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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist-0.md
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An engineering technologist is a professional trained in certain aspects of development and implementation of a respective area of technology. An education in engineering technology concentrates more on application and less on theory than does an engineering education. Engineering technologists often assist engineers; but after years of experience, they can also become engineers. Like engineers, areas where engineering technologists can work include product design, fabrication, and testing. Engineering technologists sometimes rise to senior management positions in industry or become entrepreneurs.
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Engineering technologists are more likely than engineers to focus on post-development implementation, product manufacturing, or operation of technology. The American National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) makes the distinction that engineers are trained in conceptual skills, to "function as designers", while engineering technologists "apply others' designs". The mathematics and sciences, as well as other technical courses, in engineering technology programs, are taught with more application-based examples, whereas engineering coursework provides a more theoretical foundation in math and science. Moreover, engineering coursework tends to require higher-level mathematics including calculus and calculus-based theoretical science courses, as well as more extensive knowledge of the natural sciences, which serves to prepare students for research (whether in graduate studies or industrial R&D) as opposed to engineering technology coursework which focuses on algebra, trigonometry, applied calculus, and other courses that are more practical than theoretical in nature and generally have more labs that involve the hands-on application of the topics studied.
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In the United States, although some states require, without exception, a BS degree in engineering at schools with programs accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET), about two-thirds of the states accept BS degrees in engineering technology accredited by the Engineering Technology Accreditation Commission (ETAC) of the ABET, in order to become licensed as professional engineers. States have different requirements as to the years of experience needed to take the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) and Professional Engineering (PE) exams. A few states require those sitting for the exams to have a master's degree in engineering. This education model is in line with the educational system in the United Kingdom where an accredited MEng or MSc degree in engineering is required by the Engineering Council (EngC) to be registered as a Chartered Engineer. Engineering technology graduates can earn an MS degree in engineering technology, engineering, engineering management, construction management, or a National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB)-accredited Master of Architecture degree. These degrees are also offered online or through distance-learning programs at various universities, both nationally and internationally, which allows individuals to continue working full-time while earning an advanced degree.
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== Nature of the work ==
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Engineering technologists are more likely to work in testing, fabrication/construction or fieldwork, while engineers generally focus more on conceptual design and product development, with considerable overlap (e.g., testing and fabrication are often integral to the overall product development process and can involve engineers as well as engineering technologists).
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Engineering technologists are employed in a wide array of industries and areas including product development, manufacturing and maintenance. They may become managers depending upon the experience and their educational emphasis on management. Entry-level positions relating in various ways to product design, product testing, product development, systems development, field engineering, technical operations, and quality control are common for engineering technologists. Most companies generally make no distinction between engineers and engineering technologists when it comes to hiring.
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== Education and accreditation ==
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Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, some post-secondary institutions in the U.S. and Canada began offering degrees in engineering technology, focusing on applied study rather than the more theoretical studies required for engineering degrees. The focus on applied study addressed a need within the scientific, manufacturing, and engineering communities, as well as other industries, for professionals with hands-on and applications-based engineering knowledge. Depending on the institution, associate's or bachelor's degrees are offered, with some institutions also offering advanced degrees in engineering technology.
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In general, an engineering technologist receives a broad range of applied science and applied mathematics training, as well as the fundamentals of engineering in the student's area of focus. Engineering technology programs typically include instruction in providing support to specific engineering specialties. Information technology is primarily involved with the management, operation, and maintenance of computer systems and networks, along with an application of technology in diverse fields such as architecture, engineering, graphic design, telecommunications, computer science, and network security. An engineering technologist is also expected to have had some coursework in ethics.
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In 2001, Professional organizations from different countries have signed a mutual recognition agreement called the Sydney Accord, which represents an understanding that the academic credentials of engineering technologists will be recognized in all signatory states. The recognition given engineering technologists under the Sydney Accord can be compared to the Washington Accord for engineers and the Dublin Accord for engineering technicians. The Engineering Technologist Mobility Forum (ETMF) is an international forum held by signatories of the Sydney Accord to explore mutual recognition for experienced engineering technologists and to remove artificial barriers to the free movement and practice of engineering technologists amongst their countries. ETMF can be compared to the Engineers Mobility Forum (EMF) for engineers.
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Graduates acquiring an associate degree, or lower, typically find careers as engineering technicians. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics: "Many four-year colleges offer bachelor's degrees in engineering technology and graduates of these programs are hired to work as entry-level engineers or applied engineers, but not technicians." Engineering technicians typically have a two-year associate degree, while engineering technologists have a bachelor's degrees.
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=== Canada ===
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In Canada, the new occupational category of "technologist" was established in the 1960s, in conjunction with an emerging system of community colleges and technical institutes. It was designed to effectively bridge the gap between the increasingly theoretical nature of engineering degrees and the predominantly practical approach of technician and trades programs. Provincial associations may certify individuals as a professional technologist (P.Tech.), certified engineering technologist (C.E.T.), registered engineering technologist (R.E.T.), applied science technologist (AScT), or technologue professionel (T.P.). These provincial associations are constituent members of Technology Professionals Canada (TPC), which accredits technology programs across Canada, through its Technology Accreditation Canada (TAC). Nationally accredited engineering technology programs range from two to three years in length, depending on the province, and often require as many classroom hours as a 4-year degree program.
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=== United States ===
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In the United States, the U.S. Department of Education or the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) are at the top of the educational accreditation hierarchy. The U.S. Department of Education acknowledges regional and national accreditation and CHEA recognizes specialty accreditation. One technology accreditation is currently recognized by CHEA: The Association of Technology, Management and Applied Engineering (ATMAE). CHEA recognizes ATMAE for accrediting associate, baccalaureate, and master's degree programs in technology, applied technology, engineering technology, and technology-related disciplines delivered by national or regional accredited institutions in the United States. As of March 2019, ABET withdrew from CHEA recognition
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The National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies (NICET) awards certification at two levels, depending on work experience: the Associate Engineering Technologist (AT) and the Certified Engineering Technologist (CT). ATMAE awards two levels of certification in technology management: Certified Technology Manager (CTM) and Certified Senior Technology Manager (CSTM). ATMAE also awards two levels of certification of manufacturing specialist: Certified Manufacturing Specialist (CMS) and Certified Senior Manufacturing Specialist (CSMS). In 2020, ATMAE announced offering the Certified Controls Engineer (CCE) and Certified Senior Controls Engineer (CSCE) professional certifications. While the CTM, CMS, and CCE certifications are obtained through examination, the CSTM, CSMS and CSCE require industry experience and continuous improvement via the obtainment of professional development units (PDUs).
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The American Society of Certified Engineering Technicians (ASCET) is a membership organization that issues Certified Member certifications to engineering technicians and engineering technologists. Professional engineers are issued Registered Member certification.
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=== United Kingdom ===
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The United Kingdom has a decades-long tradition of producing engineering technologists via the apprenticeship system. UK engineering technologists have always been designated as "engineers", which in the UK is used to describe the entire range of skilled workers and professionals, from tradespeople through to the highly-educated Chartered Engineer. In fact, up until the 1960s, professional engineers in the UK were often referred to as "Technologists" to distinguish them from scientists, technicians, and craftspeople. The modern term for an engineering technologist is "incorporated engineer" (IEng), although since 2000 the normal route to achieving IEng is with a bachelor's or honors degree in engineering or technology. Modern technical apprenticeships would normally lead to the engineering technician (EngTech) professional qualification and, with further studies at higher apprenticeship level, an IEng. Since 2015, the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) has introduced engineering degree (bachelors and masters) apprenticeships. The title "incorporated engineer" is protected by civil law. Prior to the title "incorporated engineer", UK technologists were known as "technician engineers" a designation introduced in the 1960s.
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In the United Kingdom, an incorporated engineer is accepted as a "professional engineer", registered by the Engineering Council, although the term "professional engineer" has no legal in the UK, and there are no restrictions in practice. In fact, anyone in the UK can call themselves an "engineer" or "professional engineer" without any qualifications or proven competencies in engineering, and most UK skilled trades are sometimes referred to as "professional" or "accredited" engineers. Examples are Registered Gas Engineer (gas installer) or "Professional Telephone Engineer" (phone line installer or fault diagnosis). Incorporated engineers are recognized internationally through the Sydney Accord academic agreement as engineering technologists. One of the professional titles of engineers in the United Kingdom, recognized in the Washington Accord is chartered engineer. The incorporated engineer is a professional engineer as declared by the Engineering Council of the United Kingdom (ECUK).
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The European designation, as demonstrated by the prescribed title under 2005/36/EC, is "engineer". The incorporated engineer operates autonomously and directs activities independently. They do not necessarily need the support of chartered engineers, because they are often acknowledged as full engineers in the UK (but not in Canada or the US). The United Kingdom incorporated engineer may also contribute to the design of new products and systems.
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The chartered engineer and incorporated engineer, whilst often undertaking similar roles, are distinct qualifications awarded by the EngC, with Chartered Engineer (CEng) status being the terminal engineering qualification.
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Incorporated engineers currently require an IEng-accredited bachelors or honors degree in engineering or technology (prior to 1997 the B.Sc. and B.Eng. degrees satisfied the academic requirements for "chartered engineer" registration), a Higher National Certificate or diploma, City and Guilds of London Institute higher diploma/full technological cert diploma, or a Foundation Degree in engineering or technology, plus appropriate further learning to degree level, or an NVQ4 or SVQ4 qualifications approved for the purpose by a licensed engineering institution.
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The academic requirements must be accompanied by the appropriate peer-reviewed experience in employment—typically 4 years post qualification. In addition to the experience and academic requirements, the engineering candidate must have three referees (themselves CEng or IEng) who vouch for the performance of the individual being considered for professional recognition. There are a number of alternative ways to achieve IEng status for those that do not have the necessary qualifications for applicants, but who can clearly show they have achieved the same level as those with qualifications, including:
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writing a technical report, based upon their experience and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of engineering principles;
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earning the City and Guilds graduate diploma (bachelors level) and a postgraduate diploma (masters level) accredited by the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE);
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following a work-based learning program;
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or taking an academic program specified by the institution to which they are applying.
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=== Germany – European Union ===
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==== Engineering technologist / state-certified engineer ====
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The engineering technologist (state-certified technician; German: Staatlich geprüfter Techniker) are vocational (non-academic) qualifications at the tertiary level in Germany. The degree is governed by the framework agreement of trade and technical schools (resolution of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the states in the Federal Republic of Germany of 7 November 2002 in its respective applicable version) and is recognised by all states of the Federal Republic of Germany. It is awarded after passing state examinations at state or state-recognised technical school or academies (German: Fachschule/Fachakademie). Through the Vocational Training Modernisation Act (12.12.2019), state-certified engineers are also allowed to hold the title Bachelor Professional in Technik as of 1 January 2020.
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To be eligible for the engineering technologist examination, candidates must fulfill the following requirements: completion of one of the school systems (Hauptschule, Realschule, Gymnasium), an apprenticeship of at least two years duration, one year of completed professional work experience and attendance of an educational program with a course load of 2400–3000 hours, usually completed within two years, full-time, or 3.5–4 years, part-time, at vocational colleges.
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==== State-certified technicians/engineers in the EU directives ====
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As of 31 January 2012, state-certified engineers, state-certified business managers and state-certified designers are at level 6-bachelor in the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), equivalent to a bachelor's degree. As such, the engineering technologist constitutes an advanced entry qualification for German universities and in principle permits entry into any undergraduate academic-degree program.
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The qualifications are listed in EU Directives as recognised, regulated professions in Germany and the EU. Annexes C and D were added to Council Directive 92/51/EEC as a second general system for the recognition of professional education and training to supplement Directive 89/48/EEC.
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Institutions involved included the federal government (in Germany, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology), EU Standing Conference and Economic Ministerial Meeting of Countries, the German Chamber of Crafts, the Confederation of German Employers' Associations, German Chambers of Industry and Commerce, Confederation of German Trade Unions, and the Federal Institute for Vocational Application. These government institutions agreed on a common position regarding the implementation of the EQF and a German qualifications framework (DQR).
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European Union law and other documents considered to be public include:
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Annexes C and D to Council Directive 92/51/EEC on a second general system for the recognition of professional education and training to supplement Directive 89/48/EEC
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EU Directive 2005L0036-EN 01.01.2007
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ANNEX III list of regulated education and training referred to in the third subparagraph of Article 13(2)
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== See also ==
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National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying
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American Society for Engineering Education
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UNESCO-UNEVOC
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Practical engineer
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Drafter
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== References ==
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== Further reading ==
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Sastry, M.K.S.; Clement K. Sankat; Harris Khan; Dave Bhajan (2008). "The need for technologists and applied technology programs: an experience from Trinidad and Tobago". International Journal of Management in Education. 2 (2): 222. doi:10.1504/IJMIE.2008.018393.
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Sastry, M.K.S.; C.K. Sankat; D. Exall; K.D. Srivastava; H. Khan; B.Copeland; W. Lewis; D.Bhajan (April 2007). "An Appraisal of Tertiary Level Institutional Collaboration and Joint Degree Programs in Trinidad and Tobago". Latin American and Caribbean Journal of Engineering Education. 1 (1): 27–34. ISSN 1935-0295. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
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A geneticist is a biologist or physician who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. A geneticist can be employed as a scientist or a lecturer. Geneticists may perform general research on genetic processes or develop genetic technologies to aid in the pharmaceutical or and agriculture industries. Some geneticists perform experiments in model organisms such as Drosophila, C. elegans, zebrafish, rodents or humans and analyze data to interpret the inheritance of biological traits. A basic science geneticist is a scientist who usually has earned a PhD in genetics and undertakes research and/or lectures in the field. A medical geneticist is a physician who has been trained in medical genetics as a specialization and evaluates, diagnoses, and manages patients with hereditary conditions or congenital malformations; and provides genetic risk calculations and mutation analysis.
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== Education ==
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Geneticists participate in courses from many areas, such as biology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, cell biology, bioinformatics, and mathematics. They also participate in more specifie genetics courses such as molecular genetics, transmission genetics, population genetics, quantitative genetics, ecological genetics, epigenetics, and genomics.
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== Careers ==
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Geneticists can work in many different fields, doing a variety of jobs. There are many careers for geneticists in medicine, agriculture, wildlife, general sciences, or many other fields.
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Listed below are a few examples of careers a geneticist may pursue.
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== References ==
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A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interact. The Greek prefix "geo" means "earth" and the Greek suffix, "graphy", meaning "description", so a geographer is someone who studies the earth. The word "geography" is a Middle French word that is believed to have been first used in 1540.
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Although geographers are historically known as people who make maps, map making is actually the field of study of cartography, a subset of geography. Geographers do not study only the details of the natural environment or human society, but they also study the reciprocal relationship between these two. For example, they study how the natural environment contributes to human society and how human society affects the natural environment.
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In particular, physical geographers study the natural environment while human geographers study human society and culture. Some geographers are practitioners of GIS (geographic information system) and are often employed by local, state, and federal government agencies as well as in the private sector by environmental and engineering firms.
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The paintings by Johannes Vermeer titled The Geographer and The Astronomer are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific enquiry in Europe at the time of their painting in 1668–69.
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== Areas of study in geography ==
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Subdividing geography is challenging, as the discipline is broad, interdisciplinary, ancient, and has been approached differently by different cultures. Attempts have gone back centuries, and include the "Four traditions of geography" and applied "branches."
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=== Four traditions of geography ===
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The four traditions of geography were proposed in 1964 by William D. Pattison in a paper titled "The Four Traditions of Geography" appearing in the Journal of Geography. These traditions are:
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spatial or locational tradition
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area studies or regional tradition
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Human–Environment interaction tradition (originally referred to as the "man-land tradition")
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Earth science tradition
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=== Branches of geography ===
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The UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems subdivides geography into three major fields of study, which are then further subdivided. These are:
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Human geography: including urban geography, cultural geography, economic geography, political geography, historical geography, marketing geography, health geography, and social geography.
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Physical geography: including geomorphology, hydrology, glaciology, biogeography, climatology, meteorology, pedology, oceanography, geodesy, and environmental geography.
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Technical geography: including geoinformatics, geographic information science, geovisualization, and spatial analysis.
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=== Five themes of geography ===
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The National Geographic Society identifies five broad key themes for geographers:
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human-environment interaction
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Location
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Movement
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Place
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Regions
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== Notable geographers ==
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Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) – published Cosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography.
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Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow.
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Carl O. Sauer (1889–1975) – cultural geographer.
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Carl Ritter (1779–1859) – occupied the first chair of geography at Berlin University.
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David Harvey (born 1935) – Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
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Doreen Massey (1944–2016) – scholar in the space and places of globalization and its pluralities; winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
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Edward Soja (1940–2015) – worked on regional development, planning and governance and coined the terms synekism and postmetropolis; winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
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Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of the American Association of Geographers.
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Jovan Cvijić (1865–1927) – Serbian geographer, geologist, sociologist and human geographer; father of the karst geomorphology
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Eratosthenes (c. 276 – c. 195/194 BC) – calculated the size of the Earth.
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Ernest Burgess (1886–1966) – creator of the concentric zone model.
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Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594) – cartographer who produced the Mercator projection
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John Francon Williams (1854–1911) – author of The Geography of the Oceans.
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Karen Bakker (1971-2023), who contributed significantly to the study of intersections between digital technology and the natural environment
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Karl Butzer (1934–2016) – German-American geographer, cultural ecologist and environmental archaeologist.
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Michael Frank Goodchild (born 1944) – GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003.
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Milton Santos (1926–2001) – became known for his pioneering works in several branches of geography, notably urban development in developing countries.
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Muhammad al-Idrisi (Arabic: أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي; Latin: Dreses) (1100–1165) – author of Nuzhatul Mushtaq.
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Nigel Thrift (born 1949) – originator of non-representational theory.
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Paul Vidal de La Blache (1845–1918) – founder of the French school of geopolitics, wrote the principles of human geography.
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Ptolemy (c. 100 – c. 170) – compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book Geographia.
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Radhanath Sikdar (1813–1870) – calculated the height of Mount Everest.
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Roger Tomlinson (1933 – 2014) – the primary originator of modern geographic information systems.
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Halford Mackinder (1861–1947) – co-founder of the London School of Economics, Geographical Association.
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Strabo (64/63 BC – c. AD 24) – wrote Geographica, one of the first books outlining the study of geography.
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Waldo Tobler (1930–2018) – coined the first law of geography.
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Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of central place theory.
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William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.
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Yi-Fu Tuan (1930–2022) – Chinese-American scholar credited with starting humanistic geography as a discipline.
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== Institutions and societies ==
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American Association of Geographers
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American Geographical Society
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North American Cartographic Information Society
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Anton Melik Geographical Institute (Slovenia)
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Gamma Theta Upsilon (international)
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Institute of Geographical Information Systems (Pakistan)
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International Geographical Union
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Karachi Geographical Society (Pakistan)
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National Geographic Society (US)
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Royal Canadian Geographical Society
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Royal Danish Geographical Society
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Royal Geographical Society (UK)
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Russian Geographical Society
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== See also ==
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== References ==
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== Further reading ==
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Steven Seegel. Map Men: Transnational Lives and Deaths of Geographers in the Making of East Central Europe. University of Chicago Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-226-43849-8.
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== External links ==
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Media related to Geographers at Wikimedia Commons
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Geography portal
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:43.021352+00:00"
|
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instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A geologist is a scientist who studies the structure, composition, and history of Earth. Geologists incorporate techniques from physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, and geography to perform research in the field and the laboratory. Geologists work in the energy and mining sectors to exploit natural resources. They monitor environmental hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis and landslides. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions.
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
|
||||
James Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he showed a paper titled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for sediments to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795 (Vol. 1, Vol. 2).
|
||||
Followers of Hutton were known as Plutonists because they believed that some rocks were formed by vulcanism, which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes, as opposed to the Neptunists, led by Abraham Werner, who believed that all rocks had settled out of a large ocean whose level gradually dropped over time.
|
||||
|
||||
The first geological map of the United States was produced in 1809 by William Maclure. In 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him; the Allegheny Mountains being crossed and recrossed some 50 times. The results of his unaided labors were submitted to the American Philosophical Society in a memoir entitled Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map, and published in the Society's Transactions, together with the nation's first geological map. This antedates William Smith's geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks.
|
||||
Sir Charles Lyell first published his famous book, Principles of Geology, in 1830. This book, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring today. In contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time.
|
||||
|
||||
== Education ==
|
||||
|
||||
For an aspiring geologist, training typically includes significant coursework in physics, mathematics, and chemistry, in addition to classes offered through the geology department; historical and physical geology, igneous and metamorphic petrology and petrography, hydrogeology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, mineralogy, palaeontology, physical geography and structural geology are among the many required areas of study. Most geologists also need skills in GIS and other mapping techniques. Geology students often spend portions of the year, especially the summer though sometimes during a January term, living and working under field conditions with faculty members (often referred to as "field camp"). Many non-geologists often take geology courses or have expertise in geology that they find valuable to their fields; this is common in the fields of geography, engineering, chemistry, urban planning, environmental studies, among others.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Specialization ===
|
||||
|
||||
Geologists, can be generally identified as a specialist in one or more of the various geoscience disciplines, such as a geophysicist or geochemist. Geologists may concentrate their studies or research in one or more of the following disciplines:
|
||||
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|
||||
title: "Geologist"
|
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chunk: 2/2
|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist"
|
||||
category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:43.021352+00:00"
|
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Economic geology: the study of ore genesis, and the mechanisms of ore creation, geostatistics.
|
||||
Engineering geology: application of the geologic sciences to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geologic factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and adequately provided for;
|
||||
Geophysics: the applied branch deals with the application of physical methods such as gravity, seismicity, electricity, magnetic properties to study the earth.
|
||||
Geochemistry: the applied branch deals with the study of the chemical makeup and behaviour of rocks, and the study of the behaviour of their minerals.
|
||||
Geochronology: the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events (notably, meteorite impacts).
|
||||
Geomorphology: the study of landforms and the processes that create them.
|
||||
Hydrogeology: the study of the origin, occurrence and movement of groundwater water in a subsurface geological system.
|
||||
Igneous petrology: the study of igneous processes such as igneous differentiation, fractional crystallization, intrusive and volcanological phenomena.
|
||||
Isotope geology: the case of the isotopic composition of rocks to determine the processes of rock and planetary formation.
|
||||
Metamorphic petrology: the study of the effects of metamorphism on minerals and rocks.
|
||||
Marine geology: the study of the seafloor; involves geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal margins. Marine geology has strong ties to physical oceanography and plate tectonics.
|
||||
Mineralogy: the study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.
|
||||
Palaeoclimatology: the application of geological science to determine the climatic conditions present in the Earth's atmosphere within the Earth's history.
|
||||
Palaeontology: the classification and taxonomy of fossils within the geological record and the construction of a palaeontological history of the Earth.
|
||||
Pedology: the study of soil, soil formation, and regolith formation.
|
||||
Petroleum geology: the study of sedimentary basins applied to the search for hydrocarbons (oil exploration).
|
||||
Planetary geology: the study of geosciences as it relates to other celestial bodies, namely planets and their moons. This includes the subdisciplines of lunar geology, selenology, and martian geology, areology.
|
||||
Sedimentology: the study of sedimentary rocks, strata, formations, eustasy and the processes of modern-day sedimentary and erosive systems.
|
||||
Seismology: the study of earthquakes.
|
||||
Structural geology: the study of folds, faults, foliation and rock microstructure to determine the deformational history of rocks and regions.
|
||||
Volcanology: the study of volcanoes, their eruptions, lavas, magma processes and hazards.
|
||||
|
||||
== Employment ==
|
||||
|
||||
Professional geologists may work in the mining industry or in the associated area of mineral exploration. They may also work in oil and gas industry.
|
||||
Some geologists also work for a wide range of government agencies, private firms, and non-profit and academic institutions. They are usually hired on a contract basis or hold permanent positions within private firms or official agencies (such as the Geological Survey and Mineral Exploration of Iran).
|
||||
Local, state, and national governments hire geologists to work on geological projects that are of interest to the public community. The investigation of a country's natural resources is often a key role when working for government institutions; the work of the geologist in this field can be made publicly available to help the community make more informed decisions related to the exploitation of resources, management of the environment and the safety of critical infrastructure - all of which is expected to bring greater wellbeing to the country. This 'wellbeing' is often in the form of greater tax revenues from new or extended mining projects or through better infrastructure and/or natural disaster planning.
|
||||
|
||||
An engineering geologist is employed to investigate geologic hazards and geologic constraints for the planning, design and construction of public and private engineering projects, forensic and post-mortem studies, and environmental impact analysis. Exploration geologists use all aspects of geology and geophysics to locate and study natural resources. In many countries or U.S. states without specialized environmental remediation licensure programs, the environmental remediation field is often dominated by professional geologists, particularly hydrogeologists, with professional concentrations in this aspect of the field. Petroleum and mining companies use mudloggers, and large-scale land developers use the skills of geologists and engineering geologists to help them locate oil and minerals, adapt to local features such as karst topography or earthquake risk, and comply with environmental regulations.
|
||||
Geologists in academia usually hold an advanced degree in a specialized area within their geological discipline and are employed by universities.
|
||||
|
||||
== Professional designation ==
|
||||
|
||||
In Canada, National Instrument 43-101 requires reports containing estimates of mineral resources and reserves to be prepared by, or under the supervision of, a Qualified Person (QP) who has at least five years of experience with the reported minerals and is a member of a professional association. The QP accepts personal liability for the professional quality of the report and underlying work.
|
||||
The rules and guidelines codified in National Instrument 43-101 were introduced after a scandal in 1997 where Bre-X geologists salted drill core samples at a gold exploration property in Busang, Indonesia. The falsified drilling results misled Bre-X investors and upon discovery of the fraud, the company collapsed in the largest gold mining scam in history.
|
||||
In Europe exists the professional title of EurGeol (European Geologist) awarded by the European Federation of Geologists.
|
||||
|
||||
== Professional Societies ==
|
||||
|
||||
Geologists may belong to a number of professional societies promoting research, networking, and professional development within the field.
|
||||
|
||||
American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG)
|
||||
American Geosciences Institute (AGI)
|
||||
American Geophysical Union (AGU)
|
||||
European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers (EAGE) – Professional organization for geoscientists and engineers
|
||||
European Federation of Geologists (EFG)
|
||||
European Geosciences Union (EGU) – International science society
|
||||
Geological Society of America (GSA)
|
||||
British Geological Survey (BGS)
|
||||
Geological Society of London (GSL)
|
||||
United States Geological Survey (USGS)
|
||||
International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)
|
||||
International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS)
|
||||
Mineralogical Society of America (MSA)
|
||||
Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM)
|
||||
Society of Economic Geologists (SEG)
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of geologists
|
||||
List of geology journals
|
||||
List of free geology software
|
||||
Petroleum geologist
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
34
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||||
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|
||||
title: "Geoprofessions"
|
||||
chunk: 1/6
|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:44.331397+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
"Geoprofessions" is a term coined by the Geoprofessional Business Association to connote various technical disciplines that involve engineering, earth and environmental services applied to below-ground ("subsurface"), ground-surface, and ground-surface-connected conditions, structures, or formations. The principal disciplines include, as major categories:
|
||||
|
||||
geomatics engineering
|
||||
geotechnical engineering;
|
||||
geology and engineering geology;
|
||||
geological engineering;
|
||||
geophysics;
|
||||
geophysical engineering;
|
||||
environmental science and environmental engineering;
|
||||
construction-materials engineering and testing; and
|
||||
other geoprofessional services.
|
||||
Each discipline involves specialties, many of which are recognized through professional designations that governments and societies or associations confer based upon a person's education, training, experience, and educational accomplishments. In the United States, engineers must be licensed in the state or territory where they practice engineering. Most states license geologists and several license environmental "site professionals." Several states license engineering geologists and recognize geotechnical engineering through a geotechnical-engineering titling act.
|
||||
|
||||
== Geotechnical-engineering specialties ==
|
||||
|
||||
Although geotechnical engineering is applied for a variety of purposes, it is essential to foundation design. As such, geotechnical engineering is applicable to every existing or new structure on the planet; every building and every highway, bridge, tunnel, harbor, airport, water line, reservoir, or other public work. Commonly, the geotechnical-engineering service comprises a study of subsurface conditions using various sampling, in-situ testing, and/or other site-characterization techniques. The instrument of professional service in those cases typically is a report through which geotechnical engineers relate the information they have been retained to provide, typically: their findings; their opinions about subsurface materials and conditions; their judgment about how the subsurface materials and conditions assumed to exist probably will behave when subjected to loads or used as building material; and their preliminary recommendations for materials usage or appropriate foundation systems, the latter based on their knowledge of a structure's size, shape, weight, etc., and the subsurface/structure interactions likely to occur.
|
||||
Civil engineers, structural engineers, and architects, feasibly among other members of the project team, apply the geotechnical findings and preliminary recommendations to take the structure's design forward. They realize these preliminary recommendations are subject to change, however, because – as a matter of practical necessity related to the observational method inherent to geotechnical engineering – geotechnical engineers base their recommendations on the composition of samples taken from a tiny portion of a site whose actual subsurface conditions are unknowable before excavation, because they are hidden by earth and/or rock and/or water. For this reason, as a key component of a complete geotechnical engineering service, geotechnical engineers employ construction-materials engineering and testing (CoMET) to observe subsurface materials as they are exposed through excavation.
|
||||
To help achieve economies on their clients' behalf, geotechnical engineers assign their field representatives – specially educated and trained paraprofessionals – to observe the excavated materials and the excavations themselves in light of conditions the geotechnical engineers opined to exist. When differences are discovered, the geotechnical engineers evaluate the new findings and, when necessary, modify their design and construction recommendations. Because such changes could require other members of the design and construction team to modify their designs, specifications, and proposed methods, many owners have their geotechnical engineers serve as active members of the project team from project inception to conclusion, working with others to help ensure appropriate application of geotechnical information and judgments.
|
||||
In other cases, geotechnical engineering goes beyond a study and construction recommendations to include design of soil and rock structures. The most common of these are the pavements that make up our streets and highways, airport runways, and bridge and tunnel decks, among other paved improvements. Geotechnical engineers design the pavements in terms of the subgrade, subbase, and base layers of materials to be used, and the thickness and composition of each. Geotechnical engineers also design the earth-retention walls associated with structures such as levees, earthen dams, reservoirs, and landfills. In other cases, the design is applied to contain earth, via structures such as excavation-support systems and retaining walls. Sometimes referred to as geostructural engineering or geostructural design, these services are also intrinsic to hydraulic engineering, hydrogeologic engineering, coastal engineering, geologic engineering and water-resources engineering. Geotechnical-engineering design is also applied for structures such as tunnels, bridges, dams, and other structures beneath, on, or connected to the surface of the earth. Geotechnical engineering, like geology, engineering geology, and geologic engineering, also involves the specialties of rock mechanics and soil mechanics, and often requires knowledge of geotextiles and geosynthetics, as well as an array of instrumentation and monitoring equipment, to help ensure specified conditions are achieved and maintained.
|
||||
Earthquake engineering and landslide detection, remediation, and prevention are geoprofessional services associated with specialized types of geotechnical engineering (as well as geophysics; see below), as is forensic geotechnical engineering, a geoprofessional service applied to determine why a certain applicable type of event – usually a failure of some sort – occurred. (Virtually all geoprofessional services can be performed for forensic purposes, commonly as litigation-support/expert witness services.) Railway-systems engineering is another type of specialized geotechnical engineering, as are the design of piers and bulkheads, drydocks, on-shore and off-shore wind-turbine systems, and systems that stabilize oil platforms and other marine structures to the sea floor.
|
||||
Geotechnical engineers have long been involved in sustainability initiatives, including (among many others) the use of excavated materials; the safe application of contaminated subsurface materials; the recycling of asphalt, concrete, and building rubble and debris; and the design of permeable pavements.
|
||||
All civil-engineering specialties and projects – roads and highways, bridges, rail systems, ports and other waterfront structures, airport terminals, etc. – require the involvement of geotechnical engineers and engineering, meaning that many civil-engineering pursuits are geoprofessional pursuits to a greater or lesser degree. However, geotechnical engineering has for centuries also been associated with military engineering; sappers (in general) and miners (whose tunneling design services (known as landmining and undermining) were used in military-siege operations).
|
||||
|
||||
== Engineering geology and other geology specialties ==
|
||||
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||||
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|
||||
title: "Geoprofessions"
|
||||
chunk: 2/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:44.331397+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Engineering geologist.
|
||||
(a) Elements of the engineering geologist specialty.
|
||||
The practice of engineering geology involves the interpretation, evaluation, analysis, and application of geological information and data to civil works. Geotechnical soil and rock units are designated, characterized, and classified, using standard engineering soil and rock classification systems. Relationships are interpreted between landform development, current and past geologic processes, ground and surface water, and the strength characteristics of soil and rock. Processes evaluated include both surficial processes (for example, slope, fluvial, and coastal processes), and deep-seated processes (for example, volcanic activity and seismicity).
|
||||
Geotechnical zones or domains are designated based on soil and rocked geological strength characteristics, common landforms, related geologic processes, or other pertinent factors. Proposed developmental modifications are evaluated and, where appropriate, analyzed to predict potential or likely changes in types and rates of surficial geologic processes. Proposed modifications may include such things as vegetation removal, using various types of earth materials in construction, applying loads to shallow or deep foundations, constructing cut or fill slopes and other grading, and modifying ground and surface water flow. The effects of surficial and deep-seated geologic processes are evaluated and analyzed to predict their potential effect on public health, public safety, land use, or proposed development.
|
||||
(b) Typical engineering geologic applications and types of projects. Engineering geology is applied during all project phases, from conception through planning, design, construction, maintenance, and, in some cases, reclamation and closure. Planning-level engineering geologic work is commonly conducted in response to forest practice regulations, critical areas ordinances, and the State Environmental Policy Act. Typical planning-level engineering geologic applications include timber harvest planning, proposed location of residential and commercial developments and other buildings and facilities, and alternative route selection for roads, rail lines, trails, and utilities. Site-specific engineering geologic applications include cuts, fills, and tunnels for roads, trails, railroads, and utility lines; foundations for bridges and other drainage structures, retaining walls and shoring, dams, buildings, water towers, slope, channel and shoreline stabilization facilities, fish ladders and hatcheries, ski lifts and other structures; landings for logging and other work platforms; airport landing strips; rock bolt systems; blasting; and other major earthwork projects such as for aggregate sources and landfills.
|
||||
(Taken from Washington Administrative Code WAC 308-15-053(1))
|
||||
While engineering geology is applicable principally to planning, design and construction activities, other specialties of geology are applied in a variety of geoprofessional specialty fields, such as mining geology, petroleum geology, and environmental geology. Note that mining geology and mining engineering are different geoprofessional fields.
|
||||
|
||||
== Geological engineering ==
|
||||
|
||||
Geological engineering is a hybrid discipline that comprises elements of civil engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering, and earth sciences. Geological engineers often become licensed as both engineers and geologists. There are thirteen geological-engineering (or geoengineering) programs in the United States that are accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of ABET: (1) Colorado School of Mines, (2) Michigan Technological University, (3) Missouri University of Science and Technology, (4) Montana Tech of the University of Montana, (5) South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, (6) University of Alaska-Fairbanks, (7) University of Minnesota Twin Cities, (8) University of Mississippi, (9) University of Nevada, Reno (10) University of North Dakota, (11) University of Texas at Austin, (12) University of Utah, and (13) University of Wisconsin-Madison.
|
||||
Other schools offer programs or classes in geological engineering, including the University of Arizona.
|
||||
Geoengineering or geological engineering, engineering geology, and geotechnical engineering deal with the discovery, development, and production and use of subsurface earth resources, as well as the design and construction of earthworks. Geoengineering is the application of geosciences, where mechanics, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and geology are used to understand and shape our interaction with the earth.
|
||||
Geoengineers work in areas of
|
||||
|
||||
mining, including surface and subsurface excavations, and rock burst mitigation
|
||||
energy, including hydraulic fracturing and drilling for exploration and production of water, oil, or gas
|
||||
infrastructure, including underground transportation systems and isolation of nuclear and hazardous wastes; and
|
||||
environment, including groundwater flow, contaminant transport and remediation, and hydraulic structures.
|
||||
Professional geoscience organizations such as the American Rock Mechanics Association or the Geo-Institute and academic degrees such as the bachelor of geoengineering accredited by ABET acknowledge the broad scope of work practiced by geoengineers and stress fundamentals of science and engineering methods for the solution of complex problems. Geoengineers study the mechanics of rock, soil, and fluids to improve the sustainable use of earth's finite resources, where problems appear with competing interests, for example, groundwater and waste isolation, offshore oil drilling and risk of spills, natural gas production and induced seismicity.
|
||||
|
||||
== Geophysics ==
|
||||
|
||||
Geophysics is the study of the physical properties of the earth using quantitative physical methods to determine what lies beneath the earth's surface. The physical properties of concern include the propagation of elastic waves (seismic), magnetism, gravity, electrical resistivity/conductivity, and electromagnetism. Geophysics has historically been most commonly used in oil exploration and mining, but its popularity in non-destructive investigative work has flourished since the early 1990s.
|
||||
It is also used in groundwater exploration and protection, geo-hazard studies (e.g., faults and landslides), alignment studies (e.g., proposed roadway, underground utilities, and pipelines), foundation studies, contamination characterization and remediation, landfill investigations, unexploded-ordnance investigations, vibration monitoring, dam-safety evaluation, location of underground storage tanks, identification of subsurface voids, and assisting in archeological investigations. (definition from Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists)
|
||||
|
||||
== Geophysical engineering ==
|
||||
Geophysical engineering is the application of geophysics to the engineering design of facilities including roads, tunnels, wells and mines.
|
||||
|
||||
== Environmental-science and environmental-engineering specialties ==
|
||||
14
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||||
---
|
||||
title: "Geoprofessions"
|
||||
chunk: 3/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:44.331397+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Environmental science and environmental engineering are the geoprofessions commonly associated with the identification, remediation, and prevention of environmental contamination. These services range from phase-one and phase-two environmental site-assessments – research designed to assess the likelihood that a property is contaminated and subsurface exploration conducted to identify the nature and extent of contamination, respectively – up through the design of processes and systems to remediate contaminated sites for the protection of human health and the environment.
|
||||
Environmental geology is one of the principal geoprofessions engaged in assessing and remediating contaminated sites. Environmental geologists help identify the subsurface stratigraphy in which contaminants are located and through which they migrate. Environmental chemistry is the geoprofession that encompasses the study of chemical compounds in the soil. These compounds are categorized as pollutants or contaminants when introduced into the environment by human factors (e.g., waste, mining processes, radioactive release) and are not of natural origin. Environmental chemistry assesses interactions or these compounds with soil, rock, and water to determine their fate and transport, the techniques to measure the levels of contaminants in the environment, and technologies to destroy or reduce the toxicity of contaminants in wastes or compounds that have been released to the environment. Environmental engineering is often applied to assess contaminated sites, but more often is used in the design of systems to remediate contaminated soil and groundwater.
|
||||
Hydrogeology is the geoprofession involved when environmental studies involve subsurface water. Hydrogeology applications range from securing safe, plentiful underground drinking-water sources to identifying the nature of groundwater contamination in order to facilitate remediation. Environmental toxicology is a geoprofession when used to identify the source, fate, transformation, effects, and risks of pollutants on the environment, including soil, water, and air. Wetlands science is a geoprofessional pursuit that incorporates several scientific disciplines, such as botany, biology, and limnology. It involves, among other activities, the delineation, conservation, restoration, and preservation of wetlands. These services are sometimes conducted by geoprofessional specialists called wetlands scientists. Ecology is a closely related environmental geoprofession involving studies into the distribution of organisms and biodiversity within an environmental context.
|
||||
Numerous geoprofessional disciplines contribute to the redevelopment of brownfields, sites (typically urban) that are underused or abandoned because they are or are assumed to be contaminated by hazardous materials. Geoprofessionals are engaged to evaluate the degree to which such sites are contaminated and the steps that can be taken to achieve the sites' safe reuse. Environmental engineers and scientists work with developers to identify and design remediation strategies and exposure-barrier designs that protect future site users from unacceptable exposure to environmental contamination resulting from previous uses of the site. Because these previous uses often resulted in degraded soil conditions and the presence of abandoned, underground structures, geotechnical engineers often are needed to design special foundations for the new structures.
|
||||
12
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Normal file
12
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File diff suppressed because one or more lines are too long
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Geoprofessions"
|
||||
chunk: 5/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:44.331397+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Many of the CoMET services performed for construction projects are performed for environmental projects as well, but requirements tend to be less rigid because they involve fewer licensing and related requirements. For example, individuals may perform federally mandated all-appropriate inquiries – typically a phase-one environmental site assessment – without a license of any kind.
|
||||
61
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Geoprofessions"
|
||||
chunk: 6/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:44.331397+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Other geoprofessional services ==
|
||||
To the extent that archeology and paleontology require systematic subsurface excavation to recover artifacts, they, too, are considered geoprofessions. Many geoprofessional-services firms offer these services to those of their clients that need to satisfy federal and/or state regulations that require paleontological and/or archeological inquiry before site development or redevelopment activities can proceed.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of geology journals
|
||||
List of mining journals
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
Bates and Jackson. (1980) Glossary of Geology. 2nd ed., American Geological Institute. ISBN 0-913312-15-0.
|
||||
Bowles, J. (1988) Foundation Analysis and Design. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-07-006776-7.
|
||||
Burger, H. Robert, Sheehan, Anne F., and Jones, Craig H. (2006) Introduction to Applied Geophysics : Exploring the Shallow Subsurface. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-92637-0.
|
||||
Cedergren, Harry R. (1977) Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-14179-8.
|
||||
Chen, W-F and Scawthorn, C. (2003) Earthquake Engineering Handbook. CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-0068-1
|
||||
Das, Braja M. (2006) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. England: THOMSON LEARNING (KY). ISBN 0-534-55144-0.
|
||||
Fang, H.-Y. and Daniels, J. (2005) Introductory Geotechnical Engineering: an Environmental Perspective. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-30402-4.
|
||||
Faure, Gunter. (1998) Principles and Applications of Geochemistry: a Comprehensive Textbook for Geology Students. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-02-336450-1.
|
||||
Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J.A. (1979) Groundwater. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-365312-9.
|
||||
Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981) An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0.
|
||||
James Hutton: The Founder of Modern Geology, American Museum of Natural History, page viewed on March 4, 2011. Excerpt from Mathez, Edmond A. (2000) Earth: Inside and Out. American Museum of Natural History. ISBN 1-56584-595-1.
|
||||
Kiersh. (1991) The Heritage of Engineering Geology: The First Hundred Years. Centennial Special Volume 3, Geological Society of America. ISBN 0-8137-5303-1.
|
||||
Kramer, Steven L. (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-374943-6.
|
||||
Lunne, T. and Long, M. (2006) "Review of Long Seabed Samplers and Criteria for New Sampler Design". Marine Geology, Vol 226, p. 145-165.
|
||||
Lyell, Charles. (1991) Principles of geology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-49797-6.
|
||||
Mitchell, James K. and Soga, K. (2005) Fundamentals of Soil Behavior. 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-46302-3.
|
||||
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command). (1986) Design Manual 7.01, Soil Mechanics. US Government Printing Office.
|
||||
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command). (1986) Design Manual 7.02, Foundations and Earth Structures. US Government Printing Office.
|
||||
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering Command). (1983) Design Manual 7.03, Soil Dynamics, Deep Stabilization and Special Geotechnical Construction. US Government Printing Office.
|
||||
Price, David George. (2008) Engineering Geology: Principles and Practice. Springer. ISBN 3-540-29249-7.
|
||||
Rajapakse, Ruwan. (2005) Pile Design and Construction. 2005. ISBN 0-9728657-1-3.
|
||||
Rollinson, Hugh R. (1996) Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation, Interpretation. Harlow: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-06701-1.
|
||||
Selley, Richard C. (1998) Elements of Petroleum Geology. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-636370-6.
|
||||
Shroff, Arvind V. and Shah, Dhananjay L. (2003) Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. Exton, PA: Lisse. ISBN 90-5809-235-6.
|
||||
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., and Mesri, G. (1996) Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-08658-4.
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Academy of Geo-Professionals
|
||||
ADSC: The International Association of Foundation Drilling
|
||||
American Society of Civil Engineers
|
||||
Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists
|
||||
ASTM International
|
||||
CalGeo: The California Geotechnical Engineering Association
|
||||
CENews - For the Business of Civil Engineering
|
||||
Deep Foundations Institute
|
||||
Earth Science News, Maps, Dictionary, Articles, Jobs
|
||||
The Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors
|
||||
Geo-Institute of ASCE
|
||||
Geological Society of America
|
||||
European Federation of Geologists
|
||||
Geoprofessional Business Association
|
||||
International Code Council (ICC)
|
||||
41
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_scientist-0.md
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41
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_scientist-0.md
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@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Government scientist"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_scientist"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:45.547413+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A government scientist is a scientist employed by a country's government, either in a research-driven job (for example J. Robert Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project), or for another role that requires scientific training and methods. In some countries other terms, such as Technical officers, is also used for scientists.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Australia ==
|
||||
In Australia, most government scientists are employed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. A Chief Scientist is appointed to advise the government through the Office of the Chief Scientist.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Singapore ==
|
||||
In Singapore, government scientists are classified according to the Departmental Titles (Alteration) (Amendment) Act 1996, which amended the Departmental Titles (Alteration) Ordinance of 1950.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== United Kingdom ==
|
||||
In the United Kingdom, government scientists are part of the Scientific Civil Service. However, that was not always the case. Before the Second World War, government scientists were recruited and employed by the Civil Service on an ad hoc basis, with grades, job titles, and organizations that varied between departments. In 1930, the Carpenter Committee was appointed to investigate the organization of civil service scientific and technical staff, and its report proposed a reorganization that covered the entire Service. This report was endorsed by the Tomlin Commission, however it was impossible to reach agreement with the relevant staff associations, who wanted other professional groups within the civil service to be similarly reorganized, and nothing ended up happening.
|
||||
World War Two changed this by causing a far greater number of scientific and technical staff to be employed by the government. The Barlow Committee on Scientific Staff in Government Departments reviewed the positions of government scientists during wartime, issuing a report on 1943-04-23. This report spurred the creation of a government white paper, entitled The Scientific Civil Service, which resulted in a reorganization of government scientists across the entire Service. This reorganization classified government scientists across the entire Service into three major classes similar to those civil servants for the Treasury had already been classified in:
|
||||
|
||||
Scientific Officer class
|
||||
Grades of scientific officer began with Scientific Officer, and progressed through Senior, Principal, Senior Principal, Deputy Chief, and Chief Scientific Officers.
|
||||
Experimental Officer class
|
||||
Grades of experimental officer began with Assistant Experimental Officer, and progressed through Experimental Officer to Senior and then Chief Experimental Officers. Experimental officers were either university graduates or people who had qualifications such as the Higher National Certificate, and were support staff for Scientific Officers.
|
||||
Scientific Assistant class
|
||||
This class of civil servant undertook the routine work, and was largely equivalent to the Treasury's Clerical Class.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== United States ==
|
||||
In the United States, the employment of scientists by state and federal governments was, like in the U.K., affected by the Second World War. President Roosevelt first created the National Defense Research Committee under Vannevar Bush. This was then expanded to the Office of Scientific Research and Development, also led by Bush. The OSRD employed scientists on a contract basis, with the OSRD as client and individual scientists as contractors. Scientists were contracted to research (through study and experiment) a specified subject, without constraints as to method, and to issue reports to the OSRD.
|
||||
After the war, scientific research was continued by agencies such as the Office of Naval Research established in 1947, which again employed scientists as contractors. Scientific research was published in the normal way. The Atomic Energy Commission, established in 1946, and the National Institutes of Health, established in 1930, also paid scientists for scientific research, and were major sources of government research funding.
|
||||
The National Science Foundation was eventually established in 1950. Defence research was explicitly excluded from its charter, even though Dr Bush had originally envisioned the NSF as including that as well. The armed forces established their own research departments, such as the Office of Ordnance Research for the Department of the Army, established on the campus of Duke University in June 1951.
|
||||
U.S. local, state, and federal governments also employ scientists directly. The federal government employs them in departments such as the Department of Agriculture, Department of the Interior, and the Public Health Service. States and cities employ scientists in similar roles, including at fish and game commissions, parks, aquariums, arboretums, and museums; and at agencies such as environmental inspection agencies, crime laboratories, and public health monitoring agencies.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
50
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_scientist-0.md
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50
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_scientist-0.md
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Healthcare scientist"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_scientist"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:46.825606+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A healthcare scientist (HCS), or medical scientist, is a scientist working in any of a number of health related disciplines. Healthcare scientists may work directly for health service providers, or in academia or industry. Healthcare scientists typically refers to those contributing directly to clinical services, and not scientists working solely in health related research and development.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Disciplines ==
|
||||
|
||||
Boundaries between healthcare science and other related fields are not strictly defined. There are more than 50 different specialisms. Healthcare scientists work in clinical bioinformatics, life sciences, physical sciences and physiological sciences. A non-exhaustive list of healthcare science roles is below.
|
||||
|
||||
Medical physicist
|
||||
Biomedical scientist
|
||||
Audiologist
|
||||
Clinical cytogeneticist
|
||||
Clinical embryologist
|
||||
Neurophysiological scientist
|
||||
Vascular scientist
|
||||
Cardiac scientist
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Organization ==
|
||||
Regulation and organization of healthcare scientists varies significantly from country to country, and from discipline to discipline.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== United Kingdom ====
|
||||
There are over 50,000 healthcare scientists working in the NHS. Biomedical Scientist and Clinical scientist are a protected title in the United Kingdom, requiring state registration. The Health and Care Professions Council holds the register and regulates the profession. The main routes to registration and training are through courses run by the Institute of Biomedical Science or the National School of Healthcare Science.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== North America ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== United States ====
|
||||
According to the bureau of labor statistics, there were 120,000 medical scientists working in the United States in 2016.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Medical laboratory scientist
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
47
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_scientist-0.md
Normal file
47
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_scientist-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Independent scientist"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_scientist"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:48.017865+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An independent scientist (historically also known as gentleman scientist) is a financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study without direct affiliation to a public institution such as a university or government-run research and development body.
|
||||
The term "gentleman scientist" arose in post-Renaissance Europe, but became less common in the 20th century as government and private funding increased.
|
||||
Most independent scientists have at some point in their career been affiliated with some academic institution, such as Charles Darwin, who was affiliated with the Geological Society of London.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
Self-funded scientists practiced more commonly from the Renaissance until the late 19th century, including the Victorian era, especially in England, before large-scale government and corporate funding was available. Many early fellows of the Royal Society in London were independent scientists.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Modern ===
|
||||
Modern-day independent scientists who fund their own research on an independent basis include, for example, Stephen Wolfram who funds his research through the sale of Mathematica software, Julian Barbour, Aubrey de Grey, Barrington Moore, Susan Blackmore, James Lovelock, and John Wilkinson who funds his research on "molecular synergism in nature" by running a regulatory scientific consultancy in natural products.
|
||||
Peter Rich said of Peter D. Mitchell: "I think he would have found it difficult to have gotten funding because his ideas were rather radical." Mitchell went on to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1978. Chemist Luis Leloir funded the research institute he headed, the Institute for Biochemical Research, in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He won the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1970.
|
||||
There are today several virtual research institutes for independent scientists, including the Ronin Institute and the National Coalition of Independent Scholars.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notable examples ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Citizen science
|
||||
Small science and big science
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Sources ==
|
||||
Martello, Robert (2000). "The Life and Times of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney: Gentleman Scientist and Inventor, 1793-1875 (review)". Victorian Studies. 42 (4): 688–90. doi:10.1353/vic.1999.0020. S2CID 144758476.
|
||||
Porter, Dale H. (1988). The Life and Times of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, Gentleman Scientist and Inventor, 1793–1875. Lehigh University Press. ISBN 978-0-934223-50-8.
|
||||
Cohen, J. (1998). "RESEARCH FUNDING: Scientists Who Fund Themselves". Science. 279 (5348): 178–81. Bibcode:1998Sci...279..178C. doi:10.1126/science.279.5348.178. PMID 9446224. S2CID 10232672.
|
||||
Keats, Jonathan (5 December 2007). "Craig Venter is the future". Salon.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008.
|
||||
Lonsdale, Jon (8 October 2019). "The Rise and Fall of the Gentleman Scientist". Medium. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
|
||||
Hessler, Angela (17 December 2021). "A path to independence". Science. 374 (6574): 1526. Bibcode:2021Sci...374.1526H. doi:10.1126/science.acx9813. PMID 34914528. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
|
||||
Madsen, Andreas (9 October 2020). "Becoming an Independent Researcher and getting published in ICLR with spotlight". Medium. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
|
||||
Madsen, Andreas (23 February 2022). "9 months after my ICLR spotlight award, as an Independent Researcher". Medium. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
|
||||
Schweitzer, Andrea (8 April 2010). "The path less travelled". Nature. 464 (7290): 945. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..945S. doi:10.1038/nj7290-945a. PMID 20468078.
|
||||
Edwards, Rosalind (3 April 2022). "Why do academics do unfunded research? Resistance, compliance and identity in the UK neo-liberal university". Studies in Higher Education. 47 (4): 904–914. doi:10.1080/03075079.2020.1817891. S2CID 225319404.
|
||||
24
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_manager-0.md
Normal file
24
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_manager-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Laboratory manager"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_manager"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:49.254811+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A laboratory manager (alternatively laboratory supervisor) is an individual who supervises personnel and operations in a laboratory environment; the position is senior to that of a laboratory technician or laboratory technologist, and is considered a middle-management occupation.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Nature of work ==
|
||||
While the duties of laboratory managers depend on their particular field or industry, they generally direct or coordinate scientific research and related activities such as quality control, along with ensuring laboratories have the necessary equipment and materials to sustain operations. Depending on the size of the company or academic institution, the scope of a manager's responsibilities also varies. At a senior level, a laboratory manager may be an administrator primarily responsible for budgets, hiring and supervising scientific and technical personnel, and working with senior management to develop goals and strategies for the organization. Laboratory managers or supervisors at this level may be responsible for managing large teams.
|
||||
Some laboratory managers are current or former scientists who are sometimes called "working managers," and who participate in conducting research in addition to administrative duties, mentoring students, and assisting other researchers. Managers in this category are commonly known as staff scientists. Chemistry laboratory managers may also be chemical hygiene officers responsible for occupational health and safety. In academic institutions, there may be different categories of laboratory managers, who may also be known as laboratory coordinators, and who may teach laboratory or lecture courses as needed.
|
||||
Regardless of designation, laboratory safety is a primary responsibility of scientific laboratory managers. The manager or supervisor is responsible for ensuring laboratories are in compliance with established regulations and standards.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Qualifications ==
|
||||
Laboratory managers need excellent leadership, interpersonal, critical-thinking, problem-solving, and time-management abilities. Usually, though not always, they must have a university degree, along with several years of laboratory experience as a scientist, engineer or laboratory technician or assistant. Most laboratory managers hold a bachelor of science degree. Management of research laboratories, including pharmaceutical and biotechnology laboratories, usually requires a master's degree or doctorate. Some positions require a Professional Science Master's or a Master of Business Administration degree.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_technician-0.md
Normal file
16
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_technician-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Laboratory technician"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_technician"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:47:50.565122+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A laboratory technician or (informally) lab tech is a person who works in a laboratory performing analytical or experimental procedures, maintaining laboratory equipment.
|
||||
|
||||
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first use of the term laboratory technician was in 1896:It [sc. a therapeutic property] is now totally abandoned by the advanced laboratory technicians.The term is now widely accepted. Laboratory technicians are found in a wide range of scientific fields, including forensic science, pathology, chemistry, biomedical science and physics. Laboratory technicians may hold a range of formal academic qualifications, such as associate degrees, often obtained through vocational education. They are usually supervised by laboratory managers.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Loading…
Reference in New Issue
Block a user