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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md
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+---
+title: "About Time (book)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:56.205213+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+About Time: Einstein's Unfinished Revolution (ISBN 978-0-684-81822-1), published in 1995, is the second book written by Paul Davies, regarding the subject of time. His first book on time was his The Physics of Time Asymmetry (1977)(ISBN 0-520-02825-2). The intended audience is the general public, rather than science academics.
+
+About Time explores selected mysteries of spacetime, following on from Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, which Davies believes does not fully explain time as humans experience it. The author explains 
+Important though Einstein's time turned out to be, it still did not solve "the riddle of time".
+
+The book delves into the nature of metaphysics, time, motion and gravity, covering a wide range of aspects surrounding the current cosmological debate, across 283 pages in great detail. It includes an index, a bibliography, and numerous diagrams.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime
+Sense of time
+The Mind of God
+How to Build a Time Machine, 2002 fiction book by the same author
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis-0.md
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+---
+title: "African Genesis"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:57.464895+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+African Genesis: A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man is a 1961 nonfiction work by the American writer Robert Ardrey. It expounded on the killer ape theory, positing the hypothesis that man evolved on the African continent from carnivorous, predatory ancestors who distinguished themselves from apes by the use of weapons. The work bears on questions of human origins, human nature, and human uniqueness. Although some of his ideas were refuted by later science, it was widely read and continues to inspire significant controversy.
+African Genesis is the first in Robert Ardrey's Nature of Man Series. It is followed by The Territorial Imperative (1966), The Social Contract (1970), and The Hunting Hypothesis (1976). It was illustrated by Ardrey's wife, the South African actress and illustrator Berdine Ardrey (née Grunewald).
+
+== Background ==
+Robert Ardrey, at the time a working playwright and screenwriter, travelled in 1955 to Africa, partly at the behest of Richard Foster Flint, to investigate claims made by Raymond Dart about a specimen of Australopithecus africanus.
+He met Dart in March 1955. Dart, in his laboratory at Witwatersrand University Medical School, had assembled evidence for a controversial thesis. Among the collection were fossil baboon skulls from the caves of Taung, Sterkfontein and Makapan that he believed showed fractures caused by Australopithecus wielding bone clubs; the jaw of a juvenile ape-man from Makapansgat which had been fractured and lost its incisors; and 7,000 fossil bones from the Makapansgat cave. Among the fossils, skulls and lower leg bones were disproportionately represented, leading Dart to theorize that man's ancestors were hunters who used bones as weapons. His overall thesis was that "it was the ape-man's instinct for violence, and his successful development of lethal weapons, that gave him his dominance in the animal world from the very beginning. Those instincts are with us today." Ardrey was initially much taken by the theory. As a correspondent he wrote an article about it for The Reporter. After receiving significant attention the article was reprinted in Science Digest, which marked the beginning of the spread of popular notions about Australopithecus. The article in Science Digest also led to The Smithsonian Institution contacting Dart and eventually providing him funding to continue his research.
+Following a visit by Dr. Kenneth P. Oakley Ardrey agreed to write a book on the subject. Oakley secured an office for Ardrey in the National History Museum in London, as well as access to its private libraries. Ardrey spent six years traveling between Northern universities and African archeological sites. During this time he worked with many notable scientists, including Louis Leakey (then affiliated with the Coryndon Museum in Kenya) and Tony Sutcliffe (then affiliated with the Royal Archaeological Institute).
+Ardrey eventually came to be a vocal proponent of this thesis, introducing it, in modified form, to a broad audience with African Genesis. He added to it his own ideas about the role of territory in human behavior, about hierarchy in social animals, and about the instinctual status of the urge to dominate one's fellows.
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis-1.md
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+---
+title: "African Genesis"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:57.464895+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Legacy ==
+African Genesis met with massive popular success and widespread recognition. It became an international bestseller and was translated into dozens of languages. In 1962 it was a finalist for the National Book Award in nonfiction. In 1969 Time magazine named African Genesis the most notable nonfiction book of the 1960s. The book has continued to bear on the popular imagination of human nature.
+The theories of Dart and Ardrey flew in the face of prevailing theories of human origins. At the time of the publication of African Genesis it was generally agreed that human beings evolved from Asian ancestors. Furthermore, it was taken for granted that these ancestors were herbivorous. The idea of an African Genesis of humanity was met with fervent resistance in the scientific community.
+On a grander scale, Ardrey challenged the reigning methodological assumption of the social sciences, that human behavior was fundamentally distinct from animal behavior. As he put it in his next book, The Territorial Imperative, "The dog barking at you from behind his master's fence acts for a motive indistinguishable from that of his master when the fence was built."
+Following the publication of African Genesis Ardrey's theories became mired in controversy because of his notions about innate human violence and inherited instinctual aggression. (For more details, see The Territorial Imperative.) Later commentators, however, have come to emphasize the broader implications of Ardrey's theories; it is now commonly accepted that the controversy obscured the core of his thinking. William Wright, for example, writing in 2013, writes "Not only was Ardrey, with his three-million-year-old unsolved murders, claiming that evolution has saddled us with a battery of behavioral traits, but he was also reckless enough to emphasize the most repugnant, the killer impulse. This inflammatory claim certainly won Ardrey attention, but the angry controversy it provoked almost obscured the main point: that human behavior is as much a product of evolution as the human body."
+While Ardrey's theses on aggression were controversial, he was also challenged on his conviction that the study of animal behavior is necessarily relevant to the study of human behavior. This precept has gained widespread acceptance and, due in large part to Ardrey's work, passed into the scientific commonsense. Following the 1961 publication of African Genesis the science of ethology, which is based on the methodological assumption of the cross-relevance of anthropology and zoology, underwent a massive flourishing. 1966 saw Lorenz's On Aggression published, followed by Desmond Morris's The Naked Ape in 1967, Lionel Tiger's Men in Groups in 1969, and Tiger and Fox's The Imperial Animal in 1971. Along with ethology's ascendence came a renaissance of its central premise—then much derided in scientific communities by blank-state theorists—that the study of animal behavior could tell us much about human behavior.
+African Genesis led Ardrey into a long career of work in anthropology and ethology. Regarding his later-in-life return to science, Ardrey wrote "while peasant and poet may apprehend a truth, it is the obligation of science to define it, to prove it, to assimilate its substance into the body of scientific thought, and to make its conclusions both available and understandable to the society of which science is a part."
+His writings on paleoanthropology, ethnology, and anthropology, along with the massive popular success of African Genesis, are widely credited with initiating public interest in these fields and sparking widespread popular debate about human nature as it is connected to human evolution. C.K. Brain, for example, writes: 
+
+African Genesis has, in all probability, been read by more people throughout the world than any other book on human evolution and the nature of man. Its influence has been very great indeed as it fermented an intense debate about these topics, and catalysed a new set of concepts in paleoanthropology.
+Several scientists credit Ardrey's work, and African Genesis in particular, with launching them into their studies. Paleoanthropologist Rick Potts, who has been the director of the Smithsonian Institution Museum of Natural History's Human Origins Program since 1985 points to African Genesis as one of the two most formative books of his early years. In the 2015 PBS film documentary Dawn of Humanity, Potts recites the beginning of the book from memory.
+In 1972, defending his film A Clockwork Orange from Fred M. Hechinger, Stanley Kubrick cited Ardrey. In particular, he quoted African Genesis (along with The Social Contract). Kubrick was a notable fan of Ardrey's work, and also cited him as an inspiration for his 1968 film, 2001: A Space Odyssey. Nonetheless, the behavior of the apes in the "Dawn of Man" sequence of 2001 has since been "proven false", since violent apes such as these have now been shown to be "vegetarians" instead—according to archeologist K. Kris Hirst in reviewing the 2015 PBS documentary film Dawn of Humanity, which describes, directly in the context of 2001, the 2015 studies of fossils of Homo naledi.
+A.J. Jacobs, who wrote the 2004 book The Know-It-All, about reading the entire Encyclopædia Britannica, states in an interview that a quote from African Genesis was the most profound thing he read while reading the Encyclopædia.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+The Official Robert Ardrey Estate Website
+The Nature of Man Series at the Robert Ardrey Estate Website Archived 2019-09-13 at the Wayback Machine
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_on_the_Edge_of_Chaos-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_on_the_Edge_of_Chaos-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_on_the_Edge_of_Chaos-0.md
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+---
+title: "Aid on the Edge of Chaos"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_on_the_Edge_of_Chaos"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:59.775444+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Aid on the Edge of Chaos is a 2013 book on applying science and innovation to international development, published by Oxford University Press and written by global development and humanitarian expert Ben Ramalingam.
+
+
+== Synopsis ==
+The book focuses on the need to improve foreign aid and the value of complex systems science and research for how global international aid efforts should be designed, implemented and evaluated.
+
+
+== Critical reception and influence ==
+Described in a leading development journal as 'one of the most lauded contributions to recent mainstream development thinking', Aid on the Edge of Chaos has been endorsed by many top scientists and international leaders, including four Nobel Laureates in Medicine, Economics and Chemistry and the heads of Red Cross and United Nations as well as many NGO leaders. It has been positively reviewed by various press outlets, including The Economist, the Financial Times, The Guardian, New Scientist, Nature, Lancet, Harvard Business Review and the British Medical Journal.
+It was also the focus of an interview feature with the author in Huffington Post. Aid on the Edge of Chaos was the subject of a public lecture by Ben Ramalingam at the Royal Society of Arts, London, in December 2013, an event chaired by Geoff Mulgan, CEO of NESTA. The book was discussed by Ramalingam and Sir John Holmes at the Oxford Literary Festival in March 2014, an event chaired by leading British filmmaker and author Bidisha.
+Many international aid agencies are applying ideas from the book in their work, including the UK Department for International Development, USAID, the International Rescue Committee, Mercy Corps, UNICEF, World Food Programme, World Vision, the World Bank, the United Nations, and Oxfam.
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unexplained_sounds-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unexplained_sounds-0.md
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+---
+title: "List of unexplained sounds"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unexplained_sounds"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:48.521095+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following is a list of sounds which are currently, or were previously, unidentified. All of the NOAA sound files in this article have been sped up by at least a factor of 16 to increase intelligibility by condensing them and raising the frequency from infrasound to a more audible and reproducible range.
+
+
+== Currently unidentified sounds ==
+
+
+=== The Hum ===
+The Hum is a persistent and invasive low-frequency humming, rumbling, or droning noise audible to many but not all people. Different causes have been attributed, including local mechanical sources, often from industrial plants, as well as manifestations of tinnitus or other biological auditory effects.
+
+
+=== Longfellow Boom ===
+The Longfellow Boom is a loud and unexplained phenomenon reported in the Longfellow community of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. The booms reportedly generally take place on summer nights, and have been described by residents as "house-shakingly loud" and at lower tone, distinct from a car crash or gunshot.
+
+
+=== Skyquakes ===
+Skyquakes or mistpouffers are a sound phenomenon generally occurring near large bodies of water, described as comparable to distant cannon fire or thunder. The sound has been reported around the world, with several cases documented in the 19th century. 
+
+
+=== The Ping ===
+The Ping is a "hum" or "beep" detected by shipboard sonars in the Fury and Hecla Strait of northern Canada during the summer of 2016. It was investigated by Canadian military authorities, who did not detect any anomalies on the seabed, where the sound originated. Possible causes include local sonar surveys or the acoustics of Arctic ice.
+
+
+== Formerly unidentified sounds ==
+
+
+=== NOAA ===
+The following previously unidentified sounds have been detected by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) using its Equatorial Pacific Ocean autonomous hydrophone array. Researchers have since posited volcanic and glacial origins for the sounds.
+
+
+==== Upsweep ====
+
+The Upsweep is an unidentified sound detected on the American NOAA's equatorial autonomous hydrophone arrays. This sound was present when the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory began recording its sound surveillance system, SOSUS, in August 1991. It consists of a long train of narrow-band upsweeping sounds of several seconds in duration each. The source level is high enough to be recorded throughout the Pacific.
+The sound appears to be seasonal, generally reaching peaks in spring and autumn, but it is unclear whether this is due to changes in the source or seasonal changes in the propagation environment. The source can be roughly located at 54°S 140°W, between New Zealand and South America. Scientists/researchers of NOAA speculate the sound to be underwater volcanic activity. The Upsweep's level of sound (volume) has been declining since 1991, but it can still be detected on NOAA's  equatorial autonomous hydrophone arrays.
+
+
+==== Whistle ====
+
+This sound, dubbed the Whistle, was recorded by the eastern Pacific autonomous hydrophone deployed at 08°N 110°W on July 7, 1997 at 07:30GMT. According to NOAA, the Whistle is similar to volcanogenic sounds previously recorded in the Mariana volcanic arc of the Pacific Ocean. NOAA also stated that locating the source of an event requires at least three recording instruments, and since the Whistle was only recorded on the NW hydrophone, the sound could have traveled a great distance from its source volcano before detection.
+
+
+==== Bloop ====
+
+The Bloop is an ultra-low-frequency and extremely powerful underwater sound detected by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 1997.  The sound is consistent with the noises generated by icequakes in large icebergs, or large icebergs scraping the ocean floor.
+The sound's source was roughly triangulated to a remote point in the south Pacific Ocean west of the southern tip of South America, and the sound was detected several times by the Equatorial Pacific Ocean autonomous hydrophone array. 
+
+According to the NOAA description, it "rises rapidly in frequency over about one minute and was of sufficient amplitude to be heard on multiple sensors, at a range of over 5,000 km (3,100 mi)." NOAA's Christopher Fox did not believe its origin was man-made, such as a submarine or bomb. While the audio profile of Bloop does resemble that of a living creature, the source was a mystery both because it was different from known sounds and because it was several times louder than the loudest recorded animal, the blue whale.
+The NOAA Vents Program has attributed Bloop to a large icequake. Numerous icequakes share similar spectrograms with Bloop, as well as the amplitude necessary to spot them despite ranges exceeding 5,000 km (3,100 mi). This was found during the tracking of iceberg A53a as it disintegrated near South Georgia Island in early 2008, suggesting that the iceberg(s) involved in generating the sound were most likely between Bransfield Straits and the Ross Sea, or possibly at Cape Adare in Antarctica, a well-known source of cryogenic signals.
+
+
+==== Julia ====
+
+Julia is a sound recorded on March 1, 1999, by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA said the source of the sound was most likely a large iceberg that had run aground off Antarctica.  It was loud enough to be heard over the entire Equatorial Pacific Ocean autonomous hydrophone array, with a duration of about 2 minutes and 43 seconds. Due to the uncertainty of the arrival azimuth, the point of origin could only be narrowed to between Bransfield Straits and Cape Adare.
+
+
+==== Slow Down ====
+
+Slow Down is a sound recorded on May 19, 1997, in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The source of the sound was most likely a large iceberg as it became grounded.
+The name was given because the sound slowly decreases in frequency over about seven minutes. It was recorded using an autonomous hydrophone array. The sound has been picked up several times each year since 1997. One of the hypotheses on the origin of the sound is moving ice in Antarctica. Sound spectrograms of vibrations caused by friction closely resemble the spectrogram of the Slow Down. This suggests the source of the sound could have been caused by the friction of a large ice sheet moving over land.
+
+
+==== Sea Train ====
+
+The Sea Train is the name given to a sound recorded on March 5, 1997, on the Equatorial Pacific Ocean autonomous hydrophone array. The sound rises to a quasi-steady frequency. According to the NOAA, the origin of the sound is most likely generated by a very large iceberg grounded in the Ross Sea, near Cape Adare.
+
+
+=== Other identified sounds ===
+Bio-duck, a quacking-like sound produced by the Antarctic minke whale.
+Moodus noises, strange sounds heard in Moodus, Connecticut, later attributed to microquakes.
+Western Pacific Biotwang - Vocalization produced by Bryde's whales.
+
+
+== See also ==
+52-hertz whale
+Lists of unsolved problems
+Numbers station
+Pareidolia
+Signal-to-noise ratio
+Tinnitus
+UVB-76
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience-0.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
+---
+title: "List of unsolved problems in neuroscience"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:49.607479+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following is a list of notable unsolved problems in neuroscience. A problem is considered unsolved if no answer is known or if there is significant disagreement among experts about a proposed solution.
+
+
+== Consciousness ==
+Consciousness:
+How can consciousness be defined?
+What is the neural basis of subjective experience, cognition, wakefulness, alertness, arousal, and attention?
+Binding problem: How exactly is it that objects, background, and abstract or emotional features are combined into a single experience?
+What is the neural basis of self?
+Quantum mind: Do quantum mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition, play an important part in the brain's function and can it explain critical aspects of consciousness?
+Is there a "hard problem of consciousness"?
+If so, how is it solved?
+Vertiginous question: Why is it that a specific subject of experience is "live" from a given perspective?
+What, if anything, is the function of consciousness?
+Problem of mental causation: How exactly do mental states cause intentional actions to happen?
+What is the nature and mechanism behind near-death experiences?
+How can death be defined? Can consciousness exist after death?
+If consciousness is generated by brain activity, then how do some patients with physically deteriorated brains suddenly gain a brief moment of restored consciousness prior to death, a phenomenon known as terminal lucidity?
+What beings are conscious?
+Animal consciousness: What animals or other lifeforms have conscious experience?
+Are philosophical zombies possible?
+How might it be possible to test whether a being has qualia or not?
+Problem of representation: How exactly does the mind function (or how does the brain interpret and represent information about the world)?
+Bayesian mind: Does the mind make sense of the world by constantly trying to make predictions according to the rules of Bayesian probability?
+Computational theory of mind: Is the mind a symbol manipulation system, operating on a model of computation, similar to a computer?
+Connectionism: Can the mind be explained by mathematical models known as artificial neural networks?
+Embodied cognition: Is the cognition of an organism affected by the organism's entire body (rather than just simply its brain), including its interactions with the environment?
+Extended mind thesis: Does the mind not only exist in the brain, but also functions in the outside world by using physical objects as mental processes? Or just as prosthetic limbs can become part of the body, can handwritten notes become part of the mind?
+Mind-body dualism: Is the mind distinct from the body?
+Modularity of mind: Is the mind composed of distinct modules, each evolved to solve a specific evolutionary problem from the past?
+Dynamical neuroscience: Is the mind a dynamical system?
+
+
+== Sensation, perception and movement ==
+Perception:
+How does the brain transfer sensory information into coherent, private percepts?
+What are the rules by which perception is organized?
+What are the features/objects that constitute our perceptual experience of internal and external events?
+How are the senses integrated?
+What is the relationship between subjective experience and the physical world?
+
+
+== Learning and memory ==
+Learning and memory:
+Where do our memories get stored and how are they retrieved again?
+How can learning be improved?
+What is the difference between explicit and implicit memories?
+What molecule is responsible for synaptic tagging?
+Neuroplasticity: How plastic is the mature brain?
+Cognition and decisions:
+How and where does the brain evaluate reward value and effort (cost) to modulate behavior?
+How does previous experience alter perception and behavior?
+What are the genetic and environmental contributions to brain function?
+
+
+== Language ==
+Language:
+How is it implemented neurally?
+What is the basis of semantic meaning?
+Language acquisition:
+Controversy: infant language acquisition/first-language acquisition. How are infants able to learn language? One line of debate is between two points of view: that of psychological nativism, i.e., the language ability is somehow  "hardwired" in the human brain, and usage based theories of language, according to which language emerges through to brain's interaction with environment and activated by general dispositions for social interaction and communication, abstract symbolic thought and pattern recognition and inference.
+Is the human ability to use syntax based on innate mental structures or is syntactic speech the function of intelligence and interaction with other humans? The question is closely related to those of language emergence and acquisition.
+Is there a language acquisition device: How localized is language in the brain? Is there a particular area in the brain responsible for the development of language abilities or is it only partially localized?
+What fundamental reasons explain why ultimate attainment in second-language acquisition is typically some way short of the native speaker's ability, with learners varying widely in performance?
+What are the optimal ways to achieve successful second-language acquisition?
+Animals and language: How much human language can animals be taught to use? How much of animal communication can be said to have the same properties as human language (e.g. compositionality of bird calls as syntax)?
+What role does linguistic intuition play, how is it formed and how does it function? Is it closely linked to exposure to a unique set of different experiences and their contexts throughout one's personal life?
+Linguistic relativity: What are the relations between grammatical patterns and cognitive habits of speakers of different languages? Does language use train or habituate speakers to certain cognitive habits that differ between speakers of different languages? Are effects of linguistic relativity caused by grammar structures or by cultural differences that underlie differences in language use?
+
+
+== Mind-body connection ==
+Free will, particularly the neuroscience of free will.
+Problem of mental causation
+
+Sleep:
+What is the biological function of sleep?
+Why do we dream?
+What are the underlying brain mechanisms?
+What is its relation to anesthesia?
+
+
+== Computational neuroscience ==
+Computational theory of mind: What are the limits of understanding thinking as a form of computing?
+Computational neuroscience:
+How important is the precise timing of action potentials for information processing in the neocortex?
+Is there a canonical computation performed by cortical columns?
+How is information in the brain processed by the collective dynamics of large neuronal circuits?
+What level of simplification is suitable for a description of information processing in the brain?
+What is the neural code?
+How do general anesthetics work?
+
+The emergence and evolution of intelligence: What are the laws and mechanisms - of new idea emergence (insight, creativity synthesis, intuition, decision-making, eureka); development (evolution) of an individual mind in the ontogenesis, etc.?
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of unsolved problems in mathematics
+List of unsolved problems in physics
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Human Brain Project Homepage
+David Eagleman (August 2007). "10 Unsolved Mysteries of the Brain". Discover Magazine.
+Dennett D (April 2001). "Are we explaining consciousness yet?". Cognition. 79 (1–2): 221–37. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00130-X. PMID 11164029. S2CID 2235514.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types-0.md
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+---
+title: "List of vineyard soil types"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:50.803856+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The soil composition of vineyards is one of the most important viticultural considerations when planting grape vines. The soil supports the root structure of the vine and influences the drainage levels and amount of minerals and nutrients that the vine is exposed to. The ideal soil condition for a vine is a layer of thin topsoil and subsoil that sufficiently retains water but also has good drainage so that the roots do not become overly saturated. The ability of the soil to retain heat and/or reflect it back up to the vine is also an important consideration that affects the ripening of the grapes.
+There are several minerals that are vital to the health of vines that all good vineyard soils have. These include calcium which helps to neutralize the soil pH levels, iron which is essential for photosynthesis, magnesium which is an important component of chlorophyll, nitrogen which is assimilated in the form of nitrates, phosphates which encourages root development, and potassium which improves the vine metabolisms and increases its health for next year's crop.
+
+== List of soil terms ==
+Unless otherwise noted the primary reference for this list is Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia 2005
+
+=== A–C ===
+Albariza – Formed by diatomaceous deposits. Found in southern Spain
+Alluvium – Highly fertile soil that has been transported by a river. Often contains gravel, sand and silt.
+Basalt – Volcanic rock that is high in calcium, iron, and magnesium. Variable potassium and little or no quartz.
+Boulbènes[fr] – Fine siliceous soil that is easily compressed and common in the Entre-Deux-Mers region of Bordeaux.
+Brickearth – See under Loess.
+Calcareous soil – Alkaline soil with high levels of calcium and magnesium carbonate. Soil typically cool in temperature and that provides good water retention and drainage. Calcareous clay soils have high limestone content, which neutralizes the natural acidity of the soil. However, the cool temperatures of the soil normally delay ripening in the grape, which tends to produce more acidic wines.
+Carbonaceous soil – Soil produced through the anaerobic decomposition of rotting vegetation. This type of soil includes anthracite, coal, lignite and peat.
+Chalk – Very porous soft limestone soil that vine roots can easily penetrate. It provides good drainage and works best for grapes with high acidity levels.
+Clay – Sedimentary rock-based soil that has good water-retention ability but poor drainage. The soil is often very cool and high in acidity. The Right Bank of Bordeaux is dominated by clay-based soils.
+
+=== D–H ===
+Dolomite – Calcium-magnesium carbonate soil.
+Flint – Siliceous stone that reflects and retains heat well. The Pouilly-Fumé wine of the Loire Valley is generally produced from flint-based soil and is said to have "gun-flint" smell in the wine.
+Galestro – Schist based soil found in the Tuscany region of Italy.
+Granite – Composed of 40–60% quartz, 30–40% Orthoclase and various amounts of hornblende, mica, and other minerals. This soil warms quickly and retains heat well. The soil's high level of acidity works to minimize the acid levels in the grapes which works well with acidic grapes like Gamay. It is the main soil type of the Brand region of Alsace.
+Gravel – Loose siliceous pebble soil that has good drainage but poor fertility. Vines planted in this type of soil must penetrate deeply to try to and find nutrients in the subsoil. Wine made from vines produces on clay gravel beds have less acidity than those planted on limestone gravel beds. The Graves and Sauternes regions of Bordeaux consist predominantly of gravel-based soil.
+Greywacke – Sedimentary soil formed by rivers depositing quartz, mudstone and feldspar. It is found in vineyards of Germany, New Zealand and South Africa.
+Gypsum – Calcium sulfate based soil that is formed through the evaporation of seawater. It is a high absorbent soil that has average drainage ability.
+Hardpan – A dense layer of clay or other material that is impermeable to water. In some areas of Bordeaux, a sandy iron-rich layer is located deep enough below the surface to act as a water table for the vine.
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+---
+title: "List of vineyard soil types"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:50.803856+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== I–Q ===
+Keuper – Soil type consisting of marl and limestone common in Alsace, dating to the Upper Triassic period.
+Kimmeridgian soil – A gray-colored limestone-based soil originally identified in Kimmeridge, England. Kimmeridgian clay is calcareous clay containing Kimmeridgian limestone. This is the principal soil type of the Loire Valley, Champagne and Burgundy regions.
+Lignite – Soil type used as fertilizer in Germany and Champagne. It is a brown-colored carbonaceous soil that is intermediate between peat and coal.
+Limestone – Sediment-based soil consisting of carbonates. The most common colored limestone found in wine-producing area is buff-gray in color (with the exception of white chalk). The water-retention abilities vary by composition, but limestone is consistently alkaline and is generally planted with grapes of high acidity levels. This is the main soil type in the Zinnkoepflé region of Alsace.
+Llicorella – A soil type found in the Priorat appellation of Spain. The soil is a mix of slate and quartz that dates to the Paleozoic era. The soil is very porous and drains well. Syrah, Grenache and Carignan have done well in this soil type.
+Loam – Warm, soft, fertile soil composed of roughly equal amounts of silt, sand and clay. It is typically too fertile for high-quality wines that need to limit yields in order to concentrate flavors.
+Loess – A very fine, predominantly silty soil composed of wind-borne sediment that is typically angular and decalcified. Commonly known as brickearth in the UK, the soil is very fertile and has good water retention and warming properties, but drains poorly.
+Marl – Calcareous-clay-based soil that adds acidity to the wine. Vines planted in this type of soil normally ripen later than in other soil types. Marl soil is typically deep and lacking in stone fragments; it is the main soil type in the Piedmont wine region of Italy. Marlstone is the indurated (well cemented) metamorphic form of Marl.
+Mica – Silicate-based soil composed of fine, decomposed rock formations.
+Muschelkalk -Soil type consisting of various compositions of sandstone, marl, dolomite, and shingle common in Alsace dating back from the Middle Triassic period.
+Perlite – A volcanic soil type that is light, powdery and lustrous with properties similar to diatomaceous earth.
+Quartz – Common material found in most vineyard soils—especially sand and silt-based soils. The high soil pH of quartz can reduce the acidity of the resulting wines, but its heat-retaining property (it stores and reflects heat) can increase ripening of the grape, which can result in wine of higher alcohol content.
+
+=== S–Z ===
+Sand – Warm, airy soil that is composed of tiny particles of weathered rocks. One of the few soils that the phylloxera louse does not thrive in, the soil drains well but does not have good water retention. Sandstone is a sedimentary soil composed of sand particles that has been pressured bound by various iron-based minerals. This is the main soil type of Kitterlé in Alsace.
+Schist – Laminated, crystalline-rock-based soil that retains heat well and is rich in magnesium and potassium but is poor in organic nutrients and nitrogens.
+Shale – Fine-grain sediment-based soil that can turn into slate when under pressure. The soil is moderately fertile and retains heat well.
+Siliceous soil – Soil composed of acid rock that is crystalline in nature. The soil has good heat retention but needs the added composition of silt, clay and other sedimentary soils to have any kind of water retention. The range of this soil can include organic materials like Kieselguhr and flint, or inorganic materials like quartz. This soil type covers half of the wine regions of Bordeaux.
+Silt – Soil type consisting of fine grain deposits that offer good water retention but poor drainage. It is more fertile than sand.
+Silex – A flint- and sand-based soil type found primarily in the Loire Valley that is a formed from a mixture of clay, limestone and silica.
+Slate – Soil type that is the most common found in the Mosel region. Slate is a metamorphic, plate-like rock formed when shale, clay, or siltstone is subjected to pressure deep within the earth. The soil retains heat well and warms up relatively quickly.
+Steige – A schist-based soil found in the Andlau region of Alsace. In the Alsace Grand Cru AOC of Kastelberg, the soil has metamorphosed with granite sand to form a hard, dark slate-like stone.
+Terra Rossa – A sedimentary soil known as "Red Earth" that is formed after carbonates have been leached out of limestone. The breakdown leaves behind iron deposits which oxidize and turn the soil a rustic red color. This soil type is found in some areas along the Mediterranean and in Coonawarra. The soil drains well and is relatively high in nutrients. Australian winemakers have found some success with Cabernet Sauvignon plantings.
+Tufa – A highly friable calcareous bedrock that breaks down into a fine crumb structure.
+Ultisol – A highly weathered, largely infertile, clay-based soil—usually brilliant red in color—found in the American South.
+Volcanic soil – Soil that is derived from one of two volcanic activities. 1.) Vent-based soil is formed from rock material (including pumice and tuff) that has been ejected into the air and cooled before settling to the earth. 2.) Lava-based soil is the product of lava flows from the volcano. Ninety percent of lava-based soil is composed of basalt with the other ten percent composed of andesite, pitchstone, rhyolite, and trachyte.
+
+== References ==
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+---
+title: "List of visual mnemonics"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:51.978756+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Visual mnemonics are a type of mnemonic that work by associating an image with characters or objects whose name sounds like the item that has to be memorized.
+
+== Examples ==
+
+=== Digits ===
+Digits can be memorized by their shapes, so that:
+0 -looks like an egg, or a ball;
+1 -a pencil, or a candle;
+2 -a duck, or a swan;
+3 -an ear; a pair of pouted lips.
+4 -a sail, a yacht;
+5 -a key;
+6 -a comet;
+7 -a knee;
+8 -a snowman, or a pair of glasses;
+9 -an apostrophe, or comma.
+
+=== Biochemistry ===
+Biochemical cycles (i.e., the urea cycle or the citric acid cycle) and their metabolites can be represented by means of hands and fingers (visual imagery mnemonics) which are associated to tales (narrative mnemonics). A hand, depending on its characteristics (e.g. having or not having a fingernail or a nail lunula), represents a biochemical structure and its associated chemical term.
+A visual mnemonic for the drug hydralazine could be represented as "lazy hydra" that is lying on a beach holding a sign "NO more work". "NO" in the above case symbolizes Nitric oxide, which is related to the drug's mechanism of action.
+The symbols for the thirteen macronutrient elements in biology spell CHOPKINS CaFe Mg NaCl, or C. Hopkins Cafe [food tastes] m[ighty] g[ood] with salt (NaCl). Note however, that this popular and useful mnemonic is typical in that it is neither comprehensive nor context-free. Classification of some elements, such as Na, Cl and Fe, as macro- or micronutrients is arbitrary; it depends on the organisms in question, and there are several biologically important micronutrients not mentioned.
+
+=== Zoology ===
+
+An African elephant's ears are large and shaped like Africa, while an Asian elephant's ears are small and shaped like India.
+A Bactrian Camel's back is shaped like the letter B.  A Dromedary's back is shaped like the letter D.
+The species of salmon can be remembered through the fingers on the hand: chum is the thumb, sockeye is your index finger (like poking someone in the eye), king is your middle finger (the largest of the fingers), silver is your ring finger, pink is the pinky finger. 
+
+=== Calendar ===
+
+A mnemonic for the number of days in each month uses the knuckles (and the dips between them) of two fists, held together, moving right from the left pinky knuckle. The raised knuckles can be seen as the 31-day months, the dips between them as the 30-day-months (and February). The gap between the hands ignored. (Thus: left-hand-pinky-knuckle = January, dip = February, left-hand-ring-knuckle = March, dip = April, and so on to left-hand-index-knuckle = July; then continue with right-hand-index-knuckle = August, dip = September, etc.).
+The order of leap years in the Hebrew calendar can be compared to white keys on a keyboard. In the key of C, white keys represent leap years if every half-step between white key indicating 1 whole year between leap years and a whole-step between white keys indicates two complete years between leap years. For a total of 7 leap years for every 19 years beginning with C as year 0/year 19 in the cycle.
+
+=== Phases of the Moon ===
+"DOC" represents phases of the Moon by shape as viewed from the northern hemisphere: "D" is the waxing moon; "O" the full moon; and "C" represent the waning moon.
+A simple English saying is "Dog comes in (the room), Cat goes out".
+Holding one's hand up vertically against the crescent moon, the "baby" or waxing moon will form a lower-case "b", and the "dying" moon will form a lower-case "d".
+In the Southern Hemisphere, the moon phases appear in reverse, with the sequence being "COD" - "C" is the waxing moon; "O" the full moon; and "D" the waning moon.
+From an astronomical point of view, remember the alternative name "Charles' Wain" for the Big Dipper- "wain" being pronounced just like "wane".
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+---
+title: "List of visual mnemonics"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:51.978756+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Other languages ====
+A Lithuanian mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first (lith:priešpilnis) quarter phase looks like a 'p', and the waning moon at its last (lith:delčia) quarter looks like a 'd'.
+A French mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first (fr:premier) quarter phase looks like a 'p', and the waning moon at its last (fr:dernier) quarter looks like a 'd'. A more childlike mnemonic explains that the moon is a liar: the waxing moon looks like an upper-case D, which would correspond to the French verb décroître (meaning: to shrink) but since she (the moon) is une menteuse (a liar) she is in fact doing the opposite: growing. The waning moon looks like a(n upper-case) C, corresponding to the word croître (meaning: to grow), but will be a lie and therefore mean that the moon is 'shrinking'.
+In Germany, the curve of the moon was traditionally compared to the beginning stroke of the handwritten small letters a (Abnehmen = waning) and z (Zunehmen = waxing), but since this really makes sense only when thinking of the obsolete German handwriting it is rapidly falling into disuse.
+A more modern German version compares the moon to a pair of round brackets (German: Klammern):
+( = Klammer auf –> Abnehmen = waning
+) = Klammer zu –> Zunehmen = waxing
+Another Northern Hemisphere mnemonic, which works for most Romance languages, says that the moon is a liar: it spells "C", as in crescere (Latin for "to grow") when it wanes, and "D" as in decrescere ("decrease") when it waxes. Alternatively, it is said that ancient Romans explained that Gods looked at the vault of heaven from above (behind), so they read the letters mirrored.
+In the Southern Hemisphere, in Spanish-speaking countries, the C represents "Creciente" (waxing) and D "Decreciente" (waning).
+In the Polish language and Czech language, the D and C can be interpreted as verbs describing the Moon's action: Księżyc się ... (The moon is ...) Dopełnia (waxing) and Cofa (waning); in Czech Měsíc ... (The moon is ...) Dorůstá (waxing) and Couvá (waning). Also, in Polish one might remember that Księżyc będzie ... (The moon will be ...) Duży (big) or Cienki (thin).
+A Russian mnemonic is that the waxing moon is right part of letter 'Р', which is the first letter of word растущая (growing), and the waning moon looks like 'C' which is first letter of the word стареющая (getting old).
+A Norwegian mnemonic is "When it looks like a comma, it's coming!" (nor: Når han ser ut som et komma, så kom'an / kom'ern!).
+In Hebrew the shape of the letter is also correlated to what the rising and waning moon. It is rising when it looks like the cursive ז which is also the first word in זוֹרֵחַ [zoreach] (to rise) and the moon is waning when it looks like the cursive ג which is also the first work of גּוֹרֵעַ [gorea] (to take away).
+
+=== Right/left hand mnemonics ===
+
+When both hands are held up palm out, thumbs stuck out perpendicular to fingers, the Left hand is the one that makes the shape of the letter L.
+In electromagnetism, right and left hand rules are used to find the direction of force and current respectively. Here the hands are used as an aid for remembering the directions of force and current.
+The right hand thumb rule is another hand mnemonic. Here the curled hand is used and the fingers points in the direction of magnetic field when thumb points the direction of current through the conductor.
+
+== See also ==
+Mnemonic
+List of mnemonics
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion-0.md
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+---
+title: "The 10,000 Year Explosion"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:54.897350+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending. Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared, the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating, illustrating it with some examples.
+Some reviewers considered that the book raised valuable questions but relied on discredited views. Others criticized it for oversimplifying history and reifying the concept of race.
+
+== Opinions in book ==
+Cochran and Harpending put forward the idea that the development of agriculture has caused an enormous increase in the rate of human evolution, including numerous evolutionary adaptations to the different challenges and lifestyles that resulted. Moreover, they argue that these adaptations have varied across different human populations, depending on factors such as when the various groups developed agriculture, and the extent to which they mixed genetically with other population groups.
+Such changes, they argue, include not just well-known physical and biological adaptations such as skin colour, disease resistance, and lactose tolerance, but also personality and cognitive adaptations that are starting to emerge from genetic research. These may include tendencies towards (for example) reduced physical strength, enhanced long-term planning, or increased docility, all of which may have been counter-productive in hunter-gatherer societies, but become favoured adaptations in a world of agriculture and its resulting trade, governments and urbanization. These adaptations are even more important in the modern world, and have helped shape today's nation states. The authors speculate that the scientific and Industrial Revolutions came about in part due to genetic changes in Europe over the past millennium, the absence of which had limited the progress of science in Ancient Greece. The authors suggest we would expect to see fewer adaptive changes among the Amerindians and sub-Saharan Africans, who have farmed for the shortest times and were genetically isolated from older civilizations by geographical barriers. In groups that had remained foragers, such as Aboriginal Australians, there would presumably be no such adaptations at all. This may explain why Indigenous Australians and many Native Americans have characteristic health problems when exposed to modern Western diets. Similarly, Amerindians, Aboriginals, and Polynesians, for example, had experienced very little infectious disease. They had not evolved immunities as did many Old World dwellers, and were decimated upon contact with the wider world.
+
+== Summary ==
+
+The book's main thesis is that human civilisation greatly accelerated increases in the rates of evolution. The authors begin their discussion by providing two quotes they feel portray the conventional wisdom on this topic. First, they quote Ernst Mayr as stating in 1963: "Something must have happened to weaken the selective pressure drastically. We cannot escape the conclusion that man's evolution towards manness suddenly came to a halt." Second, they quote Stephen J. Gould as stating in 2000: "There's been no biological change in humans in 40,000 or 50,000 years. Everything we call culture and civilization we've built with the same body and brain."
+This had become the established viewpoint—when modern humans appeared, evolution was essentially over. The received wisdom is based on the doctrine that human minds are the same, everywhere: Bastian's Psychic Unity of Mankind.  Unfortunately, the authors find, this is no more than wishful thinking.  Were it true, human bodies would also be the same worldwide, which clearly they are not. Finns cannot be mistaken for Zulus, nor Zulus for Finns. Not only are there strong reasons to believe that significant human evolution is theoretically possible, or even likely; it is completely obvious that it has taken place, since people are different from one another.
+The first four of the book's seven chapters serve as a preamble to the final three. First, Cochran and Harpending present evidence for recent, accelerated human evolution after the invention of agriculture. In itself, this argument represents a paradigm shift. The International HapMap Project and other studies have shown that selection is ongoing and has accelerated over time. This has been a key discovery in human biology, and Cochran and Harpending, building on their own work and that of others such as John Hawks of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, tie the advent of agriculture—and the selection pressures resulting from the new diets, new modes of habitation, new animal neighbors, and new modes of living that agriculture made possible—to this accelerating evolution.
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+---
+title: "The 10,000 Year Explosion"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:54.897350+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Neanderthals ===
+Wolpoff writes that Cochran and Harpending continue to refute conventional wisdom in their discussion of the Neanderthals. For natural selection to have a chance, they argue, there need to be favourable mutations, or favourable combinations of existing alleles such as genes for blue eyes or pale skin. Cochran and Harpending concentrate on the Neolithic farming revolution as the beginning of major population expansions that provided enough mutations to accelerate genetic change. Infectious diseases were another consequence of the early urban populations and soon became a new source of selection pressures. The origins of many recently adapted genes have now been traced to this period, creating effects such as regional differences in skin colour and skeletal gracility. Adaptations may have sacrificed muscle strength for higher intelligence and less aggressive human behaviours. By 5000 years ago, the authors estimate that adaptive alleles were coming into existence at a rate about 100 times faster than during the Pleistocene. This is the ‘‘explosion’’ of the book’s title.
+Research cited by Cochran and Harpending provides evidence of genetic mixing between modern humans and an ancient Homo lineage such as the Neanderthals. According to Cochran and Harpending, it supports the idea that modern humans could have benefited by acquiring adaptive alleles evolved by our Neanderthal relatives - in this case, microcephalin, an adaptive allele associated with brain development. Microcephalin (MCPH1) regulates brain size, and has evolved under strong positive selection in the human evolutionary lineage. One genetic variant of Microcephalin, which arose about 37,000 years ago, increased its frequency in modern humans too rapidly, they argue, to be compatible with neutral genetic drift. As anatomically modern humans emerged from Africa and spread across the globe, the "indigenous" Homo populations they encountered had already inhabited their respective regions for long periods of time and might have been better adapted to the local environments than the colonizers. It follows, it is argued, that modern humans, although probably superior in their own way, could have benefited from adaptive alleles gained by interbreeding with the populations they replaced, as was proposed to be the case for the brain-size-determining gene microcephalin.
+However, analysis of the genomes of neanderthals did not find the microcephalin gene variant in question to be present, and later studies have not found the gene variant to be associated with mental ability.
+
+=== Agriculture ===
+Farming, which, the authors say, produces 10 to 100 times more calories per acre than foraging, carried this trend further. Over the period from 10,000 BC to AD 1, the world population increased about a hundredfold - estimates range from 40 to 170 times. An accelerated rate of evolution is a direct result of the larger human population. More people will have more mutations, thereby increasing opportunity for evolutionary change under natural selection. The spread of rapidly expanding populations eventually outpaced the spread of favourable mutations under selection in those populations, so for the first time in human history favourable mutations could not fully disperse throughout the human species. In addition, of course, selection pressures changed once farming was adopted, favouring distinctive adaptations in different geographic areas.
+
+=== Gene flow ===
+About halfway through the book, Cochran and Harpending pause to consider two different ways of looking at the information found in gene variants. Researchers commonly see them merely as markers of human migration, ignoring their functions. The authors support such research, but argue for a more complete understanding of the geographic distributions of genes. Where the usual geographical analysis treats the distribution of genes as an effect of history, in the authors' view, the genes themselves are a major cause: Two variants in the same gene do not necessarily have the same effect, and their relative, selective benefits will control the spread of genes through populations in both space and time.
+
+=== Expansions ===
+From that platform the authors discuss ideas that range from the possible origins of the Arthurian legend in Britain to the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Others have attempted this, for example in Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel. But, according to Kelleher, Cochran and Harpending go one better than Diamond. He goes on to state that where Diamond was content with environmental determinism, at times opposing the roles of human biology and population differences,  Cochran and Harpending embrace them both. Their discussion of gene flow becomes the core of an argument for biology as central to history, and the backdrop for the book's two major hypotheses.
+The first seeks to resolve a longstanding debate in historical linguistics by making a case for the Kurgan hypothesis on the origins of the Indo-European language group. The Kurgan theory holds that Indo-European speakers came from lands between the Black and Caspian seas before spreading their language by conquest. The authors suggest that dairy farming and a complementary adaptation–the ability to digest lactose in adulthood–lie behind their conquests. With a walking food source, the milk-drinking warriors defeated their plant-growing neighbours. Drinking milk, from cows, horses, or camels, is a behavior shared by many of history's greatest conquering peoples, whether Kurgans, Scythians, Arabs, or Mongols. Without continuing evolution, the ability to digest milk could never have arisen. In fact, it has done so several times, in different ways, in various places, and it has helped shape human history. Kelleher comments that the authors’ argument makes it difficult to imagine the language in which their book would have been written, were it not for the ability to digest milk.
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+---
+title: "The 10,000 Year Explosion"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:54.897350+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Ashkenazi Jews ===
+The second major argument, which takes up the final chapter, sets out to explain why Ashkenazi Jews have a mean IQ so much higher than that of the population in general, as well as a higher rate of some genetic disorders such as Tay-Sachs disease. This argument had been published previously in an earlier paper. This hypothesis proposes that from A.D. 800 until around 1700, Askhenazi Jews were restricted to professions that required high intelligence, and that this produced a selective pressure in favor of intelligence. When faced with a sudden threat, evolution may favor any change that offers protection, and Cochran and Harpending propose that selection for genes promoting high intelligence thus had the side effect of also selecting for these genetic disorders. The hypothesis has drawn a mixed reaction from scientists, with some arguing the hypothesis is highly implausible, and others regarding it as worth considering. According to cognitive psychologist Steven Pinker, this theory "meets the standards of a good scientific theory, though it is tentative and could turn out to be mistaken." According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, these claims were based on the work of discredited psychologist and antisemitic conspiracy theorist Kevin MacDonald.
+
+== Reception ==
+The paleoanthropologist Milford H. Wolpoff praised the book's central thesis as being insightful and worthy of further research, while also criticizing the book for its reification of biological race, and its dubious or oversimplified view of history.
+In New Scientist, Christopher Willis wrote that the "evidence the authors present an overwhelming case that natural selection has recently acted strongly on us". However, Willis criticizes the authors for not discussing what the "recent and continuing evolution means for our species as a whole". Willis concludes by saying that "the book offers a limited and biased interpretation
+of some very exciting research".
+In Evolutionary Psychology, Gregory Gorelik and Todd K. Shackelford wrote, "Although many of their arguments need more fleshing out and some may not withstand the assault of further scientific analysis, the authors are stunningly creative when considering human history. If even a handful of their arguments survive the onslaught of rigorous scientific scrutiny, Cochran and Harpending will have offered a valuable and novel approach to addressing questions of recent human evolution."
+In Evolution and Human Behavior, Edward Hagen wrote that the book makes "many unsupported and often questionable assertions", but it is nevertheless valuable in raising "bold questions about major historical encounters between populations — Neanderthal and modern humans, German tribes and Romans, Europeans and Native Americans — in light of formidable (but not unassailable) arguments from population genetics". Hagen considered that it "should also be on the summer reading list of all evolutionary social scientists".
+Anthropologist Cadell Last wrote that by using race as a natural fact, the book "undermines the attempt to find a legitimate scientific approach to understanding recent human evolution and conceptualizing human genetic diversity" and that it was "unfortunate" that it had received "praise from prominent, influential well-established biological anthropologists" such as John D. Hawks.
+Evolutionary anthropologist Keith Hunley, writing for the Journal of Anthropological Research, described the book's thesis as interesting, but said the list of behavioral adaptations supposedly favored by agricultural lifeways was "bizarre". Per Hunley, the authors "provide no evidence whatsoever that there is any genetic basis to the specific behaviors in their list." Hunley specifically criticizes the last chapter on Ashkenazim for being based on shoddy or fabricated data, and for failing to mention the human suffering caused by pseudoscientific racism. Hunley says the book "fails utterly" to meet the stringent scientific standards of behavioral genetic research.
+Rosalind Arden, a psychiatrist and research fellow at the CPNSS, reviewing the book in Twin Research and Human Genetics wrote that it's well-referenced and "replete with facts and ideas"; she also stated that "the authors have fleshed out their hypotheses and set out their evidential stalls very neatly".
+According to a review by editor Alan Cane in the Financial Times, "Interestingly, the authors make no predictions for our future. And accordingly, biologists – as opposed to social scientists – may not find their thesis all that novel. But it is an engaging book with valuable information about how advantageous genes spread through a population".
+In Seed, T.J. Kelleher wrote that "The strength and sheer number of the book’s best sections, however, more than overshadow the wanness and paucity of its worst. Even with its flaws, Cochran and Harpending’s book has provided the best example to date of what E.O. Wilson would recognize as consilient history".
+
+== See also ==
+
+Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+The 10,000 Year Explosion Official website for the book (archived from the original)
+Human Cultural Diversity ("a chapter of [the] book [...] that the editor discarded as 'too academic'" [1]) (archived from the original)
+West Hunter Cochran and Harpending's blog.
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+---
+title: "The Age of Wonder"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Wonder"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:02:58.582874+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the Beauty and Terror of Science is a 2008 popular biography book about the history of science written by Richard Holmes. In it, the author describes the scientific discoveries of the polymaths of the late eighteenth century and how this period formed the basis for modern scientific discoveries. Holmes, a literary biographer, also looks at the influence of science on the arts in the Romantic era. The book won the 2009 Royal Society Prize for Science Books, the 2009 National Book Critics Circle Award for General Nonfiction, and the 2010 National Academies Communication Award.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Holmes focuses particularly on the lives and works of Sir Joseph Banks, the astronomers William and Caroline Herschel, and chemist Humphry Davy. Other profiles include African explorer Mungo Park. There is a chapter on the early history of ballooning including pioneers Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, Vincent Lunardi, Jean-Pierre Blanchard and James Sadler.
+He also describes the relationships between the scientists of that time, and the early days of the Royal Society. A recurring theme of the book is the relation between science and poetry in the Romantic era. John Keats, in “On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer”, compares his first encounter with Homer’s poetry to Herschel’s discovery of Uranus: “Then felt I like some watcher of the skies/ When a new planet swims into his ken.” Holmes writes that “Among other things, Keats had combined science and poetry in a new and intensely exciting way.” (207) Keats would express negative feelings about science in “Lamia”, where he accused Newton, by “unweav[ing] the rainbow”, of reducing it “to the dull catalogue of common things.” Another Romantic poet, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, said he attended Humphry Davy’s lectures “to enlarge my stock of metaphors.” Davy, Mungo Park and the Arctic explorer William Parry are alluded to by Byron in his satiric epic Don Juan as emblems of the age.
+Holmes looks at how the debates around Vitalism contributed to Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein: “Mary’s brilliance was to see that these weighty and often alarming ideas could be given highly suggestive, imaginative and even playful form... She would develop exactly what William Lawrence had dismissed in his lectures as a ‘hypothesis or fiction.’ Indeed, it was to be an utterly new form of fiction – the science fiction novel.” (327)
+Holmes bookends his narrative with voyages of discovery. It opens in 1769, with Joseph Banks traveling to Tahiti on HMS Endeavour. In the last chapter, he describes John Herschel's establishment of an observatory in Cape Town to catalogue the stars of the southern hemisphere in 1833. In 1836, Herschel was visited by a young Charles Darwin, returning from the Galápagos on HMS Beagle.
+The book was published by HarperCollins in 2008 in the UK, and by Pantheon in the US in 2009.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+The book received very good reviews, and made several Best Books of 2009 lists, including the New York Times' Ten Best list.
+Mike Jay of the Daily Telegraph wrote: "Scientists, like poets, need a sense of wonder, a sense of humility and a sense of humour. Holmes has all three in abundance".  Peter Forbes of The Independent wrote of the book:
+
+"Its heart – the linked stories of Banks, Herschel and Davy – is thrilling: a portrait of bold adventure among the stars, across the oceans, deep into matter, poetry and the human psyche"
+
+
+== See also ==
+Royal Society Prizes for Science Books
+Unweaving the Rainbow by Richard Dawkins, which rebuts the claims of Keats in "Lamia"
+History of science
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Age of Wonder at HarperCollins publishers Archived 2017-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
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