989 NCTM standards and the reasons for initial criticism: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..760e23024 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "Math wars" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:04.272464+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Mathland (no longer offered) +Investigations in Numbers, Data, and Space, criticized for not containing explicit instruction of the standard algorithms +Core-Plus Mathematics Project, criticized for failing "to convey critical mathematical concepts and ideas that should and can be within reach for high school students", downplaying "algebraic structure and skills" and "inability to build geometry up from foundations in a mathematically sound and coherent way". +Connected Mathematics, criticized for not explicitly teaching children standard algorithms, formulas or solved examples +Everyday Mathematics, criticized for putting emphasis on non-traditional arithmetic methods. +Critics of reform textbooks say that they present concepts in a haphazard way. Critics of the reform textbooks and curricula support methods such as Singapore math, which emphasizes direct instruction of basic mathematical concepts, and Saxon math, which emphasizes frequent cumulative review. +Reform educators have responded by pointing out that research tends to show that students achieve greater conceptual understanding from standards-based curricula than traditional curricula and that these gains do not come at the expense of basic skills. In fact students tend to achieve the same procedural skill level in both types of curricula as measured by traditional standardized tests. More research is needed, but the current state of research seems to show that reform textbooks work as well as or better than traditional textbooks in helping students achieve computational competence while promoting greater conceptual understanding than traditional approaches. + +== Later developments == +In 2000 the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) released the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (PSSM), which was seen as more balanced than the original 1989 Standards. This led to some calming, but not an end to the dispute. Two recent reports have led to considerably more cooling of the Math Wars. In 2006, NCTM released its Curriculum Focal Points, which was seen by many as a compromise position. In 2008, the National Mathematics Advisory Panel, created by George W. Bush, called for a halt to all extreme positions. + +=== National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 2006 recommendations === +In 2006, the NCTM released Curriculum Focal Points, a report on the topics considered central for mathematics in pre-kindergarten through eighth grade. Its inclusion of standard algorithms led editorials in newspapers like the Chicago Sun Times to state that the "NCTM council has admitted, more or less, that it goofed," and that the new report cited "inconsistency in the grade placement of mathematics topics as well as in how they are defined and what students are expected to learn." NCTM responded by insisting that it considers "Focal Points" a step in the implementation of the Standards, not a reversal of its position on teaching students to learn foundational topics with conceptual understanding. Francis Fennell, president of the NCTM, stated that there had been no change of direction or policy in the new report and said that he resented talk of "math wars". The Focal Points were one of the documents consulted to create the new national Common Core Standards, which have been adopted by most of the United States since 2010. + +=== National Mathematics Advisory Panel === +On April 18, 2006, President Bush created the National Mathematics Advisory Panel, which was modeled after the influential National Reading Panel. The National Math Panel examined and summarized the scientific evidence related to the teaching and learning of mathematics, concluding in their 2008 report, "All-encompassing recommendations that instruction should be entirely 'student centered' or 'teacher directed' are not supported by research. If such recommendations exist, they should be rescinded. If they are being considered, they should be avoided. High-quality research does not support the exclusive use of either approach." The Panel effectively called for an end to the Math Wars, concluding that research showed "conceptual understanding, computational and procedural fluency, and problem-solving skills are equally important and mutually reinforce each other. Debates regarding the relative importance of each of these components of mathematics are misguided." +The Panel's final report met with significant criticism within the mathematics education community for, among other issues, the selection criteria used to determine "high-quality" research, their comparison of extreme forms of teaching, and the amount of focus placed on algebra. + +== See also == +Anti-racist mathematics – Educational plan meant to reduce perceived prejudice in educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +California Department of Education § 2021 mathematics framework +Computer-based mathematics education +Critical mathematics pedagogy – Liberation-focused math education +David Klein (mathematician) – American mathematician +Jo Boaler – British mathematics education professor (born 1964) +Marian Small – Educational researcher +Mathematics for social justice – Approach to education +New Math – Approach to teaching mathematics in the 1950s and '60s +Three-part lesson – Inquiry-based learning method + +== References == + +== Further reading == +"America's maths wars". The Economist. 6 November 2021. ISSN 0013-0613. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..61023ebb6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "National character" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:05.472607+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +National character refers to a characteristic common personality of the people of a nation. National character has been studied within the fields of anthropology, sociology, and psychology. The question of whether analysis and descriptions of national characters express meaningful content, as opposed to comprising inaccurate stereotypes, is controversial. Most of the research on national character has focused on the content, stability, accuracy, and origins of national character stereotypes. A 1985 cross-national study of national character found fundamental differences between the psychological profiles of the respective national populations of France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and the United States. Some studies comparing national character stereotypes with assessed personality traits find a moderate relationship between stereotype and reality, while others have found perceptions of national character to be unfounded and poorly related. Academic interest in national character peaked around World War II, with two anthropologists in 1969 identifying 1935 to 1945 as the field's seminal period, and declined in the decades that followed due to changes in academic thought. Jerome Braun wrote in 2014 that "the study of national character nowadays is considered somewhat old-fashioned because the most famous period devoted to this study, the period immediately after World War II, eventually reached a point of exhaustion, intellectual and otherwise, as studies were attacked for superfic and bias on the part of the researchers." + + +== See also == +Imagology +National identity + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..140182b62 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "Near-death experience" +chunk: 1/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:06.795176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A near-death experience (NDE) is a profound personal experience associated with death or impending death, which researchers describe as having similar characteristics. When positive, which most, but not all reported experiences are, such experiences may encompass a variety of sensations including detachment from the body, feelings of levitation, total serenity, security, warmth, joy, the experience of absolute dissolution, review of major life events, the presence of a light, and seeing dead relatives. While there are common elements, people's experiences and their interpretations of these experiences generally reflect their cultural, philosophical, or religious beliefs. +NDEs usually occur during reversible clinical death. Explanations for NDEs vary from scientific to religious. Neuroscience research hypothesizes that an NDE is a subjective phenomenon resulting from "disturbed bodily multisensory integration" that occurs during life-threatening events. Some transcendental and religious beliefs about an afterlife include descriptions similar to NDEs. + +== Etymology == +The equivalent French term expérience de mort imminente ("experience of imminent death") was proposed by French psychologist and epistemologist Victor Egger as a result of discussions in the 1890s among philosophers and psychologists concerning climbers' stories of the panoramic life review during falls. In 1892, a series of subjective observations by workers falling from scaffolds, soldiers who suffered injuries, climbers who had fallen from heights and other individuals who had come close to death such as in near drownings and accidents was reported by Albert Heim. This was also the first time the phenomenon was described as a clinical syndrome. +In 1968, Celia Green published an analysis of 400 first-hand accounts of out-of-body experiences. This represented the first attempt to provide a taxonomy of such experiences, viewed simply as anomalous perceptual experiences or hallucinations. In 1969, Swiss-American psychiatrist and pioneer in near-death studies Elisabeth Kübler-Ross published her well-known book On Death and Dying: What the Dying Have to Teach Doctors, Nurses, Clergy, and Their Own Families. The term "near-death experience" was used by John C. Lilly in 1972. The term was popularized in 1975 by the work of psychiatrist Raymond Moody, who used it as an umbrella term for out-of-body experiences (OBEs), the "panoramic life review", the Light, the tunnel, or the border. + +== Characteristics == + +=== Elements according to Moody (1975, close to death or death experiences) === +A 1975 study conducted by psychiatrist Raymond Moody on around 150 patients who all claimed to have witnessed an NDE stated that such an experience has fifteen elements. Moody focused in depth on approximately 50 cases from the group. One of the unifying aspects of all these patients' experiences was that they had suffered from critical illness, experienced life-threatening conditions or died. Eleven of the fifteen elements pertain to the experience itself and include: + +Finding it challenging to express the experience in one's own words. +Learning one is dead from spectators or doctors. +One's pain is replaced by pleasant sensations or/and feelings of peace. +Hearing a disturbing noise or pleasant unearthly music. +Travelling through a dark tunnel. +Finding oneself outside the body. +Meeting other people. +Meeting with a being of light. +Panoramic review of one's life. +Arriving at boundary, frontier or point of no return. +Returning to one's body and earthly life. +Moody then described four more elements that relate to events occurring after the experience: + +Sharing the experience with other people. +Impact on one's life. +Changing one's view of death. +Corroboration of the experience. +Moody explained how not every NDE will have each and every one of these steps, and how it could be different for each experience. + +=== Elements according to Ring (1980) === + +Kenneth Ring (1980) simplified Moody's observations and subdivided the NDE on a five-stage continuum (using Moody's 15 elements as inspiration). The subdivisions were: + +Peace +Body separation +Entering darkness +Seeing the light +Entering another realm of existence, through the light +The final stage is the person being resuscitated. + +=== Common elements (2022 guidelines – close to death or death) === +Since patient populations studied since Moody's original publication have drifted away from the original definition of NDEs—and thus from pathophysiological states resulting from critical illness, death, closeness to death—it has become challenging to compare peer reviewed publications where patients have diverse medical and non-medical conditions. Recent guidelines have addressed challenge by proposing to make a clear distinction between patient groups having experienced an authentic near-death experience, as in Moody's original publication, from other experiences (medical and non-medical). To better identify patients' populations, the guidelines stress the importance of studying patients whose experiences follow the narrative arc of Moody's original transcendent experiences: + +A relation with death. +A sensation of surpassing the physical or material world. +Ineffability. +Beneficial life changes tied to a deeper sense of meaning and purpose. +The guidelines also recommend to focus on experiences where: + +the severity of illness leads to loss of consciousness (LOC); and +there are no signs of the usual coma-associated phenomena like typical dreams, delirium, or delusional thinking, regardless of whether the person was in the ICU or a different environment. +The last two points are important: + +to appropriately identify death-related experiences; +to exclude coma-related critical illness/life threatening; and +to exclude diverse non-death related human experiences. + +=== Common elements in mislabeled NDEs (patients not facing impending death or death) === + +Due to a poor definition of what being "near-death" means, over the years researchers have drifted away from studying the same populations as Moody where patients suffered from critical illness, cardiac arrest or were in life critical-conditions. For example, in one series, 22% of the mislabeled NDEs have been claimed to occur during general anesthesia. There is disagreement between the 2022 guidelines and another author about the existence of some common elements or not: + +Classical (or authentic) near-death experiences occurring in populations facing impending death or death; and +mislabeled NDEs occurring in populations not facing impending death or death. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0f2b6e3d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Near-death experience" +chunk: 2/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:06.795176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Assertions of phenomenological diversity ==== +The 2022 guidelines stress that the themes of authentic death experiences have little in common with mislabeled NDEs, except perhaps for shallow similarities, like mentioning religious symbols or saying the experience felt peaceful. The physiological context of patients near-death or experiencing death (as defined by cardiopulmonary criteria) leads to a decline in mental clarity and consciousness and, in extreme cases, complete loss of detectable cerebral function. Paradoxically, genuine/authentic near death experiences—characterized by coherence, meaning, purpose, and lucid life review—arise during this state, not under normal conditions of preserved brain metabolism and function. According to the 2022 guidelines, experiences termed "NDE-like" including those induced by ketamine or DMT, reliably display features unlike recalled experiences of death: + +distorted body sensations, +inflated or self-centered perspectives, and +varied imagery such as elves, celebrities, geometric forms, aliens, or bright neon scenes. +Likewise, dreams and seizures exhibit unrelated, non-authentic NDE themes. + +==== Claims of common elements ==== +Another author instead claims that similar traits have been identified despite the differences among populations being studied and these include: + +50% awareness of being dead. +56% a sense of peace, well-being, painlessness, bliss, euphoria and other positive emotions. +24% an out-of-body experience (OBE). An OBE may be part of an NDE and involves a perception of one's body from an outside position, sometimes observing medical professionals performing resuscitation efforts. +31% a "tunnel experience" or entering a darkness. A sense of moving up, or through, a passageway or staircase. +32% being reunited with deceased loved ones or seeing religious figures. + +=== Interpretation of NDEs === +A person's interpretation of an NDE experience often corresponds with one's cultural, philosophical, or religious beliefs. For example, in the US, where 46% of the population believes in guardian angels, the Light will often be identified as angels or deceased loved ones (or will be unidentified), while Hindus will often identify them as messengers of the god of death. The cultural beliefs held by NDErs seem to dictate some of the phenomena experienced during the NDE, but more so affect the later interpretation thereof. + +=== Negative NDEs or ICU delirium and delusions === +In the years following Moody's descriptions of classical near-death experiences, reports of unpleasant experiences where people felt persecuted, distressed or frightened began to appear in the literature and in the media. These NDEs were categorized as negative or "hellish" (NDEs). More recent research, indicates that these distressing experiences generally do not share the same narrative structure or thematic elements as classical NDEs, nor do they exhibit the same long-term transformative impact, transcendent characteristics and ineffability. In essence, negative NDEs appear to be fundamentally and phenomenologically distinct from classical NDEs. In fact, most of these accounts are better understood as mislabelings of ICU delirium and delusions—phenomena that are well documented in the literature, particularly in the context of toxic metabolic disturbances, withdrawal syndromes, and other conditions that can produce persecutory, frightening, or dream-like experiences in hospitalized and critically ill patients. The original misclassification of these experiences lacked specific criteria or a scientific basis, and no formal definition or consensus has ever been established. Nevertheless, the use of these terms has contributed to the propagation of the idea of negative or "hellish" death-related experiences in the media and beyond. + +=== NDEs and suicides === +Those who attempt suicide and survive will sometimes report enduring intense emotional pain that feels, to them, like a torment of their own creation. These individuals often find themselves in a state that they perceive as a personal and self-created hell. + +=== Bruce Greyson scale and false positives === +To improve diagnosis of NDEs, Bruce Greyson created a questionnaire for NDErs, composed of 80 characteristics. The questionnaire studies common effects, mechanisms, sensations and reactions. Greyson replaced that questionnaire in 1983 with a scale for researchers to use. Nearly four decades after the development of the standardized Greyson NDE scale, several limitations have come to light. Notably, many of the terms and questions used (in the Greyson scale) — interpreted literally by the public — lack the precision to reliably distinguish true NDEs from other different kinds of human experiences. For instance, Greyson's scale includes vague terms like "strange bodily sensations", "unearthly place", "mystical feelings", "joy", "harmony", "pleasantness", and "spirits", which could apply to a variety of non-NDE experiences. The term "unearthly", for example, could easily describe anything from a stunning vacation setting to the altered state brought on by drugs. Because this scale was developed without a clear definition of what it means to be "near death". it failed to include criteria that tie the experience to a real life-threatening event. As a result, using the scale outside its intended context can lead to false positives. For example, someone recalling a peaceful vacation and reflecting on life might meet several of the scale's criteria—such as peace, harmony, an unearthly place, and life review—leading to the incorrect labeling of the event as an NDE. Researchers must be cautious of such misclassifications. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2ffd97a6a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Near-death experience" +chunk: 3/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:06.795176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Patients' management and after-effects === +Moody described the correct approach to an NDE patient is to "Ask, Listen, Validate, Educate, and Refer". Due to the potential confusion or shock attributed to those who experience near-death experiences, it is important to treat them in a calm and understanding way right after their return from the NDE. NDEs are associated with changes in personality and outlook on life. Ring has identified a consistent set of value and belief changes associated with people who have had an NDE. Among these changes, he found a greater appreciation for life, higher self-esteem, greater compassion for others, less concern for acquiring material wealth, a heightened sense of purpose and self-understanding, desire to learn, elevated spirituality, greater ecological sensitivity and planetary concern, a feeling of being more intuitive, no longer worrying about death, and claiming to have witnessed an afterlife. Although people who have experienced NDEs become more spiritual, it does not mean they become necessarily more religious. Not all after-effects are beneficial, and Greyson describes circumstances in which changes in attitudes and behavior can lead to psychosocial and psychospiritual problems. + +== Establishment of research framework == +To establish a rigorous research framework for the study of experiences of encounters with death, the 2022 guidelines agreed to adopt the more precise term recalled experience of death (RED) instead of near-death experience (NDE). A RED is an authentic near-death experience (see Common Elements, 2022 Guidelines). Hence, a RED refers to a distinct cognitive and emotional event that takes place during a period of loss of consciousness associated with a life-threatening episode, such as cardiac arrest. REDs, just like authentic near-death experiences, follow the narrative arc of Moody's original transcendent experiences: + +A relation with death. +A sensation of surpassing the physical or material world +Ineffability +Beneficial life changes tied to a deeper sense of meaning and purpose. +REDs do not feature signs of the usual coma-associated phenomena like typical dreams, delirium, or delusional thinking. The term RED eliminates the vagueness of “near-death” by including both severe, life-threatening conditions that bring a person close to death (from a medical or pathophysiological standpoint) and states involving the actual physiological processes of death itself, such as cardiac arrest or other forms of cardiac standstill. The authors of the 2022 guidelines believe that focusing on REDs will provide a more robust research framework. Studies of REDs will avoid mixing distinct phenomena such as drug induced hallucinations, dreams, misattributed memories formed during emergence out of coma, etc. + +== Historical reports == +NDEs have been recorded since ancient times. The oldest known medical report of near-death experiences was written by Pierre-Jean du Monchaux, an 18th-century French military doctor who described such a case in his book Anecdotes de Médecine. Monchaux hypothesized that an influx of blood in the brain stimulated a strong feeling in the individual, and therefore caused a near-death experience. In the 19th century a few studies moved beyond individual cases – one privately done by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and one in Switzerland. Up to 2005, 95% of world cultures are known to have made some mention of NDEs. +In the U.S., an estimated nine million people have reported an NDE according to a 2011 study in Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Most of these near-death experiences resulted from serious injury affecting the body or brain. A number of more contemporary sources report the incidence of near death experiences as: + +17% amongst critically ill patients, in nine prospective studies from four different countries. +10–20% of people who have come close to death. + +== Near-death studies == + +Bruce Greyson (psychiatrist), Kenneth Ring (psychologist), and Michael Sabom (cardiologist), helped to launch the field of near-death studies and introduced the study of near-death experiences to the academic setting. From 1975 to 2005, some 2,500 self-reported individuals in the US had been reviewed in retrospective studies of the phenomena, with an additional 600 outside the US in the West, and 70 in Asia. Additionally, prospective studies had identified 270 individuals. Prospective studies review groups of individuals (e.g., selected emergency room patients) and then find who had an NDE during the study's time; such studies cost more to perform. In all, close to 3,500 individual cases between 1975 and 2005 had been reviewed in one or another study. All these studies were carried out by some 55 researchers or teams of researchers. +Melvin L. Morse, head of the Institute for the Scientific Study of Consciousness, and colleagues have investigated near-death experiences in a pediatric population. Researchers from the University of Michigan led by Jimo Borjigin discovered that areas of the brain responsible for interior visual experience were more active during cardiac arrest. Following the rapid gamma activation locally within the posterior TPO zones, the long-range, global, and interhemispheric communications in gamma oscillations between the TPO zones and the prefrontal areas were activated in the dying brain, evidenced by the delayed activation of temporofrontal, parietofrontal, and Occipitofrontal networks when heart rate began to decline. Intriguingly, the long-range gamma connectivity between the posterior hot zones and the prefrontal areas at near-death was significantly higher over baseline only for those crossing the midline. Studies suggest that interhemispheric circuitry is important for memory recall, and gamma synchrony across the midlines is critical for learning, information integration, and perception. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..750787dd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Near-death experience" +chunk: 4/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:06.795176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== The Near Death Experience Research Foundation (NDERF) === +American radiation oncologist Jeffrey Long has amassed a large database of NDEs through the Near Death Experience Research Foundation (NDERF). 835 out of 1,122 people who had experienced NDE seemed to feel an increase in alertness and consciousness although studies proved no sign of electrical brain activity. His second line of evidence studies the increase of accuracy developed by NDErs defining their resuscitation process with a 97.6% accuracy rate. Long documented seven more lines of evidence that all point to realism in NDE experiences, yet not all of them verifiable or defined by today's medical advances and technology. Having such an abnormally large amount (95.6% of 1,000 participants) of those who had experienced NDE proclaiming NDEs as real experiences, he concludes that although NDE are medically inexplicable, they are most probably a real phenomenon. + +=== Recognition and criticism === +According to literature, the field of near-death studies is associated with discovery, challenges, and controversy. Cant and colleagues note that "curiosity about the origin and prevalence of NDEs has escalated as technology and resuscitation techniques have improved". The topic attracts a lot of interest, which is reflected in search engine results, medical literature, opinion pieces and commentary. Kopel and Webb note that there has been a "burgeoning literature on near-death experiences", reflecting both the naturalistic perspectives of neurology and physiology, as well as perspectives that are not naturalistic. Skepticism towards the findings of near-death studies, and the validity of the near-death experience as a subject for scientific study, has been widespread. According to Knapton, in The Daily Telegraph, the subject was, until recently, controversial. Both scientists and medical professionals have in general tended to be skeptical. According to commentators in the field, the early study of near-death experiences was met with "academic disbelief". Acceptance of NDEs as a legitimate topic for scientific study has improved, but the process has been slow. +According to literature, "psychiatrists have played a role in the recognition of the "near-death" phenomenon as well as popularization of the subject and subsequent research". Kinsella noted that "Growing scholarly interest has followed popular interest in the subject". While there is not yet any academic consensus as to what the philosophical implications of NDE studies might be, the question of whatever the true and fundamental nature of human consciousness might be yet remains both unanswered, and highly contentious. Still, NDE researchers are in general agreement that NDE research is now a legitimate academic field of scientific research, and many recent discoveries in this field give rise to the hopes by some researchers that a "breakthrough" in the modern day understanding of the dying process may be imminent. +Kovoor and colleagues noted that there are some "methodological concerns within many of the prospective studies" mapped by their scoping review. They further observed: "Longer-term outcomes may have been biased by clinical characteristics and comorbidities, rather than near-death experiences, and this should remain a pertinent consideration." Skeptics have remarked that it is difficult to verify many of the anecdotal reports that are being used as background material in order to outline the features of the NDE. The findings of NDE research have been contested by several writers in the fields of psychology and neuroscience. Criticism of the field has also come from commentators within its own ranks. In an open letter to the NDE community, Ring has pointed to the "issue of possible religious bias in near-death studies". According to Ring, the field of near-death studies, as well as the larger NDE movement, has attracted a variety of religious and spiritual affiliations, from a number of traditions, which makes ideological claims on behalf of NDE research. In his view, this has compromised the integrity of research and discussion. +A 2021 study of 101 patients that underwent Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest found that none of them had anything that could be described as a Near-Death Experience. + +== Clinical research in cardiac arrest patients == + +=== Parnia's study in 2001 === +In 2001, Sam Parnia and colleagues published the results of a year-long study of cardiac arrest survivors that was conducted at Southampton General Hospital. 63 survivors were interviewed. They had been resuscitated after being clinically dead with no pulse, no respiration, and fixed dilated pupils. Parnia and colleagues investigated out-of-body experience claims by placing figures in areas where patients were likely to be resuscitated on suspended boards facing the ceiling, not visible from the floor. Four had experiences that, according to the study criteria, were NDEs but none of them experienced the out-of-body experience. Thus, they were not able to identify the figures. Psychologist Chris French wrote regarding the study "unfortunately, and somewhat atypically, none of the survivors in this sample experienced an out of body experience". + +=== Van Lommel's study === + +In 2001, Pim van Lommel, a cardiologist from the Netherlands, and his team conducted a study on NDEs including 344 cardiac arrest patients who had been successfully resuscitated in 10 Dutch hospitals. Patients not reporting NDEs were used as controls for patients who did, and psychological (e.g., fear before cardiac arrest), demographic (e.g., age, sex), medical (e.g., more than one cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)), and pharmacological data were compared between the two groups. +The work also included a longitudinal study where the two groups (those who had had an NDE and those who had not had one) were compared at two and eight years, for life changes. One patient had a conventional out of body experience. He reported being able to watch and recall events during the time of his cardiac arrest. His claims were confirmed by hospital personnel. "This did not appear consistent with hallucinatory or illusory experiences, as the recollections were compatible with real and verifiable rather than imagined events". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db536a219 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Near-death experience" +chunk: 5/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:06.795176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Awareness during resuscitation (AWARE) study === +While at the University of Southampton, Parnia was the principal investigator of the AWARE Study, which was launched in 2008.[13] The study, which concluded in 2012, included 33 investigators across 15 medical centers in the UK, Austria and the US and tested consciousness, memories and awareness during cardiac arrest. The accuracy of claims of visual and auditory awareness was examined using specific tests. One such test consisted of installing shelves, bearing a variety of images and facing the ceiling, hence not visible to hospital staff, in rooms where cardiac-arrest patients were more likely to occur. The results of the study were published in October 2014. +A review article analyzing the results reports that, out of 2,060 cardiac arrest events, 101 of 140 cardiac arrest survivors could complete the questionnaires. Of these 101 patients, 9% could be classified as near-death experiences. Two more patients (2% of those completing the questionnaires) described "seeing and hearing actual events related to the period of cardiac arrest". These two patients' cardiac arrests did not occur in areas equipped with ceiling shelves, hence no images could be used to objectively test for visual awareness claims. One of the two patients was too sick and the accuracy of her recount could not be verified. For the second patient, however, it was possible to verify the accuracy of the experience and to show that awareness occurred paradoxically some minutes after the heart stopped, at a time when "the brain ordinarily stops functioning and cortical activity becomes isoelectric (i.e., without any discernible electric activity)." The experience was not compatible with an illusion, imaginary event or hallucination since visual (other than of ceiling shelves' images) and auditory awareness could be corroborated. +As of May 2016, a posting at the UK Clinical Trials Gateway website described plans for AWARE II, a two-year multicenter observational study of 900–1,500 patients experiencing cardiac arrest, which said that subject recruitment had started on 1 August 2014 and that the scheduled end date was 31 May 2017. The study was extended, continuing until 2020. In 2019, a report of a condensed version of the study with 465 patients was released. Only one patient remembered the auditory stimuli while none remembered the visual. In November 2022, the full study was published. + +== Explanatory models == +In a 2005 review article, psychologist Chris French categorized models that try to explain NDEs into three broad groups which "are not distinct and independent, but instead show considerable overlap": spiritual (or transcendental), psychological, and physiological. + +=== Spiritual or transcendental models === +French summarizes this model by saying: "the most popular interpretation is that the NDE is exactly what it appears to be to the person having the experience". The NDE would represent evidence of the immaterial existence of a soul or mind, which leaves the body upon death, and provides information about an immaterial world where the soul journeys after death. +According to Greyson, some NDE phenomena cannot be easily explained with our current knowledge of human physiology and psychology. For instance, at a time when they were unconscious, patients could accurately describe events "from an out-of-body spatial perspective". In two different studies of patients who had survived a cardiac arrest, those who had reported leaving their bodies could describe accurately their resuscitation procedures or unexpected events, whereas others "described incorrect equipment and procedures". Sam Parnia also refers to two cardiac arrest studies and one deep hypothermic circulatory arrest study where patients reported visual and/or auditory awareness occurring when their brain function had ceased. These reports "were corroborated with actual and real events". +Five prospective studies have been carried out to test the accuracy of out of body perceptions by placing "unusual targets in locations likely to be seen by persons having NDEs, such as in an upper corner of a room in the emergency department, the coronary care unit, or the intensive care unit of a hospital." Twelve patients reported leaving their bodies, but none could describe the hidden visual targets. Although this is a small sample, the failure of purported out-of-body experiencers to describe the hidden targets raises questions about the accuracy of the anecdotal reports described above. + +==== Criticism ==== +Neuroscientist Charlotte Martial states that there is a dearth of solid empirical evidence about theories of non-local consciousness, which is claimed by some authors. Chris French has noted that "the survivalist approach does not appear to generate clear and testable hypotheses. Because of the vagueness and imprecision of the survivalist account, it can be made to explain any possible set of findings and is therefore unfalsifiable and unscientific." + +=== Psychological models === +French summarises the main psychological explanations, which include the depersonalization, the expectancy and the dissociation models. + +==== Depersonalization model ==== +A depersonalization model was proposed in the 1970s by professor of psychiatry Russell Noyes and clinical psychologist Roy Kletti, which suggested that the NDE is a form of depersonalization, experienced under emotional conditions such as life-threatening danger, potentially inescapable danger, and that the NDE can best be understood as a hallucination. According to this model, those who face their impending death become psychologically detached from their surroundings and bodies, no longer feel emotions, and experience time distortions. +This model suffers from a number of limitations to explain NDEs for subjects who do not experience a sensation of being out of their bodies; unlike NDEs, these hallucinatory experiences are dreamlike, unpleasant and characterized by "anxiety, panic and emptiness". Also, during NDEs subjects remain very lucid of their identities, and their sense of identity is not changed, unlike those experiencing depersonalization. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9d61fde8a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Near-death experience" +chunk: 6/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:06.795176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Expectancy model ==== +Another psychological theory is called the expectancy model. It has been suggested that although these experiences could appear very real, they had actually been constructed in the mind, either consciously or subconsciously, in response to the stress of an encounter with death (or perceived encounter with death), and did not correspond to a real event. In a way, they are similar to wish-fulfillment: because someone thought they were about to die, they experienced certain things in accordance with what they expected or wanted to occur. Imagining a heavenly place was, in effect, a way for them to soothe themselves through the stress of knowing that they were close to death. Subjects use their own personal and cultural expectations to imagine a scenario that would protect them against an imminent threat to their lives. +Subjects' accounts often differed from their own "religious and personal expectations regarding death", which contradicts the hypothesis they may have imagined a scenario based on their cultural and personal background. Although the term NDE was first coined in 1975 and the experience first described then, recent descriptions of NDEs do not differ from those reported earlier than 1975. The only exception is the more frequent description of a tunnel. Hence, the fact that information about these experiences could be more easily obtained after 1975 had not influenced people's reports of the experiences. Another flaw of this model can be found in children's accounts of NDEs. These are similar to adults', despite children being less strongly affected by religious and cultural influences about death. + +==== Dissociation model ==== +The dissociation model proposes that NDE is a form of withdrawal to protect an individual from a stressful event. Under extreme circumstances, some people may detach from certain unwanted feelings in order to avoid experiencing the emotional impact and suffering associated with them. The person also detaches from one's immediate surroundings. + +==== Birth model ==== +The birth model suggests that near-death experiences could be a form of reliving the trauma of birth. Since a baby travels from the darkness of the womb to light and is greeted by the love and warmth of the nursing and medical staff, and so, it was proposed, the dying brain could be recreating the passage through a tunnel to light, warmth and affection. Reports of leaving the body through a tunnel are equally frequent among subjects who were born by cesarean section and natural birth. Newborns do not possess "the visual acuity, spatial stability of their visual images, mental alertness, and cortical coding capacity to register memories of the birth experience". + +=== Physiological models === +A wide range of physiological theories of the NDE have been put forward, including those based upon cerebral hypoxia, anoxia, and hypercapnia; endorphins and other neurotransmitters; and abnormal activity in the temporal lobes. Neurobiological factors in the experience have been investigated by researchers in the field of medical science and psychiatry. Among the researchers and commentators who tend to emphasize a naturalistic and neurological base for the experience is the British psychologist Susan Blackmore (1993), with her "dying brain hypothesis". + +==== Neuroanatomical models ==== +According to Greyson, multiple neuroanatomical models have been proposed, wherein NDEs have been hypothesized to originate from different anatomical areas of the brain, namely: the limbic system, the hippocampus, the left temporal lobe, Reissner's fiber in the central canal of the spinal cord, the prefrontal cortex, and the right temporal lobe. Neuroscientists Olaf Blanke and Sebastian Dieguez (2009), from the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland, propose a brain-based model with two types of NDEs: + +"type 1 NDEs are due to bilateral frontal and occipital, but predominantly right hemispheric brain damage affecting the right temporal-parietal junction and characterized by out-of-body-experiences, altered sense of time, sensations of flying, lightness vection and flying" +"type 2 NDEs are also due to bilateral frontal and occipital, but predominantly left hemispheric brain damage affecting the left temporal parietal junction and characterized by feeling of a presence, meeting and communication with spirits, seeing of glowing bodies, as well as voices, sounds, and music without vection" + +They suggest that damage to the bilateral occipital cortex may lead to visual features of NDEs such as seeing a tunnel or lights, and "damage to unilateral or bilateral temporal lobe structures such as the hippocampus and amygdala" may lead to emotional experiences, memory flashbacks or a life review. They concluded that future neuroscientific studies are likely to reveal the neuroanatomical basis of the NDE, which will lead to the demystification of the subject without needing paranormal explanations. +French has written that the "temporal lobe is almost certain to be involved in NDEs, given that both damage to and direct cortical stimulation of this area are known to produce a number of experiences corresponding to those of the NDE, including OBEs, hallucinations, and memory flashbacks". Vanhaudenhuyse et al. (2009) reported that recent studies employing deep brain stimulation and neuroimaging have demonstrated that out-of-body experiences can result from a deficient multisensory integration at the temporal-parietal junction and that ongoing studies aim to further identify the functional neuroanatomy of near-death experiences by means of standardized EEG recordings. + +==== Criticism ==== +Blanke et al. admit that their model remains speculative due to the lack of data. In addition, the reports of those who had the brain stimulation were almost nothing like OBEs reported by those who had NDEs, mainly characterized by a sense of elevation and (often limited) spatial awareness, while other characteristics of NDEs were absent. Anomalies such as seeing maps, half-bodies and duplications were also noted. Likewise, Greyson writes that although some, or any of the proposed neuroanatomical models may serve to explain NDEs and pathways through which they are expressed, they remain speculative at this stage, since they have not been tested in empirical studies. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9372ab339 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Near-death experience" +chunk: 7/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:06.795176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Neurochemical models ==== +Some theories explain reported NDE experiences as resulting from drugs used during resuscitation (in the case of resuscitation-induced NDEs) ─ for example, ketamine ─ or from endogenous chemicals (neurotransmitters) that transmit signals between brain cells: + +In the early 1980s, Daniel Carr wrote that the NDE has characteristics that are suggestive of a limbic lobe syndrome and that the NDE can be explained by the release of endorphins and enkephalins in the brain. Endorphins are endogenous molecules "released in times of stress and lead to a reduction in pain perception and a pleasant, even blissful, emotional state." +Judson and Wiltshaw (1983) noted how the administration of endorphin-blocking agents such as naloxone had been occasionally reported to produce "hellish" NDEs. This would be coherent with endorphins' role in causing a "positive emotional tone of most NDEs". +Morse et al. (1989) proposed a model arguing that serotonin played a more important role than endorphins in generating NDEs, "at least with respect to mystical hallucinations and OBEs". +A 2019 large-scale study found that ketamine, Salvia divinorum, and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) are linked to near-death experiences. +While ketamine, and other endogenous chemicals can be a source for NDE, it can also mimic these NDE and simulate that out-of-body experiences linked to NDE. + +==== Criticism ==== +According to Parnia, neurochemical models are not backed by data. This is true for "NMDA receptor activation, serotonin, and endorphin release" models. Parnia writes that no data has been collected via thorough and careful experimentation to back "a possible causal relationship or even an association" between neurochemical agents and NDE experiences. + +==== Multi-factorial models ==== +The first formal neurobiological model for NDEs in 1989 included endorphins, neurotransmitters of the limbic system, the temporal lobe and other parts of the brain. Extensions and variations of their model came from other scientists such as Louis Appleby (1989). Other authors suggest that all components of near-death experiences can be explained in their entirety via psychological or neurophysiological mechanisms, although the authors admit that these hypotheses have to be tested by science. + +==== Low oxygen levels (and G-LOC) model ==== +Low oxygen levels in the blood (hypoxia or anoxia) have been hypothesized to induce hallucinations and hence possibly explain NDEs. This is because low oxygen levels characterize life-threatening situations and also the apparent similarities between NDEs and G-force-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) episodes. These episodes are observed with fighter pilots experiencing very rapid and intense acceleration that results in lack of sufficient blood supply to the brain. Whinnery studied almost 1000 cases and noted how the experiences often involved "tunnel vision and bright lights, floating sensations, automatic movement, autoscopy, OBEs, not wanting to be disturbed, paralysis, vivid dreamlets of beautiful places, pleasurable sensations, psychological alterations of euphoria and dissociation, inclusion of friends and family, inclusion of prior memories and thoughts, the experience being very memorable (when it can be remembered), confabulation, and a strong urge to understand the experience." +Acceleration-induced hypoxia's primary characteristics are "rhythmic jerking of the limbs, compromised memory of events just prior to the onset of unconsciousness, tingling of extremities ..." that are not observed during NDEs. G-LOC episodes do not feature life reviews, mystical experiences and "long-lasting transformational aftereffects", although this may be due to the fact that subjects have no expectation of dying. Hypoxic hallucinations are characterized by "distress and agitation", and this is very different from near-death experiences, which subjects usually report as being pleasant. + +==== Altered blood gas levels models ==== +Some investigators have studied whether hypercarbia or higher than normal carbon dioxide levels, could explain the occurrence of NDEs. However, studies are difficult to interpret since NDEs have been observed both with increased levels as well as decreased levels of carbon dioxide, and other studies have observed NDEs when levels had not changed, but there is insufficient data on these factors. + +==== Other models ==== +French said that at least some reports of NDEs might be based upon false memories. According to Engmann (2008), near-death experiences of people who are clinically dead are psychopathological symptoms caused by a severe malfunction of the brain resulting from the cessation of cerebral blood circulation. An important question is whether it is possible to "translate" the bloomy experiences of the reanimated survivors into psychopathologically basic phenomena, e.g., acoasms (nonverbal auditory hallucinations), central narrowing of the visual field, autoscopia, visual hallucinations, activation of limbic and memory structures (according to Moody's stages). The symptoms suppose a primary affliction of the occipital and temporal cortices under clinical death. This basis could be congruent with the thesis of pathoclisis – the inclination of special parts of the brain to be the first to be damaged in case of disease, lack of oxygen, or malnutrition – established in 1922 by Cécile Vogt-Mugnier and Oskar Vogt. +Professor of neurology Terence Hines (2003) claimed that near-death experiences are hallucinations caused by cerebral anoxia, drugs, or brain damage. Greyson has called into question the adequacy of the materialist, mind-brain identity model for explaining NDEs. An NDE often involves vivid and complex mentation, sensation and memory-formation under circumstances of completely disabled brain function during general anesthesia, or near-complete cessation of cerebral blood flow and oxygen uptake during cardiac arrest. Materialist models predict that such conscious experiences should be impossible under these conditions. The mind-brain identity model of classic materialist psychology may need to be expanded to adequately explain an NDE. + +== See also == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..261dfd8a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "Near-death experience" +chunk: 8/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:06.795176+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +After-death communication – Spiritual practicePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Beyond and Back – 1978 film +Cognitive science of religion – Study of religious thought and behavior +Deathbed phenomena – Range of experiences reported by dying people +Deism – Belief in a god based on rational thought +Form constant – Recurringly observed geometric pattern +Lazarus syndrome – Medical phenomenon +Near-birth experience – Alleged recollected event which occurred before or during one's own birth +Neurotheology – Attempts to explain religious experience in neuroscientific termsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Out-of-body experience – Phenomenon in which the soul (astral body) is said to exit the physical body +Pam Reynolds case – Reported near-death experience +Passage (Willis novel) – 2001 novel by Connie Willis +Proof of Heaven – 2012 nonfiction book by Eben Alexander +Psychedelic experience – Altered state of consciousness +Resurrection – Concept of coming back to life +Saved by the Light – 1994 book by Dannion Brinkley +Terminal lucidity – Sign of impending death +Zendegi Pas Az Zendegi – Iranian reality TV series (2020–2023) + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Alcock, James (1979). "Psychology and Near-Death Experiences". Skeptical Inquirer. 3: 25–41. +Lee Worth Bailey; Jenny Yates. (1996). The Near-Death Experience: A Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91431-0 +Blackmore, Susan (2002). "Near-Death Experiences". In Shermer, Ed. M. (ed.). The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. Santa Barbara, CA.: ABC-Clio. pp. 152–157. ISBN 978-1-57607-653-8. +Carroll, Robert T. (12 September 2014). "Near-death experience (NDE)". The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved 21 August 2017. +Choi, Charles Q. (September 12, 2011). "Peace of Mind: Near-Death Experiences Now Found to Have Scientific Explanations". Scientific American. +Engmann, Birk (2014). Near-death experiences: heavenly insight or human illusion?. Imprint: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-03727-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) +Fenwick, Peter; Fenwick, Elizabeth (1995). The Truth in the Light. Berkley Books, New York. ISBN 0-425-15608-7. +Bruce Greyson, Charles Flynn. (1984). The Near-Death Experience: Problems, Prospects, Perspectives. Springfield. ISBN 0-398-05008-2 +Perera, Mahendra; Jagadheesan, Karuppiah; Peake, Anthony, eds. (2012). Making sense of near-death experiences: a handbook for clinicians. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84905-149-1. +Ring, Kenneth; Elsaesser, Evelyn (2024-07-08). Lessons from the Light: What Near-Death Experiences Teach Us about Living in the Here and Now. Red Wheel Weiser. ISBN 978-1-63748-018-2. +Roberts, Glenn; Owen, John (1988). "The Near-Death Experience". British Journal of Psychiatry. 153 (5): 607–617. doi:10.1192/bjp.153.5.607. PMID 3076496. S2CID 36185915. +Shermer, Michael (April 1, 2013). "Proof of Hallucination". Scientific American. 308 (4): 86. Bibcode:2013SciAm.308d..86S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0413-86. PMID 23539795. +Schlieter, Jens (2018). What is it like to be dead?: Near-death experiences, Christianity, and the Occult times (Hardcover ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-088884-8. +van Lommel, Pim (2010). After life: a scientific approach to near-death experiences (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-177725-7. +Woerlee, G.M. (May 2004). "Darkness, Tunnels, and Light". Skeptical Inquirer. 28 (3). +Woerlee, G.M. (2005). Mortal minds: the biology of near-death experiences. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-283-1. +Zaleski, Carol (1987). Otherworld journeys: accounts of near-death experience in medieval and modern times (Paperback ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503915-3. + +== External links == + +Near-Death Experience Research Foundation. Includes searchable database of 5,500+ accounts +Intelligence Squared debate on NDE featuring Eben Alexander, Raymond Moody, Sean Carroll, and Steven Novella +International Association for Near-Death Studies (IANDS) +Near death experiences and afterlife +Life after Life: Science Meets Spirit in Our Exploration of the Afterlife (Raymond Moody) +The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on NDE \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f84362fa4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "New Family Structures Study" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:07.980389+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The New Family Structures Study (abbreviated NFSS) is a sociological study of family structures conducted by sociologist Mark Regnerus of the University of Texas at Austin. The study surveyed over 15,000 Americans of ages 18 to 39. The first research article based on data from the study was published in July 2012 in Social Science Research. +The article concluded that people who had had a parent who had been in a same-gender relationship were at a greater risk of several adverse outcomes, including "being on public assistance, being unemployed, and having poorer educational attainment". The study was met with considerable criticism from many academics, scholarly organizations, and medical journals. Of note, only two children in the study (of the 236 counted as having gay parents) had actually lived with homosexually partnered parents for their entire childhoods. Thus, negative outcomes or events cannot be attributed to having same-sex parents, because many of these children also spent their childhoods with opposite-sex parents, and experienced family disruption and parental divorce. +A 2015 reanalysis raised serious questions about the validity of the study, finding misclassification of families, inconsistency in answers suggesting mischief, and evidence that many respondents did not live with their non-heterosexual parents. When these cases were excluded, differences in outcome between children raised by parents in opposite-sex and same-sex relationships largely vanished. + +== Funding == +The Witherspoon Institute, a conservative think-tank, contributed $695,000 in funding and the Bradley Foundation contributed $90,000. The Witherspoon Institute's president expected results that would be unfavorable to those supporting gay marriage. In the initial report, Regnerus stated that the Witherspoon Institute and the Bradley Foundation played no role in the design of the study, and dismissed accusations that these organizations had improperly influenced him. In 2013, however, in response to requests by the American Independent News Network, emails sent between Regnerus and Witherspoon Institute employee Brad Wilcox were released which cast doubt on these statements. In one email, Wilcox approved several items relating to the study on behalf of the Witherspoon Institute. Critics have also noted that Wilcox was on the editorial board of Social Science Research, the journal in which the study was later published. + +== Methodology == +The NFSS survey of over 15,000 Americans between the ages of 18 and 39 was conducted by Knowledge Networks on behalf of the University of Texas at Austin. Its stated purpose was to determine differences in outcomes among young adults raised in different family structures. The survey collected data from young adults and sorted them into the following categories, where "R" is the young adult questioned: + +IBF: Lived in intact biological family (with mother and father) from 0 to 18, and parents are still married at present (N = 919) +LM: R reported R’s mother had a same-sex romantic (lesbian) relationship with a woman, regardless of any other household transitions or disruptions (N = 163) +GF: R reported R’s father had a same-sex romantic (gay) relationship with a man, regardless of any other household transitions or disruptions (N = 73) +Adopted: R was adopted by one or two strangers at birth or before age 2 (N = 101) +Divorced later or had joint custody: R reported living with biological mother and father from birth to age 18, but parents are not married at present (N = 116) +Stepfamily: Biological parents were either never married or else divorced, and R’s primary custodial parent was mar- ried to someone else before R turned 18 (N = 394) +Single parent: Biological parents were either never married or else divorced, and R’s primary custodial parent did not marry (or remarry) before R turned 18 (N = 816) +All others: Includes all other family structure/event combinations, such as respondents with a deceased parent (N = 406) + +== Findings == +The study compared various types of families, and found that subjects who perceived their mothers as having engaged in a same-sex relationship were more likely to have been sexually abused as children. When compared with those who grew up in (still) intact, biological mother–father families, the subjects who reported that their mother had had a same-sex relationship and did not make a similar report about their father look different on outcomes regarding including education, depression, employment status, and marijuana use. +Regnerus states although the findings reported may be explicable in part by a variety of forces uniquely problematic for child development in lesbian and gay families—including a lack of social support for parents, stress exposure resulting from persistent stigma, and modest or absent legal security for their parental and romantic relationship statuses—the empirical claim that no notable differences exist must go. +The term LM is used for subjects who stated that their mother had had a same-sex romantic relationship but did not make a similar statement about their father. The term GF is used for subjects that stated that their father had had a same-sex romantic relationship. The term IBF is used for subjects whose biological families were intact from birth through the time of the survey. + +=== Table 2 === +(The following results are mean scores on select dichotomous outcome variables.) +The results are read in the percentage of children from each family structure who responded positively to each question. For example, for the variable "currently married" 43% of respondents from intact bio-family answered yes, whereas 36% of those in the LM category answered yes, and 35% of those in the GF category answered yes. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..14bf7362a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "New Family Structures Study" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:18:07.980389+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Controversy and reanalysis == +Cynthia Osborne, who is on the UT-Austin faculty along with Regnerus, argued the study was unable to show "whether same-sex parenting causes the observed differences". She also said that "Children of lesbian mothers might have lived in many different family structures, and it is impossible to isolate the effects of living with a lesbian mother from experiencing divorce, remarriage or living with a single parent." Similarly, Gary Gates of the Williams Institute argued that the study's comparison of children of lesbian mothers was a less fair comparison than, for instance, comparing "children of heterosexual or same-sex couples who were raised in similar homes". +Regnerus's former mentor Christian Smith has described the public and academic reaction to the New Family Structures Study as a "witch hunt" and said that the "push-back" to Regnerus's article "is coming simply because some people don't like where the data led". This backlash, Smith argues in his book The Sacred Project of American Sociology, is a result of the content of sociology's "sacred project" (of mitigating oppression, inequality, etc.); Smith holds that the critical reaction, e.g. on methodological issues, displays a set of double standards insofar as work by other scholars could be (but is generally not) subjected to similar criticism. +Regnerus's study was defended by 18 social scientists in a letter written on the website of the Institute for Studies of Religion at Baylor University. + +=== Allegations of scientific misconduct === +Soon after the paper was published, gay blogger Scott Rose accused Regnerus of scientific misconduct for two reasons: deviating from ethical standards and possible falsification of his research. An inquiry later conducted by the University of Texas-Austin found that no investigation into these charges was warranted. +In 2014, the Dean of the College of Liberal Arts at the University of Texas-Austin, Randy Diehl asked University of Texas sociologist and associate dean Marc Musick to review the controversy around the NFSS article as part of Regnerus's seventh-year post-tenure evaluation. Musick summarized many of the prior criticisms, then stated that the survey itself was designed to ensure the conflation of family structure and the parents' same-sex orientation, practically guaranteeing negative results. Musick stated that non-disclosure of this design flaw in the original article possibly violated University research ethics standards. + +=== Peer review process === +In July 2012, over 150 scientists wrote a letter to the editor of Social Science Research criticizing the study and raising concerns about the journal's peer review process. +In the November 2012 issue of the journal, an audit was published by Darren Sherkat of Southern Illinois University regarding the peer-review process with respect to the Regnerus study (as well as another study from the same issue). The audit concluded that the peer-review process failed in these instances because of "both ideology and inattention" by the reviewers; he added that of the six reviewers, three of them were on record as opposing same-sex marriage. Sherkat also dismissed the study as "bullshit" in an interview and argued that its definition of gay fathers and lesbian mothers should have "disqualified it immediately" from being considered for publication. +In August 2013, sociologist Philip N. Cohen wrote on his blog that Wright relied on paid consultants to review the paper and failed to disclose this when the study was first published. He also called for the paper to be retracted and for Wright to step down. + +=== Subsequent studies and reanalysis === +Two subsequent studies published in Social Science Research and Sociological Science claimed that when methodological flaws were removed from data used in Regnerus study, the conclusions were opposite. +The first peer-reviewed and published criticism is the Cheng and Powell, 2015 review. The authors state that they identified a large number of potential measurement errors and other methodological choices which led to erroneous results. They state that even small differences in coding can profoundly shape empirical patterns, and that after repeating the analysis with sound methods, the "differences in being raised by gay/lesbian and heterosexual parents are minimal". +The second such peer reviewed criticism is by Stanford University Sociology professor Michael J. Rosenfeld which also brings out the methodological flaws in Regnerus study. It was published in Sociological Science. + +== Citations in court cases == +The New Family Structures Study was cited in amicus briefs for the United States Supreme Court cases of United States v. Windsor and Hollingsworth v. Perry. It was also cited by U.S. District Court judge Alan Cooke Kay in Jackson v. Abercrombie, who used Regnerus's study to dismiss other studies that had come to different conclusions. +In the 2012 California case Golinski v. Office of Personnel Management, several major medical organizations, including the American Psychological Association, filed an amicus brief in which they criticized Regnerus's research. The brief argued that "the Regnerus study sheds no light on the parenting of stable, committed same-sex couples". + +== References == \ No newline at end of file