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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Research_and_Invention_Agency-0.md

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+---
+title: "Advanced Research and Invention Agency"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Research_and_Invention_Agency"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:30.790841+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Advanced Research and Invention Agency (ARIA) is a UK research funding agency established to support scientific research. Formally established by an Act of Parliament on 26 January 2023, ARIA is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT).
+ARIA has a similar remit to that of its US  forerunner, DARPA, the intention of the UK Agency is to fund "high-risk, high-reward" research, including precision neurotechnologies, programmable plants, robotics and AI.
+
+
+== History ==
+The formation of ARIA was announced on 19 February 2021 and it was formally established on 26 January 2023.
+The Advanced Research and Invention Agency Act 2022 created the legislative framework for the agency and it was formally established as an independent research body in January 2023. Parliament established ARIA in statute and set a ten-year legal mandate. The law directs the agency to fund research that is risky, uncertain and speculative in nature. ARIA’s initial budget was confirmed to be approximately £800 million over five years. Following the June 2025 spending review, the Government has committed to providing ARIA with a minimum of £1bn over the spending review period of 2025–2029.
+In 2022 Dominic Cummings suggested that ARIA should act as a “moonshot” programme akin to the United States' Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Organisationally, it is small, independent of UKRI (the main UK government funding body), and has autonomy to operate at speed innovate funding, (for instance with X-Prize type inducements around research goals), rapid "seed" funding, with successful seeds entering a much smaller tier of large-grants, and bonuses for accomplishing research goals. The agency avoids DARPA's connection to military research.
+ARIA is designed to operate with a large degree of autonomy and is exempt from Freedom of Information requests. In March 2021 Labour Party Member of Parliament Dawn Butler said this would "raise alarm bells" about how taxpayer money is spent, in light of a scandal over how the UK government procured PPE contracts during the COVID-19 pandemic. Kwasi Kwarteng, who was Business Secretary at the time, insisted the "corporate governance arrangements are very robust" and that MPs would be able to scrutinise the agency's accounts.
+On 20 July 2022, the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy announced that ARIA's first CEO would be Ilan Gur and its first Chair would be Matt Clifford. In early 2023, it was announced that Nobel prize-winning organic chemist Chemistry Sir David MacMillan and Dame Kate Bingham, the entrepreneur who headed the successful Vaccine Taskforce, would join the board, advancing the high-risk/high-reward research agenda.
+As of September 2024, ARIA had 10 live opportunity spaces – underexplored areas of research, that serve as the basis for their multi-year coordinated funding programmes. The first cohort of eight Programme Directors joined ARIA in October 2023, followed by another eight in April 2025. ARIA’s most notable programmes include Precision Neurotechnologies, led by Jacques Carolan and funded by £69m, which helped enable the first UK NHS clinical study to test a brain-computer interface; Forecasting Tipping Points, an international programme of 27 teams, led by Sarah Bohndiek and Gemma Bale, and spanning climate science, optics, computer science, mathematics, statistics, photonics, and nuclear physics; and Scaling Compute, led by Suraj Bramhavar, targeting reducing AI computing costs by a factor of 1,000.
+ARIA has nine Activation Partners, made up of non-profits, research labs, and VCs, who work with ARIA to develop targeted programmes from helping to create prototypes, to AI talent placements in scientific labs. The goal of these partnerships is to help embed science entrepreneurship across ARIA’s work to translate research into commercial success.
+Ilan Gur was ARIA’s first CEO, previously having served as a founding Programme Director at ARPA-E. Gur announced in June 2025 that he was leaving his position at ARIA and in November 2025, Kathleen Fisher was appointed as the new CEO Elect of ARIA. Kathleen took over in February 2026, as former-CEO Ilan Gur returned to the US. Fisher, a US computer scientist, is a specialist in programming languages, and previously served as a professor at Tufts University. Her cybersecurity work at DARPA was later named the agency’s most influential programme of the decade, and she went on to lead its Information Innovation Office, overseeing more than 50 programmes with a budget of $500 million.
+ARIA’s Board comprises the CEO, Kathleen Fisher; the Chair, Matt Clifford; the Government Chief Scientific Adviser, Dame Angela McLean, and five other Non-Executive Board members – appointed by the Secretary of State for DSIT – as well as three other Executive Team members, including Ant Rowstron as Chief Technology Officer, and Pippy James as Deputy Chief Executive Officer — appointed by the Chair. ARIA’s Advisors include Sir Demis Hassabis, the co-founder of Google DeepMind, Hayaatun Sillem, former chief executive of the Royal Academy of Engineering, and Patrick Collison, co-founder and CEO of payments company Stripe.
+Following the Government’s June 2025 Spending Review, the Department of Science and Technology (DSIT) has committed to providing ARIA with a minimum of £1bn over the Spending Review period.
+
+
+== Climate Engineering Research ==
+In April 2025, it was reported that ARIA would fund a £50 million programme of small-scale outdoor geoengineering experiments. The agency stated that the experiments would be rigorously assessed and were intended to generate data on the feasibility and risks of Solar radiation modification (SRM) technologies. These methods seek to reflect a portion of incoming sunlight, for example through the injection of reflective particles into the atmosphere or by increasing the reflectivity of clouds.
+The programme was announced alongside an £11 million initiative, making the United Kingdom one of the largest funders of geoengineering research. ARIA's work is led by Professor Mark Symes.
+The research has drawn criticism from some scientists, who warned of potential unintended consequences such as disrupted rainfall patterns.
+
+
+== See also ==
+UK Research and Innovation (UKRI)
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology_Today-0.md

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+---
+title: "Theology Today"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology_Today"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:19.268614+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Theology Today is an academic journal published by SAGE Publications for the Princeton Theological Seminary; it was formerly published by Westminster John Knox. It appears four times a year.
+The first issue of Theology Today appeared in April, 1944. The lead editorial, "Our Aims," by founder and editor John A. Mackay, President of Princeton Theological Seminary, set forth the aims of the journal as adopted by its Editorial Council. These were:
+
+"To contribute to the restoration of theology in the world of today as the supreme science, of which both religion and culture stand in need for their renewal."
+"To study the central realities of Christian faith and life, and to set forth their meaning in clear and appropriate language."
+"To explore afresh the truths which were rediscovered by the Protestant Reformation, especially the tradition usually called Reformed, and to show their relevancy to the contemporary problems of the Church and society."
+"To provide an organ in which Christians whose faith is rooted in the revelation of God in the Bible and in Jesus Christ, and who are engaged in different spheres of intellectual activity, may combine their insights into the life of man in the light of God, with a view to interpreting our human situation and developing a Christian philosophy of life."
+After seven years the journal "achieved an established place in the world of religious thought", and Hugh Thomson Kerr assumed the role of editor as Mackay became Chairman of the Editorial Council.
+Changes continued over the years. F.W. Dillistone, a long serving member of the Editorial Council, discussed new emphases and developments confronting theologians that occurred during his tenure. Among other issues he noted the collapse of barriers brought about by Vatican II, and that the editorial board included Roman Catholic Scholars. Catholic writers and reviewers regularly contributed to Theology Today.
+Presently, the journal is edited by Gordon S. Mikoski (Princeton Theological Seminary).
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophysics-0.md

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+---
+title: "Theophysics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophysics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:20.435944+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In philosophy, theophysics is an approach to cosmology that attempts to reconcile physical cosmology and religious cosmology. It is related to physicotheology, the difference between them being that the aim of physicotheology is to derive theology from physics, whereas that of theophysics is to unify physics and theology.
+
+
+== Usage ==
+Paul Richard Blum (2002) uses the term in a critique of physicotheology, i.e. the view that arguments for the existence of God can be derived from the existence of the physical world (e.g. the "argument from design").  Theophysics would be the opposite approach, i.e. an approach to the material world informed by the knowledge that it is created by God.
+Richard H. Popkin (1990) applies the term to the "spiritual physics" of Cambridge Platonist Henry More and his pupil and collaborator Lady Anne Conway, who enthusiastically accepted the new science, but rejected the various forms of materialist mechanism proposed by Descartes, Hobbes and Spinoza to buttress it, as these, More and Conway argued, were incapable of explaining productive causality. Instead, More and Conway offered what Popkin calls "a genuine important alternative to modern mechanistic thought", "a thoroughly scientific view with a metaphysics of spirits to make everything operate". Materialist mechanism triumphed, however, and today their spiritual cosmology, as Popkin notes, "looks very odd indeed".
+The term has been applied by some philosophers to the system of Emanuel Swedenborg. William Denovan (1889) wrote in Mind: "The highest stage of his revelation might be denominated Theophysics, or the science of Divine purpose in creation." R. M. Wenley (1910) referred to Swedenborg as "the Swedish theophysicist".
+Pierre Laberge (1972) observes that Kant's famous critique of physicotheology in the Critique of Pure Reason (1781; second edition 1787) has tended to obscure the fact that in his early work, General History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens (1755), Kant defended a physicotheology that at the time was startlingly original, but that succeeded only to the extent that it concealed what Laberge terms a theophysics ("ce que nous appellerons une théophysique").
+Theophysics is a fundamental concept in the thought of Raimon Panikkar, who wrote in Ontonomía de la ciencia (1961) that he was looking for "a theological vision of Science that is not a Metaphysics, but a Theophysics.... It is not a matter of a Physics 'of God', but rather of the 'God of the Physical'; of God the creator of the world... not the world as autonomous being, independent and disconnected from God, but rather ontonomicly linked to Him". As a vision of "Science as theology", it became central to Panikkar's "cosmotheandric" view of reality.
+Frank J. Tipler's Omega Point theory (1994), which identifies concepts from physical cosmology with theistic concepts, is sometimes referred to by the term, although not by Tipler himself. Tipler was an atheist when he wrote The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (1986, co-authored with John D. Barrow, whose many popular books seldom mention theology) and The Physics of Immortality (1994), but a Christian when he wrote The Physics of Christianity (2007). In 1989, Wolfhart Pannenberg, a liberal theologian in the continental Protestant tradition, welcomed Tipler's work on cosmology as raising "the prospect of a rapprochement between physics and theology in the area of eschatology". In subsequent essays, while not concurring with all the details of Tipler's discussion, Pannenberg has defended the theology of the Omega Point.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Anthropic principle
+Fine-tuned universe
+List of science and religion scholars
+Multiverse
+Natural theology
+Omega Point
+Tipler's Omega Point
+Ultimate fate of the universe
+Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+John D. Barrow and Frank J. Tipler, Foreword by John A. Wheeler, 1986. The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-851949-4. Excerpt from Chapter 1.
+William Lane Craig and Quentin Smith, 1993. Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology. Oxford Univ. Press.
+William Dembski, 1998. The Design Inference. Cambridge Univ. Press.
+David Deutsch, 1997. The Fabric of Reality New York: Alan Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9061-9. Extracts from Chapter 14: "The Ends of the Universe," with additional comments by Frank J. Tipler; also available here and here.
+Arthur Eddington, 1930. Why I Believe in God: Science and Religion, as a Scientist Sees It.
+George Ellis and Nancey Murphy, 1996. On the Moral Nature of the Universe: Theology, Cosmology, and Ethics. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. ISBN 0-8006-2983-3
+Henry Margenau, 1992. Cosmos, Bios, Theos Scientists Reflect on Science, God, and the Origins of the Universe, Life, and Homo sapiens. Open Court.
+E. A. Milne, 1952. Modern Cosmology and the Christian Idea of God. Oxford Univ. Press.
+Arthur Peacocke, 1979. Creation and the World of Science.
+John Polkinghorne, 1994. The Faith of a Physicist. Princeton Univ. Press.
+---------, 1998. Science and Theology. ISBN 0-281-05176-3.
+---------, 2000. Faith, Science and Understanding. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08372-6; ISBN 978-0-300-09128-1.
+[Lawrence Poole], 2003, "SELF-Empowerment", ISBN 2-922417-45-X, IQ Press.
+Saunders, Nicholas, 2002. Divine Action and Modern Science. Cambridge Univ. Press.
+Russell Stannard, 1999. The God Experiment. Faber. The 1987–88 Gifford lectures.
+Richard Swinburne, 2004 (1979). The Existence of God.
+Frank J. Tipler, 1994. The Physics of Immortality: Modern Cosmology, God and the Resurrection of the Dead. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0385467995.
+--------, 2007. The Physics of Christianity. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-51424-7. Chapter I and excerpt from Chapter II. Chapter I also available here.
+Charles Hard Townes, 1966, "The Convergence of Science and Religion," Think.
+Simon Sam Gutierrez, 1991, The Solomon Formula insaecula saeculorum: A Theophysical Find, TXu000559229
+
+
+== External links ==
+Theophysics. A website mainly about Tipler's Omega Point Theory, with links to short nontechnical articles mostly by Tipler, but also some by Deutsch and Pannenberg.
+entertheophysics, A website containing the 12 principles of Theophysics as explained by the author, training consultant and conference speaker Lawrence Poole.  Poole also relates several applications of Theophysics including a "unified field formula".

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests-0.md

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+---
+title: "Thirty Meter Telescope protests"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) protests were a series of protests and demonstrations that began on the Island of Hawaii over the choosing of Mauna Kea for the site location of the Thirty Meter Telescope. Mauna Kea is the most sacred dormant volcano of Native Hawaiian religion and culture, and in Kānaka Maoli (Native Hawaiian) tradition is home to the sky god Wākea and other gods. Protests began locally within the state of Hawaii on October 7, 2014 but went global within weeks of the April 2, 2015 arrest of 31 people who had blockaded the roadway to keep construction crews off the summit. Thousands later joined when attempts were made to restart construction.
+The TMT, a $1.4 billion ground-based, large segmented mirror reflecting telescope grew from astronomers' prioritization in 2000 of a thirty-meter telescope to be built within the decade. Mauna Kea was announced as TMT's preferred site in 2009. Opposition to the project began shortly after the announcement of Mauna Kea as the chosen site out of 5 proposals. While opposition against the observatories on Mauna Kea has been ongoing since the first telescope, built by the University of Hawaii, this protest may be the most vocal. The project was expected to be completed by 2024, nearly simultaneously with the 39-meter Extremely Large Telescope being built in Chile; however, on December 2, 2015, the Supreme Court of Hawaii invalidated the TMT's building permits. The court ruled that due process was not followed. The TMT corporation then removed all construction equipment and vehicles from Mauna Kea, and re-applied for a new permit, meant to respect the Supreme Court's ruling.  This was granted on September 28, 2018.  On October 30, 2018, the Court validated the new construction permit.
+The controversy has led to considerable division in the local community with residents choosing support or opposition.  Notable native Hawaiian supporters include Peter Apo, sitting trustee of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, and leading University of Hawaii professor and astronomer the late Dr. Paul Coleman, who in 2015 said "Hawaiians are just so tied to astronomy I cannot, in any stretch of the imagination, think that TMT is something that our ancestors wouldn't just jump on and embrace". In July 2019, 300 protestors gathered in support of the TMT project outside the Hawaii State Capitol in Honolulu.  Notable opponents include Office of Hawaiian Affairs trustee for Hawai'i Mililani Trask, Native Hawaiian actor Jason Momoa, Samoan actor Dwayne Johnson, and practitioners of traditional Hawaiian culture and religion.
+In early 2020, the protests and attempts at construction were halted by the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. No construction has resumed as of 2024, and management of the mountaintop is being transferred to a new oversight authority with representatives of both astronomers and Native Hawaiian communities. In June 2025, the National Science Foundation dropped support for the TMT in favor of the Giant Magellan Telescope. Although the international consortium of scientists behind the TMT plans to press on, this loss of funding means the telescope may never be built.
+
+== Background ==
+
+=== Development of Mauna Kea observatories ===
+After studying photos for NASA's Apollo program that contained greater detail than any ground based telescope, Gerard Kuiper began seeking an arid site for infrared studies. While he first began looking in Chile, he also made the decision to perform tests in the Hawaiian Islands. Tests on Maui's Haleakalā were promising but the mountain was too low in the inversion layer and often covered by clouds. On the "Big Island" of Hawaii, Mauna Kea is considered the highest island mountain in the world, measuring roughly 33,000 feet from the base deep under the Pacific Ocean. While the summit is often covered with snow the air itself is extremely dry. Kuiper began looking into the possibility of an observatory on Mauna Kea. After testing, he discovered the low humidity was perfect for infrared signals. He persuaded then-governor John A. Burns, to bulldoze a dirt road to the summit where he built a small telescope on Puʻu Poliʻahu, a cinder cone peak. The peak was the second highest on the mountain with the highest peak being holy ground, so Kuiper avoided it.
+Next, Kuiper tried enlisting NASA to fund a larger facility with a large telescope, housing and other needed structures. NASA, in turn decided to make the project open to competition. Professor of physics John Jefferies of the University of Hawaii placed a bid on behalf of the university. Jefferies had gained his reputation through observations at Sacramento Peak Observatory. The proposal was for a two-meter telescope to serve both the needs of NASA and the university. While large telescopes are not ordinarily awarded to universities without well established astronomers, Jefferies and UH were awarded the NASA contract, infuriating Kuiper who felt that "his mountain" had been "stolen" from "him". Kuiper would abandon his site (the very first telescope on Mauna Kea) over the competition and begin work in Arizona on a different NASA project. After considerable testing by Jefferies' team, the best locations were determined to be near the summit at the top of the cinder cones. Testing also determined Mauna Kea to be superb for nighttime viewing due to many factors including the thin air, constant trade winds and being surrounded by sea. Jefferies would build a 2.24 meter telescope with the State of Hawaii agreeing to build a reliable, all weather roadway to the summit. Building began in 1967 and first light seen in 1970.

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+---
+title: "Thirty Meter Telescope protests"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Observatory opposition ===
+Although polls, some of them highly criticized, indicate that a majority of Hawaii residents support the Thirty Meter Telescope, opposition to the project and other observatories has existed since 1964. In Honolulu, the governor and legislature, enthusiastic about the development, set aside an even larger area for the observatory causing opposition in the city of Hilo. Native Hawaiian cultural practitioners kānaka ʻōiwi believed the entire site was sacred and that developing the mountain, even for science, would spoil the area. Environmentalists were concerned about rare native bird populations, and other citizens of Hilo were concerned about the sight of the domes from the city. Using town hall meetings, Jefferies emphasized the economic advantage and prestige the island would receive. Over the years, the opposition to the observatories may have become the most visible example of the conflict science has encountered over access and use of environmental and culturally significant sites. Opposition to development grew shortly after expansion of the observatories commenced. Once access was opened up by the roadway to the summit, skiers began using it for recreation and objected when the road was closed as a precaution against vandalism when the telescopes were being built. Hunters voiced concerns as did the Hawaiian Audubon Society who were supported by Governor George Ariyoshi.
+The Audubon Society objected to further development on Mauna Kea over concerns to habitat of the endangered palila, an endemic species to only specific parts of this mountain. The bird is the last of the finch billed honeycreepers existing on the island. Over 50% of native bird species had been killed off due to loss of habitat from early western settlers or the introduction of non native species competing for resources. Hunters and sportsmen were concerned that the hunting of feral animals would be affected by the telescope operations. None of these concerns proved accurate. A "Save Mauna Kea" movement was inspired by the proliferation of telescopes with opposition believing development of the mountain to be sacrilegious. Native Hawaiian non-profit groups such as Kahea, whose goals are the protection of cultural heritage and the environment, oppose development on Mauna Kea as a sacred space to the Hawaiian religion. Today, Mauna Kea hosts the world's largest location for telescope observations in infrared and submillimeter astronomy. The land itself is protected by the US Historical Preservation Act due to its significance to Hawaiian culture but still allowed development.
+
+=== Outrigger and Thirty Meter Telescope proposals ===
+Further development of the Mauna Kea observatories is still opposed by environmental groups and some Native Hawaiians. A 2006 proposal for the Outrigger Telescopes to become extensions of the Keck Observatory was canceled after a judges determination that a full environmental impact statement must be prepared before any further development of the site. The "outrigger" would have linked the Keck I and Keck II telescopes. Environmental groups and Native Hawaiian opposition was stronger at this time than in the past, but NASA continued with the proposal. The group Mauna Kea Anaina Hou made several arguments against the development including that Mauna Kea was a sacred mountain to Native Hawaiians where many deities  live, and that the cinder cone being proposed as the site was holy in Hawaiian tradition as a burial site for a demi-god. The group raised several other concerns such as environmental over native insects, the question of Ceded lands and an audit report, critical of the mountain's management.
+
+The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a proposed extremely large, segmented mirror telescope, planned for the summit of Mauna Kea. It is now the focal point of further development of the observatory site, with a current ongoing legal battle in the Hawaii court system. The proposal continues to spawn a great deal of controversy over the use of the site for science.
+The TMT project is a response to recommendation in 2000 from the US National Academy of Sciences that a thirty-meter telescope be a top priority, and that it be built within the decade. Urgency in construction is due to the competitive nature of science with the European-Extremely Large Telescope also under construction. The two projects are also complementary, in that the EELT would only view the Southern Celestial Hemisphere, while Mauna Kea offers the best views of the Northern Celestial Hemisphere. However, Mauna Kea's summit is considered the most sacred of all the mountains in Hawaii to many Native Hawaiian people. Native Hawaiian activists such as Kealoha Pisciotta, a former employee of the Mauna Kea Observatories, have raised concerns over the perceived desecration of Mauna Kea posed by TMT construction and presence. Pisciotta, a former telescope systems specialist technician at James Clerk Maxwell Telescope, is one of several people suing to stop the construction and is also director of Mauna Kea Anaina Hou.
+As of April, 2015, two separate legal appeals were still pending.
+The 1998 study Mauna Kea Science Reserve and Hale Pohaku Complex Development Plan Update stated that "... nearly all the interviewees and all others who participated in the consultation process (Appendices B and C) called for a moratorium on any further development on the summit of Mauna Kea". Many native Hawaiians and environmentalists are opposed to any further telescopes.
+The Hawaii Board of Land and Natural Resources conditionally approved the Mauna Kea site for the TMT in February 2011. While the approval has been challenged, the Board officially approved the site following a hearing on April 12, 2013.
+
+=== Indigenous peoples rights ===
+The issue of Native peoples, their religious freedom and rights in regards to authority for large science-based projects has become a major issue to contend with. Mount Graham in Arizona had an issue with the sanctity of the mountain raised by activists. Observatories have succeeded in being built, but only after protracted and expensive litigation and effort.
+
+== Blockade and protests ==

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+---
+title: "Thirty Meter Telescope protests"
+chunk: 3/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Roadway blockade and ground breaking interruption ===
+On October 7, 2014 the groundbreaking for the telescope was being live streamed via webcam. The proceedings were interrupted when the official caravan encountered several dozen demonstrators picketing and chanting in the middle of the roadway. A planned ceremony at the base of the mountain was scheduled by the group, Mauna Kea Anaina Hou, in opposition of the telescope and in a press release dated that day, the organization Sacred Mauna Kea stated: "Native Hawaiians and non-Hawaiians will gather for a peaceful protest against the Astronomy industry and the State of Hawaii’s ground-breaking ceremony for a thirty-meter telescope (TMT) on the summit of Mauna Kea." Several members traveled up the mountain and were stopped by police, where they laid down in the road and blocked the caravan. The nonviolent protest did not stop or block any people but when the ceremony for the ground breaking began, protesters interrupted the blessing, stopping the proceedings as well as the groundbreaking. That same day in California, protesters demonstrated outside the headquarters of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation in Palo Alto, CA.
+
+=== Second Mauna Kea blockade and arrests, 2015 ===
+Beginning in late March 2015 demonstrators halted construction crews near the visitors center, again by blocking access of the road to the summit of the mountain. Heavy equipment had already been placed near the site. Daniel Meisenzahl, a spokesman for the University of Hawaii, stated that the 5 tractors trailers of equipment that were moved up the mountain the day before had alerted protesters that began organizing the demonstrations. Kamahana Kealoha of the group Sacred Mauna Kea stated that over 100 demonstrators had traveled up to the summit to camp overnight, to be joined by more protesters in the early morning to blockade crews. On April 2, 2015, 300 protesters were gathered near the visitor center where 12 people were arrested. 11 more protesters were arrested at the summit. Protesters, ranging in age from 27 to 75 years of age were handcuffed and led away by local police. Among the major concerns of the protest groups is whether the land appraisals were done accurately and that Native Hawaiians were not consulted. When the trucks were finally allowed to pass, protesters followed the procession up the summit. A project spokesman said that work had begun after arrests were made and the road cleared.
+Among the arrests was professional surfer and former candidate for mayor of Kauai, Dustin Barca. A number of celebrity activists of Native Hawaiian descent, both local and national, began campaigning over social media, including Game of Thrones star Jason Momoa who urged Dwayne Johnson (The Rock) to join the protests with him on top of Mauna Kea. Construction was halted for one week at the request of Hawaii state governor David Ige on April 7, 2015 after the protest on Mauna Kea continued and demonstrations began to appear over the state. Project Manager, Gary Sanders stated that TMT agreed to the one-week stop for continued dialogue. Kealoha Pisciotta, president of Mauna Kea Anaina Hou viewed the development as positive but said opposition to the project would continue. Pisciotta also stated that the protests would continue to be within a Kapu Aloha; "moving in Aloha with steadfast determination".
+
+=== Temporary halt ===
+Governor Ige announced that the project was being temporarily postponed until at least April 20, 2015. In response to the growing protests the TMT Corporation's division of Hawaii Community Affairs launched an internet microsite, updating content regularly. The company also took to social media to respond to the opposition's growing momentum by hiring public relations firms to assist as the company's voice in the islands. TMT sublease payments on hold following order for a contested case hearing.
+
+=== National and international demonstrations ===
+
+The protests sparked statewide, national as well as international attention to Hawaiian culture, Mauna Kea and the 45-year history of 13 other telescopes on the mountain.
+At the University of Hawaii Manoa, hundreds of students lined the streets for blocks and, one by one, they passed the stones from the student taro patch of the university's Center on Hawaiian Studies down the human chain to the lawn in front of the office university president, David Lassner, where the stones were used to build an ahu (the altar of a heiau) as a message to the university.
+On April 21, 2015, hundreds of protesters filled the streets of Honolulu protesting against the TMT.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests-3.md

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+---
+title: "Thirty Meter Telescope protests"
+chunk: 4/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== 2019 demonstrations ===
+On July 14, 2019, an online petition titled "The Immediate Halt to the Construction of the TMT Telescope" was posted on Change.org. The online petition has currently gathered over 278,057 signatures worldwide. On 15 July, protestors blocked the access road to the mountain preventing the planned construction from commencing. On July 16, thirteen astronomical facilities on the mountain stopped activities and evacuated their personnel. On July 17, 33 protestors were arrested, all of whom were kūpuna, or elders, as the blockage of the access road continued. The days actions were described in a court declaration filed in connection to a Mauna Kea access case by Hawaii County Police, which claims that there was a "significant risk" that certain protesters would "respond with violence" if officers forcefully separated protesters blocking the road. A Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation legal observer there that day claims that the report over embellished the belief that there was a threat. A poetic short film, This is the Way We Rise by Ciara Lacy, presents the protests in a representation centered on Jamaica Heolimeleikalani Osorio. The film was screened at the 2021 Sundance Film Festival.
+More than 1,000 people marched in Waikiki and gathered in Kapiolani Park on July 21, 2019 in protest of the project. The protest continued into August 2019 at the entrance of the Mauna Kea access road, in front of Pu'u Huluhulu on Hawaii Route 200. It was announced on August 9, that astronomers at other Mauna Kea observatories would return to work after halting for many weeks in response to the gathering protesters and activists. However, a former systems specialist for one of the facilities claimed it was wrong to blame the demonstrators stating: "They chose to close down for fear of protesters who are unarmed and nonviolent."
+On 19 December, Governor David Ige announced at a press conference that he was reopening the access road and withdrawing law enforcement from the mountain [1]. TMT representatives had informed him that they are not ready to start construction in the foreseeable future.
+[2] The announcement came a day after the Hawaii County Council unanimously rejected a proposal by Mayor Harry Kim that would have authorized the county to accept reimbursement from the state for providing law enforcement on the mountain.[3]
+
+=== Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu ===
+
+On July 10, 2019, Gov. Ige and the Department of Transportation issued a press release informing the public of upcoming closure of Mauna Kea access road beginning July 15 in order to move large construction equipment to the TMT construction site.
+Shortly after sunrise on July 13, 2019, the Royal Order of Kamehameha, along with Mauna Kea protectors began the process of designating Puʻuhuluhulu as a puʻuhonua which, historically, has served as a space of protection during contentious times. The Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu boundaries were secured through ceremony and the approval of the Royal Order of Kamehameha, establishing a site of protection, sanctuary and refuge for Mauna Kea protectors. Situated on a 38-acre conservation district directly across from the Mauna Kea access road, Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu have access to food, medical supplies, education, cultural practices and ceremony.
+
+==== Governance and Code of Conduct ====
+Kapu Aloha is the governance model for Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu. Under Kapua aloha there is a subset of rules that include:
+
+Kapu Aloha always
+NO weapons, NO smoking of any kind and NO alcohol.
+MĀLAMA each other.
+Ask consent for any pictures or video.
+Pick up ʻōpala you see.
+BE PONO.
+
+==== Mauna Medics ====
+The Mauna Medics hui was co-founded by Dr. Kalama O Ka Aina Niheu in 2017 order to provide medical assistance should any of the protector need medical assistance.  The Mauna Medics hui is on site at Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu 24 hours a day and are available to treat minor medical issues such as altitude sickness.  Due to the altitude and harsh weather conditions at Puuhonua o Puuhuluhulu, the Mauna Medics treat illnesses such as hypothermia, sunburn, and dehydration. Medical professionals such as doctors, nurses, and paramedics volunteer their time at Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu and all medical supplies are also donated to make sure that protectors are cared for. The Mauna Medic hui provides sunscreen, water stations, and basic medical advice to all visitors of Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu free of charge.

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+title: "Thirty Meter Telescope protests"
+chunk: 5/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:21.595573+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Puʻuhuluhulu University ====
+On Maunakea at Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu exists Puʻuhuluhulu University. A key component in the movement to prevent the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope on Maunakea is the creation of access to education rooted in Hawaiian history and Hawaiian culture. "Presley Keʻalaanuhea Ah Mook Sang, a Hawaiian language instructor at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, said she first came up with the idea to start a community-led school or 'teach-in' after witnessing the crowd swell in that first week from hundreds of protesters to thousands". The grassroots establishment of Puʻuhuluhulu University at Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu has created a platform for the lāhui (Hawaiian Nation) and facilitators of the University to co-create a reciprocal and place-based style approach to learning that is accessible to people of all ages and backgrounds.
+Puʻuhuluhulu University provides free classes to anyone who visits Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu. The course offerings range from Introduction to Hawaiian Language, Hawaiian Law, the history of Hawaiʻi, and tours of Puʻuhuluhulu. The common goal across the wide variety of courses is the intent to uplift the community with ʻike Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian knowledge) through their teachings. Classes at Puʻuhuluhulu University are taught by kiaʻi (protectors) of Maunakea, community members, and professors at the University of Hawaiʻi. One of the most consistent courses offered at Puʻuhuluhulu University is Hawaiian Language. Kaipu Baker, a recent graduate of the University of Hawaiʻi who has taught Hawaiian language courses at Puʻuhuluhulu University noted that learning the Hawaiian language creates access to knowing cultural stories and their significance embedded in the language.
+In addition to the daily course offerings by Puʻuhuluhulu University are several community services created by University facilitators to support the well-being of both long-term and daily visitors at Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhlu.  These services operate as stations on the University Campus that include Hale Mana Māhū, where you can learn about queer history and theory from a Native Hawaiian perspective, Hale Kūkākūkā where people can discuss and unpack their experiences on Maunakea, and a lomi (massage) tent. The motto of Puʻuhuluhulu University is "E Mau ke Ea o ka ʻĀina i ka Pono" which can be translated to "The Sovereignty of the Land is Perpetuated in what is Just" and the hope to fulfill this motto is in the daily creation of a true Hawaiian Place of Learning.
+
+==== Daily Protocol ====
+On the Mauna Kea access road in front of what is now known as the kupuna (elders) tent there is daily protocol at 8am, 12noon and 5:30pm, in which protectors and visitors are able to learn and participate in Hawaiian cultural practices such as oli (chant), hula, and hoʻokupu (offerings). Some of the oli and hula that are taught and performed during protocol are: E Ala E, E Kānehoalani E, E Hō Mai, Nā ʻAumakua, E Iho Ana, ʻŌ Hānau ka Mauna a Kea, MaunaKea Kuahiwi, Kua Loloa Keaʻau i ka Nāhele, ʻAuʻa ʻIa, I One Huna Ka Pahu, Na Kea Koʻu Hoʻohihi ka Mauna, ʻAi Kamumu Kēkē, Kūkulu ka Pahu, Kaʻi Kūkulu. Indigenous peoples from all around the world have attended protocol to offer solidarity with the Protect Mauna Kea movement.  Puʻuhonua o Puʻuhuluhulu's noon protocol has also had Jason Momoa, Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson, Damian Marley, Jack Johnson, and other celebrities participate and give offerings (hoʻokupu) of solidarity to the Mauna Kea protectors.
+
+=== End and subsequent developments ===
+In early 2020, the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in everyone leaving the mountain, with some astronomers and activists thereafter engaging in dialogue. In July 2023, a new state appointed oversight board, which includes Native Hawaiian community representatives and cultural practitioners, began a five-year transition to assume management over Mauna Kea and its telescope sites, which may be a path forward. In April 2024, TMT's project manager apologized for the organization having "contributed to division in the community", and stated that TMT's approach to construction in Hawai'i is "very different now from TMT in 2019."
+In June 2025 the United States' National Science Foundation dropped support for the TMT in favor of the Giant Magellan Telescope. This lack of funding puts the TMT's future in doubt, although the scientists in the TMT international consortium said they would press forward.
+
+== Permitting ==
+On December 2, 2015, the Supreme Court of Hawaii invalidated the TMT's building permits, ruling that due process was not followed when the Board of Land and Natural Resources approved the permit before the contested case hearing. The TMT company chairman stated: "T.M.T. will follow the process set forth by the state." On December 16, the TMT corporation began removal of all construction equipment and vehicles from Mauna Kea. As noted above, the Supreme Court of the State of Hawaii ultimately approved the permit following a lengthy contested hearing case. Both the contested hearing case and the Hawaii Supreme Court rejected the arguments asserted by the protesters, finding them to be without merit.
+On September 28, 2017, the Hawaii Board of Land and Natural Resources approved the TMT's Conservation District Use Permit.  On October 30, 2018, the Supreme Court of Hawaii validated the construction permit.
+
+== Reactions ==
+The protests have caused many to voice their support for either the telescope being built, or for its construction on Mauna Kea to be halted. Many of the more public support for either side has caused massive controversy and discussion between science and native culture.
+Independent polls commissioned by local media organizations show consistent support for the project in the islands with over two thirds of local residents supporting the project.  These same polls indicate Native Hawaiian community support remains split with about half of Hawaiian respondents supporting construction of the new telescope.

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+title: "Thirty Meter Telescope protests"
+chunk: 6/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Meter_Telescope_protests"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Against protesters ===
+In 2015 University of California astronomers sent out a mass email urging other astronomers to support the TMT through a petition written by a native Hawaiian science student. Concern was raised over the content of the email, with the wording of "a horde of native Hawaiians" to describe the protesters considered to be problematic and potentially racist.
+Hawaii based businesses that support the telescope were named in a boycott that was popularized on social media. Businesses included were KTA Super Stores and HPM Building Supply.
+
+=== Support for protesters ===
+Scientists have taken to Twitter and other social media platforms to voice their support publicly for the protest using #ScientistsforMaunaKea, in which they highlight their field and why they feel that the TMT is not needed on the mountain. An open letter was also published and signed by nearly 1,000 members of the scientific community that takes no position on the siting of TMT on Maunakea, but denounces "the criminalization of the protectors on Maunakea". In an online petition, a group of Canadian academics, scientists, and students have called on Prime Minister Justin Trudeau together with Industry Minister Navdeep Bains and Science Minister Kirsty Duncan to divest Canadian funding from the project. Native Hawaiian academics from various fields have also voiced their opposition to the telescope and participated in the protests themselves, such as Oceanographer Rosie Alegado. On July 20, 2019 an online petition titled "A Call to Divest Canada's Research Funding for the Thirty Meter Telescope on Mauna Kea" has been posted on Change.org.
+Several celebrities have supported the protest. Some, such as Damian Marley, Jason Momoa, Dwayne Johnson, Jack Johnson and Ezra Miller traveled to the location and participated in the protests.  Others, such as Leonardo DiCaprio, Bruno Mars, Emilia Clarke, Nathalie Emmanuel, Rosario Dawson, Jill Wagner, Jai Courtney, Kelly Slater and Madison Bumgarner have used social media to promote the cause. Hawaiian athletes including Jordan Yamamoto, Ilima-Lei Macfarlane and Max Holloway have publicly supported the protests.
+
+== See also ==
+Maui solar telescope protests
+Giant Magellan Telescope
+Office of Hawaiian Affairs
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+INSIGHTS ON PBS HAWAII: Should the Thirty Meter Telescope Be Built? – roundtable discussion (video, aired on April 30, 2015)

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+title: "Whig history"
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+category: "reference"
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+---
+
+Whig history (or Whig historiography) is an approach to historiography that presents history as a journey from an oppressive and benighted past to a "glorious present". The present described is generally one with modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy: it was originally a term for the  metanarratives praising Britain's adoption of constitutional monarchy and the historical development of the Westminster system. The term has also been applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (e.g. in the history of science) to describe "any subjection of history to what is essentially a teleological view of the historical process". When the term is used in contexts other than British history, "whig history" (lowercase) is preferred.
+In the British context, whig historians emphasize the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms and scientific progress. The term is often applied generally (and pejoratively) to histories that present the past as the inexorable march of progress towards enlightenment. The term is also used extensively in the history of science to refer to historiography that focuses on the successful chains of hypotheses and experiments that led to present-day theories, while ignoring rejected hypotheses and dead ends. Whig history laid the groundwork for modernization theory and the resulting deployment of development aid around the world after World War II, which has sometimes been criticized as destructive to its recipients.
+
+== Terminology ==
+The British historian Herbert Butterfield used the term "Whig history" in his short but influential book The Whig Interpretation of History (1931). It takes its name from the British Whigs, advocates of the power of Parliament, who opposed the Tories, advocates of the power of the king.
+Butterfield's usage of the term was not in relation to the British or American Whig parties or Whiggism, but rather took aim at "the nineteenth-century school of historiography that praised all progress and habitually associated Protestantism with liberal views of liberty". The terms "whig" and "whiggish" are now used broadly, becoming "universal descriptors for all progressive narratives".
+When H. A. L. Fisher gave a Raleigh lecture in 1928, he implied that the "whig historians" really were Whigs (i.e. associated with the Whig party or its Liberal successor) and had written centrist histories that were "good history despite their enthusiasm for Gladstonian or Liberal Unionist causes"; on introduction the term was mostly approbatory, unlike Butterfield's later use, since Fisher applauded Macaulay's "instructive and illuminating" history. By the time Butterfield wrote his Whig Interpretation, he may have been beating a dead horse: P. B. M. Blaas, in his 1978 book Continuity and Anachronism, argued that whig history itself had lost all vitality by 1914. Subsequent generations of academic historians have rejected Whig history because of its presentist and teleological assumption that history is driving toward some sort of goal.
+
+=== The Whig Interpretation of History ===
+Butterfield's purpose with writing his 1931 book was to criticise oversimplified narratives (or "abridgements") which interpreted past events in terms of the present for the purposes of achieving "drama and apparent moral clarity". Butterfield especially noted:
+
+It is part and parcel of the whig interpretation of history that it studies the past with reference to the present.
+Butterfield argued that this approach to history compromised the work of the historian in several ways. The emphasis on the inevitability of progress leads to the mistaken belief that the progressive sequence of events becomes "a line of causation", tempting the historian to go no further to investigate the causes of historical change. The focus on the present as the goal of historical change leads the historian to a special kind of "abridgement", selecting only those events that seem important from the present point of view.
+He also criticised it for modernising the past: "the result [of whig history] is that to many of us [historical figures] seem much more modern than they really were, and even when we have corrected this impression by closer study we find it difficult to keep in mind the differences between their world and ours".
+Whig history is also criticised as having an overly dualist view with heroes on the side of liberty and freedom against traditionalist villains opposing the inevitability of progress. It also casts an overly negative view of opposing parties to heroes described, taking such parties "to have contributed nothing to the making of the present" and at worst converting them into a "dummy that acts as a better foil to the grand whig virtues". Butterfield illustrated this by criticising views of Martin Luther and the Reformation which "are inclined to write sometimes as though Protestantism in itself was somehow constituted to assist [the process of secularisation]" and misconceptions that the British constitution was created by Whigs opposed by Tories rather than created by compromise and interplay mediated by then-political contingencies.
+He also felt that whig history viewed the world in terms of a morality play: that "[the whig historian imagines himself] inconclusive unless he can give a verdict; and studying Protestant and Catholic in the 16th century he feels that loose threads are still left hanging unless he can show which party was in the right".
+Butterfield instead advances a view of history stressing the accidental and contingent nature of events rather than some kind of inevitable and structural shift. Moreover, he called upon historians "to evoke a certain sensibility towards the past, the sensibility which studies the past 'for the sake of the past', which delights in the concrete and the complex, which 'goes out to meet the past', which searches for 'unlikenesses between past and present'".
+A decade later however, if under wartime pressure from the Second World War, Butterfield would note of the Whig interpretation that "whatever it may have done to our history, it has had a wonderful effect on our politics....In every Englishman there is hidden something of a whig that seems to tug at the heart-strings".

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+
+=== Subsequent views ===
+Butterfield's formulation has subsequently received much attention and the kind of historical writing he argued against in generalized terms is no longer academically respectable. Despite its polemical success, Butterfield's celebrated book was criticized by David Cannadine as "slight, confused, repetitive and superficial". However, of the English tradition more broadly, Cannadine wrote:
+
+It was fiercely partisan and righteously judgemental, dividing the personnel of the past into the good and the bad. And it did so on the basis of the marked preference for liberal and progressive causes, rather than conservative and reactionary ones ... Whig history was, in short, an extremely biased view of the past: eager to hand out moral judgements, and distorted by teleology, anachronism and present-mindedness.
+E. H. Carr in What Is History? (1961) gave Butterfield's book the backhanded compliment of being "a remarkable book in many ways" noting that "though it denounced the whig interpretation over some 130 pages, it did not... name a single whig except Fox, who was no historian, or a single historian save Acton, who was no whig".
+Michael Bentley analyses Butterfield's whig theory as referring to a canon of 19th-century historians in and of England (such as William Stubbs, James Anthony Froude, E. A. Freeman, J. R. Green, W. E. H. Lecky, Lord Acton, J. R. Seeley, S. R. Gardiner, C. H. Firth and J. B. Bury) that in fact excludes few except Thomas Carlyle. The theory identifies the common factors and Bentley comments:
+
+Carlyle apart, the so-called Whigs were predominantly Christian, predominantly Anglican, thinkers for whom the Reformation supplied the critical theatre of enquiry when considering the origins of modern England. When they wrote about the history of the English constitution, as so many of them did, they approached their story from the standpoint of having Good News to relate ... If they could not have found the grandeur that they developed had they been writing half a century earlier, neither could they have supported their optimism had they lived to endure the barbarisms of the Somme and Passchendaele.
+Roger Scruton takes the theory underlying whig history to be centrally concerned with social progress and reaction, with the progressives shown as victors and benefactors. According to Victor Feske, there is too much readiness to accept Butterfield's classic formulation from 1931 as definitive.
+
+== British whig history ==
+In Britain, whig history is a view of British history that sees it as a "steady evolution of British parliamentary institutions, benevolently watched over by Whig aristocrats, and steadily spreading social progress and prosperity". It described a "continuity of institutions and practices since Anglo-Saxon times that lent to English history a special pedigree, one that instilled a distinctive temper in the English nation (as whigs liked to call it) and an approach to the world [which] issued in law and lent legal precedent a role in preserving or extending the freedoms of Englishmen".
+Paul Rapin de Thoyras's history of England, published in 1723, became "the classic Whig history" for the first half of the eighteenth century. Rapin claimed that the English had preserved their ancient constitution against the absolutist tendencies of the Stuarts. However, Rapin's history lost its place as the standard history of England in the late 18th century and early 19th century to that of David Hume.
+According to Arthur Marwick, however, Henry Hallam was the first whig historian, publishing Constitutional History of England in 1827, which "greatly exaggerated the importance of 'parliaments' or of bodies [whig historians] thought were parliaments" while tending "to interpret all political struggles in terms of the parliamentary situation in Britain [during] the nineteenth century, in terms, that is, of Whig reformers fighting the good fight against Tory defenders of the status quo".
+
+=== David Hume ===
+In The History of England (1754–1761), Hume challenged whig views of the past and the whig historians in turn attacked Hume; but they could not dent his history. In the early 19th century, some whig historians came to incorporate Hume's views, dominant for the previous fifty years. These historians were members of the New Whigs around Charles James Fox (1749–1806) and Lord Holland (1773–1840) in opposition until 1830 and so "needed a new historical philosophy". Fox himself intended to write a history of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but only managed the first year of James II's reign. A fragment was published in 1808. James Mackintosh then sought to write a Whig history of the Glorious Revolution, published in 1834 as the History of the Revolution in England in 1688.
+
+=== Thomas Babington Macaulay ===
+Hume still dominated English historiography, but this changed when Thomas Babington Macaulay entered the field, utilising Fox and Mackintosh's work and manuscript collections. Macaulay's History of England was published in a series of volumes from 1848 to 1855. It proved an immediate success, replacing Hume's history and becoming the new orthodoxy. As if to introduce a linear progressive view of history, the first chapter of Macaulay's History of England proposes:
+
+The history of our country during the last hundred and sixty years is eminently the history of physical, of moral, and of intellectual improvement.While Macaulay was a popular and celebrated historian of the whig school, his work did not feature in Butterfield's 1931 Whig Interpretation of History. According to Ernst Breisach, "his style captivated the public as did his good sense of the past and firm whiggish convictions".
+
+=== William Stubbs ===
+William Stubbs (1825–1901), the constitutional historian and influential teacher of a generation of historians, was the author of the extremely influential Constitutional History of England (published between 1873 and 1878) and became a crucial figure in the later survival and respectability of whig history. According to Reba Soffer,

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+title: "Whig history"
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+
+Stubbs was a true believer who concealed his biases, even from himself, behind the façade of a dispassionate historian translating original documents into magisterial prose. His rhetorical gifts often obscured his combination of high church Anglicanism, whig history, and civic responsibility. In the Church of England, Stubbs saw the original model for the development and maintenance of English liberties.
+Stubb's history began with an imagined Anglo-Saxon past into which representative parliamentary institutions emerged and fought for control with the absolutist crown in various stages (including overreaches during the English Civil War) before uniting in "nation, church, peers and people" in the Glorious Revolution. This view of events was substantially challenged: Maitland discovered in 1893 that the early "parliaments" had "no hint of operating as a representative body but resembled instead a meeting of the King's Council, called to meet the king's purposes; it passed no 'legislation', but rather considered petitions or 'bills' as though acting as an ultimate court of justice". Albert Pollard, writing in 1920, also shot through much of Stubbs' ideas on the representative and law-making powers of early English parliaments, pulling the emergence of a semi-independent House of Commons to the 1620s.
+
+=== Robert Hebert Quick ===
+Political history was the usual venue for whig history in Great Britain, but it also appears in other areas. Robert Hebert Quick (1831–1891) was one of the leaders of the Whig school of the history of education, along with G. A. N. Lowndes. In 1898, Quick explained the value of studying the history of educational reform, arguing that the great accomplishments of the past were cumulative and comprised the building blocks that “would raise us to a higher standing-point from which we may see much that will make the right road clearer to us”.
+
+=== End of whig history ===
+Frederic William Maitland is "now universally recognised as the first practitioner of the modern discipline of history", using "medieval law as a tool to prise open the mind of medieval men". Blaas, in Continuity and Anachronism (1978) discerns new methods in the work of J. H. Round, F. W. Maitland and A. F. Pollard; Bentley believes that their work "contained the origins of much twentieth-century [historical] thinking in England". Marwick also positively mentions Gardiner, Seeley, Lord Acton, and T. F. Tout as transforming the teaching and study of history at British universities into a recognisable modern form.
+The First World War, however, did substantial damage to whig history's fundamental assumption of progress and improvement:
+
+Accelerated by the sceptical power of a new breed of historian epitomized in the brilliance of F. W. Maitland, whiggery had begun its turn downwards (we are told) and met its Waterloo on the Somme ... [T]win thrusts—on the one hand cultural despair in face of a dead civilization, on the other a determination to make history say something different for the post-war generation—worked between them to put whig susceptibilities between a rock and a hard place.
+Bentley also speculates that 19th-century British historiography took the form of an indirect social history which "attempted to embrace society by absorbing it into the history of the state", a project gravely disrupted by the First World War and renewed questions on "the pretensions of the state as an avatar of social harmony". He, however, notes that whig history has not died "outside the academy" and lives on partially in criticism of history as something published in "a row of small-minded monographs written by authors calling themselves 'doctor', whose life-experience and sense of English culture extended no further than taking cups of tea in the Institute of Historical Research".
+
+== Later instances and criticism ==
+
+=== In science ===
+
+It has been argued that the history of science is "riddled with Whiggish history". Like other whig histories, whig history of science tends to divide historical actors into "good guys" who are on the side of truth (as is now known), and "bad guys" who opposed the emergence of these truths because of ignorance or bias. Science is seen as emerging from "a series of victories over pre-scientific thinking". 
+The writing of Whig history of science is especially found in the writings of scientists and general historians, while this whiggish tendency is commonly opposed by professional historians of science. Nicholas Jardine describes the changing attitude to whiggishness this way:
+
+By the mid-1970s, it had become commonplace among historians of science to employ the terms "Whig" and "Whiggish", often accompanied by one or more of "hagiographic", "internalist", "triumphalist", even "positivist", to denigrate grand narratives of scientific progress. At one level there is, indeed, an obvious parallel with the attacks on Whig constitutional history in the opening decades of the century. For, as P. B. M. Blaas has shown, those earlier attacks were part and parcel of a more general onslaught in the name of an autonomous, professional and scientific history, on popular, partisan and moralising historiography. For post-WWII champions of the newly professionalized history of science the targets were quite different. Above all, they were out to establish a critical distance between the history of science and the teaching and promotion of the sciences. In particular, they were suspicious of the grand celebratory and didactic narratives of scientific discovery and progress that had proliferated in the inter-war years.
+More recently, some scholars have argued that Whig history is essential to the history of science. At one level, "the very term 'the history of science' has itself profoundly Whiggish implications. One may be reasonably clear what 'science' means in the 19th century and most of the 18th century. In the 17th century 'science' has very different meaning. Chemistry, for example, was then inextricably mixed up with alchemy. Before the 17th century dissecting out such a thing as 'science' in anything like the modern sense of the term involves profound distortions." The science historians' rejection of whiggishness has been criticised by some scientists for failing to appreciate "the temporal depth of scientific research".

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history-3.md

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+---
+title: "Whig history"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_history"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:24.184729+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== In economics ===
+Retrospectives on modern macroeconomics are generally whiggish histories. For example, the popularisation of mathematical models by Paul Samuelson's Foundations of Economic Analysis, when viewed by economists trained in a mathematical framework becomes "an important milestone on the road to the mathematization of economics" in a story told by the victorious. Yet "those who do not agree that such mathematization is a good thing could argue that the mathematical developments... represent a regression rather than a progression". The introduction of rational expectations similarly carries implicit hindsight bias: people who disagree on the reality of agents making decisions in the manner assumed (e.g. behavioral economics) "would not necessarily rejoice in [rational expectations'] present ascendancy".
+Burrow views Marxist history, with its "[supposed] anticipated terminus from which it derives its moral and political point", as "characteristically whig".
+
+=== In philosophy ===
+One very common example of Whig history is the work of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, to whom is often ascribed a teleological view of history with an inexorable trajectory in the direction of progress.
+Marxists have had varied views on Whig history. The traditional inheritance of Hegel, interpreted through Engels' articulation of historical materialism, implied that history progressed from a "primitive communism", through slave societies, feudal societies, capitalism, and finally to socialism and communism. However, contemporary Marxists, such as Ellen Meiksins Wood, have aggressively challenged those assumptions as deterministic and ahistorical. Walter Benjamin criticized conception of history which assumed a necessarily progressive or teleological course, though he did not employ the term "Whig history". "The danger affects both the content of the [progressive] tradition and its receivers. The same threat hangs over both: that of becoming a tool of the ruling classes. In every era the attempt must be made anew to wrest tradition away from a conformism that is about to overpower it."
+
+=== In Canadian history ===
+Regarding Canada, Allan Greer argues:
+
+The interpretive schemes that dominated Canadian historical writing through the middle decades of the twentieth century were built on the assumption that history had a discernible direction and flow. Canada was moving towards a goal in the nineteenth century; whether this endpoint was the construction of a transcontinental, commercial, and political union, the development of parliamentary government, or the preservation and resurrection of French Canada, it was certainly a Good Thing. Thus the rebels of 1837 were quite literally on the wrong track. They lost because they had to lose; they were not simply overwhelmed by superior force, they were justly chastised by the God of History.
+
+=== In the emergence of intelligent life ===
+In The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (1986), John D. Barrow and Frank J. Tipler identify whiggishness with a teleological principle of convergence in history to liberal democracy. This is in line with what Barrow and Tipler call the "anthropic principle".
+
+=== In general history and biography ===
+James A. Hijiya points out the persistence of whiggish history in history textbooks. In the debate over Britishness, David Marquand praised the whig approach on the grounds that "ordered freedom and evolutionary progress have been among the hallmarks of modern British history, and they should command respect".
+Historian Edward J. Larson in his book Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion (1997) challenged a whiggish view of the Scopes trial. The book won the Pulitzer Prize for History in 1998.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Sources ===
+
+== Further reading ==
+Burrow, J. W. (1981). A Liberal Descent: Victorian historians and the English past. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521240796.
+Burrow, J. W. (1988). Whigs and Liberals. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198201397.
+Burrow, J. W. (2000). The Crisis of Reason: European Thought, 1848–1914. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300083903.
+Butterfield, Herbert (1931). The Whig Interpretation of History. London: G. Bell and Sons. OCLC 217470144. 1963 edition at the Internet Archive.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Text of The Whig Interpretation of History
+James A. Hijiya, "Why the West Is Lost"
+2003 article "Catholic Whiggery"
+"Catholic Whiggery". Angelus. April 2003.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_therapy-0.md

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+---
+title: "Wilderness therapy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_therapy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:25.480075+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Wilderness therapy, also known as outdoor behavioral healthcare, is a form of therapeutic intervention that uses outdoor activities and immersion in natural environments to promote psychological, behavioral, and social well-being. It is used in the treatment of mental health conditions, substance abuse disorders, and behavioral issues, particularly among adolescents and young adults.
+Wilderness therapy programs vary widely in structure and philosophy, but typically combine elements of psychotherapy, group processes, and experiential learning with activities such as hiking, camping, and survival skills. While the approach is most prominently developed in the United States, related practices have emerged in other regions, including Canada, Australia, and across Scandinavia, often influenced by local outdoor traditions and cultural perspectives.
+The field lacks a universally accepted definition, and programs differ in their clinical oversight, duration, and level of remoteness. Wilderness therapy has been the subject of ongoing debate regarding its effectiveness, safety, and ethical practices, with research producing mixed results and criticism focusing on regulation and reported incidents in some programs.
+
+
+== History ==
+The concept of wilderness therapy dates back to the 1940s, linked to progressive German educator Kurt Hahn, who founded the United Kingdom's "Outward Bound", an outdoor educational organization.
+The origins of wilderness therapy are often traced to the early 20th century, particularly to the educational philosophies of Kurt Hahn, a German educator who emphasized character development through outdoor challenges and experiential learning. Hahn’s ideas led to the establishment of programs such as Outward Bound in the 1940s, which combined physical activity, teamwork, and exposure to nature as a means of fostering personal growth.
+During the mid-20th century, these principles began to influence therapeutic practices, particularly in North America and Europe, where outdoor experiences were incorporated into programs for youth development and rehabilitation. By the 1960s and 1970s, structured programs using extended wilderness expeditions emerged, especially in the United States, where they were applied to adolescents experiencing behavioral and emotional difficulties.
+From the late 20th century onward, wilderness therapy developed into a distinct field, with programs adopting a range of models and therapeutic approaches. While the United States became a center of commercial program development, similar approaches also appeared in countries such as Canada, Australia, and across Scandinavia, often shaped by local outdoor traditions and cultural perspectives on nature and wellbeing.
+In the early 21st century, wilderness therapy continued to expand and diversify, with increasing integration of clinical practices and professional oversight in some regions. At the same time, differences in regulation, standards, and philosophical approaches persisted internationally, contributing to ongoing debate about the role and effectiveness of wilderness-based interventions.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Burke, Larry (October 1995) "Wilderness Education Gone Brutally Wrong", Outside. Retrieved December 25, 2022
+Cooper, Kelly-Leigh (June 19, 2001) "Troubled US teens left traumatised by tough love camps", BBC News Online. Retrieved December 25, 2022
+Canham, Matt (October 11, 2007) "Ten have died in wilderness therapy programs - and Congress wants to know why" The Salt Lake Tribune. Retrieved December 25, 2022
+Fanlo, Ciara (November 15, 2022). "I survived a wilderness camp: 'It's not necessary to break a person's will'". The Guardian. Retrieved December 25, 2022.
+Okoren, Nicolle (November 14, 2022). "The wilderness 'therapy' that teens say feels like abuse: 'You are on guard at all times'". The Guardian. Retrieved December 25, 2022.
+Rosen, Kenneth R. (2021). Troubled: The Failed Promise of America's Behavioral Treatment Programs. Little A. ISBN 978-1-5420-0788-7.
+Harper, Nevin J.; Dobud, Will; Magnuson, Doug (June 2, 2022). "Can Involuntary Youth Transport into Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare Treatment Programs (Wilderness Therapy) Ever Be Ethical?". Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. 41 (3): 417–425. doi:10.1007/s10560-022-00864-2. S2CID 250539733.
+Reiss, Richard (2011). Desperate Love: A Father's Memoir. Paula Kaplan-Reiss. Florham Park, N.J.: Serving House Books. ISBN 978-0-9838289-1-4. OCLC 1204336786.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club-0.md

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+---
+title: "X Club"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:26.627082+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The X Club was a dining club of nine men who supported the theories of natural selection and academic liberalism in late 19th-century England. Thomas Henry Huxley was the initiator; he called the first meeting for 3 November 1864. The club met in London once a month—except in July, August and September—from November 1864 until March 1893, and its members are believed to have wielded much influence over scientific thought. The members of the club were George Busk, Edward Frankland, Thomas Archer Hirst, Joseph Dalton Hooker, Thomas Henry Huxley, John Lubbock, Herbert Spencer, William Spottiswoode, and John Tyndall, united by a "devotion to science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas."
+The nine men who would compose the X Club already knew each other well. By the 1860s, friendships had turned the group into a social network, and the men often dined and went on holidays together. After Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published in 1859, the men began working together to aid the cause for naturalism and natural history. They backed the liberal Anglican movement that emerged in the early 1860s, and both privately and publicly supported the leaders of the movement.
+According to its members, the club was originally started to keep friends from drifting apart, and to partake in scientific discussion free from theological influence. A key aim was to reform the Royal Society, with a view to making the practice of science professional. In the 1870s and 1880s, the members of the group became prominent in the scientific community and some accused the club of having too much power in shaping the scientific landscape of London. The club was terminated in 1893, after depletion by death, and as old age made regular meetings of the surviving members impossible.
+
+== Background ==
+
+=== Social connections ===
+
+When the first dinner meeting commenced on 3 November 1864 at St. George's Hotel on Albemarle Street in central London, the eight members of what was to be known as the X Club—William Spottiswoode was added at the second meeting in December 1864—already had extensive social ties with one another. In the mid-1850s, the men who would come to make up the X Club formed two distinct sets of friends. John Tyndall, Edward Frankland and Thomas Hirst, men who became friends in the late 1840s, were artisans who became physical scientists. Thomas Huxley, Joseph Dalton Hooker, and George Busk, friends since the early 1850s, had worked as surgeons and had become professional naturalists. Beginning in the mid-1850s, the network began to form around Huxley and Hooker, and these six men began helping one another, both as friends and professionals. In 1863, for example, Tyndall aided Frankland in getting a position at the Royal Institution. Spottiswoode, Herbert Spencer, and John Lubbock joined the circle of friends during the debates over evolution and naturalism in the early 1860s.
+The original members of the club had much in common. They shared a middle-class background and similar theological beliefs. All of the men were middle-aged, except Lubbock, who was 30, and all of the men, except Lubbock, lived in London. More importantly, the men of the club all shared an interest in natural history, naturalism, and a more general pursuit of intellectual thought free from religious influence, commonly referred to as academic liberalism.
+
+=== Scientific climate ===
+
+The X Club came together during a period of turbulent conflict in both science and religion in Victorian England. The publication in 1859 of Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection brought a storm of argument, with the scientific establishment of wealthy amateurs and clerical naturalists as well as the Church of England attacking this new development. Since the start of the 19th century they had seen evolutionism as an assault on the divinely ordained aristocratic social order. On the other side, Darwin's ideas on evolution were welcomed by liberal theologians and by a new generation of salaried professional scientists; the men who would later come to form the X Club supported Darwin, and saw his work as a great stride in the struggle for freedom from clerical interference in science. The members of the X social network played a significant part in nominating Darwin for the Copley Medal in 1864.
+In 1860, Essays and Reviews, a collection of essays on Christianity written by a group of liberal Anglicans, was published. The collection represented a summation of a nearly century-long challenge to the history and prehistory of the Bible by higher critics as well as geologists and biologists. In short, the writers of Essays and Reviews sought to analyse the Bible like any other work of literature. At the time, Essays created more of a stir than Darwin's book. The members of the X network backed the collection, and Lubbock even sought to form an alliance between liberal Anglicans and scientists. Two liberal Anglican theologians were convicted of heresy, and when the government overturned the judgement on appeal, Samuel Wilberforce, the High Church and the evangelicals organised petitions and a mass backlash against evolution. At the Anglican convocation, the evangelicals presented a declaration reaffirming their faith in the harmony of God's word and his works and tried to make this a compulsory "Fortieth Article" of faith. They took their campaign to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, aiming to overthrow Huxley's "dangerous clique" of Darwin's allies.
+In 1862, Bishop John William Colenso of Natal published The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined, an analysis of the first five books of the Old Testament. In his analysis Colenso used mathematics and concepts of population dynamics, including examinations of food supply and transportation, to show that the first five books of the Bible were faulty and unreliable. Outrage broke out within the Church of England, and the X network not only gave their support to Colenso, but at times even dined with him to discuss his ideas.

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+---
+title: "X Club"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:26.627082+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Later, in 1863, a new rift began to emerge within the scientific community over race theory. Debate was stirred up when the Anthropological Society of London, which rejected Darwinian theory, claimed that slavery was defensible based on the theory of evolution proposed by Darwin. The members of what would become the X Club sided with the Ethnological Society of London, which denounced slavery and embraced academic liberalism. The men of the X Club, especially Lubbock, Huxley, and Busk, felt that dissension and the "jealousies of theological sects" within learned societies were damaging, and they attempted to limit the contributions the Anthropological Society made to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, a society of which they were all members.
+Thus, by 1864, the members of the X Club were joined in a fight, both public and private, to unite the London scientific community with the objective of furthering the ideas of academic liberalism.
+
+=== Dining clubs ===
+Dining clubs, common in late-Victorian England, were characterised by informal gatherings where men with similar interests could share new ideas and information among friends. Many formal societies and institutions that existed in England during the 19th century started as informal dining clubs. The problem with most formal societies at the time, especially to those men that would come together to form the X Club, was the manner in which meetings were conducted; most were too large and unsuitable for the discussion of private scientific matters. In addition, due to the outbreak of debates over evolution and religion within the scientific societies of London during the 1860s, the pursuit of discussion with likeminded men was often difficult.
+Several scientific clubs, such as the Philosophical Club and the Red Lion Club, were formed in the late 19th century, but these organisations lacked the scientific professionalism that serious scientists, including those members of the X Club such as Hooker and Huxley, sought. Other more serious clubs, such as the 'B-Club', were not sufficiently intimate for the men who would comprise the X Club.
+
+== Formation ==
+In 1864, Huxley wrote to Hooker and explained that he feared he and his group of friends, the other men of the social network, would drift apart and lose contact. He proposed the creation of a club that would serve to maintain social ties among the members of the network, and Hooker readily agreed. Huxley always insisted that sociability was the only purpose of the club, but others in the club, most notably Hirst, claimed that the founding members had other intentions. In his description of the first meeting, Hirst wrote that what brought the men together was actually a "devotion to science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas," and he predicted that situations would arise when their concerted efforts would be of great use.
+On the night of the first meeting, Huxley jokingly proposed that the club be named "Blastodermic Club", in reference to blastoderm, a layer of cells in the ovum of birds that acts as the center of development for the entire bird. Some historians, such as Ruth Barton, feel that Huxley wanted the newly formed club to act as a guide to the development of science. The name "Thorough Club", which referred to the movements that existed at the time for the "freedom to express unorthodox opinion", was also rejected as a possible name. As Spencer would later explain, "X Club" was chosen in May 1865 because "it committed [the group] to nothing." The name itself, according to Hirst, was proposed by Mrs. Busk.
+It was also decided on the first night that each ensuing meeting would take place on the first Thursday of each month, except during the holiday months of July, August, and September. During the existence of the club, dinners took place at St. George's Hotel on Albemarle Street, Almond's Hotel on Clifford Street, and finally at the Athenaeum Club after 1886. Meetings always started at six in the evening so that dinner would be over in time for the Royal Society meetings at 8:00 or 8:30 pm in the Burlington House.
+
+Eight men attended the first meeting, and in addition Spottiswoode came to the next meeting in December 1864, making the membership of nine. William Benjamin Carpenter, an English physiologist, and William Fergusson, the Queen's surgeon, were also invited to join the club, but they declined. After some discussion, it was decided, according to Spencer, that no more members would be added because no other men outside their network were friendly or intelligent enough to be part of the X Club. In contrast, Huxley would later write that no others were admitted to the group because it was agreed that the name of any new member would have to contain "all the consonants absent from the names of the old ones." As the members of the club had no Slavonic friends, the matter was supposedly dropped.
+According to Spencer, the only rule the club had was to have no rules. When a resolution was proposed in November 1885 to keep formal notes of the meetings, the motion was defeated because it violated the rule. Nevertheless, the club kept both a secretary and a treasurer, and both positions were held in turn by each member of the club. These offices were in charge of account collecting and sending notices of upcoming meetings. Members, including Hirst, Huxley, Hooker, and Tyndall, also took informal notes of the meetings.
+
+== Influence ==

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+title: "X Club"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Club"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:26.627082+00:00"
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+---
+
+Between the time of its inception in 1864 and its termination in 1893, the X club and its members gained much prominence within the scientific community, carrying much influence over scientific thought, similar to the Scientific Lazzaroni in the United States and the Society of Arcueil in France. Between 1870 and 1878, Hooker, Spottiswoode, and Huxley held office in the Royal Society simultaneously, and between 1873 and 1885, they consecutively held the presidency of the Royal Society. Spottiswoode was treasurer of the Society between 1870 and 1878 and Huxley was elected Senior Secretary in 1872. Frankland and Hirst were also of importance to the Society, as the previous held the position of Foreign Secretary between 1895 and 1899, and the latter served on the Council three times between 1864 and 1882.
+Outside the Royal Society, the men of the X Club continued to gain influential positions. Five members of the Club held the presidency of the British Association for the Advancement of Science between 1868 and 1881. Hirst was elected president of the London Mathematical Society between 1872 and 1874 while Busk served as Examiner and eventually president of the Royal College of Surgeons. Frankland also served as president of the Chemical Society between 1871 and 1873.
+During this time, the members of the X-Club began to gain renown and win awards within the scientific community in London. Among the nine, three received the Copley Medal, five received the Royal Medal, two received Darwin Medals, one received the Rumford Medal, one received the Lyell Medal, and one received the Wollaston Medal. Eighteen honorary degrees were handed out among the nine members, as well as one Prussian 'Pour le Mérite' and one Order of Merit. Two of the members were knighted, one served as Privy Councillor, one as Justice of the Peace, three as Corresponding Members, and one was a Foreign Associate of the French Academy of Sciences.
+As the members of the club continued to gain prominence within the scientific community, the private club became well known. Many people at the time viewed the club as a scientific caucus, and some, such as Richard Owen, accused the group of having too much influence in shaping the scientific landscape of late-Victorian England. Huxley recounted that he once overheard a conversation about the club between two men of the Athenaeum Club, and when one asked what the X-Club did, the other explained "Well they govern scientific affairs, and really, on the whole, they don't do it badly." Informal notes of early meetings seem to confirm some of the concerns. Discussion often surrounded the nomination of members to offices of major societies, as well as the negotiation of pension and medal claims. In 1876, the club even voted to collectively support Lubbock's candidacy for the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
+Huxley, however, always stated that the simple purpose of the club was to bring friends together who may have drifted apart otherwise. According to Huxley, the fact that all the members of the club gained distinction within science was merely coincidental.
+
+== Decline ==
+
+By 1880, the members of the X Club had prominent positions within the scientific community, and the club was highly regarded, but it was beginning to fall apart. In 1883, Spottiswoode died of typhoid and at the same time, according to Spencer, only two of the remaining eight members of the X club were in good health. Attendance at meetings began to dwindle and by 1885, Frankland and Lubbock urged for the election of new members. There was a difference of opinion on the matter and it was eventually dropped. In 1889, a rift emerged in the group when Huxley and Spencer had an argument over land nationalisation policies and refused to talk with one another.
+The members of the club were growing old and during the late 1880s and early 1890s, a few of the members moved out of London. When attendance began to severely dwindle, talks of ending the club emerged. The last meeting was held unceremoniously in March 1893, and only Frankland and Hooker attended.
+
+== See also ==
+Victorian era
+Naturalism (philosophy)
+Liberalism
+Natural history
+Liberal Christianity
+Natural Selection
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Gondermann, Thomas (2007), Evolution und Rasse. Theoretischer und institutioneller Wandel in der viktorianischen Anthropologie, Bielefeld: transkript, archived from the original on 26 April 2012, retrieved 21 December 2011.
+Patton, Mark (2007), Science, Politics and Business in the Work of Sir John Lubbock: A Man of Universal Mind, London: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-5321-9, OCLC 72868508.
+Barton, Ruth (2018), The X Club: Power and Authority in Victorian Science, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-55161-6
+
+== External links ==
+Encyclopædia Britannica: X Club
+Encyclopædia Britannica: X Club – Further Reading
+Timeline of Darwin after Origin of Species

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Divinity_School-0.md

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+title: "Yale Divinity School"
+chunk: 1/2
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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:27.882601+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Yale Divinity School (YDS) is one of the twelve graduate and professional schools of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut.  
+Congregationalist theological education was the motivation at the founding of Yale, and the professional school has its roots in a Theological Department established in 1822. The school had maintained its own campus, faculty, and degree program since 1869, and it has become more ecumenical beginning in the mid-19th century. Since the 1970s, it has been affiliated with the Episcopal Berkeley Divinity School and has housed the Institute of Sacred Music, which offers separate degree programs. In July 2017, a two-year process of formal affiliation was completed, with the addition of Andover Newton Seminary joining the school. Over 40 different denominations are represented at YDS.  
+While Divinity Schools typically have higher admit-rates, Yale is an exception, with acceptance rates around 10-15%. YDS is the most selective theological school in the world, and is widely seen as one of the best. 
+
+== History ==
+
+Theological education was the earliest academic purpose of Yale University. When Yale College was founded in 1701, it was as a college of religious training for Congregationalist ministers in Connecticut Colony, designated in its charter as a school "wherein Youth may be instructed in the Arts & Sciences who through the blessing of Almighty God may be fitted for Publick employment both in Church & Civil State."  A professorship of divinity was established in 1746. In 1817, the occupant of the divinity chair, Eleazar Thompson Fitch, supported a student request to endow a theological curriculum, and five years later a separate Yale Theological Seminary was founded by the Yale Corporation. In the same motion, Second Great Awakening theologian Nathaniel William Taylor was appointed to become the first Dwight Professor of Didactic Theology. Taylor was considered the "central figure" in the school's founding, and he was joined in 1826 by Josiah Willard Gibbs, Sr., a scholar of sacred languages and lexicographer Chauncey A. Goodrich in 1839. A dedicated student dormitory, Divinity College, was completed on the college's Old Campus in 1836, but the department had no permanent classrooms or offices until several years after the end of the American Civil War.
+
+After a significant period of enrollment decline, the school began fundraising from alumni for new faculty and facilities. Divinity Hall was constructed on the present-day site of Grace Hopper College between 1869 and 1871, featuring two classroom wings and a chapel.  Around the time of the new campus' construction came the arrival of new faculty, including James M. Hoppin, George Edward Day, George Park Fisher, and Leonard Bacon. The first Bachelor of Divinity (B.D.) was conferred in 1867, and the department became a separate School of Divinity in 1869. The school remained across from Old Campus until 1929, when a new campus was constructed on the northern edge of the university campus, at the top of Prospect Hill.
+
+Berkeley Divinity School affiliated with Yale Divinity School in 1971, and in the same year the university replaced the B.D. with a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) program.  While Berkeley retains its Episcopal Church connection, its students are admitted by and fully enrolled as members of Yale Divinity School. The Jonathan Edwards Center at Yale University, a division of the Divinity School, maintains a large collection of primary source materials about Jonathan Edwards, a 1720 Yale alumnus. The Yale Institute of Sacred Music (ISM) is jointly-affiliated with the Divinity School and School of Music. It offers programs in choral conducting, organ performance, voice, and church music studies, and in liturgical studies and religion and the arts.
+In May 2016, Andover Newton Theological School president Martin Copenhaver announced that Andover Newton would begin a process of formal affiliation with the Divinity School over the next two years. In the 2016–17 academic year, a cohort of faculty relocated to New Haven teaching students and launching pilot initiatives focused on congregational ministry education, while Andover Newton continued to operate in Massachusetts over the next two years. In July 2017, a formal affiliation was signed, resulting in smaller Andover Newton functioning as a unit within Yale Divinity School, similar to its arrangement with Berkeley.
+In October 2020, YDS received a $1 million grant from the Lilly Endowment as part of the foundation's Thriving Congregations Initiative to fund a program entitled, "Reimagining Church: New Models for the 21st Century." Reimagining Church will involve 40 congregations in Connecticut as well as YDS students, faculty, and staff over a five-year period.
+In November 2020, the Yale Divinity School Women's Center revived the publication of The Voice Journal of Literary and Theological Ideas, a feminist journal that initially ran from 1996 to 2002.
+
+== Degrees ==
+Yale Divinity School is accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada (ATS) and approved by ATS to grant the following degrees:
+
+Master of Divinity (M.Div.)
+Master of Arts in Religion (M.A.R.)
+Master of Sacred Theology (S.T.M.)
+Students pursuing an M.A.R. can choose between a comprehensive and concentrated program. The following concentrations are offered: 
+
+Hebrew Bible
+Second Temple Judaism
+New Testament
+Theology
+Philosophical Theology
+Practical Theology
+Ethics
+History of Christianity
+World Christianity/Missions
+Liturgical Studies
+Religion & the Arts
+Asian Religions
+Black Religion in the African Diaspora
+Latinx & Latin American Christianity
+Religion & Ecology
+Women’s/Gender/Sexuality Studies
+Students in any degree program at Yale Divinity School can also earn certificates in any of the following areas:
+
+Lutheran Studies
+Reformed Studies
+Anglican Studies
+Catholic Lay Ministerial Studies
+United Methodist Studies
+Black Church Studies
+Andover Newton Seminary (non-degree diploma)
+Educational Leadership and Ministry

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Divinity_School-1.md

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+---
+title: "Yale Divinity School"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Divinity_School"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:27.882601+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Leadership ==
+Gregory Sterling, a New Testament scholar and Church of Christ pastor, has been the dean of the divinity school since 2012, succeeding New Testament scholar Harold W. Attridge, who returned to teaching as a Sterling Professor upon completing two five-year terms as dean. The leaders of the affiliated seminaries are Andrew McGowan, Dean and President of Berkeley Divinity School, and Sarah Drummond, Founding Dean of Andover Newton Seminary at Yale Divinity School. Organist Martin Jean is director of the Institute of Sacred Music.
+
+=== Deans of Yale Divinity School ===
+
+== Campus ==
+
+When the department was organized as a school in 1869, it was moved to a campus across from the northwest corner of the New Haven Green composed of East Divinity Hall (1869), Marquand Chapel (1871), West Divinity Hall (1871), and the Trowbridge Library (1881). The buildings, designed by Richard Morris Hunt, were demolished under the residential college plan and replaced by Calhoun College, now known as Grace Hopper College.
+In 1929, the trustees of the estate of lawyer John William Sterling agreed that a portion of his bequest to Yale would be used to build a new campus for the Divinity School. The Sterling Divinity Quadrangle, completed in 1932, is a Georgian-style complex built at the top of Prospect Hill. It was designed by Delano & Aldrich and modeled in part on the University of Virginia.
+
+A $49-million renovation of Sterling Divinity Quadrangle was completed in 2003. Sterling Divinity Quadrangle contains academic buildings, Marquand Chapel, and graduate student housing for YDS students.
+Yale Divinity School is currently planning the construction of the Living Village, a zero-waste, sustainable living community that will house 155 YDS students.
+
+== Notable alumni ==
+
+=== Government and Politics ===
+John D. Baldwin (B.D. 1834), U.S. Representative for Massachusetts's 8th congressional district
+Lois Capps  (M.A.R. 1964), U.S. Representative for California's 24th congressional district
+Walter Holden Capps (M.A.R. 1963; Ph.D. 1965), U.S. Representative for California's 22nd congressional district
+William Sloane Coffin (B.D. 1956), Central Intelligence Agency officer
+Chris Coons (M.A.R. 1992), U.S. Senator from Delaware
+John Danforth (M.Div. 1963), U.S. Senator from Missouri
+Walter Fauntroy (B.D. 1958), U.S. Representative for the District of Columbia
+Robert Bernard Hall (B.D. 1835), U.S. Representative for Massachusetts's 1st congressional district
+Gary Hart (B.D. 1961), U.S. Senator from Colorado
+Guy Vander Jagt (B.D. 1955), U.S. Representative for Michigan's 9th congressional district
+James A. Joseph (B.D. 1963), U.S. Ambassador to South Africa
+Sen Katayama (Attended), founder of the Japanese Communist Party
+James T. Laney (B.D. 1954), U.S. Ambassador to South Korea
+Ernest W. Lefever (B.D. 1945), foreign affairs expert and founder of the Ethics and Public Policy Center.
+Chang Sang (M.Div. 1970), Prime Minister of South Korea
+David E. Price (B.D. 1964), U.S. Representative for North Carolina's 4th congressional district
+
+=== Academia ===
+Kate Bowler (M.A.R. 2005), academic and writer
+Donald Eric Capps (B.D. 1963; S.T.M. 1965), scholar of Pastoral Theology
+Harvey Cox (B.D. 1955), theologian and Hollis Professor of Divinity at Harvard Divinity School
+Raymond Culver, (B.D. 1920), President of Shimer College
+David F. Ford (S.T.M.), Regius Professor of Divinity Emeritus at the University of Cambridge
+Milton Gaither (M.A.R. 1996), historian of American education
+Serene Jones (M.Div. 1985), President of Union Theological Seminary
+Candida Moss (M.A.R. 2002), Edward Cadbury Professor of Theology at the University of Birmingham
+Reinhold Niebuhr (B.D. 1914, M.A. 1915), philosopher and public intellectual
+Douglas Oldenburg (S.T.M. 1961), President Emeritus of Columbia Theological Seminary
+George Rupp (B.D. 1967), 18th President of Columbia University
+John Silber (Attended 1947-1948), 7th President of Boston University
+Rena Karefa-Smart (B.D. 1945), first Black woman to graduate from Yale Divinity School
+Rufus W. Stimson (B.D., 1897), Professor of English and President of the University of Connecticut
+Krista Tippett (M.Div. 1994), National Humanities Medal and Peabody Award winner
+John W. Traphagan (M.A.R. 1986), Professor of Religious Studies and Anthropology at the University of Texas at Austin
+
+=== Religious Leadership ===
+William Ragsdale Cannon (B.D. 1940; Ph.D. 1942), Bishop of the United Methodist Church
+Roy Clyde Clark (B.D. 1944), Bishop of the United Methodist Church
+Michael Curry (M.Div. 1978), 27th Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church
+Paul Vernon Galloway (B.D. 1929), Bishop of The Methodist Church
+Allen Kannapell (M.Div. 1997), Suffragan Bishop of the Anglican Diocese of the Great Lakes
+James Massa (M.A.R. 1985), Auxiliary Bishop of Brooklyn
+
+=== Other ===
+Diogenes Allen (B.D. 1959)
+Ian Barbour (B.D. 1956)
+Gregory A. Boyd (M.Div. 1982)
+Will D. Campbell (B.D. 1952)
+Orishatukeh Faduma (B.D. 1894, graduate study 1895)
+Frederick William Chapman (A.M. 1832), Congregational minister, educator, and genealogist
+Zebulon Crocker
+Tom Vaughn (Doctorate in theology), jazz musician and Episcopal priest
+Leroy Gilbert (S.T.M. 1979)
+Lisa Grabarek, Baptist preacher and teacher
+Stanley Hauerwas (B.D. 1965)
+Richard B. Hays (M.Div. 1977)
+Sallie McFague (B.D. 1959)
+Otis Moss III (M.Div. 1995), Pastor of Trinity Church, Chicago
+Richard T. Nolan (M.A. 1967)
+Ashley Null (M.Div., S.T.M.), Anglican theologian
+William H. Poteat (B.D. 1944)
+Clark V. Poling (1936)
+Peter L. Pond, human rights activist and philanthropist.
+Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. (attended 1895–1896)
+V.C. Samuel (PhD. 1957), Theologian and Historian.
+Ron Sider
+Amos Alonzo Stagg
+Barbara Brown Taylor (M.Div. 1976)
+Roy M. Terry (B.D. 1942)
+R. A. Torrey (B.D. 1878)
+Glenn M. Wagner (M.Div. 1978)
+Chester Wickwire (B.D. 1946)
+Parker T. Williamson (M.Phil.)
+William Willimon (M.Div. 1971)
+
+== Notable past professors ==
+
+=== Former faculty: 20th–21st centuries ===
+Roland Bainton
+Brevard Childs
+Rebecca Chopp
+Adela Yarbro Collins, 2000–2015
+Jerome Davis
+Margaret Farley
+Hans Wilhelm Frei
+Serene Jones
+David Kelsey
+Kenneth Scott Latourette
+George Lindbeck
+Sallie McFague
+Douglas Clyde Macintosh
+Abraham Malherbe
+Reinhold Niebuhr
+H. Richard Niebuhr
+Henri Nouwen, 1971–1981
+Liston Pope (Dean)
+Letty M. Russell (1974–2001)
+Lamin Sanneh
+Emilie Townes
+Denys Turner
+Nicholas Wolterstorff
+Henry Burt Wright (1877-1923)
+
+=== Former faculty: 19th century ===
+Lyman Beecher
+George Park Fisher
+
+== Current faculty ==
+Harold W. Attridge
+William Barber II
+Teresa Berger
+John J. Collins
+Bruce Gordon
+Margaret A. Farley
+Margot Elsbeth Fassler
+John E. Hare
+Jennifer A. Herdt
+Martin Jean
+Willie James Jennings
+David Kelsey
+Andrew McGowan
+Teresa Morgan
+Sally M. Promey
+Bryan D. Spinks
+Harry S. Stout
+Kathryn Tanner
+Linn Tonstad
+Jacqueline Vayntrub
+Miroslav Volf
+Tisa Wenger
+Christian Wiman
+Adela Yarbro Collins
+
+== See also ==
+General Theological Seminary, a separate New Haven institution now located in New York City
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Yale Divinity School website
+Berkeley Divinity School at Yale
+Andover Newton Seminary at Yale

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygon_(journal)-0.md

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+---
+title: "Zygon (journal)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygon_(journal)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:34:29.166727+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science is a quarterly open access peer-reviewed academic journal covering religion and science published by the Open Library of Humanities. It was established in 1966 and the editor-in-chief is Arthur C. Petersen (University College London). Zygon is sponsored by the Institute on Religion in an Age of Science and the Center for Advanced Study in Religion and Science (CASIRAS). 
+The name "Zygon" (mod. L., ad. ζυγόν Gr. yoke.), according to the journal founder Ralph Wendell Burhoe, is the Greek term for anything that joins two bodies, especially the yoking or harnessing of a team that must pull together effectively. The Zygon is the symbol of the journal, its aim being to reunite the "split team" of values and knowledge.
+According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2024 impact factor of 0.6, ranking it 48th out of 69 journals (Q3) in the category "Social Issues". The Scimago Journal & Country Rank 2024 located this Journal in the 1st quartile (Q1) in the categories "Religious Studies" and "Cultural Studies". 
+Zygon became an open access journal when it moved to the Open Library of Humanities in 2024. 
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+Center for Advanced Studies in Religion and Science