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+---
+title: "Darwin–Wedgwood family"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:28.334677+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Darwin–Wedgwood family are members of two connected families, each noted for particular prominent 18th-century figures: Erasmus Darwin FRS, a physician and natural philosopher, and Josiah Wedgwood FRS, a noted potter and founder of the eponymous Josiah Wedgwood & Sons pottery company. The Darwin and Wedgwood families were on friendly terms for much of their history and members intermarried, notably Charles Darwin, who married Emma Wedgwood.
+The most notable member of the family was Charles Darwin, a grandson of both Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood. The family also included at least ten Fellows of the Royal Society, and several artists and poets (among whom was the 20th-century composer Ralph Vaughan Williams). Presented below are brief biographical descriptions and genealogical information, and mentions of some notable descendants. (The individuals are listed by year of birth and grouped into generations.) The relationship to Francis Galton, and to his immediate ancestors, is also given. (Note, however, that the data tree below is not intended to include all descendants, nor is it intended to include all prominent descendants. Also note that Ursula Wood died in 2007, Richard Darwin Keynes died in 2010, and Horace Basil Barlow died in 2020.)
+
+== The first generation ==
+
+=== Josiah Wedgwood ===
+
+Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795) was a noted pottery businessman and a friend of Erasmus Darwin. During 1780, on the death of his long-time business partner Thomas Bentley, Josiah asked Darwin for help in managing the business. As a result of the close association that grew up between the Wedgwood and Darwin families, one of Josiah's daughters later married Erasmus's son Robert. One of the children of that marriage, Charles Darwin, also married a Wedgwood – Emma Wedgwood, Josiah's granddaughter. Robert's inheritance of Josiah's money enabled him to fund Charles Darwin's chosen vocation in natural history that resulted in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution. Subsequently, Emma's inheritance made the Darwins a wealthy family.
+Josiah Wedgwood married Sarah Wedgwood (1734–1815), and they had seven children, including:
+
+Susannah Wedgwood (1765–1817) (later Darwin; see below)
+Josiah Wedgwood (1769–1843) (see below)
+Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805) (see below)
+
+=== Erasmus Darwin ===
+
+Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802) was a physician, botanist and poet from Lichfield, whose lengthy botanical poems gave insights into medicine and natural history, and described an evolutionist theory that anticipated both Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and his grandson Charles. He married twice, first during 1757 to Mary Howard (1740–1770), who died from alcohol-induced liver failure aged 30. She gave birth to:
+
+Charles Darwin (1758–1778) (not Charles Robert Darwin)
+Erasmus Darwin the Younger (1759–1799)
+Elizabeth Darwin, 1763 (survived 4 months)
+Robert Waring Darwin (1766–1848, see below)
+William Alvey Darwin, 1767 (survived 19 days)
+He then had an extra-marital affair with a Miss Parker, producing two daughters:
+
+Susanna Parker (1772–1856)
+Mary Parker (1774–1859)
+He then became smitten with Elizabeth Collier Sacheveral-Pole, who was married to Colonel Sacheveral-Pole and was the natural daughter of the Charles Colyear, 2nd Earl of Portmore. Sacheveral-Pole died soon afterwards, and Erasmus married Elizabeth and they bore an additional seven children:
+
+Edward Darwin (1782–1829)
+Frances Anne Violetta Darwin (1783–1874); married Samuel Tertius Galton; mother of Francis Galton (see below)
+Emma Georgina Elizabeth Darwin (born 1784)
+Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin (1786–1859)
+Rev. John Darwin (1787–1818)
+Henry Darwin (born 1789)
+Harriot Darwin (1790–1825); later Harriott Maling.
+
+=== Samuel "John" Galton ===
+
+Samuel "John" Galton FRS (1753–1832) was an arms manufacturer from Birmingham. He married Lucy Barclay (1757–1817), daughter of Robert Barclay Allardice, MP, 5th of Urie. They had the eight children:
+
+Mary Anne Galton (1778–1856), married Lambert Schimmelpenninck in 1806
+Sophia Galton (1782–1863) married Charles Brewin in 1833
+Samuel Tertius Galton (1783–1844) (whose son Francis Galton was also notable).
+Theodore Galton (1784–1810)
+Adele Galton (1784–1869) married John Kaye Booth, d.s.p.
+Hubert John Barclay Galton (1789–1864).
+Ewen Cameron Galton (1791–1800), died aged 9.
+John Howard Galton (1794–1862), father of Douglas Strutt Galton.
+
+== The second generation ==
+
+=== Robert Darwin (1766–1848) ===
+
+The son of Erasmus Darwin, Robert Darwin was a noted physician from Shrewsbury, whose own income as a physician, together with astute investment of his wife's inherited wealth, enabled him to fund his son Charles Darwin's place on the Voyage of the Beagle and then gave him the private income needed to support Charles' chosen vocation in natural history that led to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution. He married Susannah Wedgwood, daughter of Josiah Wedgwood (see above), and they had the following children.
+
+Marianne Darwin (1798 – 18 July 1858), married Henry Parker (1788–1858) in 1824.
+Caroline Sarah Darwin (1800–1888), married Josiah Wedgwood (grandson of the first Josiah Wedgwood)
+Susan Elizabeth Darwin (1803–1866)
+Erasmus Alvey Darwin (1804–1881)
+Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882) (see below)
+Emily Catherine Darwin (1810–1866), was Charles Langton's second wife.
+
+=== Josiah Wedgwood ===
+
+Josiah Wedgwood (1769–1843) was the son of the first Josiah Wedgwood, sometime resident of Dorset (where he served as High Sheriff and later Member of Parliament for Stoke-on-Trent. He married Elizabeth Allen (1764–1846) and they had nine children:
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+---
+title: "Darwin–Wedgwood family"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:28.334677+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Sarah Elizabeth Wedgwood (1793–1880).
+Josiah Wedgwood (1795–1880) married Caroline Darwin, daughter of Robert Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood. They are grandparents of composer Ralph Vaughan Williams.
+Mary Ann Wedgwood (1796–1798).
+Charlotte Wedgwood (1797–1862) was Charles Langton's first wife. After her death he married her cousin, Emily Catherine Darwin; she is the ancestor of Hugh Massingberd, see below.
+Henry Allen Wedgwood (1799–1885).
+Francis Wedgwood (1800–1888); married, on 26 April 1832 at Rolleston on Dove, Staffordshire, Frances Mosley, daughter of Rev. John Peploe Mosley and Sarah Maria Paget and granddaughter of Sir John Parker Mosley and Elizabeth Bayley; and was the grandfather of Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood and great-grandfather of C. V. Wedgwood and Camilla Wedgwood.
+Hensleigh Wedgwood (1803–1891), etymologist, philologist and barrister, author of A Dictionary of English Etymology father of Frances Julia Wedgwood (1833–1913), and grandfather of Bishop J. I. Wedgwood. His wife, his first cousin on his mother's side, Frances "Fanny" Wedgwood (née Mackintosh; 1800–1889, daughter of James Mackintosh), was a good friend and correspondent of Harriet Martineau.
+Frances (Fanny) Wedgwood (1806–1832).
+Emma Wedgwood (1808–1896); married Charles Darwin, son of Robert Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood.
+
+=== Thomas Wedgwood ===
+Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805). Pioneer in developing photography, friend and patron of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the pet.  Son of Josiah Wedgwood.
+
+=== Samuel Tertius Galton ===
+
+Samuel Tertius Galton married Frances Anne Violetta Darwin (1783–1874), daughter of Erasmus Darwin, see above. They had three sons and four daughters including:
+
+Erasmus Galton (1815–1909), Lord of the Manor of Loxton.
+Francis Galton (1822–1911) – Inventor, polymath and father of eugenics. He married Louisa Jane Butler (1822–1897) during 1853 but their union was childless.
+
+=== Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin ===
+
+Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin was the son of Erasmus Darwin and Elizabeth (née Collier), daughter of Charles Colyear, 2nd Earl of Portmore. Francis was an accomplished travel writer, explorer and naturalist and bravely studied the ravages of the plague on Smyrna at great personal risk. He was the only one to return of his friends who went to the East. A physician to George III, he was knighted by George IV.
+On 16 December 1815 he married Jane Harriet Ryle (11 December 1794 – 19 April 1866) at St. George, Hanover Square London. They had many children including:
+
+Mary Jane Darwin (12 February 1817 – 1872), married Charles Carill-Worsley of Platt Hall, near Manchester, in 1840. (Their daughter, Elizabeth, who married Nicolas Tindal, later Tindal-Carill-Worsley, was the mother of Charles and Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley—see under 5th generation).
+Frances Sarah Darwin (19 July 1822 – 1881), married Gustavus Barton in 1845, widowed 1846 and remarried to Marcus Huish during 1849. She is the stepmother of the art dealer Marcus Bourne Huish.
+Edward Levett Darwin (12 April 1821 – 23 April 1901), married Harriett Jessopp during 1850. A solicitor in Matlock Bath, Derbyshire, Edward Levett Darwin was the author, using the pseudonym "High Elms", of Gameskeeper's Manual, a guide for tending game on large estates which shows keen observation of the habits of various animals.
+
+== The third generation ==
+
+=== Charles Darwin ===
+
+The most prominent member of the family, Charles Darwin, proposed the first coherent theory of evolution by means of natural and sexual selection.
+Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882) was a son of Robert Waring Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood. He married Emma Wedgwood (1808–1896), a daughter of Josiah Wedgwood II and Elizabeth Allen. Charles's mother, Susannah, was a sister to Emma's father, Josiah II. Thus, Charles and Emma were first cousins. Charles' sister Caroline married Emma's brother, Josiah Wedgwood III.
+The Darwins had ten children, three of whom died before reaching maturity.
+
+William Erasmus Darwin (1839–1914); graduate of Christ's College Cambridge, he was a banker in Southampton. He married an American Sara Sedgwick (1839–1902), but they did not have any children.
+Anne Elizabeth Darwin (1841–1851) died in Great Malvern aged ten and her death caused her father much grief.
+Mary Eleanor Darwin (1842–1842) died as a baby.
+Henrietta Emma "Etty" Darwin (1843–1927); although she married Richard Litchfield during 1871, the couple never had any children. Etty Darwin edited her mother's private papers (published during 1904) and assisted her father with his work.
+George Howard Darwin (1845–1912) (see below)
+Elizabeth (Bessy) Darwin (1847–1926); never married and did not have any progeny.
+Francis Darwin (1848–1925) (see below).
+Leonard Darwin (1850–1943) (see below).
+Horace Darwin (1851–1928) (see below).
+Charles Waring Darwin (1856–1858) was the tenth child and sixth son of Charles and Emma Darwin. His early death from scarlet fever kept Charles Darwin from attending the first publication of his theory at the joint reading of papers by Alfred Russel Wallace and himself at the meeting of the Linnean Society on 1 July 1858. Wallace was not present either; he was on an expedition.
+
+=== Other notables from the same period ===
+
+==== William Darwin Fox ====
+
+The Rev. William Darwin Fox (1805–1880) was a second cousin of Charles Darwin and an amateur entomologist, naturalist and palaeontologist. Fox became a lifelong friend of Charles Darwin after their first meeting at Christ's College, Cambridge. He married Harriet Fletcher, who gave him five children, and after her death married Ellen Sophia Woodd, who provided the remainder of his 17 children.
+After his graduation from Cambridge during 1829, Fox was appointed as the Vicar of Osmaston and during 1838 became the Rector of Delamere, a living he retained until his retirement during 1873.
+
+== The fourth generation ==
+
+=== George Howard Darwin ===
+George Howard Darwin (1845–1912) was an astronomer and mathematician. He married Martha (Maud) du Puy of Philadelphia. They had five children:
+
+Charles Galton Darwin (see below).
+William Robert Darwin (married Sarah Monica Slingsby).
+Gwendoline "Gwen" Darwin, artist; (see below).
+Leonard Darwin 1899.
+Margaret Elizabeth Darwin (married Sir Geoffrey Keynes, bibliophile) (see below).
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+---
+title: "Darwin–Wedgwood family"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:28.334677+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Francis Darwin ===
+Francis Darwin (1848–1925) was the botanist son of Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin (née Wedgwood). Francis Darwin married Amy Ruck during 1874, who died during 1876 after the birth of their son Bernard Darwin, an author on golf – see below. Francis married Ellen Crofts during September 1883 and they had a daughter Frances Crofts, who married and became known as the poet Frances Cornford (see below). During 1913 he married his third wife Florence Henrietta Darwin (née Fisher); there were no children of this marriage, but he became step-father to Fredegond Shove née Maitland and Ermengard Maitland.
+He is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, where he is interred in the same grave as his daughter Frances Cornford. His third wife and his brother Sir Horace Darwin and his wife Lady 'Ida' are interred in the same graveyard, as well as his step-daughter Fredegond Shove but not her sister Ermengard Maitland.
+
+=== Leonard Darwin ===
+Leonard Darwin (1850–1943) was variously an army officer, Member of Parliament and eugenicist who corresponded with Ronald Fisher, thus being the link between the two great evolutionary biologists.
+
+=== Horace Darwin ===
+Horace Darwin (1851–1928) and Ida Darwin (1854–1946) had the following children:
+
+Nora Darwin, married Sir Alan Barlow (see below).
+Ruth Darwin.
+Erasmus Darwin.
+He is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, with his wife. His brother Sir Francis Darwin is interred in the same graveyard.
+
+== The fifth generation ==
+
+=== Charles Galton Darwin ===
+Charles Galton Darwin 1887–1962 was the son of George Howard Darwin (see above) and was a noted physicist of the age, and Director of the National Physics Laboratory. His son George Pember Darwin (1928–2001) married Angela Huxley, great-granddaughter of Thomas Henry Huxley.
+
+=== Gwen Raverat (née Darwin) ===
+Gwen Raverat (1885–1957) was the daughter of George Howard Darwin and was an artist. She married the French artist Jacques Raverat during 1911 and had daughters Elizabeth Hambro and Sophie Pryor, later Gurney. Her childhood memoir, Period Piece, contains illustrations of and anecdotes about many of the Darwin—Wedgwood clan.
+
+=== Margaret Keynes (née Darwin) ===
+Margaret Keynes (1890–1974) was the daughter of George Howard Darwin, (see above). She married Geoffrey Keynes, brother of the economist John Maynard Keynes (see Keynes family) and had sons Richard Keynes, Quentin Keynes, Milo Keynes and Stephen Keynes, and a daughter Harriet Frances.
+Date of birth 22 March 1890.
+She was the third child, her other siblings are:
+1. Gwendolen Mary 27 Aug 1885.
+2. Charles Galton 9 Dec 1887.
+3. William Robert 22 August 1894.
+
+=== Bernard Darwin ===
+Bernard Darwin (1876–1961) was a golf writer. He married Elinor Monsell (died 1954) during 1906, and they had a son Robert Vere Darwin (7 May 1910 – 30 January 1974), and daughters Ursula Mommens (20 August 1908 – 30 January 2010), and Nicola Mary Elizabeth Darwin, later Hughes (1916–1976).
+
+=== Frances Cornford (née Darwin) ===
+Frances Cornford (1886–1960) Poet, daughter of Francis Darwin, see above, known to the family as 'FCC'; she was married to Francis Cornford, known to the family as 'FMC'. She is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, where she is in the same grave as her father Sir Francis Darwin. Her late husband, Francis, was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium on 6 January 1943, and his ashes are presumed to be interred in the same grave.
+
+=== Ralph Vaughan Williams ===
+Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958), British composer. His maternal grandmother, Caroline Sarah Darwin, was Charles Darwin's older sister, and his maternal grandfather, Josiah Wedgwood III, was the older brother of Darwin's wife Emma.
+
+=== Nora Barlow (née Darwin) ===
+Nora Darwin (1885–1989), the daughter of Horace Darwin (see above), married Sir Alan Barlow. She also edited the Autobiography of Charles Darwin (ISBN 0393310698 (hardback) and ISBN 0-393-00487-2 (paperback)). They had the following six children:
+
+Joan Helen Barlow, (26 May 1912 – 21 February 1954).
+Sir Thomas Erasmus Barlow, (23 January 1914 – 12 October 2003), Royal Navy officer.
+Erasmus Darwin Barlow (1915–2005).
+Andrew Dalmahoy Barlow (1916–2006).
+Professor Horace Basil Barlow (1921–2020). (see below)
+Hilda Horatia Barlow (born 14 September 1919- 1 February 2017) married psychoanalyst John Hunter Padel; their daughter is the poet Ruth Padel (see below).
+
+=== Josiah Wedgwood IV, 1st Baron Wedgwood ===
+Josiah Wedgwood (1872–1943), great-great-grandson of Josiah Wedgwood I, was a Liberal and Labour MP, and served in the military during the Second Boer War and the First World War. He was elevated to the peerage in 1942 on the recommendation of his friend, Winston Churchill.
+
+=== Charles Tindal-Carill-Worsley ===
+Capt Charles Tindal-Carill-Worsley, RN, (died 1921) a great-grandson of Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin, served on the Royal Yacht HMY Victoria and Albert (1899) during the reign of King Edward VII, before a successful career in the First World War, where he was commander of HMS Prince George during the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 He was appointed Chevalier of the Legion of Honour by the President of France during 1918.
+
+=== Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley ===
+Cmdr Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley, RN (1886–1966), brother of Charles, naval officer and bon viveur, served in the Royal Yacht with his brother, before serving in the Battle of Jutland in World War I. He retired from the Royal Navy after the First World War but was recalled during World War II, when he was commandant of a training school for WRENS (members of the Women's Royal Naval Service). He married Kathleen, daughter of Simon Mangan of Dunboyne Castle, Lord Lieutenant of Meath and a first cousin of Brig. General Paul Kenna, VC, and had three children.
+
+=== Sir Ralph Wedgwood, 1st Baronet ===
+Sir Ralph L. Wedgwood, 1st Baronet CB CMG (2 March 1874 – 5 September 1956), railway executive, son of Clement Wedgwood.
+
+== The sixth generation ==
+
+=== Erasmus Darwin Barlow ===
+Erasmus Darwin Barlow (1915–2005) was a psychiatrist, physiologist and businessman. Son of Nora Barlow.
\ No newline at end of file
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+---
+title: "Darwin–Wedgwood family"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:28.334677+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Horace Barlow ===
+Horace Barlow (1921–2020) was Professor of Physiological Optics and Physiology, Berkeley, California, US (1964–73); Royal Society Research Professor, Physiological Laboratory, Cambridge (1973–87).
+
+=== John Cornford ===
+John Cornford (1915–1936), was a poet and member of the International Brigades died during the Spanish Civil War. Son of Francis and Frances Cornford, see above.
+
+=== Christopher Cornford ===
+Christopher Cornford (1917–1993), was an artist and writer. Son of Francis and Frances Cornford, see above.
+
+=== Henry Galton Darwin ===
+Henry Galton Darwin (1929–1992) was a lawyer and diplomat. Son of Charles Galton Darwin.
+
+=== Robin Darwin ===
+Robert Vere "Robin" Darwin (1910–1974) was an artist. He is the son of Bernard Darwin, see above.
+
+=== Quentin Keynes ===
+Quentin Keynes (1921–2003) was a bibliophile and explorer. Son of Margaret Keynes, née Darwin, see above.
+
+=== Richard Keynes ===
+Professor Richard Darwin Keynes FRS (1919–2010) was a British physiologist. Son of Margaret Keynes, née Darwin, see above.
+
+=== Ursula Mommens ===
+Ursula Mommens (née Darwin, first married name Trevelyan) (1908–2010) was a well-known potter. Daughter of Bernard Darwin, see above. Her son by Julian Trevelyan is the movie-maker Philip Trevelyan.
+
+=== Geoffrey Tindal-Carill-Worsley ===
+Air Commodore Geoffrey Tindal-Carill-Worsley (1908–1996) was a Royal Air Force officer during the Second World War. Nephew of Charles and Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley.
+
+=== Nicolas Tindal-Carill-Worsley ===
+Group Captain Nicolas Tindal-Carill-Worsley (1911–2006) was an RAF bomber pilot during the Second World War (known as Nicolas Tindal). Son of Ralph Tindal-Carill-Worsley.
+
+=== Camilla Wedgwood ===
+Camilla Wedgwood (1901–1955), anthropologist, was the daughter of Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood (see above).
+
+=== Cicely Veronica (CV) Wedgwood ===
+Cicely Veronica Wedgwood (1910–1997), historian. Daughter of Ralph Wedgwood
+
+== The seventh generation ==
+
+=== Martin Thomas Barlow ===
+Martin T. Barlow (born 1953) is a mathematician; son of Andrew Dalmahoy Barlow.
+
+=== Phyllida Barlow ===
+Phyllida Barlow (1944–2023) was a sculptor and art academic; daughter of Erasmus Darwin Barlow.
+
+=== Matthew Chapman ===
+Matthew Chapman (born 1950), screenwriter, author, grandson of Frances Cornford, see above.
+
+=== Adam Cornford ===
+Adam Cornford (born 1950), is a poet and essayist. Son of Christopher Cornford, see above.
+
+=== Chris Darwin ===
+Chris Darwin (born 1961), conservationist and adventurer, son of George Erasmus Darwin, see above, and brother of Sarah Darwin and Robert Darwin, see below.
+
+=== Emma Darwin ===
+Emma Darwin (born 1964), novelist, granddaughter of Charles Galton Darwin, see above.
+
+=== Sarah Darwin ===
+Sarah Darwin (born 1964), botanist, daughter of George Erasmus Darwin, see above, and sister of Chris Darwin and Robert Darwin, see above.
+
+=== Randal Keynes ===
+Randal Keynes (1948–2023), conservationist and author, son of Richard Keynes, see above.
+
+=== Simon Keynes ===
+Simon Keynes (born 1952), Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Celtic at Cambridge University, son of Richard Keynes, see above, and brother of Randal Keynes, see above.
+
+=== Hugh Massingberd ===
+Hugh Massingberd (1947–2007) was an obituaries editor for The Daily Telegraph, a journalist and the author of many books on genealogy and architectural history. He was the great-grandson of Emily Langton Massingberd, and the great-great-grandson of Charlotte Langton (née Wedgwood), sister of Emma Darwin (Charles Darwin's wife) and granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood I.
+
+=== Ruth Padel ===
+Ruth Padel (born 1946), poet, granddaughter of Sir Alan and Lady (Nora) Barlow (née Darwin), see above.
+
+=== R. Sebastian 'Bas' Pease ===
+R. Sebastian 'Bas' Pease (1922–2004), physicist, Director of Culham Laboratory for Plasma Physics and Nuclear Fusion (1968–1981), manager of the British chapter of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, grandson of the fourth Josiah Wedgwood (see above). His sister, Jocelyn Richenda 'Chenda' Gammell Pease (1925–2003), married Andrew Huxley.
+
+=== Lucy Rawlinson ===
+Lucy Rawlinson (née Pryor) (born 1948), painter (as Lucy Raverat), granddaughter of Gwen Raverat (née Darwin), see above.
+
+=== Anthony Tindal ===
+Managing director of Tindal wine merchant and youngest son of Nicolas Tindal-Carill-Worsley. Father of Harriet, William and Henry Tindal. Lives in Wicklow Ireland.
+
+== The eighth generation ==
+
+=== Ralph Wedgwood ===
+Ralph Wedgwood (born 1964), philosopher, great-grandson of Ralph L. Wedgwood.
+
+=== Anna Raverat ===
+Anna Raverat (born 1969), author, daughter of Lucy Rawlinson.
+
+=== Francis Hoar ===
+Francis Hoar (born 1977), barrister (including in Erlam & Ors v Rahman & Anor and the judicial review brought by Simon Dolan against the UK government's 'lockdown' regulations). Son of Jacqueline (née Tindal) and grandson of Nicolas Tindal-Carill-Worsley, nephew of Anthony Tindal.
+
+=== Eddie Peake ===
+Eddie Peake (born 1981), contemporary artist, son of Phyllida Barlow.
+
+=== Soumaya Keynes ===
+Soumaya Keynes (born 1989), economist and journalist, daughter of Randal Keynes.
+
+=== Skandar Keynes ===
+Skandar Keynes (born 1991), political advisor and former actor, played Edmund in The Chronicles of Narnia, son of Randal Keynes.
+
+== Intermarriage ==
+There was a notable history of intermarriage within the family. During the period being discussed, Josiah Wedgwood married his third cousin Sarah Wedgwood; Charles Darwin married his first cousin Emma Wedgwood; his sister, Caroline Darwin, married Emma's brother (and Caroline's first cousin), Josiah Wedgwood III. There were other instances of cousin marriage as well. Cousin marriage was not uncommon in Britain during the 19th century though why is debated: poorer communications, keeping wealth within the family, more opportunity of evaluating a relative of the opposite sex as a suitable marriage partner (unmarried young women of the upper and upper middle classes were closely chaperoned when meeting men outside the family during the 19th century), more security for the woman as she would not be leaving her family (though legal rights for married women increased during the century, as a rule her property became his and she had little legal recourse if he chose to abuse her).
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+---
+title: "Darwin–Wedgwood family"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:28.334677+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Coat of arms ==
+These arms were granted to Reginald Darwin, of Fern, Derbyshire, for himself and certain descendants of his father, Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin, and his uncle Robert Waring Darwin (Father of Charles), on 6 March 1890. As Charles Darwin was part of the destination, they have been used in association with him, despite being granted after his death. Something similar is used by Darwin College, Cambridge.
+
+A variant without mullets was being used by the Darwin family long before 1890. Erasmus Darwin used it with the motto E conchis omnia (All things out of shells), reflecting his belief that all life descended from one simple form. Charles' father Robert adopted the same motto, displaying it on his bookplate. Stephen Glover described in 1829 the older variant quartered with the Waring coat of arms (sable, a chevron between three storks' heads erased, argent).
+
+== See also ==
+Keynes family
+Huxley family
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+Milner, Richard (1994). Charles Darwin: Evolution of a Naturalist. Makers of Modern Science. New York City: Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-2557-2.
+Freeman, Richard Broke (1982). "The Darwin family". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 17 (1): 9–21. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1982.tb02010.x.
+Berra, Tim; Alvarez, Gonzalo; Shannon, Kate (September 2010). "The Galton–Darwin–Wedgwood Pedigree of H. H. Laughlin". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 101 (1): 228–241. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01529.x.
+
+== External links ==
+http://www.wedgwood.org.uk/Darwin.html Archived 8 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine
+http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1319&viewtype=image&pageseq=6
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Saussure_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Saussure_family-0.md
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+---
+title: "De Saussure family"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Saussure_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:29.464230+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The De Saussure family is a family from the Geneva patriciate of Huguenot origins hailing from Lorraine, France but being settled in Switzerland since 1556. An American branch was established in South Carolina in the 18th century by Henri de Saussure; among his descendants were Chancellor Henry William de Saussure and US Senator William F. De Saussure.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+The family originally hails from Saulxures in the Lorraine region of France. During their service as falconers to the duke he ennobled them in 1506. Due to religious persecution for being Huguenot they emigrated to Lausanne and Geneva, where they became citizens in 1556 respectively 1636.
+
+
+== Swiss branch ==
+
+In Switzerland, as well as in the Republic of Geneva, they soon became politically and socio-economically active holding a variety of public offices.
+Théodore de Saussure  became the mayor of Geneva, his son Nicolas de Saussure (1709-1791), a politician and agronomist.
+Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740 – 1799), an 18th century naturalist, was probably the most notable, his portrait was on the 20 Swiss Francs bill series which were in circulation from 1979 to 1995. His daughter Albertine Necker de Saussure (1766-1841) became an advocate for women s education and his son Nicolas Théodore de Saussure (1767 – 1845) a plant physiologist.
+His grandson was Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure (1829 –1905) an entomologist and mineralist.
+His 4 great-grandsons were: Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), an important linguist and semiotician. followed by Horace de Saussure (1859-1926) a painter, their younger brother Léopold de Saussure (1866-1925) a sinologist and their youngest brother René de Saussure (1868 –1943) was a mathematician and Esperantist.
+A 21st century descendant of this branch, is Jacques de Saussure, who was a part-owner in private bank Pictet Group and current owner of the hôtel particulier of the family.
+
+
+== American branch ==
+Henri de Saussure (anglicized to Henry de Saussure, d. 1761), a scion of the Lausanne branch of the family, emigrated from Vaud in the Old Swiss Confederacy settling near Charleston, South Carolina. 
+The four sons of Henri fought in the American Revolutionary War with only his son Daniel surviving. Daniel was the father of Henry William de Saussure, d. 1839, a notable jurist in the early days of the American republic and chancellor.
+Another William F. De Saussure (1792 –  1870) became US Senator.
+Louis D. DeSaussure, d.1888, was a slave trader.
+There are still several descendants living with the current spelling being DeSaussure, deSaussure, de Saussure, or Desaussure in the United States.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Wilmot Gibbes de Saussure
+Harriette Kershaw Leiding
+
+
+== References ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family-0.md
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+---
+title: "Einstein family"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:30.588947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Einstein family is the family of physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). Einstein's fourth-great-grandfather, Jakob Weil, was his oldest recorded relative, born in the late 17th century, and the family continues to this day. Albert Einstein's second-great-grandfather, Löb Moses Sontheimer (1745–1831), was also the grandfather of the tenor Heinrich Sontheim (1820–1912) of Stuttgart.
+Albert's three children were from his relationship with his first wife, Mileva Marić, his daughter Lieserl being born a year before they married. Albert Einstein's second wife was Elsa Einstein, whose mother Fanny Koch was the sister of Albert's mother, and whose father, Rudolf Einstein, was the son of Raphael Einstein, a brother of Albert's paternal grandfather. Albert and Elsa were thus first cousins through their mothers and second cousins through their fathers.
+
+== Etymology ==
+Einstein (English:  EYEN-styne, German: [ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ) is either a German habitational surname from various places named with a Middle High German derivative of the verb einsteinen 'to enclose, surround with stone'; or a Jewish (Ashkenazic) adaptation of the German name, or else an ornamental name using the ending -stein 'stone'.
+
+== Pauline Einstein (Albert's mother) ==
+
+Pauline Einstein (née Koch; 8 February 1858 – 20 February 1920) was the mother of the physicist Albert Einstein.  She was born in Cannstatt, Württemberg. She was Jewish and had an older sister, Fanny, and two older brothers, Jakob and Caesar. Her parents were Julius Derzbacher, who had adopted the family name Koch in 1842, and Jette Bernheimer. They were married in 1847. Pauline's father was from Jebenhausen, now part of the city of Göppingen, and grew up in modest economic circumstances. Later, he lived in Cannstatt and together with his brother Heinrich, made a considerable fortune in the corn trade. They even became "Royal Württemberg Purveyor to the Court". Their mother was from Cannstatt and was a quiet and caring person.
+
+=== Early life ===
+At 18 years old, Pauline married the merchant Hermann Einstein who lived in Ulm. They married in Cannstatt on 8 August 1876. After the wedding, the young couple lived in Ulm, where Hermann became joint partner in a bed feathers company. Their son, Albert was born on 14 March 1879. On the initiative of Hermann's brother Jakob the family moved to Munich's borough of Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt in the summer of 1880, where the two brothers together founded an electrical engineering company called Einstein & Cie. The second child of Hermann and Pauline, their daughter Maria (called Maja), was born in Munich on 18 November 1881. Pauline Einstein was a well-educated and quiet woman who had an inclination for the arts. She was a talented and dedicated piano player. She made Albert begin violin lessons at the age of five.
+
+=== Business problems ===
+The factory of Hermann and Jakob was moved to Pavia, Italy, in 1894. Hermann, Maria and Pauline moved to Milan in the same year and one year later, moved to Pavia. Albert stayed with relatives in Munich to continue his education there. 
+Unfortunately, the business was unsuccessful and the brothers had to abandon their factory in 1896. Though Hermann had lost most of his money, he founded (without his brother) another electrical engineering company in Milan. This time business was better. However, Hermann's health had deteriorated, and he died of heart failure in Milan on 10 October 1902.
+
+=== After Hermann ===
+In 1903, Pauline went to live with her sister Fanny and her husband Rudolf Einstein, a first cousin of Hermann, in Hechingen, Württemberg. Fanny's daughter, Elsa was to become the second wife of Albert in 1919.
+In 1910, Pauline moved with her sister, Fanny and her family to Berlin. She took on a job as housekeeper in Heilbronn in 1911. She lived with her brother Jakob Koch in Zurich and from 1915 in Heilbronn again.
+
+=== Death ===
+During World War I, Pauline fell ill with cancer. In 1918, when visiting her daughter, Maria, and son-in-law, Paul Winteler, in Luzern, Pauline was taken to the sanatorium Rosenau, due to her illness. At the end of 1919, Albert took his terminally-ill mother out of the sanatorium in Luzern and brought her to Haberlandstrasse 5, Berlin, to stay with him and his second wife, Elsa, where she later died the following year.
+
+== Hermann Einstein (Albert's father) ==
+
+Hermann Einstein  30 August 1847 – 10 October 1902) was the father of Albert Einstein.
+
+=== Early life ===
+Hermann Einstein was born in Buchau, Kingdom of Württemberg to Jewish parents Abraham Einstein and Helene Moos (3 July 1814 – 20 August 1887).
+He had six siblings:
+
+Raphael (3 December 1839 – 15 January 1842); male
+Jette (13 January 1844 – 7 January 1905); female
+Heinrich (12 October 1845 – 16 November 1877); male
+August Ignaz (23 December 1849 – 14 April 1911); male
+Jakob (25 November 1850 – 1912); male
+Friederike "Rika" (15 March 1855 – 17 June 1938); female
+At the age of 14, Hermann attended the secondary school in the regional capital Stuttgart and was academically successful. He had a strong affection for mathematics, and would have liked to study in this or a related area, but as the financial situation of the family precluded further education, he decided to become a merchant and began an apprenticeship in Stuttgart.
+
+=== Marriage to Pauline ===
+Hermann married 18-year-old Pauline Koch in Cannstatt, Kingdom of Württemberg on 8 August 1876. After their wedding, the young couple lived in Ulm, where Hermann became joint partner in the bed feather shop of his cousins, Moses and Hermann Levi. In Ulm, their eldest son Albert was born on 14 March 1879. On the initiative of Hermann's brother Jakob, the family moved to Munich in the summer of 1880. There, the two brothers founded the electrical engineering company Einstein & Cie, with Hermann being the merchant and Jakob the technician. The second child of Hermann and Pauline, their daughter Maria (called Maja), was born in Munich on 18 November 1881.
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+---
+title: "Einstein family"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:30.588947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Work ===
+Albert Einstein’s father, Hermann Einstein, was an engineer and entrepreneur who co-founded an electrical engineering company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie. Based initially in Munich, the company manufactured electrical devices such as arc lamps and dynamos, and was involved in the installation of lighting systems throughout southern Germany and parts of northern Italy. Though the business saw early success, it struggled to compete with larger firms like AEG and Siemens. These difficulties eventually forced the company to close, prompting the Einstein family to move to Milan and later to Pavia in the 1890s.
+Hermann played a significant role in encouraging Albert’s early interest in science and engineering. He often took Albert on factory visits and supported his education despite the family’s financial instability. After the closure of the company, Hermann continued to seek work in the electrical industry but did not achieve the same level of business success again. He died in Milan in 1902, while Albert was still a student in Zürich.
+Pauline Einstein, Albert’s mother, came from a cultured and middle-class Jewish family. Although she did not pursue formal employment, she was an accomplished pianist and had a strong appreciation for music, literature, and education. She made efforts to ensure that her children were raised in an intellectually rich environment. Pauline encouraged Albert to take up the violin, and her influence helped foster his lifelong passion for classical music, particularly Mozart and Bach. Her support of education and the arts had a lasting impact on both of her children.
+Albert’s only sibling, Maria "Maja" Einstein, was born in 1881 and also pursued academic interests. She studied Romance languages and literature, ultimately earning a doctorate from the University of Bern. While she did not enter a professional academic career, she remained intellectually active and closely involved in Albert’s personal and intellectual life. After marrying Swiss philologist Paul Winteler, Maja moved with him to Italy and later to the United States, where she lived with Albert in Princeton for a time after fleeing Nazi Germany.
+
+=== Death ===
+Hermann Einstein died of heart failure in Milan in 1902. His grave is in Civico Mausoleo Palanti inside Cimitero Monumentale di Milano. Hermann Einstein was 55 years old when he died.
+
+== Maria "Maja" Einstein (Albert's younger sister) ==
+
+Maria "Maja" Einstein (18 November 1881 – 25 June 1951) and her older brother, Albert, were the two children of Hermann Einstein and Pauline Einstein (née Koch), who had moved from Ulm to Munich in June 1881, when Albert was one. There Hermann and his brother Jakob had founded Einstein & Cie., an electrical engineering company.
+She attended elementary school in Munich from 1887 to 1894. She then moved with her parents to Milan, where she attended the German International School; Albert had stayed behind with relatives in Munich to complete his schooling. From 1899 to 1902, she attended a workshop for teachers in Aarau. After she passed her final exams, she studied Romance languages and literature in Berlin, Bern and Paris. In 1909, she graduated from the University of Bern; her dissertation was entitled "Contribution to the Tradition of the Chevalier au Cygne and the Enfances Godefroi".
+In the year following her graduation, she married Paul Winteler, but they were to be childless. The young couple moved to Luzern in 1911, where Maja's husband had found a job. In 1922, they moved to Colonnata near Florence in Italy.
+After the Italian leader Benito Mussolini introduced anti-Semitic laws in Italy, Albert invited Maja to emigrate to the United States in 1939 and live in his residence in Mercer Street, Princeton, New Jersey. Her husband was denied entry into the United States on health grounds. Maja spent some pleasant years with Albert, until she had a stroke in 1946, and became bedridden. She later developed progressive arteriosclerosis, and died in Princeton on 25 June 1951 four years before her brother.
+
+== Lieserl Einstein (Albert's daughter) ==
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+---
+title: "Einstein family"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:30.588947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Lieserl Einstein (27 January 1902 – September 1903) was the first child of Mileva Marić and Albert Einstein.
+According to the correspondence between her parents, Lieserl was born on 27 January 1902, a year before her parents married, in Újvidék, Austria-Hungary, present-day Novi Sad, Serbia, and was cared for by her mother for a short time while Einstein worked in Switzerland before Marić joined him there without the child.
+Lieserl's existence was unknown to biographers until 1986, when a batch of letters between Albert and Mileva Marić was discovered by Hans Albert Einstein's daughter Evelyn.
+Marić had hoped for a girl, while Einstein would have preferred a boy. In their letters, they called the unborn child "Lieserl", when referring to a girl, or "Hanserl", if a boy. Both "Lieserl" and "Hanserl" were diminutives of the common German names Liese (short for Elizabeth) and Hans.
+The first reference to Marić's pregnancy was found in a letter Einstein wrote to her from Winterthur, probably on 28 May 1901 (letter 36), asking twice about "the boy" and "our little son", whereas Marić's first reference was found in her letter of 13 November 1901 (letter 43) from Stein am Rhein, in which she referred to the unborn child as "Lieserl". Einstein goes along with Marić's wish for a daughter, and referred to the unborn child as "Lieserl" as well, but with a sense of humour as in letter 45 of 12 December 1901 "... and be happy about our Lieserl, whom I secretly (so Dollie doesn't notice) prefer to imagine a Hanserl."
+The child must have been born shortly before 4 February 1902, when Einstein wrote: "... now you see that it really is a Lieserl, just as you'd wished. Is she healthy and does she cry properly? [...] I love her so much and don't even know her yet!"
+The last time "Lieserl" was mentioned in their extant correspondence was in Einstein's letter of 19 September 1903 (letter 54), in which he showed concern that she had scarlet fever. His asking "As what is the child registered?" adding "We must take precautions that problems don't arise for her later" may indicate the intention to give the child up for adoption.
+As neither the full name nor the fate of the child are known, several hypotheses about her life and death have been put forward:
+
+Michele Zackheim, in her book on "Lieserl", Einstein's Daughter, states that "Lieserl" had a developmental disability, and that she lived with her mother's family and probably died of scarlet fever in September 1903.
+Another possibility, favoured by Robert Schulmann of the Einstein Papers Project, is that "Lieserl" was adopted by Marić's close friend, Helene Savić. Savić had a child by the name of Zorka who was blind from childhood and died in the 1890s. Her grandson Milan N. Popović, upon extensive research of the relationship between Einstein and Marić, rejected the possibility that Zorka was "Lieserl", and also favoured the hypothesis that the child died in September 1903.
+A letter widely circulated on the Internet on the "universal force" of love, attributed as "a letter from Albert Einstein to his daughter", is almost certainly specious.  The introduction to the letter claims that the letter was received by the "Jerusalem Hebrew University's Einstein Papers Project." 
+Firstly, no such organization with that exact title exists. Secondly, neither the Albert Einstein Archives under the “Library Authority” of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, nor the Einstein Papers Project at Caltech in Pasadena California hold a copy of such a letter.  The tone, content, and even the language of the circulated letter (appearing only in English) present as being incongruous with all other known Einstein correspondences to his family.  This letter of unknown origin first appeared on the Internet in 2015.
+
+== Hans Albert Einstein (Albert's first son) ==
+
+Hans Albert Einstein (May 14, 1904 – July 26, 1973) was born in Bern, Switzerland, the second child and first son of Albert Einstein and Mileva Marić. Hans earned his doctorate at ETH Zurich in 1936 and emigrated to the U.S. in 1938. He was a long-time professor of Hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, widely recognized for his research on sediment transport. 
+Hans Albert had four children, three biological sons and one adopted daughter, Evelyn Einstein. Of Hans Albert's biological sons, only Bernhard Caesar Einstein lived to adulthood. Bernhard himself had five children with his wife, Doris Aude Ascher. Bernhard was an engineer with multiple patents.
+
+== Eduard "Tete" Einstein (Albert's second son) ==
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+---
+title: "Einstein family"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:30.588947+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Eduard Einstein (28 July 1910 – 25 October 1965) was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the second son of physicist Albert Einstein from his first wife Mileva Marić. Albert Einstein and his family moved to Berlin in 1914. Shortly thereafter the parents separated, and Marić returned to Zürich, taking Eduard and his older brother Hans Albert with her. His father remarried in 1919 and in 1933 immigrated to the United States under the threat of Germany's rising Nazi regime.
+Eduard was a good student and had musical talent. Some of Eduard's poems, which refer to the same teachers as the biographical sketches in the autobiography of Nobel laureate Elias Canetti, were published in the school newspaper of the gymnasium (grammar school). After gymnasium, he started to study medicine to become a psychiatrist, but by the age of 21 he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He was institutionalized two years later for the first of several times. Biographers of his father have speculated that the drugs and "cures" of the time damaged rather than aided the young Einstein. His brother Hans Albert Einstein believed that his memory and cognitive abilities had been deeply affected by electroconvulsive therapy treatments Eduard received while institutionalized.
+After a breakdown, Eduard had told his father Albert that he hated him, and after the father's emigration to the United States they never saw each other again. The father and son, whom the father fondly referred to as "Tete" (for petit), corresponded regularly before and after Eduard became ill. Their correspondence continued after the father's immigration to the U.S.
+Eduard remained interested in music and art, wrote poetry, and was a Sigmund Freud enthusiast. He hung a picture of Freud on his bedroom wall.
+His mother cared for him until she died in 1948. From then on Eduard lived most of the time at the psychiatric clinic Burghölzli in Zurich, where he died in 1965 of a stroke at age 55. He is buried at Hönggerberg Cemetery in Zurich.
+
+== See also ==
+Genius, an American television series depicting the Einsteins
+Einstein, a German television series depicting a fictional great-grandson of Albert Einstein
+
+== References ==
+
+== Works cited ==
+Einstein, Albert and Marić, Mileva (1992) The Love Letters. Edited by Jürgen Renn & Robert Schulmann. Translated by Shawn Smith. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. ISBN 0-691-08760-1
+Highfield; Carter, Paul (1993). The Private Lives of Albert Einstein. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-17170-2.
+Christof Rieber: Albert Einstein. Biografie eines Nonkonformisten. Thorbecke: Ostfildern 2018 ISBN 978-3-7995-1281-7
+
+== Further reading ==
+Michele Zackheim, Einstein's Daughter: the Search for Lieserl, Riverhead 1999, ISBN 1-57322-127-9.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Lieserl Einstein's Biography Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine from einstein-website.de
+Pauline Koch's fact file Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine from einstein-website.de
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-0.md
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+---
+title: "Freud family"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:31.798248+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The family of Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalysis, lived in Austria and Germany until the 1930s before emigrating to England, Canada, and the United States. Several of Freud's descendants and relatives have become well known in different fields.
+
+== Freud's parents and siblings ==
+Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was born to Jewish Galician parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg in Mähren, in what then was the Austrian Empire (now called Příbor and in the Czech Republic). He was the eldest child of Jacob Freud (1815–1896), a wool merchant, and his third wife, Amalia Nathansohn (1835–1930). Jacob Freud was born in Tysmenitz, then part of the Austrian Partition of Poland called the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (now called Tysmenytsia and in Ukraine), the eldest child of Schlomo and Peppi (Pessel), née Hoffmann, Freud. His two brothers, Abae (c. 1815–c. 1885) and Josef (1825–1897), had difficulties that concerned the family, the former because of his mentally incapacitated children, the latter because his business dealings came under criminal investigation.
+Jacob Freud had two surviving children from his first marriage to Sally Kanner (1829–1852):
+
+Emanuel (1832–1914)
+Philipp (1836–1911)
+Jacob's second marriage (1852–1855) to Rebecca (family of origin uncertain) was childless.
+Amalia Freud was the daughter of Jacob Nathansohn (1805–1865), great-grandson of Rabbi Aryeh Leib Bernstein, and Sara Wilenz born in Brody, then also part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and now also part of Ukraine. They later moved to Vienna. Her brother Hermann (1822–1895), who was a stockbroker in Odessa in the Russian Empire, was Freud's favourite uncle. She had three other brothers: Nathan (b. c.1825), Adolf (c.1830–1862) and Julius (1857–1858). Jacob and Amalia Freud had eight children:
+
+Sigmund (birth name Sigismund Schlomo; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939)
+Julius (October 1857 – 15 April 1858)
+Anna (31 December 1858 – 11 March 1955)
+Regina Debora (nickname Rosa; 21 March 1860 – 1942)
+Marie (nickname Mitzi; 22 March 1861 – 1942)
+Esther Adolfine (nickname Dolfi; 23 July 1862 – 1942)
+Pauline Regine (nickname Pauli; 3 May 1864 – 1943)
+Alexander Gotthold Ephraim (19 April 1866 – 23 April 1943)
+Julius Freud died in infancy.
+Anna married Eli Bernays (1860–1921), the elder brother of Sigmund's wife Martha. There were four daughters: Judith (1885–1977), Lucy (1886–1980), Hella (1893–1994), Martha (1894–1979) and one son, Edward (1891–1995). In 1892 the family moved to the United States where Edward Bernays became a major influence in modern public relations. He married Doris E. Fleischman (1891–1980) who became known as a prominent feminist activist. Their daughters are Doris Bernays Held (b. 1929), a psychotherapist who married Richard Held (1922–2016) a neuroscientist, and Anne Bernays (b. 1930) a writer and editor, as was her husband, Justin Kaplan (1925–2014).
+Rosa (Regina Deborah Graf-Freud) married a lawyer, Heinrich Graf (1852–1908). Their son, Hermann (1897–1917) was killed in the First World War; their daughter, Cäcilie (1899–1922), committed suicide after an unhappy love affair. In March or early April 1943 Rosa was transported from Vienna to the Treblinka extermination camp where she was murdered.
+Mitzi (Marie Freud) married her cousin Moritz Freud (1857–1922). There were three daughters: Margarethe (1887–1981), Lily (1888–1970), Martha (1892–1930) and one son, Theodor (1904–1923) who died in a drowning accident. Martha, who was known as Tom, worked as a children's book illustrator. After the suicide of her husband, Jakob Seidmann, a journalist, she took her own life. Their daughter, Angela, was sent to live with relatives in Haifa.  Lily became an actress and in 1917 married the actor Arnold Marlé. They subsequently adopted Angela. In July 1942 Mitzi was transported from Vienna to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. The following September she was transported to the Maly Trostinets extermination camp, near Minsk, where she was murdered.
+Dolfi (Esther Adolfine Freud) did not marry and remained in the family home to care for her parents. In July 1942 Dolfi was transported from Vienna to the Theresienstadt concentration camp where she died of malnutrition on 29 September 1942.
+Pauli (Pauline Regine Winternitz-Freud) married Valentine Winternitz (1859–1900) and emigrated to the United States where their daughter Rose Beatrice (1896–1969) was born. After the death of her husband she and her daughter returned to Europe. Rose (known as Rosi) married Ernst Waldinger, a poet, in 1923. They moved to New York City after the war where a daughter, Ruth, was born. In July 1942 Pauli was transported from Vienna to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. The following September she was transported to the Maly Trostinets extermination camp, near Minsk, where she was murdered.
+Alexander Freud married Sophie Sabine Schreiber (1878–1970). They fled the Nazi regime in Austria with their son, Harry (1909–1968), and emigrated to Canada. Harry subsequently emigrated to the United States where he married Leli Margaret Horn.
+Both Freud's half-brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, shortly before the rest of the Freud family moved to Vienna in 1860.
+Emanuel Freud married Maria Rokachova (1836–1923) in Freiberg where their first three surviving children were born: Johann known as John (1855-1936), who was the "inseparable playmate" of Freud's early childhood, Pauline (1856–1944) and Bertha (1859-1940). Their other children were born in Manchester: Matilda (1862–1868), Harriet (1865–1868), Henrietta (1866 infant death) and Soloman (1870–1945, known as Sam). None of the children married. Research into the life of John has provided evidence that he moved to London and formed a partnership with Annie Newport (1868-1934) and had one child, Ethel Rose (1892-1959).
+Philipp Freud married Bloomah Frankel (1838-1925). There were two children: Pauline (1873–1951) who married Fritz Hartwig (1881–1958); and Morris (1876-1938. Died in Port Elizabeth, South Africa). The death of the childless Pauline in 1951 marked the end of the Manchester Freuds.
+Freud visited his half-brothers and their families in England twice, in 1875 while still a student, and again in 1908. He kept in touch through a regular correspondence with Sam Freud. They would eventually meet again in London in 1938.
+
+== Persecution and emigration ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-1.md
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+---
+title: "Freud family"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:31.798248+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The systematic persecution of Jews by Nazi Germany and the ensuing Holocaust had a profound effect on the family. Four of Freud's five sisters were murdered in concentration camps: in 1942 Mitzi Freud (eighty-one) and Paula Winternitz (seventy-eight) were transported to Theresienstadt and taken from there to the Maly Trostinets extermination camp, near Minsk, where they were murdered. In 1943 Dolfi Freud died in Theresienstadt of internal bleeding, probably due to advanced starvation and Rosa Graf (eighty-two) was deported to Treblinka, where she was murdered. Freud's brother, Alexander, escaped with his family to Switzerland shortly before the Anschluss and they subsequently emigrated to Canada. Freud's sons Oliver, a civil engineer, and Ernst Ludwig, an architect, lived and worked in Berlin until Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933 after which they fled with their families to France and England respectively. Oliver Freud and his wife later emigrated to the United States. Their daughter Eva Freud had remained in France and died there of an infection contracted during an abortion.
+Freud and his remaining family left Nazi-occupied Vienna in 1938 after Ernest Jones, the then President of the International Psychoanalytic Association, secured immigration permits for them to move to Britain.  Permits were also secured for Freud's housekeeper, Paula Fichtl, his doctor, Max Schur and his family, as well as a number of Freud's colleagues and their families. Freud's grandson, Ernst Halberstadt, was the first to leave Vienna on 28 March, initially for Paris, before going on to London where after the war he would adopt the name Ernest Freud and train as a psychoanalyst. Next to leave for Paris were Ernestine, Sophie and Walter Freud, the wife and children of Freud's eldest son, Martin. Walter went on to join his father in London. His mother and sister remained in France and subsequently emigrated to the United States. His maternal grandmother, Ida Drucker, was deported from Biarritz in 1942 and murdered in Auschwitz.
+Freud's sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, was the first to leave for London early in May 1938. She was followed by his son, Martin, on 14 May and then by his daughter Mathilde and her husband, Robert Hollitscher, on 24 May. Freud, his wife and daughter, Anna, left Vienna on 4 June on the Orient Express, accompanied by their housekeeper Paula Fichtl and Dr Josephine Stross. Stross was a late replacement as medical supervisor for Freud, summoned after his physician Max Schur became incapacitated by appendicitis. They arrived in Paris the following day, staying at the home of Marie Bonaparte before boarding the night train to London via Calais. Their arrival at Victoria Station on the morning of 6 June attracted widespread press coverage. Freud's architect son, Ernst, arranged temporary accommodation for the Freuds in north London at 39 Elsworthy Road before the new family home was established in Hampstead at 20 Maresfield Gardens in September 1938.  Ernst designed modifications of the building including the installation of an electric lift. The study and library areas were arranged to create the atmosphere and visual impression of Freud's Vienna consulting rooms.
+
+== The war years ==
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diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-2.md
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+---
+title: "Freud family"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:31.798248+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+After Sigmund Freud's death in 1939, Martha and Anna Freud made their home available to relatives and friends fleeing the Nazi occupation of Europe. In 1941, following the death of Martha's sister, Minna, Dorothy Burlingham (1891–1979) became a permanent member of the household. From their first meeting in Vienna in 1925, Anna and Dorothy developed "intimate relations that closely resembled those of lesbians", although Anna "categorically denied the existence of a sexual relationship". Dorothy had been a patient of Freud's and her four children, Bob, Mary (Mabbie), Katrina, and Michael, were among the first of Anna's after she had begun her own psychoanalytic practice. During and after the war they collaborated in establishing the Hampstead War Nursery that provided therapy and residential care for children whose lives had been disrupted by the war. Their work laid the foundations for the post-war Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic, founded in 1952 (later renamed the Anna Freud National Centre for Children and Families).
+Martin and Walter Freud were both interned in 1940 as enemy aliens. Following a change in government policy on internment, both were subsequently recruited to the Pioneer Corps. After the war, denied recognition as a (Vienna-trained) lawyer by the British legal profession, Martin Freud ran a tobacconist shop in Bloomsbury. His autobiographical memoir of Freud family life in Vienna, Glory Reflected: Sigmund Freud - the Man and Father, was published in 1957. His sister, Mathilde Höllischer, opened 'Robell', a women's fashion store on Baker Street.
+Walter Freud was deported to an internment camp in New South Wales, Australia. On his return to England in 1941 he was recruited to the Pioneer Corps and subsequently to the SOE. In April 1945 he was parachuted behind enemy lines in Austria. Advised to change his name in case of capture, he refused, declaring : "I want the Germans to know a Freud is coming back". He narrowly survived separation from his comrades and took the leading role in securing the surrender of the strategically important Zeltweg aerodrome in southern Austria. When the war ended he was assigned to war crimes investigation work in Germany. Given the fate of his great aunts and maternal grandmother at the hands of the Nazis, he was particularly pleased to help secure the prosecution of directors of the firm that supplied Zyklon B gas to the concentration camps, two of whom were executed for war crimes. In 1946, he left the army with the rank of major. The following year he was granted British citizenship and resumed a career as an industrial chemist.
+Retribution for the murder of his aunts was also a concern for Alexander Freud's son, Harry. He arrived in post-war Vienna as a U.S. army officer to investigate the circumstances of their deportation and helped track down and bring before the courts Anton Sauerwald, the Nazi commissar charged with the supervision of the Freuds' assets. Sauerwald gained early release from prison in 1947 when, at the request of his wife, Anna Freud intervened on his behalf, revealing that he had, by concealing evidence of Freud's Swiss bank account, "used his office as our appointed commissar in such a manner as to protect my father".
+Ernst Freud and his three sons, Stephan, Clement and Lucian, were spared the ordeal of internment but only through the intervention of his father's close friend and colleague Princess Marie Bonaparte.  His numerous attempts to secure naturalisation status for the family since their arrival in the UK in 1933 had met without success and, with preparations for war in place, by 1939 the government had banned all German citizens from the process. Bonaparte was in London to visit his ailing father who advised her of the problem. She took advantage of her royal family connections to persuade her relative, Prince George, Duke of Kent, to intervene with the immigration authorities and this secured the prompt issue of naturalisation documentation in September 1939. Stephan and Clement Freud served in the army during the war. Lucian gained exemption from conscription due to ill-health. He had voluntarily enlisted into the Merchant Navy in 1941 and was discharged on his return from a trans-Atlantic crossing in a poor physical state.
+After the war Ernst resumed his architectural practice, Stephan worked in publishing and subsequently ran a hardware store near Baker Street,  Lucian became well known as an artist, Clement as a broadcaster, journalist and MP. Ernst took over management of the copyright negotiations for the publishing of his father's works and, after retiring from his architectural practice, he worked on arrangements for publishing his father's voluminous correspondence in collaboration with Anna Freud. In accordance with Freud's wishes his grandchildren were the beneficiaries of royalties from his published works. Ernst Freud had also begun the adoption of the Suffolk seaside village of Walberswick as a favoured holiday destination for the Freuds, purchasing and renovating a property there in 1938. A succession of Freuds purchased holiday homes there, including Anna and Clement Freud, his daughter Emma Freud and her cousin Esther Freud.
+
+== Sigmund Freud's children and descendants ==
+
+ 
+Sigmund Freud married Martha Bernays (1861–1951) in 1886. Martha was born in Hamburg, the daughter of Berman Bernays (1826–1879), a businessman, and Emmeline Philipp (1830–1910). Her grandfather, Isaac Bernays (1792–1849), was a Chief Rabbi of Hamburg. Two of her uncles were prominent academics: Jakob Bernays (1824–1881) was a professor of classics at the University of Bonn; Michael Bernays (1834–1897) was a professor of German literature at LMU Munich. In 1869, the Bernays family moved to Vienna where Berman Bernays became secretary to the economist Lorenz von Stein. After his sudden death in 1879, his post was taken over by his son Eli while Martha and her mother moved back to Hamburg. In 1883, Eli married Freud's oldest sister Anna. Martha's sister, Minna Bernays (1865–1941), became a permanent member of the Freud household after the death of her fiancé in 1895.
+Sigmund and Martha Freud had six children and eight grandchildren:
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+---
+title: "Freud family"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:31.798248+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Mathilde Freud (1887–1978) married Robert Hollitscher (1875–1959), and had no children
+Jean-Martin Freud (1889–1967, known as Martin Freud) married Ernestine (Esti) Drucker (1896–1980), and had two children:
+Anton Walter Freud (1921–2004) married Annette Krarup (1925–2000) and had three children
+David Freud (born 1950, later Lord Freud), married Cilla Dickinson and had three children:
+Andrew Freud
+Emily Freud
+Juliet Freud
+Ida Freud (born 1952), married M. Fairbairn
+Caroline Freud (born 1955), married L. Penney
+Sophie Freud (1924–2022), married Paul Loewenstein (1921–1992) and had three children:
+Andrea Freud Loewenstein
+Dania Loewenstein, married S. Jekel
+George Loewenstein
+Oliver Freud (1891–1969), married (i) Ella Haim; (ii) Henny Fuchs (1892–1971). From his marriage to Henny Fuchs, he had one child:
+Eva Freud (1924–1944)
+Ernst L. Freud (1892–1970), married Lucie Brasch (1896–1989), and had three children:
+Stephan Gabriel Freud (1921–2015, known as Stephen Freud) married (i) Lois Blake (born 1924); (ii) Christine Ann Potter (born 1927). From his marriage to Lois Blake, he had one child:
+Dorothy Freud
+Lucian Michael Freud (1922–2011), married (i) Kathleen Garman (1926–2011), two children; (ii) Lady Caroline Blackwood (1931–1996). He also had four children by Suzy Boyt, four by Katherine McAdam (died 1998), two by Bernardine Coverley (died 2011), one by Jacquetta Eliot, Countess of St. Germans and one by Celia Paul. His children include:
+Annie Freud (born 1948)
+Annabel Freud (born 1952)
+Alexander Boyt (born 1957)
+Jane McAdam Freud (1958–2022)
+Paul McAdam Freud (born 1959)
+Rose Boyt (born 1959), married Mark Pearce; two children
+Lucy McAdam Freud (born 1961), married Peter Everett; two children
+Bella Freud (born 1961), married James Fox; one child
+Isobel Boyt (born 1961)
+Esther Freud (born 1963), married David Morrissey; three children: Anna, Albie and Gene
+David McAdam Freud (born 1964), four children, partner of Debbi Mason
+Susie Boyt (born 1969), married to Tom Astor; two children
+Francis Michael Eliot (born 1971)
+Frank Paul (born 1984), three children
+Clemens Rafael Freud (1924–2009, later Sir Clement Raphael Freud), married June Flewett (stage name Jill Raymond) in 1950 and had five children:
+Nicola Freud, married to Richard Allen, had five children:
+Tom Freud (born 1973)
+Jack Freud (born 1980), married to Kate Melhuish
+Martha Freud (born 1983), partner of Adam Smith
+Max Freud (born 1986)
+Harry Freud (born 1986)
+Dominic Freud (born 1956), married Patty Freud, and had three children.
+Emma Freud (born 1962), married to Richard Curtis, and had four children, including Scarlett Curtis.
+Matthew Freud (born 1963), married: (i) Caroline Hutton, and had two children; (ii) Elisabeth Murdoch, and had two children
+Ashley Freud (adopted nephew)
+Sophie Freud (1893–1920, died in the inter-war influenza epidemic), married Max Halberstadt (1882–1940), and had two children:
+Ernst Halberstadt (1914–2008, also known as Ernest Freud) married Irene Chambers (born 1920), and had one child:
+Colin Peter Freud (1956–1987)
+Heinz Halberstadt (1918–1923, also known as Heinele, died from tuberculosis)
+Anna Freud (1895–1982)
+
+== See also ==
+Freud Corner (Golders Green Crematorium), where Sigmund Freud and many members of his family are buried
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Benveniste, Daniel (2015) The Interwoven Lives of Sigmund, Anna, and W. Ernest Freud: Three Generations of Psychoanalysis New York: IPBooks
+Clark, Ronald W. (1980). Freud: the Man and His Cause. London: Jonathan Cape.
+Cohen, David (2009). The Escape of Sigmund Freud. London: JR Books.
+Feaver, William (2018). The Lives of Lucian Freud, Vol.1. London: Bloomsbury.
+Fry, Helen (2009). Freuds' War. Stroud: The History Press.
+Jones, Ernest (1953). Sigmund Freud: Life and Work: Vol 1: The Young Freud 1856–1900. London: Hogarth Press.
+Roudinesco, Elizabeth (2016). Freud: In His Time and Ours. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
+Welter, Volker (2012). Ernst L. Freud, Architect. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-0-85745-233-7.
+Willoughby, Roger (2025). Freud's British Family: Reclaiming Lost Lives in Manchester and London. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 9781032651989.
+Young-Bruehl, Elizabeth (2008). Anna Freud. Yale University Press.
+
+== External links ==
+Maria Helena Rowell: Sigmund Freud and his Family at the Wayback Machine (archived October 27, 2009)
+Sigmund Freud and his Family on Rodovid
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_family-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_family-0.md
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+---
+title: "Herschel family"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:33.023232+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Herschel family is a famous Anglo-German family of astronomers who lived from the 18th to the 20th century.
+The family originated from Pirna in Saxony which lies near Dresden.
+
+
+== Notable members ==
+William Herschel (1738–1822), astronomer and composer, discoverer of Uranus
+Caroline Herschel (1750–1848), astronomer and singer, sister of Sir William Herschel
+John Herschel (1792–1871), mathematician and astronomer, son of Sir William Herschel
+Alexander Stewart Herschel (1836–1907), astronomer, grandson of Sir William Herschel
+William James Herschel (1833–1917), Pioneer of fingerprinting, grandson of Sir William Herschel
+John Herschel the Younger (1837–1921), grandson of Sir William Herschel
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langevin_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langevin_family-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langevin_family-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Langevin family"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langevin_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:34.265443+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Langevin family is a French family with some prominent scientists. The French physicist Paul Langevin, member of the French Academy of Sciences and teacher at Collège de France, is the most prominent member.
+
+
+== Genealogy ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Curie family
+Koechlin family
+
+
+== Photographs ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Paty, Michel (2012). "Relativity in France". In Glick, T. F. (ed.). The Comparative Reception of Relativity. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 113–168. ISBN 9789400938755. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
+Langevin, P. (1911), "The Evolution of Space and Time", Scientia, X: 31–54 (translated by J. B. Sykes, 1973 from the original French: "L'évolution de l'espace et du temps").
+Wolfram research biographical entry by Michel Barran.
+Julien Bok and Catherine Kounelis (2007). "Paul Langevin (1872–1946) – From Montmartre to the Panthéon: The Paris journey of an exceptional physicist" (PDF). Europhysics News. Vol. 38, no. 1.
+Adrienne R. Weill-Brunschvicg (2008). "Langevin, Paul - Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 2008". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography.
+Charles Coulston Gillispie, Dictionary of scientific biography, Vol. 8, biography written by Francis Perrin, New York, Scribner's sons, 1973.
+Family of Paul Langevin, during the funeral, listening to Education minister Marcel Naegelen's talk, 21 December 1946 in France.
+Family of Paul Langevin, Maurice Thorez and Jacques Duclos, during the funeral, 21 December 1946 in France.
+ Media related to Paul Langevin at Wikimedia Commons
+Works by or about Paul Langevin at Wikisource
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linné_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linné_family-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linné_family-0.md
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+---
+title: "Linné family"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linné_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:35.523666+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The von Linné family and Linnaeus family was the family of the renowned botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, physician and formalizer of the binomial nomenclature, Carl Linnaeus, and a Swedish noble family (No. 2044), ennobled on 20 April 1757 by the Swedish King Adolf Frederick, introduced at the House of Nobility in 1776. 
+The von Linné family is predominantly famous for its contributions in the fields of science. The von Linné family descends from generations of priests and peasants in the historical province of Småland. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants.
+
+
+== Family tree ==
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether_family-0.md
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether_family-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+---
+title: "Noether family"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:36.746063+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Noether family is a family of German mathematicians, whose family name has been given to some of their mathematical contributions:
+
+Max Noether (1844–1921), father of Emmy and Fritz Noether,
+Emmy Noether (1882–1935), professor at the University of Göttingen and at Bryn Mawr College
+Fritz Noether (1884–1941), professor at the University of Tomsk
+Gottfried E. Noether (1915–1991), son of Fritz Noether
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Noether's theorem (disambiguation)
+List of things named after Emmy Noether
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccard_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccard_family-0.md
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccard_family-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+---
+title: "Piccard family"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccard_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:37.827606+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Piccard family are a Swiss family of adventurers, explorers and scientists. They collectively have broken several world records in exploration, particularly with balloons. The Star Trek character Jean-Luc Picard was named in honour of this family.
+Members include: 
+
+Jules Piccard, a chemist and professor of chemistry
+Auguste Piccard, a physicist, aeronaut, balloonist, hydronaut
+Jacques Piccard, a hydronaut
+Bertrand Piccard, an aeronaut, psychiatrist and balloonist
+Jean Felix Piccard, an organic chemist, aeronaut, and balloonist
+Jeannette Piccard, wife of Jean Felix, an aeronaut and balloonist
+Don Piccard, a balloonist
+
+
+== References ==
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowerby_family-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowerby_family-0.md
new file mode 100644
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+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowerby_family-0.md
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+---
+title: "Sowerby family"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowerby_family"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T04:05:38.931032+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Sowerby family () was a British family of several generations of naturalists, illustrators, botanists, and zoologists active from the late 18th century to the mid twentieth century.
+
+James Sowerby (1757–1822)
+James De Carle Sowerby (1787–1871)
+James Sowerby (1815–1834)
+William Sowerby (1827–1906)
+Joseph Sowerby (1829–ca.1871)
+Rev. Arthur Sowerby (1857–?)
+Arthur de Carle Sowerby (1885–1954)
+George Brettingham Sowerby I (1788–1854)
+George Brettingham Sowerby II (1812–1884)
+Charlotte Caroline Sowerby (1820–1865)
+George Brettingham Sowerby III (1843–1921)
+Charles Edward Sowerby (1795–1842)
+John Edward Sowerby (1825-1870)
+
+The three George Sowerbys produced major works on molluscs and their systematics. Together, they introduced numerous (sometimes the number 5000 is mentioned) taxonomic names. Because all three of the G.B Sowerbys published extensively on the subject of conchology, it is not easy even for professional taxonomists to unravel which of the three "G.B. Sowerbys" is meant in a particular citation when the numbering system G.B. Sowerby I, II, or III is not used. Even when a date is provided, this kind of attribution is not obvious: e.g. "Sowerby, 1870" can refer to either G.B. Sowerby II or G.B. Sowerby III.
+The scientific and artistic contributions of the family extended well into the 20th century. Arthur de Carle Sowerby (1885–1954), James Sowerby's great-great-grandson, explored the geography and natural history of China. One of James' grandsons, John George Sowerby (1850–1914), was an illustrator and glass-worker whose work was exhibited in the British Royal Academy, and who directed Ellison Glass Works Ltd, which during the 1880s was the world's largest producer of pressed glass. John G. Sowerby's daughter Katherine Githa (1876–1970) became a noted playwright, and Millicent Sowerby (1878–1967) was a painter and illustrator known for her children's book illustrations.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Who were the Sowerbys? by Katherine V. W. Palmer, Internet Hawaiian Shell News, January 2002, pp. 17 – 24. Reprint of Hawaiian Shell News, Nov. 1965, pp. 4ff. Available on a CD of back issues of HSN, ISSN 1543-6039.
+Papers on the Sowerby Family. Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History. 6 (6):380-559. 1974.
+Sowerby, Arthur de Carle (1952). The Sowerby saga, being a brief account of the origin and genealogy of the Sowerby family and of its history from earliest times down to the present; based upon recent research into available extant literature. Washington, D.C. OCLC 38667537.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
+Collins, John (1973). A note on the history of the Sowerby family archive: together with a short title catalogue of natural history works written or illustrated by members of the family. London: J.S. Seaton. OCLC 22696413.
+
+
+== External links ==
+The Sowerby Collection (1739-1985), National Archives of the United Kingdom
+Sowerby Family Collection, Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas
+Thesaurus conchyliorum, or, Monographs of genera of shells; Sowerby, G. B. (George Brettingham), 1812-1884 & Sowerby, G. B. (George Brettingham), 1843-1921
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